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Encyclopaedia Britannica
D I A
^Diamond, IAMOND, a genus of earths of the filiceous kind,
'““’’Y'—' I J called Mamas Gemma by the Latins, Demant
by the Germans and Swedes, and Diamant by the
French, is the hardeft of alhftones hitherto difcovered;
commonly clear of tranfparent; though this property
may perhaps belong only to the cryftals, and not to
the rock from which they originate. When brought
to Europe in its rough ftate, it is either in the form of
roundiih pebbles, with fhining furfaces, or of o&cedral
cryftals; but though they generally appear in oiftoe-
dral forms, yet their cryftals are frequently irregular,
efpecially when the furface inclines to cryftallize du¬
ring the fhooting of the whole cryftal, and alfo when
feveral of them unite in one group ; in which cafe the
one hinders the other from affuming a regular form.
Mr Magellan, however, informs us, that diamonds
fometimes affume other forms. He has feen a rough
diamond in its native ftate, of a regular cubical form,
with its angles truncated or cut off; likewife ano¬
ther belonging to Dr Combe of London, whofe fquare
lides were naturally joined by two very narrow long fa¬
cets, forming angles of about 120 degrees; and the
corners were quite perfeft.
Though the diamond is commonly clear and pellu¬
cid, yet fome of them are met with of a rofe colour,
or inclining to green, blue, or black, and ibme have
black fpecks. Tavernier faw one in the treafury of
the Mogul, with black fpecks in it, weighing about
56 carats; and he informs us, that yellow and black
diamonds are produced in the mines at Carnatica. Mr
Dutens alfo relates, that he faw a black diamond at
Vienna in the colle&ion of the prince de Lichten-
ftein. Some diamonds have a greeniftr cruft; and of
thefe M. Tavernier relates,. that they burft into pieces
while working into a proper fhape, or in the very aft
of policing on the wheel. In confirmation of this,
he mentions a large diamond worth upwards of 50001.
Sterling, which burft into nine pieces while poliihing
on the wheel at Venice.
The fineft diamonds are thofe of a complexion like
that of a drop of pure water. It is likewife a valuable pro¬
perty if they are of a regular form and truly made; as
alfo that they be free from ftains, fpots, fpecks, flaws,
and crofs veins. If diamonds are tinftured yellow,
blue, green, or red, in a high degree* they are next
in efteem; but if they are tinftured with thefe colours
only in a low degree, the value of them is greatly di-
minifhed. There .are alfb diamonds of other com¬
plexions ; fuch as brown, and thofe of a dark hue :
the firft refembling the browneft fugar-candy, and the
latter duiky iron. In the Philofuphical Commerce, of
Arts, Dr Lewis tells us of a black diamond that he
himfelf had feen. At a diftance, it looked uniformly
Von. VI. Part i.
D I A
black; but on clofer examination appeared in fome Diamond.
parts tranfparent, and in others charged with foulnefs,  »  
on which the black hue depended.
Thefe gems are lamellated, confiding of very thin
plates like thofe of talc, but very clofely united; the
direftion of which muft be found out by lapidaries be¬
fore they can work them properly: Such as have
their foliated fubftance not in a flatpofition, are called
by the workmen diamonds of nature.
The names of oriental and occidental, given by jewel¬
lers to this and all other precious ftoneg, have a differ¬
ent meaning from the obvious fenfe ; the fineft and
hardeft being always called oriental, whether they be
produced in the eaft or not. Thofe called occidental
are of inferior value ; but according to Mr Jefferies,
who has written a treatife on the fubjeft, the diamonds
of Brafil equal the fineft oriental ones. The art of
cutting thefe gems was invented in 1476 by Louis de
Berquen a native of Bruges in the Auftrian Nether¬
lands. This ftone becomes luminous in the dark, by
expofure during a certain timerto the rays of the fun ;
by heating it in a crucible ; by plunging it in boiling
water; or by rubbing it with a piece of glafs. By
friftion it acquires an eleftrical property, by which it
attrafts the fubftance yfed for foils called black majlic,
and other light matters. The author of the Chemical
Diftionary fays, that diamonds are refraftory in the
fire, and even apyrous. Neverthelefs, experiments have
been made, which prove that diamonds are capable of
being diffipated, not only by the collefted heat of the
fun, but alfo by the heat of a furnace. Mr Boyle fays,
that he perceived certain acrid and penetrating exha¬
lations from diamonds expofed to fire. A diamond by
expofure to a concave fpeculum, the diameter of which
was 40 inches, was reduced to an eighth part of its * PClnfi
weight *. In the Giornale de Letterati d' Italia, tom.
viii. art. 9. we may read a relation of experiments0 3 '
made on precious ftones, by order of the grand, duke
of Tufcany, with a burning lens, the diameter of which
was two thirds of a Florentine ell, near the focus of
which was placed another fmaller lens. By thefe ex¬
periments'we find, that diamonds were more altered by
folar heat than moft of the other precious ftones, al¬
though not the leaft appearance of a commencing fu-
fion was obfervable. A diamond weighing 30 grains,
thus expofed during 30 feconds, loft its colour, luftre,
and tranfparency, and became of an opaque white. In
five minutes, bubbles appeared on its furface'; foon af¬
terwards it burft into pieces, which were diflipated ;
and the fmall fragment which remained was capable of
being crulhed into fine powder by the preffure of the
blade of a knife. Neither the addition of glafs, flints,
fulphiir, metals, or fait of tartar, prevented this diffi-
A pat 10a
D I A [2
Diamond: pation of diamonds, oroecafioned any degree of fufion.
this heat rubies were foftened, and loft fome of
their colour, but preferved their form and weight. By
addition of a' third lens, a further degree of fufion was
given to rubies. Even then rubies could not be made
to unite with glafs. By having been expofed to this
heat, the furface- of the rubies which had fufftred fu¬
fion, loft much of their original hardnefs, and were
nearly as foft as cryftal. But their internal parts,
which had not been fufed, retained their hardnefs. E-
meralds by this heat were rendered white, or of various
colours, and foon afterwards were fufed. They were
found to have loft part of their weight, and to be ren¬
dered lefs hard and brittle.
Experiments were alfo made by or4er of the empe¬
ror Francis I. on precious (tones; from which we find,
that diamonds were entirely dillxpated by having been
expofed in crucibles to a violent fire of a furnace du¬
ring 24 hours ; while rubies by the fame heat were not
altered in weight, colour, or poliih. By expofing dia¬
monds during two hours only at a time, the following
alterations produced on them by fire were obferved.
Firft, they loft their polifti; then they were fplit into
thin plates; and, laftly, totally difiipated. By the
fame fire, emeralds were fufed. See Magajin de Ham-
bourg, tom. xviii..
The a&ion of fire on diamonds has, notwithftanding
the above mentioned experiments, been lately doubted
in France ; and the queftion has been agitated by feve-
ral eminent chemifts with much intereft, and numerous
experiments have been made which throw fome light
on the fubjedt. M. D’Arcet found, not only that -dia¬
monds included in* porcelain crucibles clofe, or covered
with perforated lids, and expofed to the long and in-
tenfe heat of a porcelain furnace, were perfectly difli-
• pated ; but alfo, that thefe (tones could in a few hours
be totally volatilifed with a much inferior degree of
heat, by expofing them in a coppel, under the muffle
of an effay-furnace. In this latter experiment, he ob¬
ferved that the diffipation was gradual, and that it was
effedted by a kind of exfoliation. The diffipation of
diamonds expofed in coppels was confirmed by M. Mac-
quer ; who further obferved, that the diamonds were,
before the diffipation began, rendered, by the fire,
brilliant and-ffiining, as it were, with a phofphoric
light. In order to determine whether the diffipation
of diamonds was adfually effedted by their redudfion
into vapour, or by a combuftion or other effedt of air
upon them, Mefirs Lavoifier, Macquer, and Cadet, ex¬
pos'd diamonds to intenfe heat in an earthen retort,
during feveral hours, but without any other effedl than
that their poliffl was deftroyed, and about ^th of their
weight diminiffied. M. Mitouard put diamonds in a
tobacco-pipe filled with pounded charcoal and accu¬
rately clofed with lute. He further fecured the dia¬
monds from accefs of air or flame, by placing the to¬
bacco-pipe in $1 crucible, to which another crucible was
inverted and carefully luted. The diamonds, thus fe-
tluded from external air, having been expofed to the ,
moft intenfe heat which could be excited in a well con-
ftrucled furnace, were not thereby altered or diminiffi¬
ed. M. Mitouard was induced to believe, that the
charcoal conduced to the prefervation of diamonds not
merely by excluding the air, but by fome peculiar pro¬
perty, which he fuppofes may be the fame as that by
] d 1 A
which this fubftance defends metals from deftruflion by Diamond,
fire. He was confirmed in his opinion, by obferving ——y—“4
that diamonds were not preferved from the action of
fire by furrounding them with powder of chalk and
of calcined hartfflorn, and including them in clofe vef-
fels, fo well as when the charcoal had been employed.
Some chemilts even thought that the perfect exclufion
of air alone was fufficient to preferve diamonds, and
doubted whether the' balls and crucibles of porcelain
employed by M. D’Arcet had excluded the air with
fufficient accuracy. Indeed, in one of M. D’Arcet’s
own experiments, a diamond irfcluded in a ball of por¬
celain had refilled the action of fire. In order to af-
certain this queftion, M. Cadet expofed diamonds in
covered and luted crucibles to the violent heat of a forge
during two hours; by which Operation the diamonds
loft only r-yth part of their weight. , He infers, that
the deftru&ion of diamonds by fire in open veflels is
not a true volatilization ; but merely an exfoliation,
caufed by the fire expanding the air contained between
the thin plates of which thefe (tones confift, and that
by this exfoliation or decrepitation thefe plates are re¬
duced to fo fine a powder as to efcape obfervation.
M. D’Arcet obje&ed againft the experiments of his
•adverfaries, that they were not of fufficient duration to
decide againft his, which had lafted feveral days. He
renewed and multiplied his experiments, which con¬
firmed him in his opinion of the volatilization of dia¬
monds in 'veflels perfectly clofed ; and that this effedt
of fire on diamonds is not a mere exfoliation or mecha¬
nical feparation of the plates - of which thefe (tones .
confift, he infers from the parts of the diamonds per¬
vading the mod: folid porcelain crucibles without being
■perceptible, and from the luminous appearance firft
noticed by M. Macquer, and which was afterwards ob¬
ferved by M. Roux to be an a&ual flame.
Diamonds are found only in the Eaft Indies, and in
Brafil in South America. The diamond mines are
found only in the kingdoms of Golconda, Vifapour,
Bengal, and the ifland of Borneo. There are four
mines, or rather two mines and two rivers, whence
diamonds are drawn. The mines are, 1. That of Raol-
conda, in the province of Carnatica, five days journey
from Golconda, and eight from Vifapour. It has been .
difeovered about 200 years. 2. That of Gani, or Cou-
lour, feven days journey from Golconda eaftwardly.
It was difeovered 140 years ago by a peafant, who dig¬
ging in the ground found a natural fragment of 25- ca¬
rats. 3. That of Soumelpour, a large town in the
kingdom of Bengal, near the Diamond-mine. This,
is the moft ancient of them all: it ftould rather be
called that of Goual, which is the name of the river, in
the fand whereof thefe ftones are found. Laftly, the
fourth mine, or rather the fecond river, is that of Sue--
cudan, in the ifland of Borneo.
Diamond-Mine of Raolconda.— In the neighbour¬
hood of this mine the earth is fandy, and full of rocks .
and copfe. In thefe rocks are found feveral little
. veins of half and fometimes a whole inch broad, out
of which the miners, with a kind of hooked irons,
draw the fand or earth wherein the diamonds are;
breaking the rocks when the vein terminates, that the
track may be found again, and continued. When a
Sufficient quantity of earth or fand is drawn forth, they
waffl it two or three tunes, to feparate the ftones there¬
from.:
B 1 A [
from. The miners work quite naked, except for a
 thin linen cloth before them ; and beiides this pre¬
caution, have likewife infpeftors, to prevent their con¬
cealing of ftones : which, however, maugre all this
care, they frequently find means to do, by watching op¬
portunities when they are not obferved, and fwallow-
ing them down.
DiAMOKD-Mine of Gani or Coulour.—In this mine
are found a great number of ftones from 10 to 40 ca¬
rats, and even more; and it was here that famous dia¬
mond of Aureng-Zeb the Great Mogul, which before
it was cut weighed 793 carats, was found. The
ftones of this mine are not very clear ; their water is
ufually tinged with the quality of the foil; being black
where that is marfhy, red where it partakes of red,
fometimes green and yellow, if the ground happen to
be of thofe colours. Another defect of fome confe-
qyence is a kind of greafinefs appearing on the dia¬
mond, when cut, which takes off part of its luftre.
—There are ufually no lefs than 60,000 perfons, men,
women, and children, at work in this mine.
When the miners have found a place where they in¬
tend to dig, they level another fomewhat bigger in the
neighbourhood thereof, and inclofe it with walls about
two feet high, only leaving apertures from fpace to
fpace, to give paffage to the water. After a few fu-
perftitious ceremonies, and a kind of feaft which the
mafter of the mine makes for the workmen, to encou¬
rage them, every one goes to his bufinefs, the men
digging the earth in the place firft difeovered, and the
women and children carrying it off into the other
walled round. They dig 12 or 14 feet deep, and till
fuch time as they find water. Then they ceafe dig¬
ging ; and the water thus found ferves to waftr the
earth two or three times, after which it is- let out at
an aperture referved for that end. This earth being
well waftied, and well dried, they fift it in a kind of
open fieve, or riddle, much as we do corn in Europe ;
then thraflr it, and fift it afreih ; and laftly, fearch it
well with the hands to find the diamonds. They work
naked as in the mine of Raolconda, and are watched
after the like manner by infpeftors.
Diamond-Mine of Soutnelpour, or river Goual.—
Soumelpour is a large town built all of earth, and co¬
vered with branches of cacao-trees : the river Goual
runs by the foot thereof, in its palling from the high
mountains towards the fouth to the Ganges, where it
lofes its name. It is from this river that all our fine
diamond points, or fparks, called natural /parks, are
brought. They never begin to feek for diamonds in
this river till after the great rains are over, that is, af¬
ter the month of December ; and they ufually even
wait till the water is grown clear, w hich is not before
1 January. The feafon at hand, eight or ten thoufand
perfons, of all ages and fexes, come out of Soumel-
pour and the neighbeuring villages. The moft expe¬
rienced among them fearch and examine the fand of
the river, going up it from Soumelpour to the very
mountain whence it fprings. A great fign that there
are diamonds in it, is the finding of thofe ftones w hich
the Europeans call thunder-/ones. When all the fand
of the river, w'hich at that time is very low, has been
well examined, they proceed to take up that where¬
in they judge diamonds likely to be found ; wdiich is
done after the following manner : They dam-the place
3 1 . D I A
round with ftones, earth, and fafeines, and lading out Kiam
the water, dig about rwo feet deep : the fand thus got  *
is carried into a place walled round on the bank of the
river. The reft is performed after the fame manner
as at Coulour, and the workmen are watched with equal
ftriftnefs. 1
■Diamond-Mine in the ifland of Borneo, or river of
Succudan.—We are but little acquainted with this
mine ; the queen who reigns in that part of the iflaml
not allowing ftrangers to have any commerce in thefe
ftones : though there are very fine ones to be bought
at Batavia, brought thither by ftealth.- They were
anciently imagined to be fofter than thofe of the other
mines; but experience ihows they are in no refpedl in¬
ferior to them.
Befide thefe four diamond-mines, there have been
two others difeovered ; one of them between Coulour
and Raolconda, and the other in the province of Car-
natica ; but they were both clofed up almoft as foon as
difeoyered : that of Carnatica, becaufe the water of
the diamonds was always either black or yellow ; and
the other, on account of their cracking, and flying in
pieces when cut and ground.
The diamond, we have already obferved, is the
hardeft of all precious ftones. It can only be cut and
ground by itfelf and its own fubftance. To bring it
to that perfe&ion which augments its price fo confi-
derably, they begin by rubbing feveral againft each
other, while rough ; after having firft glued them to
the ends of two wooden blocks; thick enough to be
held in the hand. It is this powder thus rubbed off
the Hones, and received in a little box for the purpofe,
that ferves to grind and polifti the ftones.
Diamonds are cut and polifhed by means of a mill,
which turns a wheel of foft iron fprinkled over with
diamond-duft mixed with oil of olives. The fame
duft, well ground, and diluted with water and vine¬
gar, is ufed in the fa wing of diamonds ; which is
performed with an iron or brafs wire, as fine as a hair.
Sometimes, in lieu of favving the diamonds, they cleave
them, efpecially if there be any large fhivers therein.
But the Europeans are not ufually daring or expert e-
nough to run the rifle of cleaving, for fear of breaking.
The fo/ water in diamonds means the greateft pu¬
rity and perfe&ion of their complexion, which ought
to be that of the pureft water. When diamonds fall
fhort of this perfeftion, they are faid to be of the fe-
cond or third water. Sec. till the ftone may be propel-
ly called a coloured one; for it would be an impropriety
to fpeak of an imperfe&ly coloured diamond, or one '
that has other defeats, as a ftone of a bad water only.
Mr Boyle has obferved, from a perfon much con-
verfant in diamonds, that fome of thefe gems, in their
rough ftate, were much heavier than others of the fame
hignefs, efpecially if they were cloudy or foul; and
Mr Boyle mentions one that weighed 8J- grains, which
being carefully weighed in water, proved to an equal v
bulk of that liquor as 2^-f to 1. So that, as far as
could be judged by that experiment, a diamond weighs
not thrice as much as water: and yet, in his table"of
fpecific gravities, that of a diamond is faid to be to
water as 3400 to jooo; that is, as 3f to 1; and there¬
fore, according to thefe two accounts, there flibuld bt
fome diamonds whofe fpecific gravity differs nearly
from that of others. But this is a much greater dif-
^2 fereneg
D I A [ 4 ] D I A
Diamond, ference than can be expe&ed in two bodies of the fame
fpecies; and indeed, on an accurate trial, does not
prove to be the cafe with diamonds. The Brafil dia¬
monds differ a little in weight one from another, and
greatly vary from the ftandard fet by Mr Boyle for the
fpecific gravity of this gem in general; two large dia¬
monds from that part of the world being carefully
weighed, one was found as 3518, the other as 3521,
the fpecific gravity of water being reckoned 1000.
After this, ten Eaft India diamonds were chofen out
of a large parcel, each as different from the other
in fhape, colour, &c. as could be found. Thefe
being weighed in the fame fcales and water with the
former, the lighteft proved as 3512, the heavieft as
3525, ft ill fuppofing the water to be 1000.— Mr Elli-
cot, who made thefe experiments, has drawn out a table
of their feveral differences, which is done with great
care and accuracy; and, taking in all the common va¬
rieties in diamonds, may ferve as a general rule for
their mean gravity and differences.
Specific
N° 1. A Brafil diamond, fine?
water and rough coat i " ^
9.560
^26,485
23.33
i 20,66
2. Ditto, fine water, rough ?
coat ' ‘ j
3. Ditto, fine bright coat 10,025
4. Ditto, fine bright coat
5. An Eaft India diamond,
pale blue
6. Ditto, bright yellow -
7. Ditto, very fine water,'
bright coat - '
8. Ditto, very bad water, ? «
honeycomb coat - y
9. Ditto, very hard bluifticaft 22,5
TO. Ditto, very foft, good? ,
water - - £ 22> I5
11. Ditto, a very large red ) n
foulnefs in it - - 5 25,48°
12. Ditto, foft, bad water 29,525
13. Ditto, foft, brown coat 26,535
14. Ditto, very deep green ?
coat /- - £ 25,250
The mean fpecific gravity of the Brafil
monds appears to be
Of the Eaft India diamonds
The mean of both ...
Graini
66.16
63.16
7,170
6,830
18,945
l6,7IO
4,800
14,5-90
l6,
16,2
[8,230
21,140
l 8,990
18,080
dia.
3518
3511
3501
3512
3524
3525
35x9
35I5
3525
35H
352i
35*6
35*3
35I9
35i7
Therefore if any thing is to be concluded as to the
fpecific gravity of the diamond, it is, that it is to wa¬
ter as 3517 to 1 ooo.
For the valuation of diamonds of all weights, Mr
Jefferies lays down the following rule. He firft fup-
pofes the value of a rough diamond to be fettled at 2 1.
per carat, at a medium; then to find the value of dia¬
monds of greater weights, multiply the fquare of their
weight' by 2, and the product, is the value required.
£. G. to find the value of a rough diamond of two ca¬
rats; 2X2=4, the fquare of the weight; which, multi¬
plied by two, gives 81. the true value of a rough dia¬
mond of two carats. For finding the value of manu¬
factured diamonds, he fuppofes half their weight to be
k)lt in manufacturing them; and therefore, to find their
value, we muft multiply the fquare cf double their Diamond,
weight by 2, which will give their true value in pounds. • v"“J
Thus, to find the value of a wrought diamond weigh¬
ing two carats 5 we firft find the fquare of double the
weight, viz 4X4=16; then 16X2 = 32. So that the
true value of a wrought diamond of two carats is 321.
On thefe principles Mr Jefferies has conftru&ed tables
of the price of diamonds from x to 100 carats.
The greateft diamond ever known in the world is
one belonging to the king of Portugal, which was
found in Brafil. It is ftill uncut: and Mr Magel¬
lan informs us, that it was of a larger fize; but
a piece was cleaved or broken off by the ignorant
countryman, who chanced to find this great gem, and
tried its hardnefs by the ftroke of a large hammer upon
the anvil.
This prodigious diamond weighs 1680 carats: and
although it is uncut, Mr Rome delTfle fays, that it is
valued at 224 millions fterling; which gives the efti-
mation of 79,36 or about 80 pounds fterling for each
carat: viz. for the multiplicand of the fquare of its
whole weight. But even in cafe of any error of the
prefs in this valuation, if we employ the general rule
above mentioned, this great gem muft be worth at lead
5,644,800 pounds fterling, which are the produtt of
1680 by two pounds, viz. much above five millions
and a half fterling.
The famous diamond which adorns the fceptre of
the Emprefs of Ruffia under the eagle at the top of it
weighs 779 carats, and is worth at leaft 4,854,728
pounds fterling, although it hardly coft 135,417 gui¬
neas. This diamond was one of the eyes of a Mala-
barian idol, named Scheringhsm. A French grenadier,
who had deferted from the Indian fervice, contrived
fo well as to become one of the priefts of that idol,
from which he had the opportunity to fteal its eye: he
rpn away to the Englilh at Trichinapeuty, and thence
to Madras. A Ihip-captain bought it for twenty
thoufand rupees : afterwards a Jew gave feventeen or
eighteen thoufand pounds fterling for it: at laft a
Greek merchant, named Gregory Sujfras, offered it to
fale at Amfterdam in the year 1766: and the lata
prince Qrloff made this acquifition, as he himfelf told
Mr Magellan in London, for his fovereign the emprefs
of Ruffia. Dutens, page 19. and Bomare, page 389. of
his Mineralogy, relate the above anecdote. The figure
and fize of this diamond may be feen in the Britifii
Mufeum in London : it is far from being of a regular,
form.
The diamond of the great Mogul, is cut in Rofe;
weighs 2.79^ carats, and it is worth 380,000 guineas.
This diamond has a. fmall flaw underneath near the
bottom : and Tavernier, page 389. who examined it,
valued the carat at; 150 French livres. Before this
diamond was cut, it weighed 793^ carats, according to
Rome de I’lfle : but Tavernier, page 339. of his fe-
cond volume, fays, that it weighed 900 carats before
it was cut. If this is the very fame diamond, its lofs
by being cut was very extraordinary.
Another diamond of the king of Portugal, which
weighs 215 carats, is extremely fine, and is worth at
leaft 369,800 guineas.
The diamond of the grand duke of Tufcany, now.
of the emperor of Germany, weighs 139^ carats ; and
is worth at leaft 10.9,520 guineas. Tavernier fays,
1 4 that
D I A [
Biamond. that this diamond has a little hue of a citron colour;
,< an(j he valued it at 135 livres tournoifes the carat.
Robert de Berquen fays, that this diamond was cut
' into two : that the grand Turk had another of the
fame fr/.e : and that there were at Bifnagar two large
diamonds, one of 250 and another of 140 carats.
This Robert de Berquen was the grandfon of Louis
de Berqnen, who invented the art of cutting dia¬
monds.
The diamond of the king of France, called the
Pitt or Regent, weighs 136^ carats : this gem is worth
at leaft 208,333 guineas, although itdid notcoft above
the half of this value.
The other diamond of the fame monarch, call¬
ed the Sancy, weighs 55 carats: it coft 25,000 gui¬
neas : and Mr Dutens fays, that it is worth much above
that price.
Brilliant Diamond,- is that cut in faces both at top
and bottom; and whofe table, or principal face at top,
is flat. To make a complete fquare brilliant, if the
■ - — rough diamond be not found of a fquare figure, it mull
be made fo; and if the work is perfectly executed, the
length of the axis will be equal to the fide of the fquare
bafe of the pyramid.—Jewellers then form the table
and collet by dividing the block, or length of the axis,
into 18 parts. They take from the upper part, and
from tire lower. This gives a plane at r\ diltance
from the girdle for the table; and a fmaller plane at
-r^ diftance for. the collet; the breadth of which will
be J- of the breadth of the table. In this ftate the ftone
is faid to be a complete fquare table diamond.—The bril¬
liant is an improvement on the table-diamond, and
was introduced within the laft century, according to
Mr Jefferies.—To render a brilliant perfedl, each cor¬
ner of the above defcribed table-diamond, muft be
fhortened by to °f its original. The corner ribs of
the upper fides mull be flattened, or run towards the
centre of the table than the fides; the lower part,
which terminates in the girdle, muft be of one fide
of the girdle; and each corner rib of the under fides
muft be flattened at the top, to anfwer the above flat¬
tening at the girdle, and at bottom muft be 4: of each
fide of the collet.
The parts of the fmall work which completes the
brilliant, or the ftar and fkill facets, are of a triangular
figure. Both of thefe partake equally of the depth of
the upper fides from the table to the girdle ; and meet
in the middle of each fide of the table and girdle, as
alfo at the corners. Thus they produce regular lozen¬
ges on the four upper fides and corners of the flone.
The triangular facets, - on the under fides, joining to
the girdle, muft be half as deep again as the above fa¬
cets, to anfwer to the collet part.—The ftone here de¬
fcribed is faid to be. a-full-fubjlanied brilliant.—U the
ftone is thicker than in the proportion here mentioned,
it is faid to be an over-nueighted brilliant. — If the thick-
nefs islefs than in this proportion,'; it is called a fpread~
brilliant. —The beauty of brilliants is diminiftied from
their being either over-weighted or fpread. The true
. proportion of the axis, or depth of the ftone to its fide,
is as 2. to 3.— Brilliants are diftinguilhed into fquare,
round, oval, and. drops, from the figure of their refpec-
tiye girdles.
Cormjh Diamond, a name given by many people to
the cryftals found, in digging the ..mines of tin in Corn-
5. 1 d 1 A
wal. Thefe cryftals are of the nature of the Kerry- Diamond,
ftone of Ireland, but fomewhat inferior to it: they are Di»na.
ufiially bright and clear, except towards the root, ' v—
where they are coarfe and foul, or whitifti. They are
ufually found in the common form of an hexangular
column terminated at each end by an hexangular pyra¬
mid.
Rofe-DiAMOND is one that is quite flat underneath,
with its upper part cut in divers little faces, ufually tri¬
angles, the uppermoft of which terminate in a point.—
In rofe-diamonds, the depth of the ftone from the bafe
to the point muft be half the breadth of the diameter
of the bafe of the ftone. The diameter of the crown
muft be 4- of the diameter of the bafe. The perpen¬
dicular, from the bafe to the crown, muft be f of the
diameter of the ftone. The lozenges which appear in
all circular rofe-diamonds, will be equally divided by
the ribs that form the crown; and the upper angles or
facets will terminate in the extreme point of the ftone,
and the lower in the bafe or girdle.
Rough Diamond, is the ftone as nature produces it
in the mines.
A rough diamond muft be chofen uniform, of a good
fliape, tranfparent, not quite white, and free of flaws
and IhiverS. Black, rugged, dirty, flawey, veiny ftones,
and all fuch as are not fit for cutting, they ufe to pound
in a fteel mortar made for that purpofe; and when pul¬
verized, they ferve to faw, cut, and poliftr the reft^
Shivers are occaiioned in diamonds by this, That the
miners, to get them more eafily out of the vein, which
winds between two rocks, break the rocks with huge
iron levers, which fliakes, and fills the ftone with,
cracks and fhivers. The ancients had two miftaken
notions with regard to the diamond : the firft, that it
became foft, by fteeping it in hot goat’s blood ; and .
the fecond, that it is malleable, and bears the hammer.
Experience fhows us the contrary; there being nothing
capable of mollifying the hardnefs of this ftone ; tho’
its hardnefs be not fuch, that it will endure being
ftruck at pleafure with the hammer.
Factitious Diamonds. Attempts have been made to
produce artificial diamonds, but with. no great fuc-
cefs.—Thefe made in France, cdiltd..temple diamonds,
on account of the temple at Paris, .where the beft of
them are made, fall valtly fhort .of the genuine ones ;
accordingly they are but little.valued, though the con-
fumption thereof is pretty coniiderable for the habits
of the a&ors on the ftage, &c. See Pastes.
Diamond, in the glafs-trade, an inftrument ufed for
fquaring the large plates or pieces; and, among gla-
ziers, for cutting, their glafs.
Thefe forts of diamonds are differently fitted up.
That ufed for largo pieces, as looking-glaffes, &c. is
fet in an iron ferril, about two inches long, and a quar¬
ter of an inch in diameter; the cavity of the ferril be¬
ing filled up with lead, to keep the diamond firm: there
is alfo a handle of box or ebony fitted to the ferril,
for holding it by.
Diamond, in heraldry, a term ufed for expreffing
the black colour in the atchievements of peerage.
Guillim does not approve of blazoning the coats of
peers by precious ftones ihftead of metals and colours ;
but the Engliih practice allows it. Morgan fays the '
diamond is an emblem of fortitude.
DIANA, the gqddefs of hunting. According to
Cicero' „
D I A 16
3Diana. 'Cicero, there were three of this name : a daughter of
' * Jupiter and Proferpine, who became mother of Cupid;
a daughter of Jupiter and Latona ; and a daughter of
Upis and Glance. The fecond is the moft celebrated,
and to her all the ancients allude. She was born at
the fame birth as Apollo; and the pains which Ihe faw
her mother fufi'er during her labour gave her fuch an
averfion to marriage, that Ihe obtained of her father
to live in perpetual celibacy, and to prefide over the
travails of women. To fhun the fociety of men, (he
devoted herfelf to hunting; and was always accompa¬
nied by a number chofen virgins, •who like herfelf
abjured the ufe of marriage. • She is reprefented with
a quiver and attended with dogs, and fometimes drawn
in a chariot by two white flags. Sometimes fhe ap¬
pears with wings, holding a lion in one hand and a
panther in the other, with a chariot drawn by two
heifers, or two horfes of different colours. She is re¬
prefented as tall; her face has fomething manly ; her
legs are bare, well fhaped, and ftrong; and her feet are
covered with a bulkin worn by huntrefles among the
ancients. She received many furnames, particularly
from the places-where her worfhip was eitablxfhed, and
from the fundtions over which fhe prefided. She was
called Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Uronuba, when invoked
by women in childbed ; and Trivia when worfhipped
in the crofs-ways, where her ftatues were generally
eredted. She was fuppofed to be the fame as the moon
and Proferpine or Hecate, and from that circumftance
'fhe was called Trijormis; and fome of her flatues repre¬
fented her with three heads, that of a horfe, a dog,
and a boar. Her power and fundtions under thefe three
charadters have been beautifully expreffed in thefe two
'verfes:
‘Terret, luJJrat, agit, Proferpina, Luna, Diana,
Jma, fuprema,feras,fceptro, fulgore,fagitta.
She was alfo called Aprotera, Orithia, Taurica, Delia,
Cynthia, Aricia, &c. She was fuppofed to be the fame
as the His of the Egyptians, whofe worfhip was intro¬
duced into Greece with that of Ofiris under the name
of Apollo. When Typhon waged war againfl the
gods, Diana metamorphofed herfelf into a cat to avoid
his fury. She is generally known, in the figures that
reprefent her, by the crefcent on her head, by the dogs
which attend her, and by her hunting habit. The
moft famous of her temples was that of Ephefus, which
wras one of fhe feven wonders of the world: (See Ephe¬
sus). She was there reprefented with a great number
of breafts, and other fymbols which figniiied the earth
or Cybele. Though fhe was the patronefs of chaftity,
yet fhe forgot her dignity to enjoy the company of
Endymion, and the very familiar favours which fhe
;granted to Pan and Orion are well known : (See En¬
dymion, Pan, Orion). The inhabitants of Taurica
were particularly attached to the worfhip of this god-
defs, and they cruelly offered on her altar all the
ftrangers that were fhipwrecked on their coafts. Her
temple in Aricia was ferved by a prieft -who had always
murdered his predeceffor ; and the Lacedemonians
yearly offered her human vi&ims till the age of Lycur-
gus, who changed this barbarous cuftom for the facri-
fice of flagellation. The Athenians generally offered
-her goats ; and others a white kid, and fometimes a
boar pig or an ox. Among plants, the poppy and
the ditamy were facred to her. She, as well as her
] D I A
brother Apollo, had fome oracles; among which thofe Diarpj
of Egypt, Cilicia, and Ephefus, are the moft known. N
DIANjE arbor, or Arbor Luna:, in chemiftrv. iant U<*.
the beautiful cryftallizations of filver, diflblved in aqua¬
fortis, to which fome quickfilver is added : and fo call¬
ed from their refembling the trunk, branches, leaves,
&c. of a tree. See Chemistry, n°754.
Dianje Fanum, (anc. geog.), a promontory of Bi-
thynia : Now Scutari, a citadel oppofite to Conflanti-
nople, on the call fide of the Bofpotus Thracius.
Dianje Portus, a port of Corfica, fituated between
Aleria and Mariana, on the eaft fide.
DlANDRIA (from L; twice, and “'"’P a man), the
name of the fecond clafs in Linnasus’s fexual fyftem,
confifting of hermaphrodite plants; which, as the
name imports, have flowers with two ftamina or male
organs.
The orders in this clafs are three, derived from the
number of ftyles or female parts. Moft plants with
two ftamina have one ftyle ; as jeffamine, lilac, privet,
veronica, and baftard alaternus: vernal grafs has two
ftyles; pepper, three.
DIAN1UM (anc. geog.), a town of the Contefta-
ni, in the Hither Spain; famous for a temple of Diana,
whence the name : Now Denia, a imall town of Valen¬
cia, on the Mediterranean. Alfo a promontory near
Dianium: Now El Cabo Martin, four leagues from De¬
nia, running out into the Mediterranean.
DIANTHERA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 40th or¬
der, Perfonata. The corolla is ringent; the capfuls
bilocular, parting with a fpring at the ■ heel; the fta¬
mina each furnifhed with two anthers placed alter¬
nately.—There is only one fpecies, a native of Vir¬
ginia and other parts of North America. It is a
low herbaceous plant, with a perennial root, fending
out upright ftalks a foot high, garnifhed with long
narrow leaves of an aromatic odour, ftanding clofe to
the ftalks. From the fide of the ftalks the footftalks
of the flowers are produced, fuflaining fmall fpikes of
flowers.— This plant is very difficult to be preferved in
Britain ; for though it is hardy enough to live in the
open air, it is very fubjedt to rot in winter. It may
be propagated by feeds fown on a gentle hot-bed ; and
in the winter the plants mutt be kept in a dry ftove.
DIANTHUS, CLOVE-GILLIFLOWER, CARNATION,
pink, sweet-william, &c.: A genlis of the digynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the zzd order,
Caryophyllti. The calyx is cylindrical and monophyl-
lons, with four feales at the bafe. There are five pe¬
tals, with narrow heels ; the capfule is cylindrical and
unilocular.—There are a great number of fpecies; but
not more than four that have any confiderable beauty
as garden-flowers, each of which furniftres fome beau¬
tiful varieties. I. The caryophyllus, or clove-gilliflower,
including all the varieties of carnation. It rifes with
many ftiort trailing fheots from the root, garniflred
with long, very narrow, jvergreen leaves ; and amidlt
them upright llender flower-ftalks, from one to three
feet high, emitting many fide-ftioots; all of which, as
well as the main ftalk, are terminated by large foli-
tary flowers, having ftiort oval feales to the calyx, and
created petals. The varieties of this are very mime- •
5 .rous,
D I A [
Bianthiis. rous, and unlimited in the diverfity of flowers. 2. The
‘ v  deltoides, or common pink, rifes with numerous (hort
leafy (hoots crowning the root, in a tufted head clofe to
the ground, clofely garni (bed with fmall narrow leaves }
and from the ends of the (hoots many ered flower-
ftalks, from about fix to 15 inches high,’ terminated
by folitary flowers of different colours, Angle and
double, and fometimes finely variegated. This fpecies
is perennial, as all the varieties of it commonly culti¬
vated alfo are. 3. The Chinenfis, Chinefe, or Indian
pink, is an annual plant with upright firm flower-ilalks,
branching eretf on every fide, a foot or 15 inches high,
having all the branches terminated by folitary flowers
of different colours and variegations, appearing from
July to November. 4. The barbatus, or bearded dian-
thus, commonly called.fiueet-miilliam. This rifes with
many thick leafy (hoots, crowning the root in a clufter
clofe to the ground; garnifhed with fpear-fhaped ever¬
green leaves, from half an inch to two inches broad.
The ftems are upright and firm, branching ereft two
or three feet high, having all, the branches and main
Hern crowned by numerous flowers in aggregate clufters
of different colours and variegations.
Culture. Though the carnations grow freely in al-
moft any garden earth, and in it produce beautiful
flowers, yet they are generally fuperior in that of a
light loamy nature: and of this kind of foil the florifts
generally prepare a kind of compoft in the following
manner, efpecially for thofe fine varieties which they
keep in pots. A quantity of loamy earth muff be
provided, of a light fandy temperature, from an up¬
land or dry palture-field or common, taking the top
fpit turf and all, which muff be laid in a heap for a
year, and turned over frequently. It muff then be
mixed with about one-third of rotten dung of old hot¬
beds, or rotten neats dung, and a little fea-fand, form¬
ing the whole into a heap again, to lie three, four, or
fix months, at which time it will be excellent for ufe ;
and if one parcel or heap was mixed with one of thefe
kinds of dungs, and another parcel with the other, it
will make a change, and may be found very beneficial
in promoting the fize of the flowers. This compoft,
or any other made ufe of for the purpofe, (hould not
be lifted, but only well broken with the fpade and
hands.—When great quantities of carnations are re¬
quired, either to furnifh large grounds, or for market,
or when it is intended to raife new varieties, it is eafily
effected by fowing fome feed annually in fpring, in
common earth* from which the plants will rife abunr
dantly. Several good varieties may alfo be expefted
from the plants of each fowing; and poflibly not one
exaftly like thofe from which the feed was faved. The
Angle flowers are always more numerous than the double
ones ; but it is from the latter only that we are to fe-
left our varieties. The feafon for fowing the feed is
any time from the 20th of March to the 15th-of April.
—The plants generally come up in a month after low¬
ing: they muft be occafionally weeded and watered till
Jflly, when they will be fit for tranfplanting into the
irurfery beds. Thefe beds muft be made about three
feet wide, in an open fituation; and taking advantage
of moift weather, prick the ‘plants therein four inches
afunder, and finifti with a gentle watering, which re¬
peat occafionally till the plants have taken good root.
Here they muft remain till September, .when they will
7 1 d 1 A
be fo well advanced in growth as to require more room; Dun
and (hould then have their final tranfplantation into
other three feet wide beds of good earth, in rows 9 inches
afunder, where they are to be placed in the order of
quincunx. Here they are to remain all winter, until
they flower, and have obtained an increafe of the ap¬
proved varieties of doubles by layers; and until this
period, all the culture they require is, that if the win¬
ter (hould prove very fevere, an occafional (helter of
mats will be of advantage. In fpring, the ground muft
be loofened with a hoe; they muft be kept clear from
weeds; and when the flower-ftalksadvance, they are to
be tied up to fticks, efpecially all thofe that promife by
their large flower-pods to be doubles.
The only certain method of propagating the double
varieties is by layers. The proper parts for layers are
thofe leafy (hoo« arifing near the crown of the root,
which, when about five, fix, or eight inches long, are
of a proper degree of growth for layers. The general
feafon for this work is June, July, and the beginning
of Auguft, as then the (hoots will be arrived at a pro¬
per growth for that- operation ; and the fooner it is
done after the (hoots are ready the better, that they
may have fufficient time to acquire ftrength before win¬
ter : thefe laid in June and July will be fit to take off
in Auguft and September, fo will form fine plants in
the mqnth of Oftober. The method of performing
the work is as follows. Firft provide a quantity of
fmall hooked fticks for pegs. They muft be three or
four inches long, and their ufe is to peg the layers
down to the ground. Get ready alfo in a barrow a
quantity of light rich mould, to raife the earth, if ne-
ceffary, round each plant, and provide alfo a (harp pen¬
knife. The work is begun by dripping off all the
leaves from the body of the (hoots, and (hor-tening
thofe at top an inch or two evenly. Then choofing a
ftrong joint on the middle of the (hoot or thereabouts,.
and on the back or under fide thereof, cut with the
penknife the joint half-way through, direfting your
knife upward fo as to (lit the joint up the middle, al-
moft to the next joint above, by which you form a .
kind of tongue on the back of the (hoot; obferving
that the fwelling (kinny part of the joint remaining at
the bottom of the tongue mult be trimmed off, that
nothing may obftruct the xfiuing of the fibres ; for the
layers always form their roots at that part. This done,
loofen the earth about the plant; and, if neceffary, add
fome fre(h mould, to raife it for the more ready recep¬
tion of the layers; then with your finger make a hol¬
low or drill in the earth to receive the layer ; which;
bend horizontally into the opening, railing the top up¬
right, fo as to keep the ga(h or (lit part of the layer
open; and, with one of the hooked fticks, peg down
the body of the layer, to fecure it in its proper place
and pofition, dill preferring the top eredl and the (lit
open, and draw the earth over it an inch or two,
bringing it clofe about the erect part of the (hoot; and
when all the (hoots of each plant are thus laid, give
direftly fome water to fettle the earth clofe, and the
work is finifhed. In dry weather the waterings muft
he often repeated, and in five or fix weeks the layers •
will have formed- good roots. They muft then be fe-
parated with a knife from the old plant, gently raifed
out of the earth with the point of a knife or trowel, in ;
order to preferve the.fibrous .roots of the layers as en¬
tire.-
D I A [8
DUnthus, tire as poflible ; and when thus taken up, cut off the
I)iapafcm. naked flicky part at bottom clofe to the root, and trim
v the tops of the leaves a little. They are then ready
for planting either into beds or pots. In November
the fine varieties in pdts (hould be moved to a funny
(heltered fituation for the winter ; and if placed in a
frame, to have occafional proteftion from hard froft, it
will be of much advantage. In the latter end of Fe¬
bruary, or fome time in March, the layers in the fmall
pots, or fuch as are in beds, {hould. be tranfplanted
with balls into the large pots, where they are to re¬
main for flower. To have as large flowers as ppflible,
curious florifts clear off all fide-fhoots from the flower-
ftem, fuffering only the main or top buds to remain
for flowering. When the flowers begin to open, at¬
tendance (hould be given to afliit the fine varieties, to
promote their regular expanfion, particularly thelargeft
kinds called burjlers, whofe flowers are fometimes three
or four inches diameter. Unlefs thefe are affifted by
art, they are apt to burft open on one fide, in which
cafe the flower will become very irregular: therefore,
attending every day at that period, obferve, as foon as
the calyx begins to break, to cut it' a little open at two
other places in the indenting at top with narrow-point¬
ed fciffars, and hereby the tnore regular expanfion of
the petals will be promoted : obferving, if one fide of
any flower comes out fafter than another, to turn the
pot about, that the other fide of the flower may be
next the fun, which will alfo greatly promote its re¬
gular expanfion. When any finC flower is to be blown
as large and fpreading as poffible., florifts place fpread-
ing paper collars round the bottom of the flowers, on
which they may fpread their petals to the utmoft ex¬
panfion. Thefe collars are made of ftilf white paper,
cut circular about three or four inches over, having a
hole in the middle to receive the bottom of the flower,
and one fide cut open to admit it. This is to be pla¬
ced round the bottom of the petals in the infide of the
calyx, the leaves of which are made to fpread flat for
its fupport. The petals muft then be drawn out and
fpread upon the collar to their full width and extent;
the longeft ones undermoft, and the next longed upon
thefe; and fo on ; obferving that the collar mud no
where appear wider than the flower; and thus a carna¬
tion may be rendered very large and handfome.
Thefe dire&ions will anfwer equally well for the
propagation of the pinks and fweet-williams, though
neither of thefe require fuch nicety in their culture as
the carnations.
DIAPASON, in mufic, a mufical interval, by which
mod authors who have wrote on the theory of mufic
life to exprefs the octave of the Greeks.
Diapason, among the mufical indrument-makers, a
kind of rule or fcale whereby they adjud the pipes of
their organs, and cut the holes of their hautboys, flutes,
&c. in due proportion for performing the tones, ferni-
tones, and concords, jud.
DiAPASoN-DiaeXy in mufic, a kind of compound con¬
cord, whereof there are two forts ; the greater, which
is in the proportion of 10-3; and the }effer, in that of
16-s.
Diapason Diapente, in mufic, a compound confo-
nance in a triple ratio, as 3-9. This interval, fays
Martianus Capella, confifts of 9 tones and a femitone;
j.9 femitones, and 38 diefes. It is a fymphony made
,N° ioj.
] D I A
when the voice proceeds from the fird to the twelfth fhapafurr
found. , II
Diapason Diatejaron, in mufic, a compound con-
cord founded on the proportion of 8 to 3. To this in- ^
terval Martianus Capella allows 8 tones and a femitone;
17 femitones, and 34 diefes.' This is when the voice
proceeds from its fird to its eleventh found. The mo¬
derns would rather call it the eleventh.
Diapason Ditone, in mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are as 10-4, eras 5-2.
Diapason Semiditone, in mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are in the proportion of 12-5.
DIAPEDESIS, in medicine, a tranfudation of the
fluids through the fides of the veffels that contain them,
occafioned by the blood’s becoming too much attenua¬
ted, or the pores becoming too patent.
DIAPENTE, in the ancient mufic, an interval
marking the fecond of the concords, and with the dia-
teflaron an ottave. This is what in the modern mufic
is called a Jifth.
DIAPHANOUS, an appellation given to all tranf-
parent bodies, or fuch as tranfmit the rays of light.
DIAPHORESIS, in medicine, an elimination of
the humours in any part of the body through the pores
of the fltin. See Perspiration.
DIAPHORETICS, among phyficians, all medi¬
cines which promote perfpiration.
DIAPHRAGM, Diaphragma, m anatomv, a
part popularly called the midriff, and by anatomifts Jep-
tum tranfverfum. It is a nervous mufcle, feparating the
breall or thorax from the abdomen or lower venter,
and ferving as a partition between the natural and the
vital parts, as they are called. See Anatomy,
n0 115.
It was Plato, as Galen informs us, that firft called
it diaphragm, from the verb Si*tpxTlut, i0 ffparate or be
between two. Till his time it had been called
from a notion that an inflammation of this part produ¬
ced phrenfy ; which is hot at all warranted by experi¬
ence, any more than that other tradition, that a tranf-
verfe fe&ion of the diaphragm with a fword caufes the
patient to die laughing.
DIAPORESIS, Aistmpvtrif, In rhetoric, is ufed to
exprefs the hefitation or uncertainty of the fpeaker.
We have an example in Homer, where Ulyfles, go¬
ing to relate his fufferings to Alcinous, begins thus:
Tl 'GTpCJTOVj Tl Tl £* UrXTtOV X.*TC(\e%00?
Quidprimum, quid deinde, quidpojlremo alloquar?
This figure is moil naturally placed in the exordium
or introduction to a difeourfe. See Doubting.
DIARBECK, or Diarbekr, an extenfive pro¬
vince of Eaftern Afiatic Turky ; comprehending, in it*
lateft extent, Diarbekr, properly fo called, Yerack or
Chaldea, and Curdijlan, which were the- ancient coun¬
tries of Mefopotamia, Chaldea, and AfTyria, with By-
bylon. It is called Diarbeck, Diarbeker, or Diarbekr, as
fignifying the “ duke’s country,” from the word dhyar
“ a duke, and bekr “ country.” It extends along the
banks of the Tigris and Euphrates from north-north-
weft to fouth-eaft, that is, from Mount Taurus, which
divides it from Turcomania on the north, to theinmoft
recefs of the Perfian gulph on the fouth, about 600
miles ; and from eaft to weft, that is, from Perfia on
the eaft to Syria and Arabia Deferta on the weft, in
fome places 200, and in others about 300, miles,
% hut
D I A [
Diarbekir. tut in the fouthern or lower parts not above 150. As
Y-—J extending alfo from the 30th to the 38th degree of
latitude, it lies under part of the fifth and fixth cli¬
mates wjiofe longeft day is about 14 hours and a half,
and fo in^ptoportion, and confequently enjoys a good
temperature of air, as well as, in the greater part of it,
a rich and fertile foil. There are indeed, as in all hot
countries, feme large deferts in it, which produce no
fuftenance for men or cattle, nor have any inhabitants.
Being a confiderable frontier towards the kingdom of
Perfia, it is very well guarded and fortified ; but as for
thofe many cities once fo renowned for their greatnefs
and opulence, they are at prefent almoft dwindled into
heaps of ruins. Bagdad, Mofful, Carahmed, and a
few more, indeed continue to be populous and wealthy;
but the reft can fcarce be called by any other name than
that of forry places. The rivers Euphrates and Tigris
have almoft their whole courfe through this country.
Dlarkck Proper is bounded on the north by Turco-
mania, on the weft by Syria, on the fouth by part of
Arabia Deferta and Track Proper, and on the eaft
by Curdiftan. It was named by Mofes Padan Aram ;
the latter being the general name of Syria; and the
former fignifying fruitful', a proper epithet for this
country, which is really fo to a very high degree, e-
fpecially on the northern fide, where it yields corn,
wine, oil, fruits, and all neceffaries of life in great abun¬
dance. Formerly it was the refidence of many famed
patriarchs, yet was over-run with the groffeft idolatry,
not only in the time of Abraham’s coming out of it,
and Jacob’s fojourning in it, but likewife during the
time it continued under the dominion of the AfTyrians,
Babylonians, Medes, Perfians, and Romans. It re¬
ceived indeed the light of the gofpel foon after our
Saviour’s afeenfion, from St Thaddasus, who is faid
to have been fent thither by St Thomas, at the requeft
of Agbarus king of Edeffa. This account, together
with that monarch’s letter to Jefus Chrift, we have
from Eufebius, who took it from the archives of that
city; and the whole had paffed current and uncon-
tradi&ed for many ages, till our more enlightened mo¬
derns found reafons to condemn it; but whether right
or wrong, it plainly appears that Chriftianity flou-
rifhed here in a moft eminent manner, till its purity
was fullied about the beginning of the fixth century
by the herefy of the Jacobites, whofe patriarch Hill
refides here, with a juriftji&ion over all that fed! in the
Turkilh dominions.
Diarbeck Proper, is a beglerbegate, under which
are reckoned twelve fangiacs; and the principal towns
in it are, Diarbekir or Caramed, Rika, Mouflul, Or-
fa or Edefla, Elbir, Nifibis, Gezir Merdin, Zibin,
Ur of the Chaldees, Amad, and Carafara; but all now
of little note excepting Diarbekir and Moufful.
Diar&ekir, the capital of the above diftridf, is fi-
tuated in a delightful plain, on the banks and near
the head of the Tigris, about 155 miles or 15 cara¬
van days journey, north-eaft from Aleppo, in latitude
37° 35'> eaft longitude 40° 50'. The bridge of 10
arches over the faid river is faid to have been built by
the order of Alexander the Great. It is one of the
richeft and moft mercantile cities in all Afiatic Tur¬
key ; and is well fortified, being encompafled with a
double wall, the outermoft of which is flanked, with 72
towers, faidto havebeen raifedinmemoryofour Saviour’s
Voi. VI. Part I.
9 ] D I A
72 difcjples. It has feveral ftately piazzas or market- P’arbekir.
places, well ftored with all kinds of rich merchandize, —w—^
and 12 magnificient mofques, faid to have been formerly
Chriftian churches. Its chief manufacture is the dref-
fing, tanning, and dying of goat-fkins, commonly
called 'Turkey leather, of which the vent is almoft in¬
credible in many parts of Europe and Afia: befides
this, there is another of dyed fine linen and cotton
cloths, which are nearly in the fame requeft. The
waters of the Tigris are reckoned extraordinary for
thofe two branches of trade, and give red leather a
finer grain and colour than any other. There is a
good number of large and convenient inns on both
fides of the river, for the caravans that go to and from
Perfia; and on the road near the town is a chapel with
a cupola, where Job is faid to lie buried. This place
is much frequented by pilgrims of all nations and re¬
ligions, andaTurkifti hermit has a cell clofe to it.
The fair fex, who, in moft other parts of the Turkilh
empire, are kept quite immured, and confidered as
mere Haves, enjoy here an extraordinary liberty, and
are commonly feen on the public walks of the city ia
company with the Chriftian women, and live in great
friendlhip and familiarity with them. The fame is
faid of the men, who are polite, affable, and courteous,
and very different from what they affect to be, Spe¬
cially the Turks, in other cities of this empire. The
city is under the government of a balha, who has great
power and very large dominions. He has commonly
a body of 20,000 horfe under him, for repelling the
frequent incurfions of the Curdes and Tartars, who
always go on horfeback to rob the caravans. The ad¬
jacent territory is very rich and beautiful ; the bread,
wine, and flefh excellent; the fruits exquifite, and the
pigeons better and larger than any in Europe.
Mr Ives, who paffed through this city in 1758, im
forms us, that “ about two years ago it was very po¬
pulous, its inhabitants amounting to 400,000 fouls;
but in the laft year 300,000 died either by cold or
famine. The Chriftians refiding in the city before
this calamity were reckoned to amount to 26,000, of
whom 20,000 died. This account we had from one
of the French miflionaries, a capuchin, who alfo faid,
that before the famine the city contained 60,000 fight¬
ing men, but that now they are not able to mufter
10,000. He affures us, that the houfes and ftreets,
nay the very mofques, were filled with dead ; that
every part of the city exhibited a dreadful image of
death; and that the furviving inhabitants not only
greedily devoured all kinds of beafts, brutes, and rep¬
tiles, but alfo were obliged to feed on human bodies.
Yet, in the midft of this feene of horror, the grandees
of the. city had every thing in plenty ; for they had
taken care to monopolize vaft quantities of corn, which
they fold out to the other inhabitants at moil extra¬
vagant prices, and thereby acquired for themfelves im-
menfe fortunes. Corn rofe from two piaftres a mea-
fure to 50, 60, and even 70, in the fpace of fijc months.
The father added, that the very fevere winter of 1756,
and the loculls in 1757, were the caufes of this dread¬
ful vifitation : for by reafon of the former, there were
but few acres of land fown with corn ; and by the lat¬
ter, the fmall crop they had was in a great meafure
deftroyed. He fpoke of the feverity of that winter in
terms almoft incredible: that it was common to fee the
B people
D I A [ i
Biarrhcea people fall down dead in the ftreets; that he himfelf
II once on quitting a warm room, and going into the
Diatom-, c. 0pCn ajr> fell down motiohlefs; and that his brother, in
■ attempting to affift him, met with the fame fate.”
This account of the effc&s of cold in the city of Di-
arbekir, which lies only in about 38° north, feems at
firil very furprifing; but confidering that the place
ftands on a rifm^ ground in the midft of an extenfive
plain, and that the high Courdiftan mom tains lie to
the fouth and eaft of it, and the Armenian or Turco-
manian to the north, whofe heads are always covered
with fnow, and even now in July fupply the city with
ice ; it will not appear at all improbable, that in a very
fevere winter, fuch as was that in 1756, the inhabi¬
tants of this city Ihould fo feverely feel the effefts of
it. Befides, fuel muft have been extremely fcarce,
efpecially among the poorer fort, ^as nothing of this
kind is produced but upon the mountains, and thefe
lie at fuch a diftance that the price of it mull thereby
be greatly enhanced.
DIARRHCEA, or Looseness, in medicine, is a
frequent and copious evacuation of liquid excrement by
ftool. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
DIARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a kind of articula¬
tion or jun&ure of the bones; which being pretty lax,
affords room for a manifeft motion. The word comes
from ‘f'a, and junfiure, ajfemblage. It is oppo-
fed to fynarthrofis, wherein the articulation is fo clofe
that there is no fenfible motion at all. See Anatomy,
n° 2.
DIARY, a term fometimes ufed for a journal or
day-book, containing an account of every day’s pro¬
ceedings. Thus we fay, diaries of the weathery See.
Diarx Fever, is a fever of one day. See Ephe¬
mera.
DIASCHISM, among muficians, denotes the diffe¬
rence between the comma and enharmonic diefis, com¬
monly called the lejfer comma.
DIASCORDIUM, in pharmacy, a celebrated com-
pofition, fo called from fcordium, one of its ingredients.
See Pharmacy.
DIASTOLE, among phyficians, fignifies the dila¬
tation of the heart, auricles, and arteries; and ftaiYis
pppofed to the systole, or contradtion of the fame
parts. See Anatomy, n° 124.
Diastole, in grammar, a figure in profody where¬
by a fyllable naturally fhort is made long. Such is the
firft fyllable of Priamides in the following verfe of
Virgil:
Atque bk PriamiJes ! nihil 0 tibi, amice, relilkm.
DIASYRMUS, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole,
being an exaggeration of fame low, ridiculous thing.
DIATESSARON, arr.cng ancient muficians, a
concord or harmonical interval, compofed of a greater
tone, a lefs tone, and one greater femitone ; its pro¬
portion in numbers is as 4 : 3.
DIATONICK, in mufic, (compounded of two
Greek words, wa. the prepofition <f<«, fignifying a tran-
fition from one thing to another, and the fubftantive
To»of, importing a given degree of tenfion or mufical
note), is indifferently applied to a.fcale or gammut, to
intervals of a certain kind, or to a fpecies of mufic,
whether in melody or harmony, compofed of thefe in¬
tervals. T hus we fay the diatonick feries, a diatonick
interval, diaiotiiik melody or harmony. As the diato-
3 ] DIG
nick fcale forms the fy'ftem of diatonick mufic, and Diafrara-!
confifts of diatonick intervals, it will be neceffary, for canth j
underftanding the former, that we fhould explain the
latter. See Interval. . ]
DIATRAGACANTH, in pharmacy, a name ap- '
plied to certain powders, of which gum tragacanth is
the chief ingredient.
DIAUGOPHRAGMIA, in natural hiftory, a ge¬
nus of fulfils of the order of feptarix, whofe partitions
or fepta, coafift of fpar with an admixture of cryilal. 1
Of this-genus there are three fpecies. 1. A red kind,
with brownilh yellow partitions. 2. A brownilli yel¬
low kind, with whitilh partitions. 3. A bluifti-white
kind, with ftraw-coloured partitions.
DIBBLE, or Dibber, a fimple but ufeful imple¬
ment in gardening, ufed for planting out all forts of
young plants, &c.
DIBBLING wheat. See Agriculture, n° 126
—129.
DIBIO, or Divio (anc. geog.), the Divionenfe Car-
Jlrum, and the Diviotwm of the lower age ; a town of
the Lingones, in Gallia Belgica: Dilionenfes, the peo¬
ple. Now Dijon, the capital of Burgundy. E. Long.
5.5. N.Lat.47. 15.
DICE, among gamefters, certain cubical pieces of
bone or ivory, marked with dots, on each of their faces,
from one to fix, according to the number of faces.
Sharpers have feveral ways of falfifying dice. 1. By
flicking a hog’s brittle in them, fo as to make them,
run high or low as they pleafe. 2. By drilling and.
loading them with quickfilver : which cheat is found
out by holding them gently by two diagonal corners 1
for if falfe, the heavy fldes will turn always down.
3. By filing and rounding them. But all thefe. ways
fall far Ihort of the art of the dice-makers; fame of
whom are *0 dexterous this way, that your fharping
gamefters will give any money for them.
Dice formerly paid 5 s. every pair imported, with an
additional duty of 4s. 9T45?^d. for every 20 s. value upon
oath ; but are now prohibited to be imported.
DICiEARCHUS, a fcholar of Ariftotle, compo¬
fed a great number of hooks which were much efteem-
ed. Cicero and his friend Pomponius Atticus valued
him highly. He wrote a book to prove, that men
fuller more mifehief from one another than from all.
evils hefide. And the work he compofed concerning
the republic of Lacedemon. was extremely honoured,
and read every year before the youth in the affembly
of the ephon. Geography was one of his principal
ftudies, on which fcience there is a fragment of a trea-
tife of his ftill extant, and preferved among the Veteris
geographies feriptores minores.
DICHOTOMOUS, in botany. Sec Botany,
p. 442, n° 41.
DICHOTOMY, a term ufed by aftronoraers for
that phafis or appearance of the moon, wherein ftie is
bifedted, or fhows juft half her difk. In this fituation
the moon is faid to be in a quadrate afpedt, or to be in
her quadrature.
DICKER, in old writers, denotes the quantity of
ten hides of fkins, whereof 20 made a laft; alfo 10 pair
of gloves, ten bars of iron, and thelike,.are fometimes
expreffed by the term dicker.
DICKINSON (Edmund), a celebrated Englifli phy-
fician and chemiit, born in *624. He ftudied and
took.
DIG [ ti ] DIG
Di&ammi?, took his degrees at Merton-college, Oxford ; and in viva voce, and his election was confirmed by the augu- Dictator
t Dilator. 1655 publilhed there his Delphi Phtenkitantes, See. a ries. As his power was abfolnte, he could proclaim
moft learned piece, in which he attempted to prove, war, levy forces, condu& them againll an enemy, and . ‘ Jr j
that the Greeks borrowed the llory of the Pythian diiband them at hispleafure. He punifhed as he pleafed,
Apollo, and all that rendered the oracle at Delphos and from his decifion there lay no appeal, at lealt till
famous, from the Holy Scriptures, and the book of later times. He was preceded by 24 liftors with the
Jolhua in particular: a work that procured him great fafees ; during his adminiilration, all other officers, ex¬
reputation both at home and abroad. He pradifed cept the tribunes of the people, were fufpended, and
phyfie firft at Oxford; but removing to London in he was the mafter of the republic. But amidft all this
1684, his good fortune in recovering the earl of Ar- independence, he was not permitted to go beyond the
iington from a dangerous ficknefs, procured his pro- borders of Italy, and he was always obliged to march
motion to be phyfician in ordinary to Charles II. and on foot in his expeditions, and he never could ride idi
to his houfehold. As that prince underftood and loved difficult and laborious marches without previoufly ob-
chemiftry, Dr Dickinfon- grew into great favour at taining a formal leave from the people. He was cho-
court; and was continued in his appointments under fen only when the ftate was in imminent dangers from
J,ames. II. After the abdication of his unfortunate foreign enemies or inward feditions. In the time of
mafter, being then in years, and afflifted with the a peftilence a dictator was fometimes elefted, as alfo
Hone, he retired from prattice, and died in 1707. He to hold the comitia, or to celebrate the public feftivals,
publiffied many other things, particularly Phyjica ve- or drive a nail in the capitol, by which fuperftitioug
tus & vera, &c. containing a fyftem of philofophy ceremony the Romans believed that a plague could
chiefly framed on principles eolketed from the Mofaic be averted, or the progrefsof an enemy flopped. This
hillory. office, fo refpeflable and illuftrious in the firft ages of
DICTAMNUS, white dittany, or Fraxinella: the republic, became odiousbytheperpetualufurpa-
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to fhe de- tions of Sydla and J. Caefar ; and after the death of
candria clafs of plants; and in the natural method the latter, the Roman fenate pafled a decree which for
ranking under the 26th order, Muh'Jiliqu<e. The calyx ever after forbad' a dictator to exift in Rome. The
is pentaphyllous; the petals are five, and patulous ;
the filaments fprinkled with glandulous points; the
capfules five, coalited. There is only one fpecies. It
hath thick, penetrating, perennial roots, colledled into
dictator, as foon as elected, chofe a fubordinate offi-
r called his mafter of horfe, magijler equitum. This
officer was refpeftable ; but he was totally fubfervient
to the will of the dictator, and could do nothing with-
a head at top, fending up eredt ftalks annually, two or out his exprefs order. This fubordination, however,
three feet high, garniffied with pinnated alternate was fome time after removed ; and during the fecond
leaves,, of three or four pair of oblong ftiff lobes, ter- Punic war the mafter of the horfe was invefted with a
minated by an odd one; and tfie ftalks crowned by power equal to that of the dictator. A fecond didta-
long, py ramidal, loofe fpikes of flowers, of white, red, tor was alfo chofen for the eledtion of magiftrates at
and purple colours. They are very ornamental plants, Romqj after the battle of Cannae. The didlatorlhip
and fucceed in any of the common borders. The was originally confined to the patricians ; but the pie-
dittany which grows in Crete, Dalmatia, and the Mo- beians were afterwards admitted to lhare it. Titus
rta, forms an article in the materia medica. The Largius Flavus was the firft didtator, in the year of
leaves, which are the only parts ufed, are imported Rome 253.
from Italy. The‘belt fort are well covered- over with DICTION, the phrafe, elocution, or ftyle, of a wri-
a thick white down, and now and then intermixed ter or fpeaker. See Oratory, n° 99—121.
with purplilh flowers. In fmell and tafte they fome- DICTIONARY, in its original acceptation, is the
what refemble lemon-thyme, but have more of an aro¬
matic flavour, as well as a greater degree of pungency;
when frefti, they yield a confiderable quantity of an ex¬
cellent efiential oil.
arranging all the words of a language according to the
order of the alphabet, and annexing a definition or ex¬
planation' to each word. When arts and fciences began
to be improved and extended, the multiplicity of tech-
DICTATOR, a magiftrate at Rome invefted with nical terms rendered it neceffary to compile didtionaries,
regal authority. This officer was firft chofen during either of fcience in general, or of particular fciences,
the Roman w'ars againft the Latins. The confuls be- according to the views of the compiler,
ing unable to raife forces for the defence of the ftate, Dictionary of the Englijb Language. The defign
bccaufe the plebeians refufed to inlift if they were not of every dictionary of language is to expkfin, in the
difeharged of all the debts they had contradted with moft accurate manner, the meaning of every word4
the patricians, the fenate found it neceflary to eledt a and to (how the various way^ in w'hich it can be corn-
new magiftrate with abfolute and uncontroulable powder bined with others, in as far as this tends to alter its
to take care of the ftate. The didtator remained in meaning. The didtionary wdiich does this in the moft
office for fix months, after which he was again eledted accurate manner, is the moft complete. Therefore the
if the affairs of the ftate feemed to be defperate ; but principal ftudy of a lexicographer ought to be, to dif-
if tranquillity was re-eftablifhed, he generally laid down cover a method which will be belt adapted for that
his power before the time was expired. He knew' no purpofe. Dr Johnfon, with great labour, has col-
fuperior in the republic, and even the laws w’ere fub-
jedted: to him. He was called didtator, becaufe ditlus,
named by the conful, or quoniam diQu ejut parebat po-
pulus, becaufe the people implicitly obeyed his com¬
mand. He was named by the conful in the night
ledted the various meanings of every word, and quoted
the authorities: but, would it not have been an im¬
provement if he had given an accurate definition of
the preeife meaning of every word ; pointed out the
way in which it ought to be employed with the
B 2 ~ greateft
D I C
C 12
Di&ionary. greateft propriety ; ftiowed the various deviations from
that original meaning, which cuftom had fo far efta-
blifhed as to render allowable; and fixed the precife
limits beyond which it could not be employed with¬
out becoming a vicious expreflion ? With this view, it
would have been neceffary to exhibit the nice di-
ftinftions that take place between words which are
nearly fynonymous. Without this, many words can
©nly be defined in fuch a manner, as that they mult
be confidered as exactly fynonymous. We omit gi¬
ving any quotations from Johnfon, to point out thefe
defefts; and lhall content ourfelves with giving a
few examples, to Ihow how, according to our idea, a
' di&ionary of the Englifh language ought to be com¬
piled.
IMMEDIATELY, adv. of time.
j. Tnftantly, without delay. Always employed to
denote future time, and never paft. Thus, we may
fay, / 'will come immediately ■; but not, I am im¬
mediately come from fuch a place. See Presently.
2. Without the intervention of any caufe or event;
as oppofed to mediately.
PRESENTLY, adv. of time.
1. Inftantly, without delay. Exactly fynonymous
with immediately ; being never with propriety em¬
ployed to denote any thing but future time.
2. Formerly it was employed to exprefs prefent
time. Thus, The houfe prefently^ pojfeffed hy fuch
a one, was often ufed : but this is now become a
vicious exprelfion ; and we ought to fay. The houfe
poffeffed at prefent. It differs from immediately in
this, that even in the mofl corrupt phrafes it ne¬
ver can denote paft time.
v FORM./uZy?. The external appearance of anyob-
jett, when confidered only with refpedl to lhape
or figure. This term therefore, in the literal
fenfe, can only be applied to the objefts of the
fight and touch ; and is nearly fynonymous with
figure: but they differ in fome refpe&s. Form
may be employed to denote more rude and unfi-
nifhed fhapes ; figure, thofe which are more per-
fedl and regular. Form can never be employed
. without denoting matter; whereas figure may be
employed in the abftraft : thus, we fay a fquare
©r a triangular figure; but not a fquare or triangu¬
lar form. And in the fame manner we fay, the
figure of a houfe; but we mult denote the fub-
ftance which forms that figure, if we ufe the
word form ; as, a cloud of the firm of a houfe,
&c. See Figure.
2. In contraft to irregularity or confufion. As
beauty cannot exift without order, it is by a fi¬
gure of fpeecb employed to denote beauty, order,
See.
3. As firm refpefts only the external appearance
of bodies, without regard to their internal qua¬
lities, it is, by a figure of fpeech, employed in
contraft to thefe qualities, to denote empty (how,
without effential qualities. In this fenfe it is
often taken when applied te religious ceremonies,
&c.
4. As firm is employed to denote the external ap¬
pearance of bodies; fo, in a figurative fenfe, it is
applied to reafoning, denoting the particular mode
3,
] DIG
or manner in which this is conduced; as, *&>Di<SHonary.
firm of a fyllogifm, &c. r
5. In the fame manner it is employed to denote the
particular mode of procedure eftablifhed in courts
of law; as, the forms of law, religion, 3cc.
6. Form is fometimes, although improperly, ufed
to denote the different circumftances of the fame
body; as, water in a fluid or a folid form. But
as this phrafe regards the internal qualities ra¬
ther than the external figure, it is improper; and
ought to be, water in a fluid or a folidflute.
7. But when bodies of different kinds arc compared
with one another, this term may be employed to
denote other circumftances than (hape or figure : ’
for we may fay, a juice exfuding from a tree in
the form of wax or refin ; although, in this cafe,
the confidence, colour, &c. and not the exter¬
nal arrangement of parts, conftitutes the refem-
blance.
8. From the regular appearance of a number of per-
fons arranged in one long feat, fuch perfons fo
arranged are fometimes called a form; as, a form
of fludents, &c. Arid,
9. By an eafy tranfition, the feat itfelf has alfo ac¬
quired that name.
GREAT, adj. A relative word, denoting large-
nefs of quantity, number, &c. ferving to aug¬
ment the value of thofe terms with which it is
combined, and oppofed to fmall or little. The
principal circumftances in which this word can be
employed are the folio wring :
1. When merely inanimate objefts are confidered
with regard to quantity, great is with propriety
employed, to denote that the quantity is confi-
derable ; as, a great mountain, a great houfe. See.
and it is here contrafted with fmall. When great
is thus employed, we have no other word that is
exaftly fynonymous.
2. When inanimate objefts are confidered with re¬
gard to their extent, this term is fometimes em¬
ployed, although with lefs propriety ; as, a great
plain, a great field, See. And in this fenfe it is
nearly fynonymous with large; and they are of¬
ten ufed indifcriminately, but writh fome differ¬
ence of meaning: for, as large is a term chiefly
employed to denote extent of fuperficies, and as
great more particularly regards the quantity of
matter; therefore, when large is applied to any
obje£l which is not merely fuperficial, it denotes
that it is the extent of furface that is there meant
to be confidered, without regard to the other di-
menfions: whereas when the term great is em¬
ployed, it has a reference to the whole contents.
If, therefore, we fay, a large houfe, or a large
river, we exprefs that the houfe, the river, have
a furface of great extent, without having any ne¬
ceffary connexion with the lize in other refpefts.
But if we fay, a great houfe, or a great river, it
at once denotes that they have not only a large
furface, but are alfo of great fize in every re-
fpe&.
3. Great, when applied to the human fpecies, never
denotes the fize or largenefs of body, but is ap¬
plied folely to the qualities of the mind. Thus,.
whea.
D!iS ionary-
►
DIG [ i
wlien we fay, that Socrates was a great man, we
do not mean that he was a man of great fize, but
that he was a man who excelled in the endow¬
ments of the mind. The terms which denote
largenefs of fize in the human body are, big, bulky,
huge, &c.
4. Great is fometimes applied to the human fpecies,
as denoting high rank. In this cafe it is oftener
ufed in the plural number than otherwife.. Thus
we fay fimply, the great, meaning the whole body
of men in high ftation, a» oppofed to mean. It
fhould feldom be employed in this fenfe, as it
tends to confound dignity of rank with elevation
of mind.
5. As this is a general term of augmentation, it may
be joined with all nouns which denote quantity,
quality, number, excellence, or defeats; or fuch as
imply praife, blame, anger, contempt, or any other
alfedfion of the mind.
6. It is employed to denote every ftep of afeending
or defeending confanguinity ; as, great-grandfa¬
ther, great-grandfon, &c.
HIGH. adj. Exalted in a perpendicular di reft ion
at a diftance from the furface of the earth. Op¬
pofed to low.
1. High is a term altogether indefinite, and is em¬
ployed to exprefs the degree of elevation of any
inanimate body. Thus we fay, a high moun¬
tain, a high houfe, Jleeple, tower, pillar. See. Nor
is there any other word that can here be confi-
dered as fynonymous; lofty being employed on¬
ly to denote a very eminent,degi'ee-of elevation.
2. To exprefs the perpendicular elevation of vege¬
tables, either high or tall -may be employed, as
being in this cafe nearly fynonymous. We may
therefore fay, a high or tall tree, a high or tall
mafl, &c. but with this difference between thefe
two expreffions, that tall can be more properly
applied to thofe that are much elevated and of
fmall dimenfions ; and high, to fuch as are more
bulky, and of greater fize.
3. The perpendicular height of man can never be
expieffed by the word high ; tall being here the
proper expreffion. And altho’ high is fometimes
ufed to exprefs the height of other animals, yet it
feems to be an improper expreffion. See Tall.
4. High, when applied to the human fpecies, al¬
ways refers to the mind; and denotes haughtinefs,
flatelinefs, pride, &c. and, when combined with
the expreffions of any energy of the mind, it de¬
notes that in a higher degree. In this fenfe, it
is oppofed to meannefs, abjetinefs, and humility.
5. As this is an indefinite term, tending to denote
any thing that is elevated above us, it may be com¬
bined with almoft every noun which admits of this
elevation. And as objefts high above us are al¬
ways out of our reach, it is in a metaphorical
fenfe ufed to denote any thing that feems to be
above the ordinaiy condition of mankind; or thofe
qualities or endowments of mind that are not ea-
fily acquired : as, dignity or elevation of fentiment;
dignity of rank; acutenefs in reafoning on difficult
fubjeits; pride, haughtinefs, or any other quality
which feems beyond the ordinary l«vd of man¬
kind ; dearnefs of price, &c.
1 DIG
6. In the fame manner we apply this term to time ;
which having a metaphorical refemblance to a ri¬
ver flowing on with an unceafing current through
all fucceffive ages, any thing of remote antiquity
is denoted by the term high.
7. Likewife thofe degrees of latitudes far removed
from the line, where the pole becomes more ele¬
vated.
8. And to fome particular crimes, as being at¬
tended with peculiar degrees of guilt; as, high
treafbn.
TALL. adj. Something elevated to a confiderable
degree in a perpendicular direftion. Oppofed to
1. This term is chiefly employed to exprefs the
height of man and other animals; and is applied
to denote the height of the body only, without
having ahy reference to the mind. When ap¬
plied to man, no other word can be fubftituted
in its Head: when applied to other animals, high
is fometimes confidered as nearly fynonymous.
See High.
2. It is likewife employed to denote the perpendi |
cular height of vegetables; and in this cafe, it is
nearly fynonymous with See High.
3. It can in no cafe be employed to exprefs the
height of merely inanimate objefts; as we can ne¬
ver fay a tall Jleeple, tower, or pillar, but a high
Jleeple, &c. For the diftinftions in thefg cafes,,
fee High.
LONG. adj. A relative term, denoting the diftance
between the extremes of any body, which is ex¬
tended more in one of its geometrical dimenfions
than another. Oppofed to Jhort.
1. This term may be applied to all inanimate ob-
jeftw, of watever kind, whofe dimenfions in one
way exceeds the other, and when not in an efeft
pqfture, whatever be the other circumftances at¬
tending them; whether it relates to fuperficies a-
lone, or to folid bodies; whether thefe be bound¬
ed or open, ftraight or crooked, flexible or rigid,
or in any other circumftances whatever: thus we
fay, a long or Jhort line, a long or (hort ridge, fired,-
ditch, rope, chain, JlaJf, &c. But it is to be ob-
ferved, that although lung is in the ftrift fenfe
only oppofed to Jhort ; yet as it exprefles the ex-
teniion of matter in one of its geometrical pro¬
portions, it is often contrafted by thofe words
which exprefs the other proportions when we
mean only to deferibe the feveral proportions :■
as, a table long and broad. And as thefe feveral
dimenfions are exprefled by different words, ac¬
cording to the various forms, modifications, and
circumftances, in which-bodies are found, there¬
fore it is in this fenfe contrafted by a great di-
verfity of terms : as, a long and broad or wide, nar¬
row or Jlrait, Jlreet or lane ; a long and thick, or
fmall, rope, chain,JlaJf. For the diftinftions in thefe
cafes, fee Broad, Wide, &c.
2. Objefts neceffarily fixed in an ereft pofition can
never have this term applied to them; and there¬
fore we cannot fay a long, but a high, tower or
Jleeple. And for the fame reafon, while trees are
growing and fixed in an ereft pofition, we cannot
apply this term to them ; but when they are,fell¬
ed!
dig r 14
Bi&iW.ry. etl and laid upon the ground, it is quite proper
*J and neceffary. Thus, we do not fay a long, but
a tall ox high tree, while it is growing; but we
fay a long, not a tall log of wood: and in the fame
manner we fay a tall tnajl, when it is fixed in the
{hip; but a long majl, while it lies upon the beach.
See Tall and High.
3. Thofe vegetables which are of a tender pliant na¬
ture, or fo weak as not to be able to retain a fixt
pofition, being confidered as of a middle nature
between eredt and proftrate bodies, adntit of ei¬
ther of the terms long, tall, or high; as, a long or
tall rujh or willow wand, or a long, tall, or high
jlalk of corn. See High and Tall.
4. The parts of vegetables, when confidered as di-
ftinft from the whole, even when growing and
ereft, affume the term long-: for we do not fay a
tall, but a long,Jhoot of a tree ; and a tree with a
longflem, in preference to a tree with a highJlem.
5. For the fame reafon, a ftaff, and pole, even when
fixed in a perpendicular direftion, affume the word
long, in preference to tall or high.
>6. With regard to animals, the general rule is ap¬
plied, without any exceptions: tall, and not long,
being employed to denote the height of the hu¬
man body, when in an eredt polture; and long,
and not tall, to denote its length when in an in¬
cumbent fituation. Long, applied to all other
animals which do not walk eredt,. always denotes
their greateft length in a horizontal pofition from
head to tail.
7. In a figurative fenfe, it denotes, with regard to
time, any thing at a great ditlance from us.
8. As alfo, any thing that takes up much time be¬
fore it is fin idled ; as, a long dfcourfe, a protracted
note in mafic, &C.
BROAD, adj. The diftance between the two near-
ell fides of any body, whofe geometrical dimen-
fions are larger in'one diredtion than- in another ;
and has a reference to fuperficies only, and never
to the folid contents. Oppofed to narrow.
x. Broad, in the ftridtell acceptation, is applied to
denote thofe bodies only whofe fides are altoge¬
ther open and unconfined ; as, a broad table, a
broad wheel, &c.: and in thefe cafes it is invariably
contrafted-by the word narrow ; nor is.there any
■other word which in thefe cafes can be confidered
as fynonymous with it, or ufed in its dead.
3. When any objedl is in fome fort bounded on the
fides, although not quite clofed up, as a road,
ftreet, ditch. See. either broad or wide may be
employed, but with fome difference of fignifica-
tion ; broad being moll properly ufed for thofe
that are more open, and wide for thofe which are
more confined: nor can this term be ever applied
to fuch objects as are clofe bounded all around,
as a houfe, a church, &c. wide being here em¬
ployed. For the more accurate diltinftions in
thefe cafes, fee the article Wide.
WIDE. adj. A term employed to denote relative
extent in certain circumftances. Oppofed to nar-
now and Jlrait.
1. This term is in its proper fenfe applied only to
denote the fpace contained within any body clofed
all round on every fide; as a houfe, gate, &c,: and
] Die
differs from broad ia this, that it never relates to Di&ionary.
the fuperficies - of folid objects, but is employ-v ■'
ed to exprefs the capacioufnefs of any body which
containeth vacant fpace ; nor can capacioufnefs
in this fenfe be expreffed by any other word but
wide.
2. As many bodies may be confidered either with
refpedt to their capacioufnefs or fuperficial ex¬
tent ; in all thefe cafes, either the term broad or
wide may be ufed ; as, a broad or wide Jlreet or
ditch, &c. but with a greater or lefs degree of
propriety, according to the circumflances of the
objedl, or the idea we.wilh to convey. In allreet
where the houfes are low and the boundaries o-
pen, or in a ditch of fmall depth and large fuper¬
ficies, as this largenefs of fuperficies bears the
principal proportion, broad would be more pro¬
per : but if the houfes are of great height, or the
ditch of great depth, and capaeioufnefs is the prin¬
cipal property that affedls the mind, we would
naturally fay a wide Jlreet or ditch ; and the fame
may be faid of all fimilar cafes. But there are fome
cafes in which both thefe terms are applied, with
a greater difference of meaning; thus we fay a
broad or a wide gate : But as the gate is employ¬
ed to denote either the aperture in the wall, or
the matter which clofes that aperture, thefe terms
are each of them ufed to denote that particular
quality to which they are generally applied : and
as the opening itfelf can never be confidered as a
fuperficies, the term wide, in this cafe, denotes
the dillance between the fides of the aperture;
while,, on the contrary, broad denotes the extent
of matter fitted to clofe that aperture ; nor can
thefe two terms in any cafe be fubftituted for one
another.
3. As a figurative exprefiion, it is ufed as a cant
phrafe for a miftake: as, you are wide of the mark;
that is, not near the truth.
NARROW, adj. A relative term, denoting a pro¬
portional fmallnefs of dillance between the fides
of the fuperficies of plain bodies. Oppofed to
broad.
1. As this is only applied to fuperficies, it is exadl-
ly contrafted by broad, and is applied in all cafes
where the term broad can be ufed, (fee Broad) ;
and in no other cafe but as a contrail to it, ex¬
cept the following.
2. It fometimes is employed to deferibe the fmall¬
nefs of fpace circumfcribed between certain boun¬
daries, as oppofed to wide, and nearly fynonymous
with Jlrait ; as we fay a wide or a narrow houfe,
church, &c. For the neceffary dillinftions here,
fee the article Strait.
3. In a figurative fenfe it ilznotzs parjimony, poverty,
confnedfentiments, &c.
STRAIT, adj. A relative term, denoting the ex¬
tent of fpace in pertain circumllances. Oppofed
to wide; fee Wide.
1. This term is employed, in its proper fenfe, to de¬
note only fpace, as contained between furround¬
ing bodies in fuch circumllances as to denote fome
degree of confinement; and is exaftly oppofed to
wide: as, a wide or ajlrait gate, &c. See Wide.
2. So neceffary is it that the idea of confinement
fhould
DIG [15
.>ry. fhonld be conne&ed with this word, that in all
— thofe cafes where the fpace contained is large, as
in a church or houfe, we cannot exprefs a fmaller
proportional width by this term. And as we have
no other word to exprefs fpace in thefe circum-
ffcances, we have been obliged to force the word
narrow from its natural fignification, and make it
exprefs this. See Narrow.
3. In fome particular cafes, narrow ar firait may be
employed to'he fame objeft ; as, a narrow or a
jirait line : but here jtraii is never employed but
where an idea of confinement is fuggefted, and
where it is exaftly contrafted to wide; nor can
narrow be employed but in fuch circumftances
where broad would .be a perfect contrail to it.
Therefore thefe two terms may be always em¬
ployed in the fame circumftances as thofe which
contraft them may be. For an account of which,
fee Wide.
3. The term Jirait is like wife in a peculiar manner
ufed to denote the fmallnefs of the internal dia¬
meter of thofe fmall bodies which are fitted to re¬
ceive or contain others, as any kind of bag, tube,
body-clothes,,.mortoifes, and others,of the fame
kind ; and in all thefe cafes this term may be em¬
ployed to denote the fmallnefs of their leffer dia¬
meter, and never the term narrow. But in cer¬
tain circumftances the word tight may be fubftitu-
ted for it. See Tight.
4. Strait, in a figurative fenfe, denotes any fort of
confinement of fentiment or difpofition.
TIGHT, adj. A term employed in certain circum¬
ftances to denot e the internal capacity of particu¬
lar bodies. Nearly fynonymous with Jirait.
This term is confined entirely to denote the fmall¬
nefs of the internal dimenfions of fuch obje&s as
are formed-to cover or to receive or contain other
folid bodies, and can be employed in no other cafe.
And although it agrees Jirait, in always de¬
noting confinement, and by being applicable to
the fame fpecies of objects, yet it differs in the
following refpefts : 1. If there be any difference
of the diameter of the obje&s to which the term
fir ail can be applied, it always has reference to
the fmaller ; yet tight may be applied to any
fort of confinement, whether it regards the length
or breadth. 2. Strait can be applied to all bo¬
dies of capacity when of fmall diameter, without
any fort of reference to the nature of the fub-
ftance which it may be capable of containing.
For we can fay a Jirait bag, a Jirait Jleeve, a
Jirait mortoife, a Jirait gate, &c. whereas tight
can only be applied to any body when it is confix
dered as having reference to another body which
is intended to be contained in it, and is pinched
for want of room. Thus we fay, the Jleeve of a
coat is too tight for the arm, the mortoife is too tight
for the tenon, &c. ; but we cannot fay, the bag, or
the gate, is too tight, becaufe thefe are fitted to re¬
ceive any fort of objefts. And hence it happens,
that, in many cafes, the ftimenfions of the fame
body may be expreffed by tight ci* fir ait when
confide red in different ciroumftances. Thus we
«ay fay; this Jleeve is. too Jirait, when we look at
] DIG
a coat when lying on the table, and confider its Didhonary,
proportions ; but it is not till we have tried it up- ' ’uJ
on the arm that it is intended to cover, that we
call it tight. And we may fay, a gate is too Jirait,
or too tight: but in the firft cafe we coniider it as
being too confined for admitting, objefts to pafs
through it ; a: I in thelaft, as being too confined
with refpeft to the leaves that are to fhut the a-
perture, not allowing them fpace to move with
freedom.
Thefe examples may ferve to give fome idea of the
plan of an Englifh Dictionary compofed upon philofo-
phical principles: But, befides the circumftances above
enumerated, there are many others which would re¬
quire particular attention in the execution of a work of
this kind. In the Englifti language, a great variety of
terms occur, which denote matter under certain gene¬
ral forms or circumftances, without regarding the mi¬
nute diverfities that may take place ; as the word cloth,
which denotes matter as manufactured into a particu¬
lar form, including under it all the variety of ftuffs ma¬
nufactured in that particular way, of whatever mate¬
rials, colours, texture, or finenefs, they may be. The
fame may be faid of wood, iron, yarn, and a great va¬
riety of terms of the fame nature, foine of which can¬
not affume any plural; while others admit of it in all
cafes, and others admit or refufe it according to the
different circumftances in which they are confidered.
In a diCtiouary, therefore, all this variety of cafes
ought to be clearly and diftinCIly pointed out under
each particular article : this is the more neceffary, as
fome of thefe words have others formed from them,
which might be readily miftaken for their plurals, al-
tho’ they have a very different fignification; as cloaths,
which does not denote any number of pieces or diffe¬
rent kinds of cloth, but wearing apparel. The following
example will illultrate this head.
WOOD. fub. A folid fubftance, of which the trunks
and branches of trees confift.
1. This term is employed to denote the folid parts
of vegetables of all kinds, in whatever form or cir-
cumitances they are found. Nor does this term
admit of plural with propriety, unlefs in the cir-
cumffances. after-mentioned : for we fay, many
different kinds of wood, in preference to many kinds
of woods ; or, we fay, oak, off, or elm wood, not
woods.
2. But -where we want to contraft wood of one qua¬
lity or country with that of another, it admits of
a plural: for we fay, white woods are in general
fofter than red ; or IVfi-Indian woods are in general
cf greater fpecific gravity than the European woods :
But unlels where the colour, or fome quality
which diftinguifiies it from growing wood, is men¬
tioned, this plural ought as much as poffibletobe
avoided, as it always fuggefts an idea of growing
wood.
3. /FcW likewife denotes a number of trees growing
near one another; being nearly fynonymous with
JoreJl: See Forest. In this fenfe it always ad¬
mits of a plural; as, Te woods and wilds whfik
fold ary gloom, &c.
A di&ionary cannot be reckoned complete without
explaining obfolete words} and if the terms of the fe-
DIG [ ii
Dictionary, veral provincial dialefks were like wife given, it would
  be of great utility : nor would this take much time ;
becaufe a number of thefe words needs no other expla¬
nation than to mark along with them the words which
had come in their place, when there happened to be
one perfectly fynonymous: and in thofe cafes where
the fame idea could not be exprelfed in modern lan¬
guage without a periphrafis, it would be of ufe to ex¬
plain them diflinctly ; fo that, when a writer found
himfelf at a lofs for a term, and obliged to fearch for
one beyond the bounds of our own language, he might
take one of thefe, when he found that it was expreffive
and energetic, in preference to another drawn from a
foreign language. This would at lead have one good
efiedf: it would make our language more fixed and
{table ; not to fay more accurate and precife, than by
borrowing from foreign languages. The following ex¬
amples may ferve to give fome idea of the manner of
treating this part of the work.
MOE, or mo. adj. An obfolete term ftill employed
in the Scotch diale&, and by them pronounced
mae; denoting a greater number, and nearly fy¬
nonymous with more: but it differs in this refpeft,
that in the Scotch dialett, mas and mair (Eng-
liih more) are each employed in -their dillincl
fphere, without encroaching upon one another;
mae being employed to denote number, but never
quantity or quality ; and mair, to denote quanti¬
ty and quality, but never number : thus they fay
mae, not mair, apples, men, &c, and they fay mair,
not mae, cloth, earth, courage, &c. See Mair.
Both of thefe terms are fupplied by the word
more; which in the Englifh language is applied
indifcriminately to denote quantity, quality, and
number. See More.
THIR. pron. Obfolete ; ftill employed in the Scotch
dialeft : the plural of this ; and contrafted to
thefe, in the fame manner as that is to this.
As there is no word in the Englilh language equi¬
valent to this, we thus (how the manner in which
it is employed. In the'Englifti language we fay,
that Jlone or houfe, pointing at one at a diftance,
is larger or more commodious than this Jlone or this
houfe, which is fuppofed to be at hand. In the
fame manner, in the Scotch dialed!:, they fay, thefe
(or, as it is pronounced, thae) Jlones are whiter
than thir flows ; denoting, that the former are at
a diftance, and the latter at hand. And, in the
fame manner, it is invariably applied to denote
any prefent objedt in the plural number, as op-
pofed to thefe : as thefe or thir apples, as at hand, or
at a diftance ; thefe, or thir trees. Sec ; but never
in the Angular number, as it is always this or that
tree, houfe, &c.
As the Englilh language is fo exceedingly irregular
in the pronunciation, the fame letter in the fame fitua-
tion often affuming founds totally different in different
words, it is impoffible to eftablilh any general rules on
this fubject, which do not admit of many exceptions:
therefore, a dictionary is the beft means of afeertaining
and pointing out the proper pronunciation of words.
For, if the writer firft pointed out all the different
founds that the fame letter could ever be made to ex-
prefs, and affigned to every particular found which
ioi.
; 1 did
each letter could be made to affume, a particular mark, Didtlonarj
which was appropriated to denote that particular found *1
of the letter whenever it occurred ; by placing thefe Dldai^'c'
particular marks above the letters in the dictionary, y
the found of each letter would be pointed out in all
cafes with the utmoft certainty. It would be impof¬
fible for us to illuftrate this by examples, without firft
afeertaining all the founds of each letter ; which would
lead us into a difeuflion too long for this place.
We lhall only further obferve, that, befides having
the accented fyllable of every word properly diftinguifil¬
ed in a dictionary to affift in the pronunciation, the
Englifh language requires another effential improve¬
ment, viz. the ufe of accents to diftinguifh the mean¬
ing of words and phrafes : which, although it is not
fo properly confined to a lexicographer, yet it is not
quite without his fphere. Thus the word as admits of
two very different founds, as well as different fignifica-
tions; as in this example, “ Cicero was nearly as elo¬
quent as Demofthenesin which the firft as is pro¬
nounced afs, and the laft is pronouirced az. Now, it
often happens, that, in reading, the particular way in
which it ought to be underftood is not pointed out by
the context, till after the word itfelf is pronounced,
which has an equal chance at leaft of being pronoun¬
ced wrong ; whereas, if it were always accented when
employed in the one fenfe, and not in the other, it
would free the reader from this perplexity. There are
other cafes in which the ufe of proper accents in wri¬
ting would be of great confequence ; as at the begin¬
ning of a fentence, when it was put as a queftion, or
ufed ironically, &c. the want of which every one muft
have obferved. But as this does not fo properly be¬
long to the lexicographer as the grammarian, we fhall
here take no further notice of it.
The above examples, we hope, will be fufticient to
give the reader fome idea of the plan that we would
propofe; and enable him to determine, whether or not
a dictionary, executed upon J:his plan, would convey
to his mind a more perfect knowledge of the Englilh
language, than thofe dictionaries that have been hi-*
therto publifhed. Thefe examples were given rather
wuth a view to ftiow the manner in which a work of
this kind might be conducted, than as perfeCt and un¬
exceptionable explanations of the feveral articles there
enumerated; and therefore we did not think it ne-
ceffary to produce any authorities, although we are
fenfible that they would be requifite in fuch a work.
DICTYMNIA, or Dictynnia, in mythology,
were feafts celebrated at Lacedaemon and in Crete, in
honour of Diana DiCtymnia or DiCtynnia, or of a
nymph taken for her, who, having plunged her-
felf' into the fea, to efcape the pafiion of Minos, was
caught in a filherman’s net or Mvov, whence the
name.
DICTYS (Cretenfis), a very ancient hiftorian, who
ferving under Idomeneus king of Crete in the Trojan
war, wrote the hiftory of that expedition in nine books;
and Tzetzes tells us, that Homer formed his Iliad up¬
on the plan of that hiftory. It is however maintained,
that the Latin hiftory of DiCtys which we have at pre¬
fent is fpurious.
DIDACTIC, in the fchools, fignifies the manner
of fpeaking or writing, adapted to teach or explain
the
T> I D
[ 17 } DID
>3Di<3apper, the nature of things. —The word is formed from the
JJHeUjhig^ (j-yeefc o'itxaK-j, cfoceo, “ I teach.”
7 There are many words-that are only ufed in the di-
da&ic and dogmatic way: and there are many warks,
ancient and modern, both in profe and verfe, written
after this method: fueh are the Georgies of Virgil,
Lucretius’s poem De Rerum Natura, and Pope’s Ef-
fays on Criticifm and on Man, &c. &c.
DIDAPPER, in ornithology. See Colymbus,
■'PlateCLV. DIDELPHIS, or opossum, in zoology; a ge-
(iaVol. V.)nus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferae, the
characters of which are thefe : They have ten fore-teeth'
in the upper jaw, and eight in the under one. The
dog-teeth are long; the tongue is fomewhat ciliated ;
and they have a pocket formed by a duplicature of the
flein of the belly, in which the dugs are included.
1. The marfupialis, of Virginian opoffum, has a
long lharp-pointed nofe ; large, round, naked, and
very thin ears; fmall, black, lively, eyes; long {tiff
hairs on each fide the nofe, and behind the eyes : the
hind part of the neck and back covered with hair two
inches long; the bottoms of a yellowilh white, middle
part black, ends whitifh : the fides covered with hair
of a dirty and dufky colour; the belly with foft, wool¬
ly, dirty white hair: the tail, for near three inches,
clothed with long hairs like thofe on the back ; the
reft of the tail covered with fmall feales. The tail of
this animal has a difagreeable appearance, looking
like the body of a fnake, and has the fame prehenfile
quality with that of fome monkeys; the body is
round and pretty thick, the legs fhort: on the lower
part of the belly of the female is a large pouch, in
which the teats are lodged, and where theycung ftielter
as foon as they are born. The length of the body is 16
or 17 inches ; that of the tail 14.—This creature in¬
habits many parts of America and the Eaft Indies. It
is very deftru&ive to poultry, and fucks the blood
without eating the flefh ; it feeds alfo on roots and
wild fruits, and is very a&ive in climbing trees. It
hunts eagerly after birds and their nefts; and will
hang fulpended from the branches of 3. tree by its
tail; then, by fwinging its body, it will fling itfelf
among the trees that grow in the neighbourhood. It
walks very flow ; and when purfued and overtaken will
feign itfelf dead. It is not ealily killed,, being as te¬
nacious of life as a cat. When the female is about
to bring forth, fire makes a thick neft of dry grafs in
fome clofe bufh at the foot of a tree ; and brings four,
five, or fix, young at a time. As foon as the young
are brought forth, they take ftielter in the pouch or
falfe belly ; and fallen fo cloftjy to the teats, that they
cannot be feparated without difficulty. They are blind,
naked, and very fmall, when new-born, and refemble
fetufes : it is therefore neceffary that they ffiould con¬
tinue in that falfe belly till they attain proper llrength
^and fight; and are prepared to undergo what may be
-called a fecond birth. After this they run into the
pouch as into an afylum in time of danger ; and the
parent carries them about w'ith her. During the time
of this fecand geftation, the female flrows an exceffive
attachment to her young, and will fuffer any torture
rather than allow this receptacle to be opened; for fire
has the power of opening or clofing it by the afliftance
of fome very ftrong mufcles. The fieftr of the old ani¬
mal- is very good, like that of a fucking pig : the hair
Vot. VI. Part I.
is dyed by the Indian women, and wove into garters nidelphl**
and girdles : the (kin is very fetid. L*~~v
2. The Molucca opofl'um has long, oval, and naked
ears: the mouth is very wide: the lower fide of the upper
jaw, throat, and belly, is of a whitiflr afh colour; reft
of the hair a cinereous brown tipt with tawny, darkeft
on the back : the tail is as long as the body ; near the
bafe covered with hair, the reft naked : the claws are
hooked. On the belly of the female is a pouch, in
whmh the young (like thofe of the former) fhelter.
Marcgrave found fix young within the pouch. It has
ten cutting teeth above and eight below. The length
of the animal from nofe to tail is ten inches ; apdthe tail
' exceeds the length of head and body. Its whole figure
is of a much more {lender and elegant make than the
former. The tail pulverifed, and taken in a glafs of
water, is reckoned in New Spain a fovereign remedy
againft the gravel, colic, and feveral other diforders.
This fpecies is found in great numbers in Aroe and
Solor: It is called in the Indies pe/Wor or the
aroe rabbet. They are reckoned very delicate eating;
and are very commonjit the tables of the great, who
rear the young in the fame places in which they keep
their rabbets. _ It inhabits alfo Surinam, and the hot
parts of America.
3. The murina, or murine opoffum, hath the face
and upper parts of the body of a tawny colour; the
belly of a yellowifh white: the tail is {lender, and covered
wdth minute feales to the very rump : the length of the
animal from nofe to tail, about fix inches and a half;
the tail of the fame length: the female wants the falfe
belly of the former; but on the lower part the ikin
forms on each fide a fold, between which the teats are
lodged. It inhabits the hot parts of South America ;
agrees with the others in its food, manners, and the
prehenfile power of its tail. It brings from 10 to 14
young ones at a time: they affix themfelves to the
teats as foon as they are born, and remain attached like
inanimate things, till they attain growth and vigour to
fhift a little for themfelves.
4. The Mexican opoffum, is of an afti-colour on
the head and upper parts of the body : the ,belly and
legs are whitifh: the tail is long and pretty thick, varied
with brown and yellow ; it is hairy near an inch from
its origin, the reft naked: the length of the animal from
nofe to tail, about feven inches and a half; of the tail,
more than I I.—It inhabits the mountains of Mexico,
and lives in trees, where it brings forth its young :
when in any fright, they embrace the parent clofely.
The tail is prehenfile, and ferves inftead of a hand.'
5. The phalanger, or Surinam opoffum of Buf¬
foon, has the upper part of the body reddilh, mixed
with a light afh-colour and yellow : the under parts are
of a dirty yellowifti white; the bottom of the tail is
covered with hair, for near two inches and a half; the
reft naked: the length of the animal from nofe to tail
is near nine inches; the tail ten. It inhabits Surinam, .
according to Bnfibn ; who' fuppofes it may be the fpe¬
cies called by the colonifts the cane-rat, which is fo de-
ftru&ive to the fugar-canes. According to Dr Pallas,
it inhabits the Eaft India iflands, but is not found in
Surinam.
6. The dorfigera, or merian opoffum, hath the
head and upper part of the body of a ydlowilh brovva
colour ; the belly white, and tinged with yellow ; the
c tail
DID [ i8 ] DID
Didclphis. tail very Tong and {lender, and, except at the bafe,
quite naked. —It is a native of Surinam, and burrows
under ground it brings five or fix young at a time,
which follow their parent: on any apprehenfion of
danger, they all jump on her back ; and twilling their
tails round her’s, fire immediately runs with them into
her hole.
7. The kanguroo. This animal has a fmall head,
neck, and {boulders; the body increafing in thicknefs
to the rump. The head is oblong, formed like that
of a fan, and tapering from the eyes to the nofe;
end of the nofe naked and black ; the upper lip divided.
The nollrils are wide and open; the lower jaw is
Ihorter than the upper ; and the aperture of the mouth
fmall: there are whifkers on both jaws, thofe on the
upper longeft ; and ftrong hairs above and below the
eyes. The eyes are not large ; the irides are dulky ;
the pupil is of a bluifh black. The ears are ereCi,
eblongly ovated, rounded at the ends, and thin, covered
with Ihort hairs ; four inches long. There are no
canine teeth ; but fix broad cutting teeth in the upper
jaw ; two long lanceolated teeth in the lower, pointing
forward ; and four grinding teeth in each jaw, remote
from the others. The belly is convex and great.
The fore legs are very (hort, fcarcely reaching to the
nofe ; and ufelefs for walking. The hind legs are almoft
as long as the body j and the thighs are vdry thick :
on the fore feet are five toes, with long conic and ftrong
daws ; on the hind feet, only three t the middle toe
is very long and t,hick, like that of an oftrich ; the two
others are plactu *ery diftinft from it, and are fmall:
the claws are fhort, thick, and blunt: the bottom of
the feet, and hind part, black, naked, and tubercu-
lated, as the animal refts often on them. The tail is
very long, extending as far as the ears ; thick at the
bafe, tapering to a point. The ferotum is large and
pendulous. The hair on the whole animal is foft, and
of an alh-colour ; lighteft on the lower parts. The
dimenfionsof a full grown animal are not yet known.
The following are thofe of a male lately fent to Lord
Sidney by Governor Phillip.
Length from the point of the nofe to the end f. in.
of the tail, - - “85
Length of the tail, - - 3 1
— fore legs, - -20
• hind legs, - "37
Circumference of the fore part by the legs, 1 9
Round the thicker par t of the tail, which gra¬
dually tapers to the end. - 1 1
The above is the largeft kanguroo that has yet been
feen, and we are told there is every reafon to believe
that even this had not nearly attained its full growth.
It inhabits the weftern fide of New Holland, and has
as yet been difeovered in no other part of the world.
It lurks among the grafs; and feeds on vegetables : it
goes entirely on its hind legs; making ufe of the
fore feet only for digging, or bringing its food to its
mouth. The dung is like that of a deer. It is very
timid: at the fight of men it flies from them by ama¬
zing leaps, fpringing over bulhes feven or eight feet
high; and going grogreflively from rock to rock. It
canies its tail quite at right angles with its body Didelphi*.
when it is in motion ; and when it alights, often looks 'l'
back.
In the account lately publilhed of Governor Phillip’s
Voyage, we are told that thefe animals have been fecn
feeding in herds of about 30 or 40 ; and that one is
always obferved to be apparently on the watch at a
diftance from the reft.—The largeft kanguroo which
has yet been {hot, we are there told, weighed about
140 pounds. But it has been difeovered that there
are two kinds, one of which feldom exceeds 60
pounds in weight: thefe live chiefly on the high
grounds : their hair is of a reddilh caft, and the head
is ihorter than the larger fort. Young kanguroos
which have been taken, have in a few days grown very
tame, but none have lived more than two or three
weeks. Yet it is ftill pofiible that when their proper
food {hall be better known, they may be domefticated.
Near fome water was found the dung of an animal
that fed on grafs, which, it was fuppofed, could not
have been Ids than a horfe. A kanguroo, fo much
above the ufual fize, would have been an extraordinary
phasnomenon, though no larger animal has yet been
feen, and the limits of growth in that fpecies are net
afeertained. The tail of the kanguroo, which is very
large, is found to be ufed as a weapon of offence, and
has given fuch fevere blows to dogs as to oblige them
to defift from purfuit. Its flelh is coarfe and lean,
nor would it probably be ufed for food, where there
was hot a fcarcity of frefti provilions.
Mr Pennant obferves, that this is a very anomalous
animal; but ranks it under this genus as having more
relation to it than to any other. In the account of
of Phillip’s Voyage, however, we are informed, that
the pouch of the female, hitherto efteemed pecu¬
liar to the opoffum genus, has been found both in the
rat and the fquirrel kind in New Holland.
8. The quoll, or fpotted opoffum, is deferibed as in
length from the nofe to the beginning of the tail
about 15 inches, and the tail about nine or-ten. The
general colour black, inclining to brown beneath ; the
neck and body, fpotted with irregular roundifti
patches of white; the ears pretty large and ereft ;
the vifage pointed, the muzzle furniihed with long
{lender hairs; the legs, from the knees downward, al¬
moft naked, and afh-coloured; on the fore feet ar®
five claws, and on the hind, four and a thumb without
a claw ; the tail, for about an inch and an half from
the root, is covered with hairs of the fame length as
thofe on the body, from thence to the end with long
ones not unlike that of fc fquirrel. The female has
fix teats placed in a circle within the poach.
9. The kanguroo rat is deferibed as fimila'',. both
in the general ihape of the body and the conformation
of the legs, to the kanguroo; but the vifage having a
ftrong refemblance to that of the rat, and the colour of
the whole not ill refembling that animal, it has ob¬
tained the name of the kanguroo rat. It is an inhabi¬
tant of New Holland ; and two of the fpecies are now
to be feen alive at the curious exhibition, of animals
over Exeter Exchange; where one of them, being a
female, has brought forth young. This fpecies has
two cutting teeth in front of the upper jaw, with
three.others on each fide of them ; and at a diftance
one ■
DID [ i
Didelj'lu’s. one falle grinder, fharp at the edge, and channelled or
fluted on the fides; and clofe to thefe, two true grin¬
ders: in the lower jaw there are two long cutting
teeth formed like thofe of the fquirrel, with three
grinders correfponding with thofe in the upper jaw.
10. The flying opoflum, a beautiful fpecies, and
clothed with fur of the moft exquifite texture, is an
inhabitant of New Wales. In length, from the tip of
the nofe to the root of the tail, it is 20 inches ; the
tail itfelf is 22 inches, at the bafe quite light, in-
creafing gradually to black at the end: the ears are
large and erecl: the coat or fur is of a richer and moft
delicate texture; appearing, on the upper parts of the
body, at firft light, of a glolfy black, but on a nicer in-
fpeftion found to be mixed with grey ; the under
parts are white, and on each hip is a tan-coloured fpot
nearly as big as a (hilling; at this part the fur is thin-
neft, but at the root of the tail it is fo rich and clofe
that the hide cannot be felt through it. The fur is
alfo continued to the claws. On each fide of the body
is a broad flap or membrane (as in the flying fquir-
rels), which is united to both the fore and hind legs.
The jaws are furnilhed with teeth, placed as in fome
others of this genus : in the upper jaw forwards are
four fmall cutting teeth, then two canine ones, and back¬
wards five grinders : the under jaw has two long large
cutting teeth, five grinders, with no intermediate ca¬
nine ones, the fpace being quite vacant. The fore
legs have five toes on each foot, with a claw on each ;
the hinder ones four toes, with claws (the three out-
fide ones without any feparation), and a thumb with¬
out a claw, enabling the animal to ufe the foot as a
hand, as many of the opofi'um tribe are obferved
to do.
11. The Cayenne opoffum has a long flender face :
ears ereft, pointed, and Ihort: the coat woolly, mixed
with very coarfe hairs, three inches long, of a dirty
white from the roots to the middle ; from thence to
the ends of a deep brown ; fides and belly of a pale
yellow ; legs of a duflcy brown ; thumb on each foot
diftimft; on the toes of the fore feet, and thumb of
the hind, are nails ; on the toes of the hind feet crook-
. ed claws; tail very long, taper, naked, and fcaly.
Le:ngth 17 French inches; of the tail fifteen and a
half. The fubjett meafured was young. Inhabits
Cayenne : very aftive in climbing trees, on which it
lives the whole day. In marlhy places, feeds on crabs,
which when it cannot draw out of their holes with its
feet, it hooks them by means of its long tail. If the
crab pinches its tail, the animal fets up a loud cry,
which may be heard afar: its common voice is a grunt
like a young pig. It is well furnilhed with teeth, and
will defend itfelf ftoutly again!! dogs ; brings forth
four or five young, which it fecures in fome hol¬
low tree. The natives eat thefe animals, and fay their
flelh refembles a hare. They are eafily tamed, and will
then refufe no kind of food.
12. The New Holland opolfum has the upper part
of the head, and the back and fides, covered with
long, foft, gloffy hairs, of a dark cinereous colour at
the bottoms, and of a rufty brown towards the ends:
the belly is of a dirty white. The tail is taper, co¬
vered with Ihort brown hairs, except for four inches
and a half of the end, which is white, and naked un-
9 1 DID
derneath ; the toes like thofe of the former.
fcribed by Mr Pennant from a Ikin, the length of —
which, from the head to the tail, was 13 inches, and
the. tail the fame. The animal was found near En¬
deavour river, on the eaftern coal! of New Holland,
with two young ones. It lodges in the grafs, but is
not common. There are two or three other fpecies.
DIDO, called alfo Elisa, a daughter of Belus
king of Tyre, who married Sichaeus or Sichafbas her
uncle, who was prieft of Hercules. Pygmalion, who
fucceeded to the throne of Tyre after Belus, murdered
Sichaeus to get pofleffion of the immenfe riches which
’ he had ; and Dido, difconfolate for the lofs of her
hulband, whom Ihe tenderly loved, and by whom flic
was equally efteemed, fet fail in queft of a fettlement
with a number of Tyrians, to whom the cruelty of the
tyrant became odious. According to fome accounts,
Ihe threw into the fea the riches of her hulband which
Pygmalion fo greedily defired, and by that artifice
compelled the Ihips to fly with her that had come by
order of the tyrant to obtain the riches of Sichaeus.
During her voyage, Dido vilited the coaft of Cyprus;,
where Ihe carried away 50 women who proftituted
themfelves on the fea-lhore, and gave them as wives to
her Tyrian followers. A ftorm drove her fleet on the
African coaft, and (he bought of the inhabitants as
much land as could be covered by a bull’s hide cut
into thongs. Upon this piece of land file built a cita¬
del called Byrfa; and the increafe of population, and
the rifing commerce among her fubjedts, foon obliged
her to enlarge her city and the bou..^aries of her do¬
minions. Her beauty, as well as the fame of her en-
terprife, gained her many admirers; and her fubjedls
wilhed to compel her to marry larbas king of Maurita¬
nia, who threatened them with a dreadful war. Dido
begged three months to give her decifive anfwer ; and
during that time Ihe eredted a funeral pile, as if wiflr-
ing by a folemn facrifice to appeafe the manes of Si-
chseus, to which Ihe had promifed eternal fidelity.
When all was prepared, Ihe ftabbed hevfelf on the pile
• in prefence of her people ; and by this uncommon ac¬
tion obtained the naipe of Dido, “ valiant woman,”
inftead of Elifa. According to Virgil and Ovid, the
death of Dido was caufed by the fudden departure of
iEneas; of whom Ihe was deeply enamoured, and
whom Ihe could not obtain as a hulband. This poeti¬
cal fiction reprefents iEneas as living in the age of
' Dido, and introduces an anachronifm of near 300 years.
Dido left Phoenicia 247 years after the Trojan war or
the age of iEneas, that is, about 953 years before Chrift.
This chronological error proceeds not fronj the igno¬
rance of the poets, but it is fupported by the authority
of Horace :
Aut famjm fequere, aut fibi convenientiaJinge.
While Virgil defcribes, in a beautiful epifode, the de-
fperate love of Dido, and the fubmifiion of jineas to
the will of the gods, he at the fame time gives an ex¬
planation of the hatred which exifted between the re-
publics of Rome and Carthage; and informs his reader,
that their mutual enmity originated in their very firft
foundation, and was apparently kindled by a more remote
caufe than the jealoufy and rivallhip of two flouriflung
empires. Dido after her death was honoured as a deity
by her fubjefls,
C 2
DIDUS,
DID [ 20 ] DIE
DIDUS, or oono, in ornithology, a genus belong- one* upon the rump, which ferve inftead of a tail; the DUyniut-
ing to the order of gallina;. The bill is contracted in legs are long and fcaly, and there are three toes on . li¬
the middle by two tranfverfe rug*; each mandible is- each foot. This was met with in the Ifle of France,
infledted at the point; and the face is. bare behind the and deferibed as above by Fr. Cauche ; who adds, that ^nt' .
eyes. Only one fpecies, the ineptus, is mentioned by the female only lays one egg, which is white, and as-
Linnaeus ; but three are deferibed by Buffon: though big as a penny loaf, and that there is always found
it is doubted whether on further obfervation they may with it a white ftone of the fize of an hen’s egg ; that
not all prove one and the fame fpecies, differing only it makes the neft of leaves and dry herbs, in the forefts,.
in fex or age. onhhe ground; and that there is likewife found a grey
X. The dronte; or hooded dodo, (ineptus, Lin.)) is ftone in the gizzard of tire young bird,
fomewhat bigger than a fwan, and near three feet in DIDYMUS of Alexandria, an eeclefiaflical writer
length. The bill is ftrong, large, and hooked at the of the fourth century; who, though he is faid to have,
end ; the gape ftretches beyond the <yes: the,colour loft his eyes at five years of age, when he had fcarcely
of it is a very pale blue ; except the end of the upper learned to read, yet applied fo earneftiy to ftudy, that
mandible, which is yellowifh, and a red fpot on the he attained all the philofophic arts ii> a high degree,-
bend of it; the end of the lower is blackifh : the irides and was thought worthy to fill the chair in the famous
are white. The general colour of the plumage is cine- divinity-fchool at Alexandria. He was the author of
reous, and foft to the touch ; the belly and thighs are a great number of works: but all we have nowremain-
whitifh. The head is large, and'feems as it were cb- ing are, a Latin tranflation of his book upon the Holy;
vered with a black hood or cowl. The wings are very Spirit, in the works of St Jerome, who was the tranf-
fhort, and of a yellowifh afh-colour: the tail feathers lator ; fhort ftri&ures on the Canonical Epiftles; and;
are curled, ftand up on the rump, and incline to yel- a book againft the Manichees.
low. The legs have four toes, three before and one DIDYNAMIA (from ^/w/cr, and ^oowr),-
behind; are very flout, flxort, and yellowifh : the the name of the 14th clafsin Linn*us’s fexual method;;
claws are black. It inhabits the iflands of Mauritius confifting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which'
and Bourbon in the Indian Ocean. . have four flamina or male organs, two of which are
2. The folitaire, or folitary dodo, is a large bird, long and two fhort. See Botany, the Scheme, and'
and the male is faid to weigh fometimes 45 pounds. Plate ClI. fig. 14.
The neck is of a proportionable length, and the eye DIEMEN’s Land, the foathern coaft or point of
black and lively : the head is not crefted, and the ge- New Holland, S. Lat. 43° 21' 2q':, E. Long. 1470 29'.
neral colour of the plumage is grey and brown mixed: This coaft was difeovered in November 1642 by Taf-
it has fcarce any tail, and the baftard wing fwells out man, who gave it the name of Fan Diemen’s Land.
into a round knob : the wings are too fhort for flight; Captain Furneaux touched at it in March 1773, and"
and the hind parts are rounded like a horfe’s rump, be- the country has been fince further explored by our late:
ing clothed with feathers, which may be termed eoiwAr. navigators. Here is a very7 fafe road, named by Cap-
—The females are covered with fometimes brown and tain^Cook Adventure Bay. The parts adjoining to the-
fometimes light yellow feathers, and appear very beau- bay are moftly hilly, and form an entire foreft of tall
tiful. The feathers on each fide of the breaft en- trees, rendered almofl impaffable by brakes of fern,
large into two white tufts, fomewhat refembling the fhrubs, &c. The foil on th^, flat land, and on the
bofom of a woman. Thofe of the thighs are round- lower part of the hills, is fandy, or confifts of a yellowifh'
ed at the end like fhells; and, according to Leguat, earth, and in fome parts of a reddifh clay: but further
the bird has altogether a noble and elegant gait. This up the hills it is of a grey tough caft. This couiltry,
is an inhabitafit of the Hie of Rodrigue, where it is upon the whole, bears many marks of being very dry,
not uncommon ; but not met with in flocks, fcarcely and the heat appears to be great. No mineral bodies*
more than two being found together. It makes the nor ftones of any other kind than the white fand-ftone,
neft in by-places,, of leaves of the palm, a foot and a were obferved: nor any vegetables that afforded fub-
balf in thicknefs ; and lays one egg, bigger than that fiftence for man. The foreft-trees are all of one kind,
of a goofe. The male fits in his turn; and does not generally quite ftraight, and bearing clufters of fmaU
fuffer any bird to approach within 200 yards of the white flowers. The principal plants obferved were
fpot while the hen is fitting, which is feven weeks. 'wood-f®rrel, milk-wort, cudweed, bell-flower, gladio-
The young is fome months before it can fhift for itfelf; lus, famphire, and feveral kinds of fern. The only
the old ones, in the mean time, are affedlionate to it, quadruped feen diftindtly was a fpecies of opoffum,
and faithful to each other afterwards, though they oc- about twice the fize of a large rat. The kanguroo,
cafionally may mix with others of their kind. The found farther northward in New Holland, may alio be
young birds, though timid, are ftupid enoqgh to fuf- fuppofed to inhabit here, as fome of the inhabitants
fer the approach of any one ; but when grown up are had pieces of the flein of that animal. The principal
more ftty, and will not be tamed. They arc chafed in forts of birds in the woods are brown hawks or eagles,
the winter feafon, viz. from March to September; crows, large pigeons, yellowifti paroquets, and a fpe-
being then fat, and the young birds are much efteemed cies which was called motacilla cyanea, from the beauti-
for the table. . _ ful azure colour of its-head and neck. On the ftiore
3. The Nazarene dodo is bigger than a fwan. The were feveral gules, black oyfter-catchers or fea-pies,
bill is a little bent downwards and large : inftead of and plovers of a ftone-colour. In the woods were feen
feathers, the whole is covered over with a black down; fome blackilh fnakes of a pretty large fize; and a fpe-
but the wings are feathered, and it has fome frizzled cies of lizard fifteen inches long and fix round, beauti¬
fully
D'ef
\ 0 I E [ 21 ] DIE
Piemen's fully clouded with yellow and black. Among a vane-
ty of iiih caught, were fome fe'ge rays, nurfes, leather-
Pi^pe. jacket8> bream, foies, flounders, gurnards, and ele-
U—y»—- phant-filh. Upon the rocks are mufcles and other
ftiell-fifh, and upon the beach were found fome pretty
Medufa's heads. The moft troublefome infefts met
with were the mufquitoes; and a large black ant, the
bit of which infli&s extreme pain.
The inhabitants feemed mild and cheerful, with little
of that wild appearance which favages in general have.
They are almoft totally devoid of perfonal activity or
genius, and are nearly upon a par with the wretched
natives of Terra del Feugo. They difplay, however,
fome contrivance in their method of cutting their
arms and bodies in lines of different dire&ions, raifed
above the furface of the fkin. Their indifference for
. prefents offered them, their general inattention and
want of curiofity, were very remarkable, and teftified
no acutenefs of underftanding. Their complexion is
a dull black, which they fometimes heighten by fmut-
ting their bodies, as was fuppofed from their leaving
a mark behind on any clean fubftance. Their hair is
perfectly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red
ochre like that of the Hottentots. Their nofes are
broad and full, and the lower part of the face prejedts
confiderably. Their eyes are of a moderate fize ; and
though they are not very quick or piercing, they give
the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleating caff.
Their teeth are not very wkite nor well fet, and their
mouths are wide: they wear their beards long and
clotted with paint. They are upon the whole well
proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant.
Their favourite attitude is to Hand with one fide for¬
ward, and one hand grafping acrofs the back the op-
poflte arm, which on this occafion hangs down by the
fide that projefts.
Near the fhore in the bay were obferved fome wretchr
edconftrudlionsoffticks covered with bark; but thefe
feemed to have been only temporary, and they had
converted many of their largeft trees into more com¬
fortable and commodious habitations. The trunks
of thefe were hollowed out to the height of fix or feven
feet by means of fife. That they fometimes dwell in
them was manifeft from their hearths in the middle
made of clay? round which four or five perfons might
fit. Thefe places of flielter are rendered durable by
their leaving one fide of the tree found, fo that it con¬
tinues growing with great luxuriance.
DIEMERBROEK (Ifbrand), a learned profeffor
of phyfic and anatomy at Utrecht, was born at Mont-
fort, in Holland, in 1609, where he acquired great
reputation by his le£tures and his pra&ice ; and died
at Utrecht in 1674. wrote a treatife on the plague,
which is efteemed ; and feveral learned works in ana¬
tomy and medicine, which were printed at Utrecht in
1685 in folio.-
DIEPPE, a handfome fea-port town of France, in
Upper Normandy, in the territory of Caux ; with a
good harbour, an old caltle, and two handfome moles.
The pariih-church of St James is an elegant itrufture ;
and there is a tower from which, in fine weather, the
coaft of England may be feen. The principal trade
confifts in herrings, whitings, mackerel, ivory, toys,
and laces. It was bombarded by the Engliih in 1694,
and it is not now fo confiderable as it was formerly. It
is feated at the mouth of the river Argues, in E. Long.
I. 9. N. Lat. 49 55.
DIES mar.ch.i.<-£, was the day of congrefs or meet-
ing of the Engliih and Scots, annually appointed to be
held on the marches or borders, in order to adjuft all
differences between them.
DIESIS, in mufic, is the divifion of a tone lefs than
a femitone; or an interval confifting of a lefs or im-
perfefit femitone.
Diefis is the fmalleft and fofteft change or inflexion
of the voice imaginable : it is called a faint, exprefled
thus X, by a St Andrew’s crofs or faltier.
DIESPITER, in antiquity, a name given to Ju¬
piter ; and fignifying did pater,, “ father of the day.”
St Auguftin derives the name from dies “ day,”
and partus “ produftion, Bringing forth;” it being
Jupiter that brings forth the day. Of which fenti-
ment were Servius and Macrobius; the former ad¬
ding, that in the language of the Ofci they called him
Lucentius, as Diefplter in Latin.
DIET, in medicine, according to fome, compre- *
hends the whole regimen or rule of life with regard to
the fix non naturals ; air, meats and drinks, fleep and
watching, motion and reft, paffionsof the mind, reten¬
tions and excretions. Others reftrain the term of diet
to what regards eating and drinking, or folid aliments
and drinks. See Food.
The natural conftitution of the body of man is fuch,
that it can eafily bear fome changes and irregularities
without much injury. Had it been otherwife, we
ftiould be almoft conftantly put out of order by every
flight caufie. This advantage arifes from thofe won¬
derful communications of the inward parts, whereby,,
when one part is affected, another comes immediately
to its relief.
Thus, when the body is too full, nature caufes eva
cuations through fome of the outlets: and for thisrea-
fon it is, that difeafes from inanition are generally more
dangerous than from repletion ; becaufe we can more
expeditioufly diminifii than increafe the juices of the
body. Upon the fame account, alfb, though temperance
be beneficial to all men, the ancient phyficians advifed
perfons in good health, and their own mailers, to in¬
dulge a little nowand then, by eating and drinking,
more plentifully than ufual. But, of the two, intem¬
perance in drinking is fafer than in eating : and if a
perfon has committed excefs in the latter, cold water
drank upon a full ftomaeh will help digeftion; to which
it will be of fervice to add lemon juice, or elixir of vi¬
triol. If. he has eaten high feafoned things, rich fauces,
&c. then let him fit up for fome little time, and after¬
wards fleep. But if a man happen to be obliged to
fail, he ought to avoid all laborious work. From fa-
tiety it is not proper to pafs dire&ly to iharp hunger,
nor from hunger to fatiety: neither will it be fafe to
indulge abfolute reft immediately after exceflive labour,
nor fuddenly to fall to hard work after long idlenefs.
In a word, therefore, all changes in the way of living
fhould be made by degrees.
The fefter and milder kinds of aliment are proper
for children, and for youth the lironger. Old people
ought to leflen the quantity of their food, and increafe
that of their drink : but yet fome allowance is to be
made for cuftom, efpecially in the colder climates like
ours; for as in thefe the appetite is keener, fo is the
digeftion
DIE [ 22 ] DIF
£>iet dlgeftion better performed. Mead’s Honda & Pra- king Richard I. to intimate that he did not hold-his D:ff
!| cepta. empire in vaffalage of any mortal. I)
r>ieu- , 'Diet-Drinks, a form in phyfic, including all the It was afterwards taken up by Edward III. and iPlffu(!on-
”~v medicated wines, ales, and wheys, ufed in chronic cafes, was continued without interruption to the time of the v
They require a courfe or continuation to anfwer any late king William, who ufed the motto Je main tien-
intention of moment. dray, though the former was 11 ill retained upon the
Diet of Appearance, in Scots law, the day to which
a defender is cited to appear in court; and every other
day to which the court fhall afterwards adjourn the
confideracion of the queftion.
Diet, or Dyet, in matters of policy, is ufed for the
general affembly of the Hates or circles of the empire
of Germany and of Poland, to deliberate and concert
meafures proper to be'taken for the good of the
public.
The general diet of the empire is ufually held at
Ratilbon. It confifts of the emperor, the nine electors,
and the ecclefiaftical princes ; vi%. the archbilhops,
bilhops, abbots, and abbeffes ; the fecular princes,
who are dukes, marquifes, counts, vifcounts, or ba¬
rons; and the reprefentatives of the imperial cities. It
meets on the emperor’s fummons, and any of the
princes may fend their deputies thither in their Head.
The diet makes laws, raifes taxes, determines differ¬
ences between the feveral princes and ftates, and can
relieve the fubjefts from the oppreffions of their Sove¬
reigns.
The diet of Poland, or the affembly of the ftates,
confided of the fenate and deputies, or reprefentative of
every palatinate or county and city ; and ufually met
every two years, and oftener upon extraordinary occa-
fions, if fummoned by the king, or, in his abfence, by
the archbilhop of Gnefna. The general diet of Po¬
land fat but fix weeks, and often broke up in a" tu¬
mult much fooner : for one diffenting voice prevented
their paffing any laws, or coming to any refolutions on
what was propofed to them from the throne. Switzer¬
land has alfo a general diet, which is ufually held every
year at Baden, and reprefents the whole Helvetic bo¬
dy : it feldorn lafts longer than a month. Beftdes this
general diet, there are diets of the Proteftant can¬
tons, and diets of the catholic ones: the firft affemble
at Araw, and are convoked by the canton of Zurich ;
the fecond at Lucern, convoked by the canton of that
name.
DIETETIC, denotes fomething belonging to diet,
but particularly that part of phyfic which treats of this
fubjedt. See Diet, Food, and Drink.
DIETRICH, or District (Chriftian William
Erneft), a modern artift, who was born at Weimar
in T^iz. He refided chiefly at Drefden, where he
was profeffor of the academy of arts. He was a
painter of very extenfive abilities, and fucceeded both
in hiftory and landfcape. We have by him a great
number of fmall fubjedts, to the amount of 150 or
more, which he engraved from his own compofitions,
in the ftyle, fays Bafan, of Oftade of Lairtfle, and of
Salvator Rofa. Sixty of thefe etchings are exceed¬
ingly rare.
DIETS, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine
m Germany, fituated on the river Eohn, twenty miles
north of Mentz, and fubjedt to the houfe of Naffau-
Orange. E. Long. 7. 40. N. Lat. 50. 28.
DIEU ET MON DROIT, i. e. God and my right, the
motto of the royal arms of England, firft affumed bv
great feal. After him queen Anne ufed the motto
Semper eadem, which had been before ufed by queen
Elizabeth; but ever fince queen Anne, Diets et mon
droit continues to be the royal motto.
DIFF, is the name of an inftrument of mufic among
the Arabs, ferving chiefly to beat time to the voice .•
it is a hoop, fometimes with pieces of brafs fixed to it
to make a jingling, over wdiich a piece of parchment is
diftended. It is beat with the fingers, and is the true
tympanurn of the ancients.
DIFFARREATION, among the Romans, a cere¬
mony whereby the divorce of their priefts was folemni-
zed. The word comes from the prepofition dis; which
is ufed, in compofition, for divfion or feparation ; and
farreatio, a ceremony with wheat, offar “ wheat.”
Diffarreationwas properly the diffolving of marriages
contradted by confarreation ; w'hidi w-ere thofe of the
pontifices or priefts; Feftus fays, it wras performed
with a wheaten cake. Vigenere will have confarrea¬
tion and diffarreation to be the fame thing.
DIFFERENCE, in mathematics, is the remainder,
when one number or quantity is fubtradted from an¬
other.
. Difference, in logic, an effential attribute belong¬
ing to fome fpecies, and not found in the genus; being
the idea that defines the fpecies. Thus, body and fpi-
rit are the two fpecies of fubftance, which in their
ideas include fomething more than is included in the
idea of fubftance. In body, for inftance, is found im¬
penetrability and extenfion; in fpirit, a power of think¬
ing and reafoning: fo that the difference of body is
impenetrable extenfion, and the difference of fpirit is
cogitation.
Difference, in heraldry, a term given to a certain
figure added to coats of arms, ferving to diftinguilh
one family from another; and to (how how diftant
younger branches are from the elder or principal
branch.
DIFFERENTIAL, differentiale, in the high¬
er geometry, an infinitely fmall quantity, or a particle
of quantity fo fmall as to be Id's than any alfignable
one. It is called a dijj'erential, or differential quantity,
becaufe frequently confidered as the difference of two
quantities ; and, as fuch, is the foundation of the diffe¬
rential calculus : Sir Ifaac Newton, and the Englilh,
call it a moment, as being confidered as the momentary
increafe of quantity. See Fluxions.
DIFFORM, Difformis (fromforma “ (hape”), is
a word ufed in oppcrfition to uniform; and ligniiies,
that there is no regularity in the form or appearance
of a thing. The bctanifts ufe it as a diftindion of the
flowers of feveral fpecies of plants.
DIFFUSE, an epithet applied to fuch writings as
are wrote in a prolix manner. Among hiftorians, Sal-
luft is reckoned fententious, and Livy diffufe. Thus
alfo among the orators, Demoftltenes is clofe and con-
cife; Cicero, on the other hand, is diffufe.
DIFFUSION, the difperfion of the fubtile effluvia
of bodies into a kind of atmofphere all round them.
Thus
DIG [ 23 ] DIG,
Digaftricus'Thus the light diffufed by the rays of the fun, iffues finejl: deeifions from the two thoufand volumes of the Digeft'au-
1! all round from that amazing body of fire. an/ient jurifconfulti, and reduced them all into one n.
Uigeft. DIGASTR1CUS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the body; which was publiihed in the year caa. under the , l^SnS-:
*” ^ lov/er jaw, called alfo Biventer. See Anatomy, Talk' name of the Digtjl. To this the emperor gave the
of the Mufcles. force of a law, by a letter at the head of the work, •
DIGBY (Sir Kenelm), became very illuftrious in which ferves it as a preface,
the 1 7th century for his virtue and learning. He was The Digeft makes the firfl part of the Roman law,
defeended of an ancient family in England. His great- and the firit volume of the corpus or, body of the civil
grandfather, accompanied by fix of his brothers, fought law, contained in fifty books. It was tranflated into
valiantly at Bofworth-field on the fide of Henry VII. Greek under the fame emperor, and called PandeSa.
againft the ufurper Richard III. His father, Everard, See Pandects.
fuffered himfelf to be engaged in the gun-powder plot Cujus fays, that Digejl is a common name for all
againlt king James I. and for that crime was behead- books difpofed in a good order and economy ; and
ed. His fon wiped off that ftain, and was reftored to hence it is that Tertullian calls the Gofpel of St Luke
his eftate. King Charles I. made him gentleman of a Digeft.
the bed-chamber, commiffioner of the navy, and go- v Hence alfo abridgements of the common law are
vernor of the Trinity-houfe. He granted him letters of denominated digejls of the numerous cafes, arguments,
reprifal againft the Venetians, by virtue whereof he readings, pleadings, &c. difperfed in the year-books,
took feveral prizes with a fmall fleet which he com- and other reports and books of law, reduced under
manded. He fought the Venetians near the port of proper heads or common places. The firft was that
Scanderoon, and bravely made his way through them of Statham, which comes as low as Henry VI. That
with his booty. He was a great lover of learning, of Fitzherbert was publiftied in 15 >6; Brook’s in
and tranflated federal authors into Englifli; and his 1573* of which Hughes’s, publiftied in 1663, is a fe-
“ Treatife of the Nature of Bodies and the Immorta- quel. Rolls, Danvers, and Nelfon, have alfo publiftied
lity of the Soul,” difeovers great penetration and ex- Digefts or abridgements of this kind, including the
teniive knowledge. He applied to chemiftry ; and cafes of later days ; to which may be added the New
found out feveral ufeful medicines, which he gave freely Abridgement, Viner’s Abridgement, &c.
away to people of all forts, efpeeially to the poor. He DIGESTION, in the animal economy, is the dif-
diftinguifhed himfelf particularly by his fympathetic folution of the aliments into fuch minute parts as are
powder for the cure of wounds at a diftance; his dif- fit to enter the lafteal veffels, and circulate with the
courfe concerning which made a great noife for a while, nrafs of blood. See Anatomy, n° 102.
He had conferences with Des Cartes about the nature Digestion, in chemiftry, is an operation which con-
of the foul. fifts in expofing bodies to a gentle heat, in proper vef-
| ” In the beginning of the civil wars, he exerted him- fcls, and during a certain time. This operation is ve-
felf very vigoroufly in the king’s caufe ; but he Was ry ufeful to favour the adlion of certain fubftances up-
afterwards iniprifoned, by the parliament’s order; in on each other; as, for example, of well calcined, dry,.
Winchefter houfe, and had leave to depart thence in fixed alkali upon reftified fpirit of wine. When thefe
1643. He afterwards compounded for his eftate, but two fubftances are digefted together in a matrafs, with
was ordered to leave the nation ; when he 'went to a gentle fand-bath heat, the fpirit of wine acquires a
France, and was fent on two embaffies to pope Inno- yellow-reddifh colour, and an alkaline quality. The
cent X. from the queen, widow to Charles T. whofe fpirit would not fo well acquire thefe qualities by a,
chancellor he. then was. On the reftoration of Charles II. ftronger and (horter heat.
he returned to London.; where he died in 1665,, DIGESTIVE, in medicine, fuch remedies as
aged 60. ftrengthen and increafe the tone of the ftomach, and
This eminent p.erfon was, for the early pregnancy affilt in the digeftion of foods. To this clafs belong
of his parts, and his great proficiency in learning, .com- all ftomachics and ftrengtheners or corroborants,
pared to the celebrated Ficus de Mirandola, who w7as Digestive, in furgery, denotes a fort of unguent,
one of the wonders of human nature. His knowledge, plafter, or the like, that ripens and prepares the matter
though various and extenfive, appeared to be greater of wounds, &c. for fuppuration.
than it really was; as he had all the powers of elocu- DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the
tion and addrefs to recommend it. He knewr how to operation of freeing any kind of ore from the bed or
ftiine in a circle of ladies or philofdphers; and was as ftratum in which it lies, where every ftroke of their
much attended to when he fpoke on the moft trivial tools turns to account : in contradiftin&ion to the
fubjedts, as when he fpoke on the moft important: It openings made in. fearch of fuch ore, which are called:
is Laid that one of the princes of Italy, who had no hatches, or ejjay-hatches; and the operation itfelf, tra-
child, was deiirous that his princefs fliould bring him a ring of mines, or hatching.
fon by Sir Kenelm, whom he efteemed a juft model of When a bed of ore is difeovered, the beele-men, fo.
perfeftion. called from the inftrument they ufe, which is a kind of
DIGEST, Digestum, a colleftion of the Roman pick-ax, free the ore from the foftils around it; and the
laws, ranged and digefted uhder proper titles^ by order (hovel-men throw it up from one (hamble to another,,
of the emperor Juftinian. till it reaches the mouth of the hatch.
That prince gave his chancellor Tribonianusa com- In fome mines, to fave the expence as well as fatigue ,
miflion for this purpofe ; who, in C infequence thereof, of the (hovel-men, they, raife the ore by means of a
choie fixteen jurifconfulti, or lawyers, to work upon winder and two buckets, one of which goes up as ther
ths fame. Lhefe, accordingly, took out the bed and other comes.down.
4-,
DIGIT,,
DIG [ 24 ] DIG
Digit DIGIT, in aftronomy, the twelfth part of the dia-
I! rneter of the fun or moon, ufed to exprefs the quan-
Dignitaty. Qf an eclipfe. Thus an eclipfe is laid to be of fix
v digits, when fix of thefe parts are hid.
Digits, or Monades, in arithmetic, fignify any im
teger under 10; as x, 2, 3, 4-t 5, 6, 7,,8, 9.
Digit is alfo a meafure taken from the breadth of
the finger. It is properly Iths of an inch, and contains
the meafure of four barley-corns laid breadthwife.
DIGITALIS, fox-glovk: A genus of the an-
giofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants; and in "the natural method ranking under the
28th order, Luridst. The calyx is quinquepartite
the corolla campanulated, quLquefid, and ventricofe ;
the capfule ovate and bilocular.—There are fix fpe-
cies; five of which are hardy, herbaceous, biennial,
and perennial plants, and the fixth a tender Ihrubby
exotic. The herbacebus fpecies rife two or three feet
high, crowned with fpikes of yellow iron-coloured or
purple flowers. The ihrubby fort rifes five or fix feet
high, having fpear-ihaped rough leaves, four or five
inches long, and half as broad ; the branches being all
terminated writh flowers growing in loofe fpikes. All
the fpecies are eaiily raifed by feeds. An ointment
made of the flowers of purple fox glove and May-but*
ter, is much commended by fame phyficians for fcro-
phulous ulcers which run much and are full of matter.
Taken internally, this plant is a violent purgative and
emetic ; and is therefore only to be adminiitered to ro-
buft conftitutions. The country people in England
frequently ufe a decottion of it with polypody of the
©ak in epileptic fits. An infufion of two drams of
the leaf in a pint of water, given in half-ounce dofes
every two hours or fo, till it begin to puke or purge,,
is recommended in dropfy, particularly that of the
bread. It is faid to have produced an evacuation of
water fo copious and bidden, in .afcites, by ftool and
urine, that the compreffion of bandages was found ne-
• ceflary. The plentiful ufe of diluents is ordered du¬
ring its operation. The remedy, however, is inad-
miffible in very weakly patients. But befides being
given, in infufion, it has alfo been employed in fub-
itance. And when taken at bed-time to the extent
of one, two, or three, grains of the dried powder, it
often in a fhort time operates as a very powerful diu¬
retic, without producing any other evacuation. Even
this quantity, however, will fometimes excite very fe-
vere vomiting, and that too occurring unexpeftedly.
Daring its operation it has often very remarkable in¬
fluence in rendering thepulfe flower; and it frequent¬
ly excites very confiderable vertigo, and an affeftion of
vifion. Fox-glove has of late alfo been employed in
fome inflances of hxmopiyfis, of phthifis, and of ma¬
nia, with apparent good effe&s : but its" ufe in thefe
difeafes is much lets common than in dropfy.
DIGITATED, among botanifts. See Botany,
p.445, n° 230, and Plate CV. fig. 102.
DIGLYPH, in architeclure, a kind of imperfefi
triglyph, confple, or the like; with two channels or
engravings, either circular or angular.
DIGNE, an epifcopal town of Provence in France,
famous for the baths that are uear it. It is feated on
a river called Marderic, in E. Long. 5. 27. N. Lat.
44-45- , . '
DIGNITARY, in the canon Jaw, a perfon who
N' 101. * G
holds a dignity, that is, a benefice which gives him Dignity. f
fome pre-eminence over mere priefts and canons. Such
is a bifhop, dean, arch deacon, prebendary. See.
DIGNITY, as applied to the titles of noblemen,
fignifies honour and authority. And dignity may be
divided into fuperior and inferior; as the titles of duke,
earl, baron,"&c. are the Ifigheft names of dignity; and
thofe of baronet, knight, ferjeant at law, &c. the low-
eft. Nobility only can give fo high a name of dignity
as to fupply the want of a furname in legal proceed¬
ings ;- and as the omiffion of a name of dignity may be
pleaded in abatement of a writ, &c. fo it may be where
a peer who has more than one name of dignity, is not
named by the Moll Noble. No temporal dignity of
any foreign nation can give a man a higher title here
than that of of esquire.
Dignity, in the human chara&er, the oppofite of
Meannefs.
Man is endued with a sense of the worth and ex¬
cellence of his nature : he deems it more perfect than
that of the other beings around him ; and he perceives
that the perfection of his nature confiits in virtue, par¬
ticularly in virtues of the higheft rank. To exprefs
that fenfe, the term dignity is appropriated. Further,
to behave with dignity, and to refrain from all mean
aCtions, is felt to be, not a virtue only, but a duty : it
is a duty every man owes to himfelf. By aCting in
that manner, he attracts love and efteem: by aCting
meanly, or below himfelf, he is difapproved and con¬
temned.
This fenfe of the dignity of human nature reaches
even our pleafures and amufements. If they enlarge
the mind by raifing grand or elevated enjotions, or if
they humanize the mind by exercifing our fympathy,
they are approved as fuited to the dignity of our na¬
ture: if they contraft the mind by fixing it on trivial
objefts, they are contemned as not fuited to the dig¬
nity of our nature. Hence, in general, every occupa¬
tion, whether of ufe or amufement, that correfponds
to the dignity of man, is termed manly; and every oc¬
cupation below his nature, is termed childi/h.
To thofe who ftudy human nature, there is a point
which has always appeared intricate: How comes it
that generofity and courage are more efteenied, and
bellow more dignity, than good-nature, or even juf-
tice ; though the latter contribute more than the for¬
mer to private as well as to public happinefs ? This
queftion, bluntly propofed, might puzzle even a phi-
lofopher; but, by means of the foregoing obferva-
tions, will eafily be folved Human virtues, like o-
ther objeCls, obtain a rank in our eftimation, not
from their utility, which is a fubjeCl of refleClion, but
from the direCl impreffion they make on us. Juftice
and good-nature are a fort of negative virtues, that
fcarce make any impreflion but when they are tranf-
greffed: courage and generofity, on the contrary, pro?
ducing elevated emotions, enliven greatly the fenfe of
a man’s dignity, both in himfelf and in others ; and
for that reafon, courage and genemfity are in higher
regard than the other virtues mentioned: we deferibe
them as grand and elevated, as of greater dignity, and
more praife-worthy.
This leads us‘to examine more direClly emotions and
pafiions with refpeCl to the prefent fubjeCl: and it will
not be difficult to form a fcale of them, beginning with
the
DIG [ 25 1 DIG
'Dignity.
the mean eft, and afcending gradually to thofe of the
higheft rank and dignity. Pleafure felt as at the or¬
gan of fenfe, named corporeal pleafure, is perceived to
be low ; and when indulged to excefs, is perceived al-
fo to be mean: for that reafon, perfons of any delicacy
diffemble the pleafure they take in eating and drink¬
ing. The pleafures of the eye and ear, having no or¬
ganic feeling, and being free from any fenfe of mean-
nefs, are indulged without any ftiame : they even rife
to a certain degree of dignity when their obje&s are
grand or elevated. The fame is the cafe of the fym-
pathetic paflions: a virtuous perfon behaving with for¬
titude and dignity under cruel misfortunes, makes a
capital figure ; and the fympathifing fpectator feels
in himfelf the fame dignity. Sympathetic diftrefs at
the fame time never is mean : on the contrary, it is a-
greeable to the nature of a focial being, and has gene¬
ral approbation. The rank that love poffefics in the
fcale, depends in a great meafure on its objeft : it pof-
feffes a low place when founded on external properties
merely; and is mean when beftowed on ^ perfon of in¬
ferior rank without any extraordinary qualification:
but when founded on the more elevated internal pro¬
perties, it affumes a confiderable degree of dignity.
The fame is the cafe of friendftiip. When gratitude
is warm, it animates the mind; but it fcarce rifes to
-dignity. Joy beftows dignity when it proceeds from
an elevated caufe.
If we can depend upon induction, dignity is not a
property of any difagreeable pafiion : one is flight, an¬
other fevere; one deprefles the mind, another animates
it; but there is no elevation, far lefs dignity, in any
of them. Revenge, in particular, though it enflame
and fwell the mind, is not accompanied with dignity,
not even with elevation : it is not however felt as mean
or groveling, unlefs when it takes indireft meafures
for gratification. Shame and remorfe, though they
fink the fpirits, are not mean. Pride, a difagreeable
paffion, beftows no dignity in the eye of a fpeftator.
Vanity always appears mean ; and extremely fo where
founded, as commonly happens, on trivial qualifica¬
tions.
We proceed to the pleafures of the underftanding,
which poffefs a high rank in point of dignity. Of this
every one will be fenfible, when he confiders the im¬
portant truths that have been laid open by fcience ;
fuch as general theorems, and the general laws that
govern the material and moral worlds. The pleafures
of the underftanding are fuited to man as a rational and
contemplative being, and they tend not a little to en¬
noble his nature; even to the Deity he ftretcheth his
contemplations, which, in the difcovery of infinite
power, wifdom, and benevolence, afford delight of the
moft exalted kind. Hence it appears, that the fine
arts, ftudied as a rational fcience, afford entertainment
of great dignity; fuperior far to what they afford as a
fubjedl of tafte merely.
But contemplation, however in itfelf valuable, is
chiefly refpedted as fubfervient to a&ion ; for man is
intended to be more an active than a contemplative
being. He accordingly fhows more dignity in adtion
than in contemplation: generofity, magnanimity, he-
roifm, raife his charadier to the higheft pitch : thefe
baft exprefs the dignity of his nature, and advance
Von. VI. Part. I.
him nearer to divinity than any other of his attri- DI^
butes.  
Having endeavoured to aflign the efficient caufe of
dignity and meannefs, by unfolding the principle on
which they are founded, we proceed to explain the fi¬
nal caufe of the dignity or meannefs beftowed upon the
feveral particulars above mentioned, beginning with
corporeal pleafures. Thefe, as far as ufeful, are, like
juftice, fenced with fufficient fandtions to prevent their
being negledted : hunger and thirft are painful fenfa-
tions,; and we are incited to animal love by a vigorous
propenfity : were corporeal pleafures dignified over and
above with a place in a high clafs, they would infal¬
libly overturn the balance of the mind, by outweigh¬
ing the focial affedtions. This is a fatisfadlory final
caufe for refufing to thefe pleafures any degree of dig¬
nity : and the final caufe is not lefs evident of their
meannefs when they are indulged to excefs. The
more refined pleafures of external fenfe, conveyed by
the eye and the ear from natural objects and from the
fine arts, deferve a high place in our efteem, becaufe
of their Angular and extenfive utility : in fome cafes
they rife to a confiderable dignity ; and the very low-
eft pleafures of the kind are never efteemed mean or
groveling. The pleafure arifing from wit, humour,
ridicule, or from what is fimply ludicrous, is ufeful,
by relaxing the mind after the fatigue of more manly
occupation : but the mind, when it furrenders itfelf
to pleafure of that kind, lofes its vigour, and finks
gradually into floth. The place this pleafure occupies
in point of dignity, is adjlifted to thefe views: to make
it ufeful as a relaxation, it is not branded with mean¬
nefs ; to prevent its ufurpation, it is removed from
that place but a fingle degree : no man values htmfelf
for that gkafure, even during gratification ; and if
it have engroffed more of his time than is requifite
for relaxation, he looks back with fome degree of
ftiame.
In point of dignity, the focial emotions rife above
the felfifti, and much above thofe of the eye and ear:
man is by his nature a focial being; and to qualify
him for fociety, it is wifely contrived, that he Ihould
value himfelf more for being focial than felfifti.
The excellency of man is chiefly difcernible in the
great improvements he is fufceptible of in fociety :
thefe, by perfeverance, may be carried on progreffive-
ly, above any affignable limits; and even abftradling
from revelation, there is great probability, that the
progrefs begun here will be completed in fome future
ftate. Now, as all Valuable improvements proceed
from the exercife of our rational faculties, the Author
of our nature, in order to excite us to a due ufe of
thefe faculties, hath affigned a high rank to the plea-
fmes of the underftanding : their utility, with refpetl
to this life as well as a future, intitles them to that
rank.
But as aftion is the aim of all our improvements,
virtuous a&ions juftly poffefs the higheft of all the
ranks. Thefe, we find, are by nature diftributed in¬
to different claffes, and the firft in point of dignity af¬
figned to aftions that appear not the firft in point of
ufe : generofity, for example, in the fenfe of mankind
is more refpedted than juftice, though the latter is un¬
doubtedly more effential to fociety ; and magnanimity,
D her-oifin.
i r 26 i d 1 l
Dignity Heroifm, undaunted courage, rife ftill higher in our
I). efteem : The reafon of which is explained above.
( Dignity, in oratory, is one of the three parts of
' J v general elocution; and confifts in the right ufe of tropes
and figures. See Oratory, n° 48.
DIGON, an ancient, handfome, rich, and very con-
fiderable town of France; capital of Burgundy, and
of the Digonois; with a parliament, bifhop's fee, a
mint, an univerfity, academy of fciences, an abbey, and
a citadel: moft part of the churches and public ftruc-
tures are very beautiful, and in one of the fquares there
is an equeftrian ftatue of Louis XIV. It is feated in
a very pleafant plain between two fmall rivers, which
produces excellent wine. E. Long._ 5. 7. N. Lat.
47. 19.
DIGRESSION, in oratory, is defined by Quinti¬
lian, agreeably to the etymology of the word, to be,
a going off from the fubjeft we are upon to fome dif¬
ferent thing, which, however, may be of fervice to it.
See Oratory, no 37.
DIGYNIA, (from twice, and a woman),
the name of an order or fecondary divifion in each of
the firft 13 claffes, except the 9th, in Linnaeus’s fexual
method ; confifting of plants, which to the claflic cha-
rafter, whatever it is, add the eircumffance of having
two ftyles or female organs.
DII, the divinities of the ancient inhabitants of the
earth, were very numerous. Every objeft which cau-
fed terror, infpired gratitude, or bellowed affluence,
received the tribute of veneration. Man faw a fupe-
rior agent in the liars, the elements, or the trees, and
fuppofed that the waters which communicated fertility
to his fields and pofl'effions, were under the influence
and dire&ion of fome invifible power inclined to favour
and to benefit mankind. Thus arofe a train of divini¬
ties which imagination arrayed in different forms, and
armed with different powers. They were endowed
with underftanding, and were adluated by the fame
paflions which daily afflidl the human race, and thofe
children of fuperilition were appeafed or provoked as
the imperfeft being which gave them birth. Their
wrath was mitigated by facrifices and incenfe, and
fometimes human vidlims bled to expiate a crime,
which fuperilition alone fuppofed to exift.' The fun,
from his powerful influence and animating nature, firll
attradled the notice and claimed the adoration of the
uncivilized inhabitants of the earth. The moon al-
fo was -honoured with facrifices and addreffed in pray¬
ers, and after immortality had been liberally bellowed
on all the heavenly bodies, mankind claffed among
their deities the brute creation, and the cat and the
fow {hared equally with Jupiter himfelf,. the father of
gods and men, the devout veneration of their votaries.
This immenfe number of deities have been divided in¬
to different claffes according to the will and pleafure
of the mythologills. The Romans, generally fpeak-
ing, reckoned two claffes of the gods, the dii majorum
gentium, or dii confidentes, and the dii minorum gentium.
The former were 12 in number, fix males and fix fe-'
males. [ Vid. Consentes.J In the clafs of the latter
were ranked ail the gods which were worfhipped in
different paits of the earth. Befides thefe there were
fome called dii feleBi, fometimes claffed with the 12
greater gods ; thefe were Janus, Saturn, the Genius,
the Moon, Pluto, and Bacchus. There were alfo fome
called demi-gods, that is, who deferred immortality Dii
by the greatnefs of their exploits, and for their uncom- II
mon fervices to mankind. Among thefe were Priapus, Ddatory,.
Vertumnus, Hercules, and thofe whofe parents were ’ 1
fome of the immortal gods. Befides thefe, all the paf-
fions and the moral virtues were reckoned as powerful
deities, and temples were raifed to a goddefs of con¬
cord, peace, &c. According to the authority of He-
fiod, there were no lefs than 30,000 gods that inhabi¬
ted the earth, and were guardians of men, all fubfer-
vient to the power of Jupiter. To thefe, fucceeding
ages have added an almoft equal number ; and indeed
they were fo numerous, and their fun&ions fa various,
that we find temples erefted, and facrifices offered, to
unknown gods. It is obfervable, that all the gods of
the ancients have lived upon earth as mere mortals;
and even Jupiter, who was the ruler of heaven, is re-
prefented by the mythologifts as a helplefs child ; and
we are acquainted with all the particulars that attend¬
ed the birth and education of Juno. In procefs of
time, not only good and virtuous men, who had been
the patrons of learning, and the fupporters of liberty,
but alfo thieves and pirates, were admitted among the
gods, and the Roman fenate courteoufly granted im¬
mortality to the moll cruel and* abandoned of their
emperors.
DIJAMBUS, in poetry, the foot of a Latin verfe
of four fyllables; it is compounded of two iambics, as
fcveritas.
DIKE, a ditch or drain, made for the paffage of
waters.—The word feems formed from the verb to dig;
tho’ others elioofe to derive it from the Dutch, diik, a
dam, fea-bank, or wall.
Dike, or Dyke, alfo denotes a work of ftone, tim- •]
ber or fafcines, raifed to oppofe the entrance or paf¬
fage of the waters of the fea, a river, lake, or the like.
—The word comes from the Flemilh dyl, or diik, a
heap of earth to bound or Hem the water. . Junius
and Menage take the Flemilh to have borrowed their
word from the Greek wall. Guichard derives
it from the Hebrew daghah. Thefe dikes are ufually
elevations of earth, with hurdles of flakes, Hones, and
other matters.
The dike of Rochelle is made with veffels faftened
to the bottom. The dikes of Holland are frequently
broke through, and drown large trails of land.
DILAPIDATION, in law, a wafleful deftroying
or letting buildings, efpecially patfonage houfes, 5cc>
run to decay, for want of neceffary reparation. If the
clergy negleft to repair the houfes belonging to their
benefices, the bilhop may fequtfter the profits thereof
for that purpofe. And in thefe cafes, a profecution
may be brought either in the fpiritual court or at com¬
mon law, againft the incumbent himfelf, or againfl. his
executor or adminillrator.
DILATATION, in phyfics, a motion of the parts
of any body, by which it is fo expanded as to occupy
a greater fpace. This expanfive motion depends upon
the elaftic power of the body ; whence it appears that
dilatation is different from rarefaftion, this laft being
produced by the means of heat.
DILATATORES, in anatomy, a name given to
feveral mufcles in the human body. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
DILATORY pleas, in law, are fuch as are put
DIM [ 27 1 DIN
Dilatris in merely for delay ; and there may be a demurrer to
II a dilatory plea, or the defendant fliall be ordered to
■pimiflbry. piea(j better, &c. The truth of dilatory pleas is to
v be made out by affidavit of the faft, &c. by flat. 4 and
5 Anne. See Plea.
DILATRIS, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There
is no calyx ; the corolla has fix petals, and is ffiaggy ;
the ftigma Ample.
DILEMMA, in logic, an argument equally con-
clufive by contrary fuppofitlons. See Logic.
DILIGENCE, in Scots law, fignifies either that
care and attention which parties are bound to give, in
implementing certain contracts or trufts, and which va¬
ries according to the nature of the contraft; as to
which, fee Law, N° clxi. 12, 13. clxxiii. 8. & clxxxi.
18. Or it fignifies certain forms of law, whereby the
creditor endeavours to operate his payment, either by
affe&ing the perfon or eftate of the debtor; Hid.
N° clxxi. clxxii.
DILL, in botany. See Anethum.
DILLEMBURG, a town of Germany, in Wet-
teravia, and capital of a county of the fame name.
It is fubjeft to a prince of the houfe of Naffau, and is
fituated in E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. 50. 45.
DILLENGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, with an univerfity, and where the biffiop of
Angfburg refides. It is feated near the Danube, in
E. Long. 11. 35. N. Lat. 48. 38.
DILLENIA, in botany, a genus of the polygynia
belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. The calyx
is pentaphyllous ; the petals five ; the capfules numer¬
ous, polyfpermous, coalited, and full of pulp.
DILUTE. To dilute a body is to render it li¬
quid ; or, if it were liquid before, to render it more fo,
by the addition of a thinner thereto. Thefe things
thus added are called diluents, or dilutors.
DIMACPLE, (from double, and If-ght,)
in antiquity, a kind of horfemen, firft inftituted by A-
lexander. Their armour was lighter than that of the
infantry, and at the fame time heavier than that ufed
by horfemen, fo that they could aft as horfe or foot
as occafion required.
DIMENSION, in geometry, is either length,
breadth, or thicknefs ; hence, a line hath one dimen-
fion, iwz. length ; a fuperficies two, viz. length and
breadth ; and a body, or folid, has three, viz. length,
breadth, and thicknefs.
DIMINUTION, in architefture, a contraftion of
the upper part of a column, by which its diameter is
* See/ircW-made lefs than that of the lower part*.
DIMINUTIVE, in grammar, a word formed from
fbme other, to foften or diminiffi the force of it, or to
fignify a thing is little in its kind. Thus, cellule is a
diminutive of cell, globule of globe, hillock of hill.
DIMISSORY letters, Literte Dimijfor'ue, in the
canon law, a letter given by a biffiop to a candidate for
holy orders, having a title in his diocefe, direfted to
fome other biffiop, and giving leave for the bearer to
be ordained by him.
When a perfon produces letters of ordination or
tonfure, conferred by any other than his own diocefan,
he muft at the fame time produce the letters dimifibry
given by his own biffiop, on pain of nullity.
Letters dimifibry cannot be given by the chapter, Dimaeritat
fede vacante ; this being deemed an aft of voluntary ju- II
rifdiftion, which ought to be referved to the fucceffor. D‘nocrafe»’
DIMCERITjE, a name given to the Apollinarifts, v **
who at firft. held, that the word only aflumed a human
body, without taking a reafonable foul like ours ; but
being at length convinced by formal texts of feripture,
they allowed, that he did affume a foul, but without *
underftanding; the word fupplying the want of that
faculty. From this way of feparating the underftand¬
ing from the foul, they became denominated dimeerifee,
q. d. dividers, feparaters, of Zia. and wpxo, / divide.
DINDYMA-orum, (Virgil,) from Dindymus-i; a
mountain allotted by many to Phrygia. Strabo has
two mountains of this name ; one in Myfia near Cy-
zicus; the other in Gallograecia near Peffinus; and
none in Phrygia. Ptolemy extends this ridge from
the borders of Troas, through Phrygia to Gallograe¬
cia : though therefore there were two mountains called
Dindymus in particular, both facred to the mother of
the gods, and none of them in Phrygia Major; yet
there might be feveral hills and eminences in it, on
which this goddefs was worffiipped, and therefore cal¬
led Dindyma in general. Hence Cybele is furnamed
Dindymane, (Horace.)
DINGWAL, a parliament-town of Scotland in the
ffiire of Rofs, feated on the frith of Cromarty, 15 miles
weft of the town of Cromarty. Near it runs the river
Conel, famous for producing pearls. W. Long. 4. 15.
N. Lat. 57. 45. Dingwal was a Scotch barony in
the perfon of the duke of Ormond in right of his lady,
but forfeited in 1715.
DINNER, the meal taken about the middle of the
day.—The word is derived from the French difner,
which Du Can^e derives from the barbarous Latin
difnare. Henry Stephens derives it from the Greek
Jwwwwv; and will have it wrote dipner. Menage dedu¬
ces it from the Italian dejinare, “ to dine”; and that
from the Latin dejinere, “ to leave off work.”
It is generally agreed to be the moft falutary to
make a plentiful dinner, and to eat fparingly at fupper.
This is the general praftice among us. The French,
however, in imitation of the ancient Romans, defer
their good cheer to the evening ; and Bernardinus Pa-
ternus, an eminent Italian phyfician, maintains it to
be the moft wholefome method, in a treatife exprefsly
on the fubjeft.
The grand Tartar emperor of China, after he has
dined, makes publication by his heralds, that he gives
leave for all the other kings and potentates of the
earth to go to dinner; as if they waited for his leave.
DINOCRATES, a celebrated architeft of Mace¬
donia, who rebuilt the temple of Ephefus, when burnt
by Eroftratus, with much more magnificence than be¬
fore. Vitruvius informs us that Dinocrates propofed
to Alexander the Great to convert mount Athos into
the figure of a man, whofe left hand ffiould contain a
walled city, and all the rivers of the mount flow into
his right, and from thence into the fea 1 He alfo con¬
ceived a fcheme for building the dome of the temple of
Arfinoe at Alexandria, of ioadftone ; that ffiould by
its attraftion uphold her iron image in the centre, fuf-
pended in the air! Projefts which at kail fhow'ed a
vaft extent of imagination.
DID
D 1 0 [ 2
D;o Dio Chrysostom that is, Golden Mouth, a celebrated
!i _ orator and philofopher of Greece, in the firft century,
Diocleu. was b0M1 at prufa jH BJthynia. He attempted to per-
v fuade Vefpafian to quit the empire; was hated by Do-
mitian.; but acquired the efteem of Trajan. This lafl
prince took pleafure in converfing with him, and made
him ride with him in his triumphal chariot. There
are ftill extant, 8o of Dio’s orations, and fome other
of his works : the beft edition of which is that of
Hermand Samuel Raimarus, in 1750, in folio..
DIOCESE, or Diocess, the circuit or extent of
the jurifdi&ion of a Bishop.—The word is formed
from the Greek tioixwrif, government, adminiftration;
formed of which the ancient gloffaries render
adminijlro, moderor, ordino: hence t*; woxtuc,
the adminiflration or government of a city.
Diocese is alfo ufed in ancient authors, &c. for the
province of a metropolitan.
Dioccejis, tfoixncns-, was originally a’civil government,
or prefecture, compofed of divers provinces.
The firft. divifion of the empire into diocefes is ordi¬
narily afcribed to Conftantine ; who diftributed the
whole Roman (late into four, viz. the diocefe of Italy,
the diocefe of Illyria, that cxf the eaft, and that of A-
frica. And yet, long before Conftantine,' Strabo,
who wrote under Tiberius, takes notice, lib. xiii. p. 432;
that the Romans had divided Afia into diocefes ; and
complains of the confufion fuch a divifion occafioned
in geography, Afia being no longer divided by peo¬
ple, but by diocefes, each whereof had a tribunal or
court, where juftice was adminiftered. Conftantine,
then, was only the inftitutor of thofe large diocefes,
which comprehended feveral metropoles and govern¬
ments ; the former diocefes only comprehending one
jurifdiftion or diftrift, or the country that had refort
to one judge, as appears from this paffage in Strabo,
and (before Strabo) from Cicero himfelf, lib. iii. effi.
ad fam'd. 9. and lib. xiii. ep. 67.
Thus, at firft a province included divers diocefes;
and afterwards a diocefe came to comprife divers pro¬
vinces. In after times the Roman empire became di¬
vided into 13 diocefes or prefe&ures; though, in¬
cluding Rome, and the fuburbicary regions, there
were 14. Thefe 14 diocefes comprehended 120 pro¬
vinces : each province had a proconful, who refided in
the capital or metropolis ; and each diocefe of the em¬
pire had a conful, who refided in the'principal city of
the diftrift.
On this civil conftitution, the ecclefiaftical one was
afterwards regulated : each diocefe had an eccleliafti-
cal vicar or primate, who judged finally of all the
concerns of the church within his territory.
At prefent there is fome further alteration : for dio¬
cefe does not now fignify an aflemblage of divers pro¬
vinces; but is limited to a fingle province under a me¬
tropolitan, or more commonly to the fingle jurifdic-
tion of a bifhop.
Gul. Brito affirms diocefe to be properly the terri¬
tory and extent of a baptifmal or parochial church ;
whence divers authors ufe the word to fignify a fimple
parifh. See Parish.
DIOCLEIA, A/oxxna, in antiquity, a folemnity
kept in the fpring at Megara, in memory of the Athe¬
nian hero, who died in the defence of the youth, he
loved.
8 ] DID
DIOCLESIANUS (Caius Valerius Jovius), a ce- Diodeft*
lebrated Roman emperor born of an obfcure family in anus
Dalmatia in 245. He was firft a common foldier, and Jj n \
by merit and fuccefs he gradually rofe to the office of
a general; and at the death of Numerian in 284 he
was invefted with imperial power. In this high Ration
he rewarded the virtues and fidelity of Maximian, who
had (hared wu’th him all the fubordinate offices in the
cfrmy, by making him his colleague on the throne. He
created two fubordinate emperors Conftantius and Ga-
lerius, whom he called Caefars, whilft he claimed for
himfelf and his colleague the fuperior title of Auguftus.
Dioclefian has been celebrated for his military virtues;
and though he was naturally unpoliffied by education
and ftudy, yet he was the friend and patron of learn¬
ing and true genius- He w'as bold and refolute, a&ive
and diligent, and well acquainted with the arts, which
will endear a fovereign to his people, and make him re-
fpe&able even in the eyes of his enemies. His cruelty,,
however, againft the followers of Chriftianity, has been
defervedly branded with infamy. After he had reign¬
ed 22 years in the greateft profperity, he publicly ab¬
dicated the crown at Nicomedia in 305, and retired to
a private ftation at Salona. Maximian his colleague
followed his example, but not from voluntary choice;
and when he fome time after endeavoured to roufe the
ambition of Dioclefian, and perfuade him to re-affume
the imperial purple, he received for anfwer, that Dio¬
clefian took now more delight in cultivating his little
garden than he formerly enjoyed in a palace, when his
power was extended over all the earth. He lived nine
years after his abdication in the greateft fecurity and
enjoyment at Salona, and died in 314, in the 68th-
year of his age. Dioclefian is the firft fovereign who
voluntarily refigned his power. His bloody perfecu-
tion of the Chriftians forms a chronological era, called
the era of Dioclejian, or of the martyrs. It was for a
long time in ufe in theological writings, and is ftill fol¬
lowed by the Copts and Abyffinians. It commenced
Auguft 29. 284.
DIOCTAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
pellucid and cryftalliform fpars, compofed of two octan¬
gular pyramids, joined bafe to bafe, without any inter¬
mediate column. Of thefe fome have long pyramids,
others ftrort and (harp-pointed ones, and others (hort
and obtufe-pointed ones; the two former fpecies being
found in the Hartz-foreft, and the lad in the mines of
Cornwall.
DIODATI (John), a famous minifter, and profef-
for of theology at Geneva, was born at Lucca in 1579,
and died at Geneva in 1652. He is diftinguilhed by
tranftations, 1. of the Bible into Italian, with notes,
Geneva 1607, 410. The beft edition, at Geneva in
1641, folio. This is faid to be more a paraphrafe than
a tranflation, and the notes rather divine meditations
than critical reflexions. 2. Of the Bible into French,
Geneva, 1644. 3, Of Father Paul’s Hiftory of the
Council of 1 rent into French.
DIODIA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 47th order.
Stellate. The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-
Ihaped ; the capfule bilocular and difpermous.
DIODON, or sun-fish, in ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the. order of amphibia nantes.
There
DIO [ 29 ] DIO
Bindbni There are three fpecies. 1. The oblong fun-filh
Diodorus. gr0ws to a great bulk : one examined by Sylvianuswas
v above too pounds in weight; and Ur Borlafe men-
tions another taken at Plymouth in 1734, that weighed
500. In form it refembles a bream or fome deep fi(h
cut off in the middle. The mouth is very fmall, and
contains in each jaw two broad teeth, with (harp edges.
The eyes are little; before each is a fmall femilunar
aperture ;, the pedtoral fins are very fmall, and placed
behind them. The colour of the back is dulky, and
dappled ; the belly filvery : between the dyes and the
peftoral fins are certain ftreaks pointing downwards.
The fitin is free from fcales.
When boiled, it has been obferved to turn into a
glutinous jelly, refembling boiled ftarch when cold,
and ferved the purpofes of glue on being tried on pa¬
per and leather. The meat of this fi(h is uncommon¬
ly rank : it feeds on fhell-filh.
There feems to be no fatisfaftory reafon for the old
Englifii name. Care mult be taken not to confound
it with the fun-fifii of the Irilh (fee Squalus), which
differs in all refpefts from this.
2. The mola, or fhort fun-fifh, differs from the for¬
mer, in being much fhorter and deeper. The back and
the anal fins are higher, and the aperture to the gills
not femilunar, but oval. The fituation of the fins are
the fame in both.
Both kinds are taken on the weflern coafts of this
kingdom, but in much greater numbers in the warmer
parts of Europe. — Mr Brunnich informs us, that be¬
tween Antibes and "Genoa he faw one of this fpecies
lieiafieep on the furface of the water : a failor jumped
overboard and caught it.
See Plate 3" The levigatus, or globe, is common to Europe
CLXlV. and South Carolina. As yet only a fingle fpecimen
has been difcovered in our feas ; taken at Penzance in
Cornwall. The length was one foot feven : the length
of the belly, when diftended, one foot; the whole cir¬
cumference in that fituation two feet fix. The form,of
the body is ufually oblong ; but when alarmed, it has
the power of inflating the belly to a globular fhape of
great fize. This feems defigned as a means of defence
againft filh of prey : as they have lefs means of laying
hold of it; and are befides terrified by the numbers of
fpines with which that part is armed, and which are
capable of being erefted on every part. The mouth is
fmall: the hides white, tinged with red: the back
from head to tail almoft ftraighf, or at leaft very flightly
elevated ; of a rich deep blue colour. It has the pec¬
toral, but wants the ventral fins : the tail is almoft even,
divided by an angular proje&ion in the middle; tail
and fins brown. The belly and fides are white, ftia-
greened or w'rinkled ; and befet with innumerable fmall
fharp fpines, adhering to the Ikin by four proceffes.
DIODORUS, an hiftorian, furnamed Siculus, Ee-
caufe he was born at Argyra in Sicily. He wrote an
hiftory of Egypt, Perfia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome,
and Carthage ; and it is faid that he vifited all the
places of which he has made mention in his hiftory.
It was the labour of 3:0 years. He is, however, too
credulous in fome of his narrations ; and often wanders
far from the truth. He often dwells too long upon
fabulous reports and trifling incidents ; while events of
the greafteft importance to hiftory are treated wfith bre¬
vity, and fometimes paffed over in filence. He lived
5
in the age of J. Casfar and Auguftus ; and fpent much L>loecia>
time at Rome to procure information, and authenticate *~>10»ene!
his hiftorical narrations. This important work, which
he compofed in Greek, contained 40 books, of which
there are only 15 remaining. The ftyle is clear and
neat, and very fnitable to hiftory. The beft edition is
that of Amfterdam, 1743, in 2 vols folio.
DIOECIA, (from J'f twice, and a houfe or
habitation) two houfes. The name of the 22d clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual method, coniifting of plants, which
having no hermaphrodite flowers, produce male and
female flowers on feparate roots. Thefe latter only
ripen feeds; but require for that purpofe, according to
the fexualifts, the vicinity of a male plant; or the af-
perfion, that is, fprinkling, of the male daft. From
the feeds of the female flowers are raifedboth male and
female plants. The plants then in the clafs dicecia are
all male and female; not hermaphrodite, as in the great¬
er number of clafles; nor vrithmale and female flowers
upon- one root, as in the clafs moncecia of the fame au¬
thor. See Botany, p. 430.
DIOGENES of Apollonia, in the ifland of Crete,
held a confiderable rank among the philofophers who
taught in Ionia before Socrates appeared at Athens.
He was the fcholar and fuccefibr of Anaximenes, and in
fome meafure rectified his mafter’s opinion concerning
air being the caufe of all things. It is faid, that he
was the firft who obferved that air was capable of con-
denfation and rarefaction. He palled for an excellent
phiiofopher, and died about the 450th year before the
Chriftian era.
Diogenes the Cynic, a famous phiiofopher;.was•
the fon of a banker of Sinope in 'Pontus. Being ba-
nilhed with his father for coining falfe money; h‘e retired ■
to Athens, where he ftudied philofophy under Antif-
thenes. He added new degrees of aufterity to the feet
of the Cynics, and never did any phiiofopher carry fo
far a contempt for the conveniences-of life. He was
one of thofe extraordinary men who run every thing to
extremity, without excepting even reafon itfelf; and
who confirm the faying, that “ there is no great ge¬
nius without a tindlure of madnefs.” He lodged in a
tub ; and had no other moveables befides his ftaff, wal¬
let, and wooden bowl, which laft he threw away on
feeing a boy drink out of the hollow of his hand. He
ufed to call himfelf a vagabond, who had neither houfe
nor country; was obliged to beg, was ill clothed, and
lived from hand to mouth: and yet, fayS'iElian, he took
as much pride in thefe things as Alexander could in the
conqueft of the world. He was not indeed a jot more
humble than thofe who are clothed in rich apparel, and
fare fumptuoufly every day. , He looked down on all
the world with, fcorn ; he magifterially cenfured all
mankind, and thought himfelf unqueftionably fuperior
to all other philofophers. Alexander one day paid him
a vifit, and made him an offer of riches or any thing
elfe: but all that the phiiofopher requefted of him
was, to ftand from betwixt the fun and him; As if
he had faid, “ Do not deprive me of the benefits of.
nature, and I leave to you thofe of fortune.” The con¬
queror was fo affe&ed with the vigour and elevation of
his foul, as to declare, that “ if he was not Alexander,,
he would choofe to be Diogenes:” that is, if he was
not in pofftffion of all that was pompous and fplendid;
in life, he would, like Diogenes, heroically defpife it-
Diogenes-
DIO t jo ] DIO
Diogenes had great prefence of mind, as appears from
his fmart fayings and quick repartees; and Plato feems
to have hit off his true chara&er when he called him a
Socrates run mad. He fpent a great part of his life at
Corinth, and the reafon of his living there was as fol¬
lows : As he was going over to the illand of JEgina, he
was taken by pirates, who carried him into Crete, and
.there expofed him to fale. He anfwered the crier,
who alleed him what he could do, that “ he knew how
to command men and perceiving a Corinthian who
was going by, he fhowed him to the crier, and faid,
“ Sell me to that gentleman, for he wants a mailer.”
Xeniades, for that was the Corinthian’s name, bought
Diogenes, and carried him with him to Corinth. He
appointed him tutor to his children, and entrufted him
nlfo with the management of his houfe. Diogenes’s
friends being defirous of redeeming him, “ You are
fools, (faid he); the lions are not the flaves of thofe who
feed them, but they are the fervants of the lions.” He
therefore plainly told Xeniades, that he ought to obey
him, as people obey their governors and phyficians.
Some fay, that Diogenes fpent the remainder of his
life in Xeniades’s family; but Dion Chryfoftom afferts
that he paffed the winter at Athens, and the fummer
at Corinth. He died at Corinth when he was about
90 years old: but authors are not agreed either as to
the time or manner of his death. The following ac¬
count, Jerom fays, is the true one. As he was going
to the Olympic games, a fever feized him in the way;
upon which he lay down under a tree, and refufed the
affiftance of thofe who accompanied him, and who of¬
fered him either a horfe or a chariot. “ Go you to
the games, (fays he), and leave me to contend with my
illnefs. Iff conquer, I will follow you : If I am con¬
quered, I lhall go to the lhades below.” He difpatch-
ed himfelf that very night; faying, that “ he did not
ib propeily die, as get rid of his fever.” He had for
his difciples Onefxcrites, Phocion, Stilpo of Megara,
and feveral other great men. His works are loft.
Diogenes Laertius, fo called from Laerta in Cili¬
cia where he was born, an ancient Greek author, who
wrote ten books of the Lives of the Philofophers, ftill
extant. In what age he flourished, is not eafy to de¬
termine. The oldeft writers who mention him are So-
pater Alexandrinus, who lived in the time of Conftan-
tine the Great, and Hefychius Milefius, who lived un¬
der Juftinian. Diogenes often fpeaks in terms of ap¬
probation of Plutarch and Phavorinus; and therefore,
as Plutarch lived under Trajan, and Phavorinus under
Hadrian, it is certain that he could not flourilh before
the reigns of thofe emperors. Menage has fixed him
to the time of Severus; that is, about the year of
Chrift 200. From certain expreflions in him fome
have fancied him to have been a Chriftian ; but, as
Menage obferves, the immoderate praifes he beftows
upon Epicurus will not fuffer us to believe this, but
incline us rather to fuppofe that he was an Epicurean.
He divided his Lives into books, and infcribed them to
a learned lady of the Platonic fchool, as he himfelf in¬
timates in his life of Plato. Montaigne was fo fond of
this author, that inftead of one Laertius he vvifhes we
had a dozen ; and Vofiius fays, that his work is as pre¬
cious as gold. Without doubt we are greatly obli¬
ged to him for what we know of the ancient philofo¬
phers ; and if he had been as exaft in the writing part, Diogenes,
as he was judicious in the choice of his fubjedt, we had Diomedia.
been more obliged to him ftill. Bilhop Burnet, in the v
preface to his Life of Sir Matthew Hale, fpeaks of
him in the following proper manner : “ There is no
book the ancients have left us (fays he), which might
have informed us more than Diogenes Laertius’s Lives
of the Philofophers, if he had had the art of writing
equal to that great fubjeft which he undertook : for if
he had given the world fuch an account of them as
Gaffendus has done of Peirefc, how great a ftock of
knowledge might we have had, which by his unlkilful-
nefs is in a great meafure loft ? fince we muft now de¬
pend only on him, becaufe we have no other and better
author who has written on that argument.” There
have been feveral editions of his Lives of the Philofo¬
phers ; but the bell is that printed in twm volumes 4to,
at Amllerdam, 1693. This contains the advantages of
all the former, befides fome peculiar to itfelf: the
Greek text and the Latin verfion correfted and amend¬
ed by Meibomius; the entire notes of Henry Stephens,
both the Cafaubons, and of Menage ; 24 copper-plates
of philofophers elegantly engraved : to which is added,
The Hiftory of the Female Philofophers, written by
Menage, and dedicated to Madam Dacier. Befides
this, Laertius wrote a book of Epigrams upon illuftri-
ous Men, called Pammetrus, from its various kinds of
metre : but this is not extant.
DIOMEDIA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of anferes. The bill is ftrait; the fupe-
rior mandible is crooked at the point, and the lower
one is truncated ; the noftrils are oval, open, a little
prominent, and placed on the fides. There are two
fpecies, viz. 1. The exulans, has pennated wings, and
three toes on each foot. It is the albatrofs of Edwards ;
and is about the fize of a pelican. Thefe birds are found
in the ocean betwixt the tropics and at the Cape of Good
Hope. They are alfo often feen in vaft flocks in Kamt-
fchatka,and adjacent iflands,about the endof June, where
they are called Great Gulls; but it is chiefly in the bay of
Penfchinenfi, the whole inner fea of Kamtfchatka, the
Kurile ifles, and that of Bering; for on the eaftern
coafls of the firft they are fcarce, a Angle ftraggler on¬
ly appearing now and then. Their chief motive for
frequenting thefe places feems to be plenty of food ;
and their arrival is a fure prefage of fhoals of fifh fol¬
lowing. At their firft coming they are very lean, but
foon grow immenfely fat. Are very voracious birds, and
will often fwallow a falmon of four or five pounds
weight; but as they cannot take the wdiole of it into
their llomach at once, part of the tail end will often
remain out of the mouth; and the natives, finding the
bird in this fituation, make no difficult matter of knock¬
ing it on the head on the fpot. Before the middle of
Auguft they migrate elfewhere. They are often taken
by means of a hook baited with a filh ; but it is not
for the fake of their flefli that they are valued, it being
hard and unfavoury, but on account of the inteftines,
a particular part of which they blow up as a bladder,
to ferve as floats to buoy up their nets in fifliing. Of
the bones they make tobacco-pipes, needle-cafes, and
other ufeful things. When caught they defend them-
felves ftoutly with the bill. Their cry is harfh and dif-
agrecable, not unlike the Jaraying of an afs. The
breeding
DIO [ 31 1 DIO
* D'lomsdia, breeding places of the albatrofs, if at all in the north-
Diomedes. ern hemifphere, have not yet been pointed out; but
—v we are certain of their multiplying in the fouthern, viz.
Patagonia and Falkland iflands,: to this laft place they
come about the end of September or beginning of Oc¬
tober, among other birds, is great abundance. The
nefts are made on the ground with earth, are round in
fliape, a foot in height, indented at top. The egg
larger than that of a goofe, four inches and a half long,
' white, marked with dull fpots at the bigger end ; and
is thought to be good food, the white never growing
hard with boiling. While the female is fitting, the male
is conftantly on the wing, and fupplies her with food :
during this time they are fo tame as to fuffer themfelves
to be Ihoved off the neft while their eggs are taken from
them ; but their chief deftru&ion arifes from the hawk,
which, the moment the female gets'off the nefl, darts
thereon, and flies away with the egg. The albatrofs
itfelf likewife has its enemy, being greatly perfecuted
while on the wing by the dark grey gull calledJhua.
This bird attacks it on all fides, but particularly en¬
deavours to get beneath, which is only prevented by
the fivft fettling on the water ; and indeed they do not
frequently fly at a great diitance from the furface, ex¬
cept obliged Co to do by high winds or other caufes.
& s foon as the young are able to remove from the nefl:,
the penguins take poffeffion, and hatch their young in
turn. It is probable that they pafs from one part of
the globe to another according to the feafon ; being
now and then met with by different voyagers at vari¬
ous times in intermediate places. The food is fuppo-
fed to be chiefly fmall marine animals, efpecialiy of the
mollufcse or blubber clafs, as well as flying fifh. 2. The
demerfa, has no quill-feathers on the wings; and the
feet have four toes, connefted together by a mem¬
brane. It is the black penguin of Edwards, about the
fize of a goofe, and is found at the Cape of Good
Hope. It is an excellent fwimmer and diver; but
hops and flutters in a ftrange aukward manner on the
land, and, if hurried, Humbles perpetually, and fre¬
quently runs for fome diftance like a quadruped, ma¬
king ufe of the wings inftead of legs, till it can recover
its upright pollute; crying out at the fame time like a
goofe, but in a much hoarfer voice. It is faid to
clamber fome way up the rocks in order to make the
neft; in doing which, has been obfetved to aftift with
the bill. The eggs are two in number, white, as
large as thofe of a duck, and reckoned delicious
eating, at leaft are thought fo at the Cape, where
they are brought in great numbers for that purpofe.
At this place the birds are often feen kept tame ; but
in general they- do not furvive the confinement many
months.
DIOMEDF.S, fon of Tydeus and Deiphyle, was
king of iEtolia, and one of the braveft of the Grecian
chiefs in the Trojan war. He often engaged Hedtor
and JEneas, and obtained much military glory. He
went with Ulyffes to fteal the Palladium from the temple
of Minerva in Troy ; and affifted in murdering Rhefus
king of Thrace, and carrying away his horfes.: At his
return from the liege of Troy, he loft his way in the
darknefs of night, and landed in Attica, where his
companions plundered the country and loft the Trojan
Palladium. During his long abfence, his. wife JEgiale
forgot her marriage vows, and proftituted herfelf to Diomede*
Cometes one of her fervants. This lafcivioufnefs of P
the queen was attributed by fome to the refentment 1',n~ ,
of Venus, whom Diomedes had feverely wounded in a
battle before Troy. The infidelity of ^Egiale was
highly difpleafing to Diomedes. Fie refolved to aban¬
don his native country which was the feat of his dif-
grace ; and the attempts of his wife to take away his
life, according to fome accounts, did not a little con¬
tribute to haften his departure. He came to that part
of Italy which has been called Magna Gracia, where
he built a city, which he called Argyrippa, and.married
the daughter of Daunus the king of the country. He
died there in extreme old age ; or, according to a cer¬
tain tradition, he perilhed by the hand of his father-
in-law. His death was greatly lamented by his com¬
panions, who in the excefs of their grief were changed
into birds refembling fwans. Thefe birds took flight
into a neighbouring ifland in the Adriatic, and be¬
came, remarkable for the tamenefs with which they ap¬
proached the Greeks, and for the horror with which
they fhunned all other nations. They are called the
birds of Diomedes. Altars were raifed to Diome¬
des, as to a god, one of which Strabo mentions at TE
mavus.
DION, a Syracufan, fon of Hipparinus, famous
for his power and abilities. He was related to Dio-
nyfius, and often advifed him together with the philo-
fopher Plato, who at his requeft had come to refide at
the tyrant’s court, to lay afide the fupreme power.
His great popularity rendered him odious in the eyes
of the tyrants, who banilhed him to Greece. There
he collected a numerous force, and refolved to free his
country from tyranny. This he eafily effefted on ac¬
count of his uncommon popularity. He entered the
port of Syracufe only in two (hips ; and in three days
reduced under his power an empire which had already
fubfifted for 50 years, and which was guarded by 500
ftiips of war, and above 100,000 troops. The tyrant
fled to Corinth, and Dion kept the power in his own
hands, fearful of the afpiring ambition of fome of the
friends of Dionyfius : but he was fttamcfully betrayed
and murdered by one of his familiar friends call¬
ed Callicrates, or Callippus, 354 years before the Chri-
ftlan era.
DION Cassius, a native of Nicrea in Bithynia.
His father’s name was Aprpnianus. He was raifed to
the greateft oftices of ftate in the Roman empire by
Pertinax, and his three fucceflbrs- He was naturally
fond of ftudy, and he improved himfelf by unwearied
application- He was ten years in collecting materials
for an hiftory of Rome, which he made public in 80
books, after a- laborious employment of 12 years in
compofing it. This valuable hiftory began with the
arrival of /Eneas in (Italy, down to the reign of the
emperor Alexander Sevcrus. The 34 firft books are
totally loft, the 20 following, that is from the 35th to
the 54th, remain entire, the fix following are mutila¬
ted, and fragments is all that we poffefs of the laft 20.
In the compilation of this extenfive hiftory, Dion pro-
pofed himfelf Thucydides for a model, but he is not
perfectly happy in his imitation. His flyle is pure and
elegant, and his narrations are jhdicioufiy managed,
and his.reflfidions learned; but upon tire whole, he is
credulous,
DIO [ 32 ] DIO
Dion's, credulous, and the bigoted (lave of partiality, fatyr,
, Dinn^a. an(| flattery. He inveighs againft the republican prin-
ciples of Brutus and Cicero, and extols the caufe of
Csefar. Seneca is the objeft of his fatyr, and he re-
prefents him as debauched and licentious in his mo¬
rals.
DIONIS (Peter), a famous furgeon, born at Paris,
diftinguifhed himfelf by his Ikill in his profeffion, and
by his works; the principal of which are, 1. A courfe
of operations in furgety ; 2. The anatomy of man?
and, 3. A treatife on the manner of afliiting women
in child-birth. He died in 1718.
HIONiEA muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap, in bo¬
tany, a newly drfcovered fenfitive plant.
Every one {killed in natural hiftory knows, that the
mimofae, or fenfitive plants, clofe their leaves, and
bend their joints, upon the leaft touch : and this has
aftoniihed us; but no end or defign of nature has yet
appeared to us from thefe furprifing motions : they
•foon recover themfelves again, and their leaves are ex¬
panded as before. But the plant we are now going
to defcribe, {hows that nature may have fome view to¬
wards its nouriihment, in forming the upper joint of
its leaf like a machine to catch food: upon the middle
of this lies the bait for the unhappy infe& that be¬
comes its prey. Many minute red glands that cover
its inner' furface, and which perhaps difcharge fome
fweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to tafte them ;
and the inftant thefe tender parts are irritated by its
feet, the two, lobes rife up, grafp it faft, lock the two
rows of fpines together, and fqueeze it to death. And
further, left the ftrong efforts for life, in the creature
thus taken, {hould ferve to difengage it, three fmall
ereft fpines are fixed near the middle of each lobe
among the glands, that effe&ually put an end to all
its ftruggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while
the dead animal continues there. But it is neverthe-
lefs certain, that the plant cannot diftinguilh an animal
from a mineral fubftance ; for, if we introduce a ftraw
or a pin between the lobes, it will grafp it full as faft
as if it was an infeft.—The plant is one of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs. It grows
in America, about 35 deg. N. Lat. in wet ftiady pla¬
ces, and flowers in July and Auguft. The largeft leaves
are about three inches long, and an inch and half a-
crofs the lobes : the glands of thofe expofed to the fun
are of a beautiful red colour; but thofe in the {hade
are pale, and inclining to green. The roots are fqua-
xnous, fending forth but few fibres, and are perennial.
The leaves are numerous, inclining to bend down¬
wards, and are placed in a circular order ; they are
jointed and fucculent; the lower joint, which is a kind
of ftalk, is flat, longiftr, two-edged, and.inclining to
heart-flraped. In fome varieties they are ferrated on
the edges near the top. The upper joint confifts of
two lobes ; each lobe is of a femi-oval form, with their
. margins furniftred with ftiff hairs like eye-brows, which
embrace or lock in each other when they clofe: this
they do when they are inwardly irritated. The upper
furfaces of thefe lobes are covered with fmall red
glands; each of which appears, when highly magni¬
fied, like a compreffed arbutus berry.—Among the
glands, about the middle of each lobe, arc three very
f mall erect fpines. When the lobes inclofe any fub-
N° 101.
fiance, they never open again while it continues there.
If it can be ftioved out fo as not to ftrain the lobes,
they expand again ; but if force is ufed to open them,
fo ftrong has nature formed the fpring of their fibres,
that one of the lobes will generally fnap off rather than
yield. The ftalk is about fix inches high, round,
fmooth, and without leaves ; ending in a fpike of
flowers. The flowers are milk white, and ftand on
footftalks, at the bottom of which is a little painted
bractea or fldwer-leaf. The foil in which it grows, as
appears from what comes about the roots of the plants
when they are brought over, is a black, light, mould,
intermixed with white fand, fuch as is ufually found
■in our moorifh heaths. Being a fwamp plant, a north’-
eaft afpeft will bC propereft for it at firft, to keep it
from thedireft rays of the fun ; and in winter, till we
are acquainted with what cold weather it can endure,
it will be neceffary to {belter it with a bell glafs, fuch
as is ufed for melons. This {hould be covered with
ftraw or a mat in hard frofts. By this means feveral
of thefe plants have been preferred through the winter
in a very vigorous ftate. Its fenfitive quality will be
found in proportion to the heat of the weather, as well
as the vigour of the plant. Our fummers are not warm
enough to ripen the feed ; or poflibly we are not yet
fufficiently acquainted with the culture of it. In order
to try further experiments on its fenfitive powers, fome
of the plants might be placed in pots of light moorifti
earth, and placed in pans of water, in an airy ftove in
fummer; where the heat of fuch a fituation, being
like that of its native country, will make it furprifingly
adlive.
DIONYSIA, in Grecian antiquity, folemnities in
honour of Bacchus, fometimes called by the general
name of Orgia ; and by the Romans Bacchanalia, and
Liberalia. See Bacchanalia and Bacchus.
DIONYSIACA, in antiquity, was a defignation
given to plays and all manner of fports a&ed on the
ftage; becaufe play-houfes were dedicated to Diony-
fius, i. e. Bacchus and Venus, as being the deities of
fports and pleafure.
DIONYSIAN period. See Chronology, n°3i.
DIONYSIUS I. from a private fecretary became
general and tyrant of Syracufe and all Sicily. He was
likewife a poet ; and having, by bribes, gained the
tragedy-prize at Athens, he indulged himfelf fo im¬
moderately at table from excefs of joy, that he died of
the debauch, 386 B. C. but fome authors relate that
he was poifoned by his phyficians.
Dionysius II. (his fon and fucceffor) was a great¬
er tyrant than his father : his fubjedts were obliged to
apply to the Corinthians for fuccour; and Timoldon
their general having conquered the tyrant, he fled to
Athens, where he was obliged to keep a fchool for
fubfiftence. He died 343 B. C.
Dionysius (Halicarnaffenfis), a celebrated hifto-
rian, and one of the moft judicious critics of antiquity,
was born at Halicamaffus; and went to Rome after
the battle of Adlium, where he ftaid 22 years under
the reign of Auguftus. He there compofed in Greek
his Hiftory of the Roman Antiquities, in 20 books,
of which the firft 11 only are now remaining. There
are alfo ftill extant feveral of his critical works. The
beft edition of the works of this author is that of
Oxford,
Diomea
II-
Dionyfiu*.
DIO [
Dianyfius, Oxford, In 1704, in Greek and Latin, by Dr Hud-
Diophan- fon-
t . ^ ' Dionysius, a learned geographer, to whom is at¬
tributed a Periegefis, or Survey of the Earth, in Greek
verfe. Some fuppofe that he lived in the time of Au-
guftus; but Scaliger and Saumafius place him under
the reign of Scverus, or Marcus Aurelius. He wrote
many other works, but his Periegefis is the only one
we have remaining ; the beft and moft ufeful edition of
which is that improved with notes and illuftrations bv
Hill.
Dionysius (Areopagita), was born at Athens, and
educated there. He went afterwards to Heliopolis in
Epypt ; where, if we may believe fome writers of his
life, he faw that wonderful eclipfe which happened at
our Saviour’s paflion, and was urged by fome extraor¬
dinary impulfe to cry out, Aut Deus patitur, aut cum
patiente dolet ; “ either God himfelf fuft’ers, or condoles
with him who does.” At his return to Athens he
was elected into the court of Areopagus, from whence
he derived his name of Areopagite. About the year 50
he embraced Chriilianity ; and, as fome fay, was ap¬
pointed firft bilhop of Athens by St Paul. Of his
converfion we have an account in the 17th chapter of
the Aftsof the Apoftles.—He is fuppofed to have fuf-
fered martyrdom ; but whether under Domitian, Tra¬
jan, or Adrian, is not certain. We have nothing re¬
maining under his name, but what there is the greatell
reafon to believe fpurious-
Dionysius (the Leffer), a Scythian, became abbot
of a monaftery at Rome : he was the firft who com¬
puted time from the birth of Dionyfius to Chrift, and
fixed that great event, according to the vulgar aera.
He was alfo a learned canon-law writer, and died about
the year 540.
DIOPHANTINE problems, in mathematics, cer¬
tain queftions relating to fquare and cube numbers,
1 Dio
and right-angled triangles, &c. the nature of which Diophan-
was determined by Diophantus, a mathematician of :
Alexandria, who is believed to have lived about the ' -J
third century. We have his works, which were pub-
lifhed with notes at Paris, in 1621, by Bachet de Me*
ziriac; and another edition in 1670, with pbfervations
on every queftion, by M. Fermat.
In thefe queftions it is endeavoured to find commen-
furable numbers to anfwer indeterminate problems;
which bring out an infinite number of incommenfu-
rable quantities.^ For example, it is propofed to find
a right-angled triangle, whofe fides .v,y, z, are exprefled
by commenfurable numbers; it is known that v'+y5
= **» » being the fuppofed hypothenufe. But it’ij
poffible to affume x and y fo, that« will be inebm-
menfurable ; for if *=: i, and^=2, zzzy'y.
The art of refolving fuch problems confifts in fo
managing the unknown quantity or quantities in fuch
a manner, that the fquare or higher power may vanifli
out of the equation, and then by means of the unknown
quantity in its firft dimenfion, the equation may be re-
folved without having reesurfe to incommenfurables;
e. gr. let it be fuppofed to find x, y, z, the fides of a
right-angled triangle, fuch as will give x1+y2 = zz.
Suppofe z = x + u, then x'+y'^x' + ixu+u*; out of
which equation x* vaniihes, and y—^ ~u . then af-
2U
fuming y and a equal to any numbers at pleafure, the
fides of the triangle will be y,y-~u , and the hypothe-
2a
nufe x+u=y .~h—jify^rg, and a= 1, then^-Zl"——4,
2a 2a
and x-j-u=z^. It is evident that this problem admits
of an infinite number of folutions.
For the refolution of fuch kind of problems, fee
Saunderfon’s Algebra, vol. ii. book 6.
DIOPTRICS.
THAT part of Optics which treats of the laws of
refra&ion, and the effe&s which the refrac¬
tion of light has in vifion. The word is originally
Greek, formed of per, “ through,” and
As this and the other branches of Optics are fully
treated under the colle&ive name, we ftiall here, 1. Juft
give a fummury of the general principles of the branch,
in a few plain aphorifms, with fome preliminary defi¬
nitions ; and, 2. Prefent our readers with a fet of en¬
tertaining experiments illuftrative of, or dependent up¬
on, thofe principles.
DEFINITIONS.
1. When a ray of light palling out of one medium
into another of a different denfity, is turned from that
ftraight line in which it would otherwife proceed into
Plate °ne a d'fferent direction, it is faid to be retraced.
CL.XII. r^us the rays AB, AC, &c by palling out of air into
fig. 1. tta glafs BGC, are turned from their natural courfe
into that of BF, CF, &c. and are therefore faid to be
refra&ed by the lens BGC.
2. Any fpherical tranfparent glafs, that converges
Vol.VI. Parti.
or diverges the rays of light as they pafs through it, is
called a fens .
3. Of lenfes there are five forts: 1. A plane or
fingle convex lens, which is plane on one fide and con¬
vex on the other ; as AZ, fig. 3. 2. A double con¬
vex lens, as B. 3. A plano-concave lens, that is, plane
on one fide and concave on the other, as C. .4. A
double concave, as D. And, 5. A menifeus, which
is convex on one fide and concave on the other, as E.
4. The point C, round which the fpherical furface F-
of a lens, as AZ, is deferibed, is called its centre; the ‘S" **
line XY, drawn from that centre perpendicular to its
two furfaces, is the axis; and the point V, to which
the axis is drawn, is the vertex-of that'lens.
5. When the rays of light that pafs through a fingle
or double convex lens are brought into their fmalleft
compafs, that point is the focus of the lens.
6. In optical inftruments, that lens which is next
the objea is called the objea-glafs; and that next the
eye, the eye giafs. ■
7. The diftance between the line AB and the per-riv
pendicular EF, is called the angle of incidence} and the 3‘
diftance between the line BD and the perpendicular
EF, is called the angle of ref radian.
APHO-
34
Plate
CLXU.
Pig. 3-
^g-4-
D I O P T
APHORISMS.
1. A ray oflight paffing obliquely out of one.me¬
dium into another that is denfer, will be refra&ed to¬
ward the perpendicular; as the ray AB, by pafiing
out of air into glafs, is refracted into BF, inclined
to the perpendicular A F. On the contrary, a ray
palling out of a denfer into a rarer medium, will
be refra&ed from the perpendicular; as the ray BC,
paffing out of the glafs G H into air, is refracted
into D I.
2. The fines of the angles of incidence and refrac¬
tion, when the lines that contain them are all equal,
will have a determinate proportion to each other,
in the fame mediums : which between air and wa¬
ter will be as 4 to 3 ; between air and glafs, as 3 to 2,
nearly ; and in other mediums in proportion to their
denfities.
3. Any objeft viewed through a glafs, whofe two
furfaces are parallel, will appear of its natural (hape and
dimenfions, provided it be only of the lize of the pupil
of the eye, and the light proceeding from it be received
dire&ly through the glafs by one eye only. In all
other fituations an alteration will be perceived not only
in its apparent fituation, but its dimenfions alfo. This
alteration will be greater in proportion to the thicknefs
of the glafs, and the obliquity of the rays; in general,
it is fo fmall as to be overlooked.
4. All the rays of light which fall upon a convex
lens,, whether parallel, converging, or diverging to a
certain degree, will be made to meet in a focus on the
other fide; but if they diverge exceffively, they will
not do fo. Thus if rays diverge from a point placed
before the glafs, at the focal diftance from it, they
will become parallel after paffing through it; and if
the point from which they proceed be nearer the glafs
than its focal diftance, they will ftill continue to di¬
verge, though in a lefs degree than before.
y. When parallel rays fall upon a concave lens, they
will be made to diverge after paffing through it. If
they are diverging already before they fall upon the
glafs, they will diverge more after paffing through it;
or even if they are converging to a certain degree, they
will diverge upon paffing through a concave lens ; but
if the convergence is very great, they will converge af¬
ter paffing through the glafs, though to a more diftant
point than that at which they would otherwife have
met.
6. When an object is viewed through two convex
lienfes, its apparent diameter ought to be to its real
ene as the diftance of the focus of the objett-glafs is
to that of the eye-glafs ; but by reafon of the aberra¬
tion of the rays of light, the magnifying power will be
fomewhat greater dr lefs in-proportion to the diameter
of the objeft.
By thefe aphorifrns we are enabled to account for
the various effefts of dioptric machines, as refradting
telefcopes, mierofcopes, the camera obfcura, &c. See
Optics.
ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS.
I. Optical illujions.
_ On the bottom of the veflel ABCE, place three
pieces of money, as a {hilling, a half-mown, and
3.
RIGS.
crown ; the firft at E, the fecond at F, and the laft at Plate
G. Then place a perfon at H, where he can fee no CL.XK.
further into the veffel than I: and tell him, that by
pouring water into the veflel you will make him
fee three different pieces of money; bidding him
obferve carefully whether any money goes in with the
water.
Here you muft obferve to pour In the water very
gently, or contrive to fix the pieces, that they may not
move out of their places-by its agitation.
When the water comes up to K, the piece at E will
become vifible ; when it comes up to L, the pieces at
E and F will appear ; and when it rifes to M, all the
three pieces will be viable.
-From what has been faid of the refra&ion of light,
the caufe of this phenomenon will be evident: for while
the veffel is empty, the ray HI will naturally proceed
in a ftraight line : but in proportion as it becomes im-
merfed in water, it will be neceflarily refrafted into the
feveral diredlions NE, OF, PG, and confequently the
feveral pieces muft become vifible.
II. Optical Augmentation.
Take a large drinking glafs of a conical figure, that
is fmall at bottom and wide at top ; in which put a
ihilling, and fill the glafs about half full with water:
then place a plate on the top of it, and turn it quick¬
ly over, that the water may not get out. You will
then fee on the plate, a piece of the fize of a half
crown ; and fomewhat higher up, another piece of the
fize of a {hilling.
This phenomenon arifes from feeing the piece thro’
the conical furface of the water at the fide of the glafs,
and through the flat furface at the top of the water,
at the fame time : for the conical furface dilates the
rays, and makes the piece appear larger; but by the
flat furface the rays are only refra&ed, by which the
piece is feen higher up in the glafs, but ftill of its na¬
tural fize. That this is the caufe will be further evi¬
dent by filling the glafs with water ; for as the {hilling
cannot be then feen from the top, the large piece only
will be vifible.
III. Optical SubtraBion.
Against the wainfcot of a room fix three fmallp.-
pieces of paper, as A, B, C, at the height of your eye; !
and placing yourfelf directly before them, {hut your
right eye and look at them with the left; when yom
will fee only two of thofe papers, fuppofe A and B ;
but altering the pofition of your eye, you will then fee
the third and one of the firft, fuppofe A ; and by al¬
tering your pofition a fecond time, you will fee B and
C ; but never all three of them together.
The caufe of this phenomenon is, that one of the
three pencils of rays that come from thefe objefts, falls
conftantly on the optic nerve at D ; whereas to pro¬
duce diftinft vifion, it is neeeflary that the rays of
light fall on fome part of the retina E, F, G, H. We
fee by this experiment, one of the ufes of having two
eyes; for he that has one only, can never fee three-
objedls placed in this pofition, nor all the parts of one
objeft of the lame extent, without altering the fitua¬
tion of his-eye.
IV. Alternate Illufwn.
With a convex lens of about an inch focus,, look.
atten*
it
D I O P '
P’at« attentively at a filver feal, on which a cipher is engra-
CLX1I. ve(ji it w;il at firft appear cut in, as to the naked eye ;
but if you continue to obferve it fome time, without
changing your fituation, it will feem to be in relief*
and the lights and {hades will appear the fame as they
did before. If you regard it with the fame attention
ftill longer, it will again appear to be engraved : and
fo on alternately.
If you look off the feal for a few moments, when
you view it again, inftead of feeing it, as at firft, en¬
graved, it will appear in relief. If, while you are turn¬
ed toward the light, you fuddenly incline the feal,
while you continue to regard it, thofe parts that feem-
ed to be engraved will immediately appear in relief:
and if, when you are regarding thefe feeming promi¬
nent parts, you turn yourfelf fo that the light may fall
on the right hand, you will fee the fhadows on the
fame fide from whence the light comes, which will ap¬
pear not a little extraordinary. In like manner the
{hadows will appear on the left, if the light fall on that
fide. If, inftead of a feal, you look at a piece of money,
thefe alterations will not be vifible, in whatever fitua¬
tion you place yourfelf.
It has been fufpe&ed that this illufion arifes from
the fituation of the light: and in fa6I, “ I have ob-
ferved (fays M. Guyot, from whom this article is ta¬
ken), that when 1 have viewed it with a candle on the
right, it has appeared engraved ; but by changing the
light to the left fide, it has immediately appeared in
relief.” It ftill, however, remains to be explained,
why we fee it alternately hollow and prominent, with¬
out changing either the fituation or the light. Perhaps
* it is in the fight itfelf that we muft look for the caufe
of this phenomenon ; and this feems the more proba¬
ble, as all thefe appearances are not difcernible by all
perfons.
Mr William Jones of Holbom, has remarked to
us, that this illufion is ftill more extraordinary and
permanent, when you look at a cavity in a feal or
other objeft through the three eye-glaffes of a common
four glafs refracting telefcope : all cavities viewed thro'
thefe glaffes appear conftantly reliefs, in almoft all fitu-
ations of the light you fee them with.
V. ‘The Dioptrical Paradox.
A new and curious optical, or what may be called
properly a dioptrical, deception, has been made by Mr
W. Jones. Its effeCt is, that a print, or an ornament¬
ed drawing, with anv objeCt, fuch as an ace of diamonds,
Tig. 6. &c. in the centre F, will be feen as the ace of clubs
when it is placed in the machine ABDC, and viewed
'RIGS. 35
through a fingle glafs only contained in the tube E. plate
The conftruCtion of this machine is truly fimple.
The glafs in the tube F, which brings about this fur-
priiing change, is fomewhat on the principle of the
common multiplying glafs, as raprefented at G, which
by the number of its inclined furfaces, and from the
refraftive power of the rays proceeding from the ob-
jeCIs placed before it, {hows it in a multiplied ftate or
quantity. Its only difference is, that the fides of this
glafs are flat, and diverge upwards from the bale to a
point in the axis of the glafs like a cone : the number
of the fides is fix ; and each fide, from its angular po-
fition to the eye, has the property of refrafting
from the “border of the print F fuch a portion of it
(defignedly there placed), as will make a part in the
compofition of the figure to be reprefented: for the
hexagonal and conical figure of this glafs prevents any
fight of the ace of diamonds in the centre being feen ;
confequently the ace of clubs being previoully and me¬
chanically drawn in the circle of refraftion in fix diffe¬
rent parts of the border, at i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and artful¬
ly difguifed in the ornamental border by blending them
w’ith it, the glafs in the tube at E will change the ap¬
pearance of the ace of diamonds F into the ace of
clubs G. In the fame manner may other prints under¬
go fimilar changes, according to the will of an inge¬
nious draughtfman who may defign them. The figure
of the glafs is clearly fttown at H.
VI. The Camera Olfcura, or Dark Chamber.
Make a circular hole in the ftmtter of a window,
from whence there is a profpetl of the fields, or any
other objeft not too near; and in this hole place a con¬
vex glafs, either double or fingle, whofe focus is at the
diftance of five or fix feet (a). Take care that no
light enter the room but. by this glafs : at a dillance
from it, equal to that of its focus, place a pafteboard,
covered with the whiteft paper; which ftiould have a
black border, to prevent any of the fide rays from di-
fturbing the pifture. Let it be two feet and a half
long, and 18 or 20 inches high : bend the length of it
inwards, to the form of part of a circle, whofe diame¬
ter is equal to double the focal diftance of the glafs.
'Hien fix it on a frame of the fame figure, and put it
on a moveable foot, that it may be eafily fixed at that
exaft diftance from the glafs where the objects paint
themfelves to the greateft perfeftion. When it is thus
placed, all the objects that are in the front of the win¬
dow will be painted on the paper, in an inverted pofi-
tion (n), with the greateft regularity and in the moft
natural colours.
E 2 If
(a) The diftance (hould not be lefs than three feet ; for if it be, the images will be too fmall, and there
will not be fufficient room for the fpe&ators to Hand conveniently. On the other hand, the focus {hould never
be more than 15 or 20 feet, for then the images will be obfeure, and the colouring faint. The beft diftance Is
from 6 to 12 feet.
(b) This inverted pofition of the images may be deemed an imperfe&ion, but it is eafily remedied : for if
you ftand above the board on which they are received, and look down on it, they will appear in their natural
pofition : or if you ftand before it, and, placing a common mirror againft your breaft in an oblique direction,
look down in it, you will there fee the images treft, and they will receive an additional luftre from the reflec¬
tion of the glafs ; or place two lenfes, in a tube that draws out ; or, laftly, if you place a large concave mirror
at a proper diftanee before the picture, it will appear before the mirror, in the air, and in an eredt pofition.
36 DIOPTRICS.
Plate If you place a moveable mirror without the win-
CLXII. doW ; by turning it more or lefs, you will have on the
paper all the objects that are on each fide of the win¬
dow (c).
If inftead of placing the mirror without the window
you place it in the room, and above the hole (which
mull then be made near the top of the fhutter), you
may receive the reprefentation on a paper placed hori¬
zontally on a table ; and draw, at your leifure, all the
objects that are there painted.
Nothing can be more pleafing than this experiment,
efpecially when the objefts are-ftrongly enlightened by
the fun : and not only land-profpedts, but a fea-port,
when the water is fomewhat agitated, or at the fetting
of the fun, prefents a very delightful appearance.
This reprefentation affords the moft perfect model
for painters, as well for the tone of colours, as that
degradation of fhailes, occafioned by the interpofition
of the air, which has been fo jullly expreffed by fome
modern painters.
It is neceffary that the paper have a circular form ;
for otherwife, when the centre of it was in the focus
of the glafs, the two fides would be beyond it, and
confequently the images would be confufed. If the
frame were contrived of a fphericar figure, and the
glafs were in its centre, the reprefentation would be
ftill more accurate. If the objedt without be at the di-
ftance of twice the focal length of the glafs, the image
in the room will be of the fame magnitude with the
objedl.
The lights, fhades, and colours, in the camera ob-
feura, appear not only juft, but, by the images being re¬
duced to a fmaller compafs, much ftronger than in na¬
ture. Add to this, that thefe pictures exceed all others,
by reprefenting the motion of the feveral objeCts: thus
we fee the animals walk, run, or fly ; the clouds float
in the air ; the leaves quiver; the waves roll, &c. ; and
all in ftriCt conformity to the laws of nature. The beft
fituation for a dark chamber is direCtly north, and the
belt time of the day is noon.
VII. ToJhoiv the Spots on the Sun’s DIJh, by its Image
in the Camera Obfcura.
Put the objeCt glafs of a to or 12 feet telefcope
into the fcioptric ball, and turn it about till it be di-
reCUy oppofite to the fun (d). Then place the pafte-
board, mentioned in the laft experiment, in the focus
of the .lens ; and you will fee a clear bright image of
the fun, of about an inch diameter, in which the fpots
on the fun’s furface will be exaCtly deferibed.
As this image is too bright to be feen with pleafure
by the naked eye, you may view it through a lens whofe
focus is at fix or eight inches difiance ; which at the
fame time that it prevents the light from being offen-
five, will, by magnifying both the image and the fpots, Plate
make them appear to greater advantage. . CLXtjf,
VIII. To magnify fmall Objects by means of the Sun’s
Rays let into a Dark Chamber.
Lut the rays of light that pafs through the lens in
the fliutter be thrown on a large concave mirror, pro¬
perly fixed in a frame. Then take a flip or thin plate
of glafs; and fticking any fmall object on it, hold it
in the incident rays, at a little more than the focal di-'
ftance from the mirror ; and you will fee, on the op¬
pofite wall, amidft the reflected rays, the image of that
objeCt, very large, and extremely clear and bright.
This experiment never fails to give the fpeCtator the
higheft fatisfaCtion.
IX. The Portable Camera Obfcura*
The great pleafure produced by the camera obfcura
in the common form, has excited feveral to render it
more univerfally ufeful by making it portable ; eafily
fixed on any fpot, and adapted to every profpeCt. We
{hall not here examine the merits of the various forts
that have been invented; but content ourfelves with
deferibing two of late improved conftruCtions, as made
and fold by the opticians of the prefent time, and that
appear in their conftrudion the moft convenient and
advantageous of any yet contrived.
The pocket or portable camera obfcura, with a draw¬
er to draw out in the front, is reprefented in fig. 7. F; -
Ihe images of the objeCfs-before the inftrument are re¬
flected upon a glafs ground rough on its upper fide,
and that is placed at top of the hinder part of the
box, under the moveable cover reprefented in the figure.
The images reprefented thereon will afford a moft beau¬
tiful and perfeCt piece of perfpeCtive or landfcape of
whatever is before the camera, and more particularly
fo if the. fun ftiines upon the objeCts. The outlines of
them may eafily be traced on the glafs by a black-lead
pencil. There is fometimes a fcale of proportions pla¬
ced in the upper furface of the drawer, by which any
particular building or other objeCt may be drawn in a
given proportion or magnitude, and according to the
figures inferted on the fcale, which are adapted to the
focus or foci of the lenfes made ufe of in the camera.
The glaffes that are made ufe of in this camera are on¬
ly three, and are reprefonted in fig. 8. The convex pig. 8.
glafs A is placed in the front of the drawer of the °'
camera, and is of a focus agreeable to the length of
the box. The mirror CE reclines in the box in an
angle of 45 degrees from a perpendicular fituation.
The rays flowing from the objeCt F through the con¬
vex glafs A to the plane mirror CE, will be reflected
from it, and meet in points on the glafs placed hori¬
zontally
(c) There is another method of making the dark chamber; which is by a fcioptric ball, that is, a ball of
wood, through which a hole is made, in which hole a lens is fixed : this ball is placed in a wooden frame, in
which it turns freely round. The frame is fixed to the hole in the ftiutter ; and the ball, by turning about,
anfwers, in great part, the ufe of the mirror on the outfide of the window. If the hole in the window be no
bigger than a pea, the objeCts will be reprefented without any lens, though by no means fo diftinCily, or with
fuch vivid colours.
(d) When the fun is direCtly oppofite to the hole, the lens will itfelf be fufficient : or by means of the rnir*
ror on the outfide of-the window, as in Experiment VI. the lens will anfwer the purpofe at any time.
D I O P
Mate zonfally in the direction CD, and will form thereon
CLXIt. t}je aforementioned images. If on this glafs an oiled
paper or any other tranfparent fubftance be placed, the
images will be clearly reprefented, and fufficiently fo
to delineate them by a black-lead pencil or crayon. In-
itead of the glafs CD, or fometimes underneath it, is
often placed a double convex lens of a focus fomewhat
ihorter than the length of the box : this alteration con-
fiderably brightens the appearance of the images, and
renders them as vivid as ‘the objects themfelves, though
not quite fo accurate in their contours or outlines as
by the preceding method.
Another kind of portable camera obfcura is, where
the images are formed upon white paper, and the fe-
veral parts of the camera fold up out of a box fhaped
like a book or cheft. This way of the images being
formed on paper is a much preferable one to the pre¬
ceding method, and admits of their being traced on
the paper with the utmotl readinefs. This inftrument,
as open out of its cafe and ready for ufe, is reprefent-
ig. p, ed in fig. 9. The front and fides fold up to the height
of about two feet from the cafe EFG, by means of
hinges placed at P, H, &c. The head ABCD, about
five inches- fquare and high, containing the mirror L
and the convex lens beneath it, fits on at CD, and the
inner fquare tube of it is moved up and down by rack-
work and a pinion NM. This motion farves to adjuft
the convex lens J to its proper focal diftance from
the white paper placed within fide at the bottom
of the box EFG, fo that the images may be form¬
ed with the greateft poffible diftinftnefs. In tra¬
cing thefe images the face is applied clofe to the hole
in the front at K, and the hand in the lleeve in
the front at the bottom of FG. When the fides and
front are unhooked and folded down, they all lie clofe
in the box EFG, and the lid O folds down as a top on
them clofe, and the box remains then the fize of a
common folio book, and is covered with calf leather
and lettered on the back in perfeft imitation of one.
By the diagonal pofition of a plane mirror the cu¬
rious opera-glafs is cOnftrudled, by which any perfon
may be viewed in a theatre or public company, and yet
* know nothing of it. It confifts only in placing a con¬
cave glafs near the plane mirror, in the end of a fhort
round tube, and a convex glafs in a hole in the fide of
the tube. Then holding the end of the tube with the
glafs to the eye, all objefts next to the hole in the fide
will be refle&ed fo as to appear in a diredl line, forward,
or in a pofition at right angles to the perfon’s fituation
who is looked at. Plane glaffes inftead of a concave
and convex may be ufed; but in this cafe there will be
no magnitude of the objeft, but it will appear brighter.
It is called by opticians the diagonal opera-glafs.
X. The Magic Lantern.
This very remarkable machine, which is now known
over all the world, caufed great aftoniihment at its ori¬
gin. It is ftill beheld with pleafing admiration ; and
the fpeftator very frequently contents himfelf with
wondering at its effefts, without endeavouring to in-
veftigate their caufe. The invention of this ingenious
illufion is attributed to the celebrated P. Kercher, who
has publiihed on various fciences, works equally learn¬
ed, curious, and entertaining. Its defign is to repre-
TRIGS. 37
fent at large, on a cloth or board, placed in the dark, Plate
the images of fmall objects, painted with tranfparent CLX.IL
colours on plates of glafs.
The conftru&ion is as follows. Let ABCD be the
fide of a tin box, eight inches high, eight inches long, FiS t*»
and ten broad (or any other fimilar dimenfions), the
top of which muft have a funnel, with a cover, as re¬
prefented in fig. 11; which at the fame time it gives a
paffage to the fmoke, prevents the light from coming
out of the box. In the middle of the bottom of the
box mull be placed a low tin lamp E, which is to be
moveable. It Ihould have three or four lights, that mull
be at the height of the centre of the glalfes in the
tubes N and O. In the largell of .thefe tubes mud be
placed a glafs femiglobular lens N, about four inches-
diameter; and in the fmaller one a double convex lens
o, about 2^ inches diameter, and fix inches focus, the
length of the tubes holding them about 4.^ inches each:
the inner tube containing the fmall lens o mull be a
Hiding one, in order to adjull it at a proper dillance
from the painted Aiders, fo that the obje&s thereon-
may be dillindtly reprefented on the cloth or white
wall. A Ait or opening between the glafs N and
the front fide BGDH of the box mull be made large
enough to admit the Aiders to be pafled through, (as
in fig. 11.) The clearnefs of the light, and the ob¬
jects upon the cloth, will depend much upon the light
of the lamp : it will therefore be proved bell, to place,
inftead of the common lamp E, a kind of the new or
Argant’s Patent Lamp, which will be found confider-
ably to improve the effedl of the lantern by its fuperior
ftrength of light.
From the conftru&ion of this lantern it is evident,,
that when the glafs Aiders, with the painted figures,,
are placed in the groove or Alt in the lantern for
that purpofe, and the room darkened, a quantity of
light from the lamp at E will be collected by the lens
N, and refra£led upon the cloth placed oppofite; and
that by moving the Aiding tube containing the fmall
lens o gradually in or out as occafion may require,,
this lens will form images of the figures on the Aiders
in their diftihdl colours and proportions, with the ap¬
pearance of life itfelf, and of any fize from fix inches
to 7 feet, according to the diftance of the lantern from
the cloth. The lantern, with one of the Aiders ready
for ufe, is clearly reprefented in fig. 11. By the aid
of the new patent lamp aforementioned, confiderable
ufeful improvements are made to this lantern. Mr
Jones optician of Holborn has contrived an apparatus
to be applied to it, that converts it into a microfcope
by night ; and it fiiows all the variety of tranfparent
“and many of the opaque objedls magnified upon a cloth
or fkreen oppofite, fimilar to the figures above men¬
tioned, but not in fo large a degree ; about one or two*
feet diameter is the utmoft that can at prefent be ob¬
tained.
Method of Painting the Glaffes for the Lantern. Draw
on a paper the fubjedl you defire to paint, and fix
it at each end to the glafs. Provide a varnilh with
which you have mixed fome black paint; and with a
fine" pencil draw on the other fide of the glafs, with
very light touches, the defign drawn on the paper. If
you are defirous of making the painting as perfedl as
pottle, you ftiould draw fome of the outlines in their
‘ proper
3s D I O P T
Plate proper colours, provided they are the ftrongeft tints of
CLXII. t^gfe colours that are ufed. When the outlines are
dry, you colour the figures with their proper tints or
degradations. Tranfparent colours are moll proper
for this purpofe, fuch as carmine, lake, Pruffian blue,
verdigris, &c. and thefe mull be tempered with a
flrong white varnifh, to prevent their peeling off. You
are then to (hade them with black mixed with the fame
varnifh, or with biftre, as you find convenient. You
may alfo leave ftrong lights in fome parts, without any
colours, in order to produce a more ftriking effedi.
Obferve, in particular, not to ufe more than four or
five colours, fuch as blue, red, green, and yellow. You
fhould employ, however, a great variety of tints, to
give your painting a more natural air ; without which
they will reprefent vulgar objefts, which are by no
means the more pleafing becaufe they are gawdy.
When the lamp in this lantern is lighted, and, by
drawing out the tube to a proper length, the figures
painted on the glafs appear bright and well defined,
the fpeftator cannot fail of being highly entertained
by the fuccefiion of natural or grotefque figures that
are painted on the glaffes. This piece of optics may
be rendered much more amufing, and at the fame time
more marvellous, by preparing figures to which differ¬
ent natural motions may be given (e), which every
one may perform according to his own tafle; either by
movements in the figures themfelves, or by painting
the fubjedl on two glaffes, and paffing them at the fame
time through the groove, as will be feen in the next
experiment.
XI. To reprefent a Tetnpefi by the Magic Lantern.
Provide two plates of glafs, whofe frames are fo
thin that they may both pafs freely through the flit or
groove of the common magic lanterns at the fame time.
On one of thefe glaffes you are to paint the appear¬
ance of the fea, from the flighteft agitation to the moft;
Fig. 13. violent commotion. Reprefenting from A to B a calm ;
from B to C a fmall agitation, with fome clouds; and
fo on to F and G, which fhould exhibit a furious
ftorm. Obferve, that thefe reprefentatpns are not to
be diftinft, but run into each other, that they may form
a natural gradation : remember alfo, that great part
of the effedt depends on the perfe&ion of the painting,
and the pifturefque appearance of the defign.
Tig. 13. t^ie oth61- y°u are t0 paint veffels of differ¬
ent forms and dimenfions, and in different dire&ions,
together with the appearance of clouds in the tempef-
tuous parts-
You are then to pafs the glafs flowly through the
groove; and when you come to that part where the
ftorm begins, you are to move the glafs gently up and
down, which will give it the appearance of a fea that
begins to be agitated: and fo increafe the motion till
you come to the height of the ftorm. At the fame
time you are to introduce the other glafs with the (hips,
and moving that in like manner, you will have a natu¬
ral reprefentation of the fea, and of (hips in a calm
and in a ftorm. As you draw the glaffes flowly back,
RIGS.
the temped will feem to fubfide, the (ky grow clear,
and the (hips glide gently over, the waves. —By means CLX11.
of two glaffes difpofed in this manner you may like-
wife reprefent a battle, or fea-fight, and numberlefs
other fubjedts, that every one will contrive according
to his own tafte. They may alfo be madfe to reprefent
fome remarkable or ludicrous adtion between different
perfons, and many other amufements that a lively ima¬
gination will ealily fuggeft.
XII. The Nebulous Magic Lantern. '
The light of the magic lantern, and the colour of
images, may not only be painted on a cloth, but alfo
refledted by a cloud of fmoke.
Provide a box of wood or pafteboard (fig. 14.) of ,
about four feet high, and of feven or eight inches iquare
at bottom, but diminifhing as it afcends, fo that its aper¬
ture at top is but fix inches long, and half an inch
wide. At the bottom of this box there muft be a door
that (huts quite clofe, by which you ate to place in Fig. 14.
the box a chafing-difh with hot coals, on which is to
be thrown incenfe, whafe fmoke goes out in a cloud
at the top of the box. It is on this cloud that you are
to throw the light that comes out of the lantern, and
which you bring into a fmaller compafs by drawing
out the moveable tube. The common figures will here
ferve. It is remarkable in this reprefentation, that the
motion of the fmoke does not at all change the figures;
which appear fo confpicuous, that the fpedlator thinks
he can grafp them with his hand.
Note, In this experiment fome of the rays pafling
through the fmoke, the reprefentation will be much lefs
vivid than on the cloth ; and if care be not taken to
reduce the light to its fmalleft focus, it will be (till
more imperfect.
XIII. To produce the Appearance of a Phantom upon a
Pedejlal placed on the middle of a Table.
Inclose a common fmall magic lantern in a box
A B C D, that is large enough to contain alfo an in-jqg r.
dined mirror M; which muft be moveable, that it may
refledt the cone of light thrown on it by the lantern,
in fuch a manner that it may pafs out at the aperture
made in the top of the box. There (hould be a flap
with hinges to cover the opening, that the infide of
the box may not be feen when the experiment is ma¬
king. This aperture (hould likewife be oval, and of a
fize adapted to the cone of light that is to pafs thro*
it. There muft be holes made in that part of the box
which is over the lantern, to let out the fmoke; and
over that part muft be placed a chafing-difh of an ob¬
long figure, and large enough to hold feveral lighted
coals. This chafing-difti may be inclofed in a painted
tin box of about a foot high, and with an aperture at
top fomething like fig. 14. It (hould (land on four (hort
feet, to give room for the fmoke of the lamp to pafs
out. There muft alfo be a glafs that will afcend and
defcend at pleafure in a vertical groove ab. To this
glafs let there be fixed a cord, that, going over a pul¬
ley
(e) There are in the Philofophical Effays of M. Mufchenbroek, different methods of performing all thefe va¬
rious movements, by fome mechanical contrivances that are not difficult to execute.
D I O P
Plate ley c, pafles out of the box at the fide CD, by which
CLXII. the giafs may be drawn up, and will defcend by its own
weight. On this giafs may be painted a fpettre, or
any other more pleafing figure. Obferve that the fi¬
gures muft be contracted in drawing, as the cloud of
fmoke does not cut the cone of light at right angles,
and therefore the figures will appear longer than they
do on the giafs.
After you have lighted the lamp'in the lantern, and
put the miror in a proper direction, you place the box
or pedeftal ABCD on a table; and putting the cha-
fing-dilh in it, throw fome inctnfe in powder on the
coals. You then open a trap-door, and let down the
giafs (lowly ; and when you perceive the fmoke dimi-
nifh you draw up the giafs, that the figure may dif-
appear, and (hut the trap-door. This appearance will
occafion no fmall furprife, as the fpeCtre will feem to
rife gradually out of the pedeftal, and on drawing up
the giafs will difappear in an inftant. Obferve, that
when you exhibit this experiment, you muft put out
all the lights in the room; and the box (hould be pla¬
ced on a high table, that the fpeftators may not per¬
ceive the aperture by which the light comes out. Thp’
we have mentioned a fmall magic lantern, yet the
whole apparatus may be fo enlarged, that the phan¬
tom may appear of a formidable fize.
XIV- 77* Magic Theatre.
By making fome few additions to the magic lantern
with the fquare tube, ufed in Experiment X. various
fcenes, charafters, and decorations of a theatre may
be reprefented in a lively manner. In this experiment
it is quite neceffary to make the lantern much larger
than common, that the objefts painted on the glaffes,
being of a larger fize, may be reprefented 'with greater
precifion, and confequently their feveral characters
more ftrongly marked.
Ig_ jg. Let there be made a wooden box ABCD, a foot
and a half long, 15 inches high, and 10 wide. Let
it be placed on a (land EF, that muft go round it, and
by which it may be fixed with two fcrews to a table.
Place over it a tin cover, as in the common lantern.
Make an opening in its two narrowed (ides; in one of
which place the tube H, and in the other the tube I r
let each of them be fix inches wide, and five inches
high : in .each of thefe tubes place another that is
moveable, in order to bring the glades, or concave
mirror, that are contained in them, to a proper dtf-
tance. In the middle of the bottom of this box place
a tin lamp M; which muft be moveable in a groove,
that it may be placed at a proper diftance with regard
to the glaffes and mirror: this lamp (hould have five
©r fix lights, each of them about an inch long. At
the beginning of the tube H, toward the part N, make
an opening of an inch wide, which muft crofs it late¬
rally : another of three quarters of an inch, that muft.
erofs it vertically, and be nearer the box than the firft;
and a third of half an inch, that muft be before the
firft. The opening made laterally muft have three or
four grooves, the fecond two, and the third one: that
T It I C S. 3
different fubje&s of figures and decorations may be Plate,
paffed, either iidewife, afcending or defcending, fo cljXIb
that the feenes of a theatre may be the more exadlly
imitated (f). Inclofe thefe grooves between two con¬
vex re&angular glaffes, of iix inches long, and five
inches high, and of about 20 inches focus ; one of
which muft be placed at O, and the other toward P.
Have another tube of about a foot long, which
muft enter that marked H ; and at its outward extre¬
mity place a lens of about 15 inches focus. There
muft alfo be a third tube R, four inches long, into
which that marked I is to enter: to the exterior end of
this adjutt a concave mirror, whofe focus muft be at
feven or eight inches from its refledling furface.
The magic lantern being thus adjufted, nothing
more is neceffary than to provide glaffes, painted with,
fuch fuhjeftS as you would reprefent, according to the
grooves they are to enter. The lamp is then to be
lighted ; and placing a giafs in one of tlie grooves,
you draw out the moveable tubes till the object paints
itfelf on a cloth to the molt advantage : by which you
determine the diftance of the lantern and the (ize of
the image. You then make a hole in the partition of
that fize, and fix in it a plate of clear giafs, over which
you pafte a very thin paper, which muft be varnilhed,
that it may be as tranfparent as poflible.
On this paper are to be exhibited the images of
all thofe objects, that, by paffing fucceffively through
the grooves, are to reprefent a theatric entertain¬
ment. The exhibition will be very agreeable; becaufc
the magic lantern being concealed behind the parti¬
tion, the caufe of the illufion cannot by any means be
difcovered.
In order to (how more clearly In what manner a fub-
je£t of this fort (hould be painted, and the glaffes dif-
pofed, we will here make choice of the fiege of Troy
for a theatric fubjed ; in which will be found all the
incidents neceffary to the exhibition of any other fub-
jed whatever.—In the firft ad, the theatre may repre*-
lent, on one fide, the ramparts of Troy ; toward the
back-part, the Grecian camp; and at a further diftance,
the fea, and the ifle of Tenedos- We will fuppofethe-
time to be that when the Greeks feigned to raife the
fiege ; and embarked, leaving behind them the wood¬
en horfe, in which were contained the Grecian foldiefs.
—On a giafs, therefore, of the fame width with the
aperture made in the fide AC of the box, you are
to paint a deep blue curtain, lightly charged with or¬
naments, quite tranfparent. This giafs is to be pla¬
ced in the firft vertical groove ; fo that by letting it
gently down, its image may appear to rife in the fame
manner a$ the curtain of a theatre. All the glaffes.
that are to afcend or defcend muft be bordered with
thin pieces of wood, and fo exadly fill the grooves,
that they may not Aide down of themfelves You.
muft have feveral glaffes of a proper fize to pad through
the (horizontal grooves, and of different lengths ac¬
cording to the extent of the fubjeft. You may paint,
on the firft, the walls of Troy. On the fccond, the
Grecian camp. On the third, the fea, the ide of Te-
nedos, and a ferene (ky. On the fourth, the Grecian
troops
(f) In the decorations, the clouds and the palaces of the gods (houldBefcend caves and inferna palaces
ftould afcend ; earthly palaces, gardens, See. enter at the fides.
40
Piste
CLX1I.
D I O P r
troops fey detached figures. On the fifth, other troops,
difpofed in battalions, and placed at a diftance. On
the fixth, divers veffels, which as the glafs advances in
the groove diminilh in fi^e. On the feventh, the
wooden horfe and Sinon. On the eighth, Trojan men
and women.
Thefe glaffes being properly painted, you place in
tile horizontal grooves the firft, fecond, third, and
fourth. Then draw up the curtain, by letting down
the glafs on which it is painted, and draw away gently
the fourth glafs, and after that the fecond; then ad¬
vance very gently the fifth, that reprefents the em-
barkment, and pafs it quite through. Next pafs, the
oppofite way, the fixth, which reprefents the Grecian
fleet. The objefts painted on the fourth, fifth, and
fixth, quite difappearing, you are to advance the fe¬
venth, on which is painted the wooden horfe ; and at
the fame time the eighth, where the Trojans will ap¬
pear to draw the horfe into the city. The curtain is
then to be let down, that you may withdraw the fcenes
of the firft a<ft, and place in the grooves thofe that are
to compofe the fecond.—In the fecond adl may be re-
prefented the interior part of the city of Troy: on one
fide may be feen the wooden horfe, and in the back
part the temple of Pallas. The glaffes for this a& may
be painted in the following manner. On the firft
may be palaces and houfes, reprefenting the infide of
a city. On the fecond, the temple of Pallas in the
centre, with a clear night and the moon. In the front
may be feen the wooden horfe, that the Trojans have
placed ne#r the temple of Pallas. On the third, a troop
«f Greeks, with Sinon at their head, who are going
to open the gates of the city to the Grecians. On the
fourth, different troops of armed Greeks; painted on
a long glafs, to afford variety. On the fifth, feveral
troops of Trojans. On the fixth, various appearances
of fire and fmoke, fo difpofed, that, this glafs being
drawn up above the others, the objefts painted on the
firft glafs majr appear in a conflagration.
Before you draw up the curtain, you fhould place
the firft and fecond glaffes. You then pafs the whole
third glafs llowly ; a little after, the fourth, on which
are painted the different bodies of armed Greeks; and
at the fame time, from the oppofite fide, the fixth glafs,
that reprefents the Trojan troops ; obferving to move
them flowly both in advancing and retreating, to imi¬
tate a combat (cj. Then draw up, by degrees, the
fixth, on which are painted the fire, flame, and fmoke,
fo that the palaces and houfes painted on the firft glafs
may appear to take fire gradually, and at laft prefent
a general conflagration. After having reprefented thefe
incidents with the greateft attention, you let-fall the
curtain to prepare for the third adi. In this may be
reprefented the infide of Priam’s palace; where is feen
an altar, round which feveral Trojan princeffes appear,
who have fled thither for fafety. On the firft glafs
may be painted the palace. On the fecond, a view of
’ RIGS.
the back part of the palace, with the altar. On the
third, Priam with feveral Trojan men and women. On
the fourth, Pyrrhus and a troop of Greeks. On the
fifth, the fame aftors, with the palace in flames. On
the fixth, a conflagration.—The two firft glaffes which
are to be-drawn up, ftiould be placed before you raife
the curtain. Then pafs the third next advance the
fourth ; which being drawn up, difcovers on the fifth
the palace in fiames ; then drawing up the fixth, let
down the firft, that the palace may appear entirely de-
ftroyed by the conflagration.
The fourth aft may reprefent the environs of Troy,
with a diftant profpeft of the fea. The firft and third
glaffes of the firft aft may be here ufed; to which may
be added a third, reprefenting ./Eneas bearing his fa¬
ther Anchifes, followed by his fon lulus and fome
Trojans. With this glafs may be reprefented the flight
of the Trojans and the epibarkment of iEneas ; with
another glafs, on which are painted certain veffels.—
To this aft the following fcenes may be added : The
cave of tEoIus ; the back part of the cave ; vEolus;
the winds; Juno in her chariot.
The fifth aft fliould reprefent the open fea, with the
fleet of ./Eneas failing for Italy. On the firft glafs
muft be painted the fea, as in the eleventh Experiment,
or elfe the waves ftiould be imitated by another glafs
under the firft. On the fecond, the Trojan fleet. On
the third, Neptune in his car. On the fourth, the pa¬
lace of Jupiter. On the fifth, the infide of the palace;
the gods affembled in council, with Venus obtaining
leave of Jupiter for ./Eneas to land in Italy.—After ha¬
ving placed the firft glafs, that reprefents a calm fea,
the curtain is railed, and the fecond fcene is advanced,
which contains the Trojan fleet. The firft is then
brought forward, to reprefent a violent tempeft : then
railing the third glafs, Neptune appears, who com¬
mands the waves to be ftill, which is done by making
the tempeft fubfide by degrees. The fleet then advan¬
ces, and paffes over the whole theatre : prefently after
the fourth and fifth fcenes defeend, that reprefent O-
lympus, and finifh the exhibition.
Note, We muft here repeat, that if you would re¬
prefent, a fubjeft of this fort to advantage, it is quite
neceffary that the glaffes be well painted ; and thofe
that are to be in front fhould be in ftronger and more
opaque colours, that the images of thofe behind may
not appear mixed with them, which will be the cafe if
they are all equally tranfparent. The glaffes fhould alfo
- be of different lengths; that fome being placed before
the others are drawn away, their extremities may not
be perceived.
The larger thefe fubjefts are reprefented, the better
effedt they will have: the front of the theatre fhould
appear to be about three feet wide ; and if fome parts
of the figures were moveable, it would ftill add to the
variety of the entertainment.
(g) He that moves the
tion as natural as poflible;
glaffes, feeing the effeft they produce, is the better able to render the reprefenta-
Plate '
CLXIf.
N° tor.
DIGSCOREA,
DIO [ 41 ] DIO
Diofcorea DtOSCOREA, ia botany: A genus of the hexan-
Didnia ^r'a order, belonging to the diceciaclafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 1 ith order,
Sarmentacea. The male calyx is fexpartite; there is no
corolla : The female calyx is fexpartite ; no corolla;
three ftyles ; the capfule trilocular and compreffed ; and
there are two membranaceous feeds. There are eight
fpecies, of which the only remarkable one is the bulbi-
fera, or yam. This hath triangular winged Italks, which
trail upon the ground, and extend a great way: thefe
frequently put out roots from their joints as they lie
upon the ground, by which the plants are multiplied.
The roots are eaten by the inhabitants of both the In¬
dies ; and are particularly ferviceable in the Weil In¬
dia iilands, where they make the greateft part of the
negroes food. The plant is fuppofed to have been
brought from the Eaft to the Weil Indies ; for it has
never been obferved to grow wild in any part of Ame¬
rica ; but in the iiland of Ceylon, and on the coail of
Malabar, it grows in the woods, and there are in thofe
, places a great variety of forts. It is propagated by
cutting the root in pieces, obferving to preferve an eye
in each, as is praftifed in planting potatoes. One
plant will produce three or four large roots. The ikin
of thefe roots is pretty thick, rough, unequal, covered
with many itringy fibres or filaments, and of a violet
colour approaching to black. The infide is white, and
of the confiflence of red beet. It refembles the pota¬
to in its mealinefs, but is of a clofer texture. When
raw, the yams are vifcous and clammy : when roafted
or boiled, they afford very nourifhing food; and are of¬
ten preferred to bread by the inhabitants of the Wefl
Indies, on account of their lightnefs and facility of di-
gellion. When firfl dug out of the ground, the roots
are placed in the fun to dry : after which, they are ei¬
ther put into fand, dry garrets, or calks; where, if kept
from moiflure, they may be preferved whole years,
without being fpoiled or diminifhed in their goodnefs.'
The root commonly weighs two' or three pounds; tho’
fome yams have been found upwards of 20 pounds
weight.
DIOSCORIDES, a phyfician of Cilicia, who lived,
as fome fuppofe, in the age of Nero. He was origi¬
nally a foldier; but afterwards he applied himfelf to
lludy, and wrote a book upon medicinal herbs.
DIOSCURI A (horKoof,*, from Jupiter, and
MVfoi infants), in antiquity, a feltival in honour of the
Aioo-xoi/psi, or Caflor and Pollux, who were reputed to
be the fons of Jupiter. It was obferved by the Cyre-
neans, but more efpecially by the Spartans, whofe
country was honoured by the birth of thefe heroes.
The folemnity was full of mirth, being a time wherein
they lhared plentifully of the gifts of Bacchus, and
diverted themfelves with fports, of which wreltling
matches always made a part.
DIOSMA, African spiraea: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentartdria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of w'hich the order is doubtful. The corolla is penta-
petalous, the neftarium crown-lhaped above the ger-
men ; there are five capfules coalited ; the feeds hood¬
ed. There are nine fpecies ; of which the molt re¬
markable. are the hirfuta, with narrow hairy leaves; and
the oppofitifolia, with leaves placed in the form of a'
crofs. The firft is a very handfome fhrub, growimr to the*
Vol.VI. Parti.
height of five or fix feet : the llalks are of a fine coral Diopol?*
colour: the leaves come out alternately on every fide n.
of the branches, and are narrow-pointed and hairy : ~n Pyroa‘
the flowers are produced in fmall cluflers at the end of V ~'
the (hoots, and are of a white colour. They are fuc-
ceeded by flarry feed-veffels having five corners; in each
of which corners is a cell, containing one fmooth, fhi-
ning, oblong, black feed: thefe feed-veffels abound
with a tefin which emits a grateful feent, as doth alfo
the whole plant. —The fecond fpecies rifes to the height
of three or four feet: the branches are (lender, and
produced from the (lem very irregularly ; the leaves
are placed crofs-ways; the flowers are produced at the
ends of the branches, between the leaves: the plants
continue a long time in flower, and make a fine ap¬
pearance when they are intermixed with other exotics
in the open air. Both fpecies are propagated by cut- f
tings ; which may be planted during any of the fum-
mer-months in pots, and plunged into a moderate hot¬
bed, where they (hould be (haded from the fun, and
frequently watered. In about two months they will
have taken root; when each (hould be tranfplanted in¬
to a fmall pot where they are to remain ; but during
winter, like mod other exotic plants, they mud be
preferved in a green-houfe.
DIOSPOLIS (anc. geog.), a city of the Delta,
or Lovver Egypt; to the fouth of the Bufiritic branch,
before it divides into two.—Another of Bithynia, in
the territory of Heraclea.—A third, called Magna, de¬
noting Thebae of the Higher Egypt.—A fourth, Dwf~
polls Parva, the metropolis of the Nomos Diofpolites
of the Higher Egypt—A fifth, Diofpolis of Samaria,
the fame with Lydda.—A fixth Diofpolis; the ancient
name of Laodicea of Phrygia on the Lycus.
DIOSPOLITES NOMOS (Ptolemy), a divifion of
Thebais or the Higher Egypt, to diitinguifli it from
another of the Lower Egypt or the Delta; to the fouth
of the Nomos Thinites, on the wed fide of the Nile.
DIOSPYROS, the Indian date-plum : A genus
of the dicecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Bicornes. The calyx is hermaphro¬
dite and quadrifid ; the corolla urceolated and quadri-
fid ; there are eight (lamina ; the dyle quadrifid ; the
berry odtofpermous : the male calyx, corolla, and fta-
mina, as in the former. There.are two fpecies. 1. The
lotus, which is fuppofed to be a native of Africa, from
whence it was tranfplanted into feveral parts of Italy,
and alfo into the fouth of France. The fruit of this tree
is fuppofed to be the lotus wuth which Ulyffes and his
companions were enchanted, and which made thofe
who eat of it forget their country and relations: (See
alfo Rhamnus.) In the warm parts of Europe this
tree grows to the height of 30 feet. In the botanic
garden at Padua, there is one very old tree which has
been defefibed by fome of the former botanids under
the title of guaiacum pata-vinum. This tree produces
plenty of fruit every year ; from the feeds of which
many plants have been raifed. 2. The Virginiana,
pin(hamin, perfimon, or pitchumon plum, is a native
of America, but particularly of Virginia and Carolina.
The feeds of this fort have been frequently imported
into Britain, and the trees are common in many nur-
feries about London. It rifes to the height of 12 or
14 feet; but generally divides into many irregular
F trunks
DIP [ 42 ] DIP
Kphihcng trunks near the ground, fo that it is very rare to fee a
E>i lorn? han<tfome tree of this fort. .Though plenty of. fruit is
'tics. a' produced on thefe trees, it never comes to perfection
in this country. In America the inhabitants pre-
ferve the fruit till it is rotten, as is pra&ifed with medr
lars in England; when they are efteemed very plea-
fant. Both fpecies are propagated by feeds : and the
plants require to be treated tenderly while young; but
when they are grown up, they refill, the greatell cold
of this country.
DIPH THONG, in grammar, a double vowel, or
the mixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo as
to make one fyllable.
The Latins pronounced the two vowels in their diph¬
thongs ae or as, oe or oe, much as we do; only that
the one was heard much weaker than the other, tho’ the
divifion was made with all the delicacy imaginable.
Diphthongs, with regard to the eyes, are diftinguifhed
from thofe with regard to the ears : In the former, ei¬
ther the particular found of each vowel is heard in the
pronunciation ; or the found of one of them is drown¬
ed ; or, laftly, a new founds different from either, re-
fults from both : the firft of thefe only are real diph¬
thongs, as being fuch both to the eye and ear. Diph¬
thongs with regard to the ear are either formed of
two vowels meeting* in the fame fyllable, or whofe
founds are feverally heard ; or. of three vowels in the
fame fyllable, which only afford two founds in the, pro¬
nunciation.
Englilh diphthongs, with regard to the eye and ear,
are ai, an, ea, ee, oi, 00, ou. Improper Englifh diph¬
thongs, with regard to the eye only, are aa, ea, ee, eu,
ie, ei, oa, oe. ue, uL
DIPLOE, in anatomy, the foft meditullium, or
medullary fubftance, which lies between the two la¬
minae of the. bones of. the cranium. See Anatomy,
n° 11.
DIPLOMA. See Diplomatics.
In a peculiar fenfe, it,is ufed for an inflrument or li¬
cence given by colleges, focieties, &c. to a clergyman
to exercife the minifterial function, or to a phyfician
to pra&ife the profefiion, &c. after palling examina¬
tion, or admitting him to a degree.
jBul/ield's DIPLOMATICS, the fcience of diplomas, or of
Moments, ancient literary monuments, public documents, &c. It
does not.however, nor can it, abfolutely extend its re-
fearches to. antiquity; but is chiefly confined to the
middle age, and the firft centuries of modern times.
For though the ancients were accuftomed to reduce
their contracts and treaties into writing; yet they gra¬
ved them on tables, or covered them over with wax, or
brafs, copper, ftone, or wood, &c. And all that in
the firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble, has
perilhed by the length of time, and the number of de-
ftru&ive events.
1. The word diploma fignifies, properly, a letter or
epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and that is not
open. But, in more modern times,, the title has. been
given to all ancient epiftles, letters, literary monu¬
ments, and public documents, and to all thofe pieces of
writing which the ancients called Syngrapha, Chirogra-
fha, Codicilli, &c. In the middle age, and in the di¬
plomas themfelves, thefe writings are called Litterte,
Pracepta, Placita, Chart a indiculte, Sagilla, and Bulla;
as alfo Pane hart a, Pantocharta, TraSorU, Defcripiiones,
&c. The originals of thefe pieces arc named Exam* ^
plaria, or gluto.grapha. Chart# authentic#, Originalia, &c.,
and the^ copies, Apograph a, Copi#, Particul#, and fo U"
forth. The colledions that have been made of them,
are called Chartaria and Chartulia. The place where
thefe papers and documents were kept, the ancients
named Scrinia, ‘Tabularium, or JErarium, words that
were derived from the tables of brafs, and, according
to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archivum.
2. In order to underftand the nature of thefe ancient
papers, diplomas, and manuferipts, and to diftinguilh
the authentic from the counterfeit, it is neceffary to
know that the paper of the ancients came from Egypt,
and was formed of thin leaves or membranes, taken
from the branches of a tree named Papyrus, or Bihlum
JEgyptiacum, and which were palled one over the other
with the llime of the Nile, and were preffed and po-
lilhed with a pumice-ftone. This paper was very fcarce;
and it was of various qualities, forms, and prices, which
they diftinguilhed by the names of charta hieratica, lu-
ria, augujla, amphitheatrica, faitica, tanirica, emporetica,
&c. 1 hey cut this paper into fquare leaves, which
they palled ©ne to the other, in order to make rolls of
them : from whence an entire book was called volumen,.
from volvendo; and the leaves of which it confifted,
pagin#. Sometimes, alfo, they palled the leaves all
together by one of their extremities, as is now prac-
tifed in binding; by this method they formed the back
of a book, and thefe the learned call codices. They
rolled the volume round a Hick, which they named um-
bilicus; and the two ends that came out beyond the
paper, cornua. The title, wrote on parchment, in
purple charafters, was joined to the lad Iheet, and
ferved it as • a cover. They made ufe of all forts of
firings or ribbands, and even fometimes of locks, to
clofe the book ; and fometimes alfo it was put into a
cafe. But there is not now to be found, in any library
or cabinet whatever, any one of thefe volumes. We
have been affured, however, by a traveller, that he had
feen feveral of them in the ruins of Herculaneum; but
fo damaged, the paper fo ftiff and brittle, by the length
of time, that it was impoffible to unrol them, and con-
fequently to make any ufe of them; for on the firft
touch they fell into lhatters.
3. We are ignorant of the precife time when our
modern paper was invented : and when they began to
make ufe of pens in writing, inftead of the ftalks of
reeds. The ink that the ancients ufed, was not made
of vitriol and galls, like the modern, but of foot Some¬
times alfo they wrote with red ink made of vermilion;
or in letters of gold, on purple or violet parchment. It
is not difficult for thofe who apply themfelves to this
lludy, to diftinguifti the parchment of the ancients
from that of the moderns, as well as their ink and va¬
rious exterior chara£lers: but that which beft diftin- -
guifhes the original from the counterfeit is, the writing
or chara&er itfelf; which is fo diftin&ly different from -
one century to another, that we may tell with certain¬
ty, within about 40 or 50 years, when any diploma
was written.. There are two works which furnifh the
cleareft lights on this matter, and which may ferve as
fure guides in the judgments we may have occafion to
make on what are called ancient diplomas. The one
is the celebrated treatife on the Diplomatic, by F.
Mabillon; and the other, the fifft volume of the Chro-
6 nicon
DIP [ 43 1 DIP
nicon Gotvicenfe. We there find fpecunens of all the
^ts' charafters, the flourUhes, and different methods ofwri-
ting, of every age. For thefe matters, therefore, we
mull refer our readers to thofe authors; aud {hall here
only add, that,
4. All the diplomas are wrote in Latin, and confe-
quently the letters and characters have a refemblance
to each other: but thfre are certain ftrokes of the pen
which diftinguilh not only the ages, but alfo the diffe¬
rent nations; as the writings of the Lombards, French,
Saxon, &c. The letters in the diplomas are alfo ufually
longer, and not fo ftrong as thofe of manufcripts.
There has been alfo introduced a kind of court-hand,
of a very difproportionate length, and the letters of
which are called Exiles liftera, crifha, ac protrattiores.
The firft line of the diploma, the fignature of the fo-
vereign, that of the chancellor, notary, &c. are ufually
wrote in this charadler.
5. The fignature of a diploma confids either of the
fign of the crofs, or of a monogram or cipher, com-
pofed of the letters of the names of thofe who fub-
fcribed it. The initial letters of the name, and fome-
times alfo the titles, were placed about this crofs. By
degrees the cuftom changed, and they invented other
marks ; as, for example, the fign of Charlemagne was
thus:
R
They fometimes added alfo the dates and epoch of
the fignature, the feafts of the church, the days of the
kalendar, and other like matters. The fucceffive cor¬
ruption of the Latin language, the ftyle and ortho-
gtaphy of each age, as well as their different titles and
forms; the abbreviations, accentuation, and pundlua-
tion, and the various methods of writing the diph¬
thongs ; all thefe matters united, form fo many cha¬
racters and marks by which the authenticity of a di¬
ploma is to be known.
6. The feal annexed to a diploma was anciently of
white wax, and artfully imprinted on the parchment
itfelf. It was afterwai d pendent from the paper, and
inclofed in a box or cafe, which they called lulla.
There are feme alfo that are ftamped on metal, and
even on pure gold. When a diploma bears all the
characters that are requifite to the time and place where
it is fuppofed to be written, its authenticity is not to
be doubted: but, at the fame time, we cannot examine
them too fcrupuloufiy, feeing that the monks and
priefts of former ages have been very adroit in making
of counterfeits; and the more, as they enjoyed the
confidence of princes and ftatefmen, and were even
fometimes in poffeflion of their rings or feals,
7. With regard to manufcripts that were wrote be¬
fore the invention of printing, it is neceffary ( 1.), to
know their nature, their effential qualities, and matter;
(2.) to be able to read them freely, and without error 5
(3.) to judge of their antiquity by thofe characters
which we have juft mentioned with regard to the di¬
plomas; and, (4.) to render them of ufe in the feien-
ces. As there are fcarce any of the ancient codes now
remaining (fee par. 2.), wrote on the Egyptian paper,
or on wood, ivory, &c. we have only to confider thofe
that are written on parchment or vellum (mtmbraneos).
and fuch as are wrote on our paper (chariaceot). The Diploma.
former of thefe are in moft efteem. With regard to t:cs
the character, thefe codes are written either in fquare !!
and capital letters, or in half fquare, or round and fmall D:PP‘n ?-
letters. Thofe of the firft kind are the moft ancient. ^ ~
There are ne intervals between the words, no letters
different from the others at the beginning of any word,
no points, nor any other diftinCtion. The codes which
are wrote in letters that are half fquare, referable thofe
we have in Gothic characters, as well for the age as the
form of the letters. Such as are wrote in round let¬
ters are not fo ancient as the former, and do not go
higher than the ninth or tenth century. Thefe have
fpaces between the words, and feme pundtuation. They
are likewife not fo well wrote as the preceding, and
are frequently disfigured with comments. The codes
are divided, according to the country, into Lombard,
Italian, Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon, Anglo-.Saxon,
&c.
8. In the ancient Greek books, they frequently ter¬
minated the periods of a difeourfe, inffead of all other
divifion, by lines; and thefe divifions were called, in
Latin, verfus, from vertendo: for which reafon thefe
lines are Itill more properly named verfus than linae.
At the end of a work, they put down the number of
verfes of which it confifted, that the copies might be
more eafily collated : and it is in this fenfe we are to
underftand Trebonius, when he fays, that the pandeCts
contain 150,000 fane verfuum. Thefe codes were like¬
wife vel probe vel deterioris note, more or lefs perfeCt*
not only with regard to the calligraphy or beauty of
the character, but to the correction of the text alfo.
9. It is likewife neceffary to obferve, in ancient
codes, the abbreviations, as they have been ufed in dif¬
ferent centuries. Thus, for example, A. C. D. figni-
fies, Aulus Caius Decimus; Ap. Cn. Appius Cneius ;
Aug. Imp. Auguftus Imperator. The characters that
are called note, are fuch as are not to be found in the
alphabet; but which, notwithftanding, fignify certain
words. All thefe matters are explained in a copious
manner by Vofiius, and in the Chronicon Gotvicenfe.
Laftly, the learned divide all the ancient codes into
codices minus raros, rariores, editos, ts5 anecdotes. The
critical art is here indifpenfably neceffary: its re-
fearches, moreover, have no bounds; and the more, as
the ufe of it augments every day, by the difeoveries
that are made in languages, and by the increafe of
erudition.
DIPONDIUS, in the fcripture-language, is ufed
by St Luke to fignify a certain coin which was of very
little value. Our tranflation of the paffage is, sire not
two /parrows fold for two farthings? In St Matthew,
who relates the fame thing, we read Are not two fpar¬
rows fold for a farthing? The Greek reads ajfarion in-
ftead of as. Now ajfarion, as fome fay, was worth
half an as, that is to fay, four French deniers and ^th;
and, according to others, two deniers and -rj-ths. Di-
pondius feems rather to fignify half an as. Calmet,
DiCtion. Bibl. Lukexii. 6. Matt. x. 29.
Dr Arbuthnot differs in opinion from the author
laft quoted. He fays, that this coin was at firft libra-
Its, or of a pound weight; and even when diminifhed,
it retained the name of libella. So that dipondius de¬
notes two affes.
DIPPING, among miners, fignifies the interrup-
F 2 ties
PIP [ 44- 1 DIP
S'pping- tion or breaking off the veins of ore; an accident that
^Needle. gjves them a great deal of trouble before they can dif-
i cover the ore again. A great deal of the (kill of the
miners confilts in the underftanding this dipping of the
veins, and knowing how to manage in it. In Corn-
wall they have this general rule'to guide them in this
refpeft: moll of their tin-loads, which run from call
to weft, conftantly dip towards the north. Sometimes
they underlie; that is, they Hope down towards the
north three feet in height perpendicular. This mull
carefully be obferved by the miners, that they may
exadtly know where to make their air-ihafts when oc-
cafion requires; yet, in the higher mountains of Dart-
maer, there are fome confiderable loads, which run
north and fouth ; thefe always underlie toward the eaft.
Four or five loads may run nearly parallel to each
other in the fame hill; and yet, which is rare, they
may meet all together in one hatch, as it were a knot,
which well tins the place, and fo feparate again, and
keep their former diftances.
DippiNG-Ntedle, an inftrument ufed for obferving
the quantity of inclination towards the earth, affumed
by any needle or other body after it has acquired the
magnetic virtue. This was firft obferved by one Ro¬
bert Norman, an Englifhman, and maker of compaffes
for mariners, in the end of the 16th century; who
finding that he was always obliged to counterbalance
that end'which turns to the north by a bit of wax or-
fuch other fubftance, though the balance had been
ever fo exaft before, publiftied an account of his dif-
covery as a matter of importance. The fubjedt was
inftantly attended to ; and inftruments were not Only
contrived for afcertaining the quantity of the dip, but
various fpeculations formed concerning the caufe of
fuch a furprifing phenomenon.
The general phenomena of the dipping-needle are :
That about the equatorial parts of the earth it remains
in an horizontal pofition, but depreffes one end as we
recede from thefe; the north end if we go towards
the north, and the fouth end if we proceed towards
the fouth pole. The farther north or fouth that we
go, the inclination becomes the greater; but there is
no place of the globe hitherto difcovered where it points
diredtly downwards, though it is fuppofed that it
would do fo in fome part very near the pole. Its in¬
clination is likewife found to vary very confiderably at
different times in different places of the earth, and by
fome changes of fituation in fuch a manner as muft ap¬
pear at firft fight very unaccountable. Of all thofe
who have attempted the inveftigation of this obfcure
fubjedl, none have been more fuccefsful than M. Ca-
vallo, who in his Treatife on Magnetifm has given
particular attention to all the phenomena, and account¬
ed for them upon plain and rational principles, in the
following manner.
The dip of the magnetical needle in general may
be underftood from the following eafy experiment:
Lay an oblong magnet horizontally upon a table, and
over it fufpend another fmaller magnet (a fewing needle
to which the magnetic virtue has been communicated
will anfwer the purpofe), in fuch a manner as to re¬
main in an horizontal pofition when not difturbed by
another magnet. Now, if this laft fmall magnet or
• fewing needle, fufpended by the middle, be brought
juft over the middle of the large one, it will turn itfelf Dipping.*
in fuch a manner that the fouth pole of the fmall mag- N'eedle-;
net will point towards the north pole of the large one; "v " -
and if at an equal diftance from both, will remain in
an horizontal pofition. _ But if we move it nearer to
one of the poles than the other, it will readily be un¬
derftood that the correfponding end of the needle will
be attradled by the pole to which it approaches, and
of confequence inclined downwards; the contrary end
being proportionably elevated. It is likewife evident,
that this inclination will be greater or lefs according
to the diftance at which the fmall magnet is placed from
the pole of the large one; the attraction of the neareft
pole having always the greateft effect upon it. And
it is equally plain, that when brought direftly over one
of the poles of the large magnet, it' will turn its own
contrary one diredtly towards it, and thus lie exadtly
in the axis of the large or it.
The application of this experiment to the pheno¬
mena of the dipping-needle is obvious, as nothing
more is requifite for folving the whole my ft try than to
fuppofe the earth itfelf to be the large magnet, and the
magnetic needle or any other magnetic body the fmall
magnet in the experiment: for admitting that the north
pole of the earth poffeffes a fouth magnetifm, and that
the oppofite pole is poffeffed of a north magnetical.
polarity ; it appears, and the theory is confirmed by
experiment, that when a magnet is fufpended properly
in the equatorial parts of the world, it muft remain in
an horizontal pofition ; but when removed nearer to
one of the poles, it muft incline one of its extremities,
viz. that which is poffeffed of the contrary magnetic
polarity ; and that this inclination muft increafe in
proportion as the magnet or magnetic-needle recedes
from the equator of the earth; and, laftly, when brought
exactly upon either of the poles of the earth, it muft
•Hand perpendicular to the ground, or in the fame di¬
rection with the axis of the earth.
The only difficulty in this explanation arifes from
the attributing a fouth magnetifm to the north pole
of the earth : but by this our author means only that
its magnetifm is contrary to that end of the magnetic
needle which turns towards it; and in the fame man¬
ner it muft be underftood, that the fouth pole of the
earth has a north magnetic polarity.
If the extremities of the axis of the earth, or the
poles about which it performs its diurnal revolution,
coincided with its magnetic poles, or even if the mag¬
netic poles were always at a certain diftance from them,
the inclination of the needle would be always the fame
at equal diftances from the equator, and might be very
ufeful for determining the latitudes. But it would
feem, that thefe poles are perpetually ffiifting their
place, fince both the inclination and horizontal direc¬
tion of the needle are continually varying even in the
fame place ; fo that its quantity of inclination cannot
be exactly calculated. Two general remarks may be
made upon this fubjedk. i. That the inclination of
the needle does not alter regularly in going from north
to fouth,, or from fouth to north, in any meridian.
2. That its alteration in the fame place, and at differ¬
ent times, is but fmall. Thus, in London, about the
year 1576, the dip was 71° 50' below the horizon, and
in 1775 it flood at 720 3'; the alteration in near 200
years
DIP [
■ years fcarce amounting to three quarters ®f a degree,
which may be attributed to the errors of the inltru-
' ments ; as thefe were at firft exceedingly erroneous,
* and even yet are far from being arrived at perfection.
The general method of conftrudting dipping-needles
is, to pafs an axis quite through the needle itfelf, and to
let the extremities of the axis reft upon two fupports,
like the beam of a pair of fcales, that the needle may
move vertically round; and hence, when placed in the
magnetic meridian, it will naturally affume that pofi-
tion which is called the magnetic line, viz. the two
ends nearly north and fouth, and one of them inclined
confiderably to the horizon. The degrees of this in¬
clination are (hown upon a graduated circle; and when
the inftrument is made ufe of at land it has a ftand,
but at fea a ring is neceffary to fufpend it. When
furnifhed with a ftand, it has alfo a fpirit-level; and
the ftand has three fcrews, by which the whole is ad-
jufted in fuch a manner as to let the centre of motion
in the needle, and the mark of 90° on the lower part
©f the divided circle, be exactly in the fame line per¬
pendicular to the horizon.
The greateft imperfections attending this inftru¬
ment are the balancing of the needle itfelf, and the
difficulty of knowing whether, after being made mag¬
netic, it be properly balanced or not. The Inaccuracy
here indeed can be but very fmall, as ariling only from
duft or moifture. The method recommended by Mr
Cavallo to obviate thefe inconveniences, is firft to ob-
ferve the dip of the needle; then to reverfe its magne-
tifm by the application of magnets, fo that the end of
it which before was elevated above the horizon may
now be below it j and, laftly, to obferve its dip again;
for a mean of the two obfervations will be pretty near
the truth, though the needle may not be perfectly ba¬
lanced.. See Magnetism, and Magnetical Needle.
DIPSACUS, teazel, in botany: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 48th oxter. Aggregate. The common calyx is po-
lyphyllous, proper above; the receptacle paleaceous.
There are four fpecies; the moft remarkable of which is
the carduus fullonum, which grows wild in many parts-
of England. It is of Angular ufe in railing the knap
upon woollen cloth. For this purpofe, the heads are
fixed round the circumference of a large broad wheel,
which is made to turn round, and the cloth is held againft
them. In the weft of England, great quantities of the
plant are cultivated for the ufe juft now mentioned. It
is propagated by lowing the feeds in March, upon a
foil that is well prepared. About one peck of feed is
fufficient for an acre, as the plants muft have room to
grow ; otherwife the heads will not be large enough,
nor in great quantity. When the plants come up,
they muft be hoed in the fame manner as is praftifed
for turnips, cutting down all the weeds, and thinning
the plants to about eight, inches diftance ; and as the
. plants advance, and the weeds begin to grow again,
they muft be hoed a fecond time, cutting out the plants
to a wider diftance, fo that they may finally ftand a
foot diftant from each other.. The fecond year they
will ftioot up heads, which may be cut about the be¬
ginning of Auguft. They are then to be tied up in
bunches, and fet in the fun if the weather is fair ; or
if not, in rooms to dry them. The common produce
4
4J 1 DIP
is about 160 bundles or ftaves upon an acre, which are Dipfas
fold for one ffiiiling each. |) ’
The leaves of the common wild teazel, dried, and
given in powder or infuiion, are a very powerful re- .
medy againft flatufes and crudities in the ftomach.
There is alfo another, though fomewhat whimfical, ufe
for which this plant is famous among the country peo¬
ple in England. If the heads ate opened longitudi¬
nally, about September or October, there is generally
found a fmall worm in them : one of thefe only is found
in each head, whence naturalifts have named it the ver¬
mis folitarius dipfaci. They collect three, five, or feven
of thefe, always obferving to make it an odd number ;
and, fealing them up in a quill, give them to be worn
as an amulet againft the ague. This fupperftitious ,
remedy is in much higher repute than the bark, in ma¬
ny parts of England.
DIPSAS, a fort of ferpent, the bite of which pro¬
duces fuch a thirft as proves mortal; whence its name
dipfas, which fignifies thirfty. In Latin it is called
Jitula, “ a pail.” Mofes fpeaks of it in Deut. viii. 1 r.
DIPTERA (from and ■artpav, wing), in zoolo¬
gy, an order of infe&s, which have only two wings,
and under each wing a ftyle or oblong body, termi¬
nated by a protuberance or head, and called a la-
lancer.
DIPTOTES, in grammar, are fuch noyns as have
• only two cafes, as fuppetie,fuppetias, 8cc.
DIPTYCPIA, in antiquity, a public regifter, where¬
in were written the names of the confuls, and other
magiftrates, among the heathens ; and of biffiops, and
defundt as well as furviving brethren, among the
Chriftians.
The word is formed from the Greek hrrvgxt, or
inTTuga, and that from a mafeuline noun de¬
rived from arvora I fold, or plait. From its future
is formed wt-u? a fuld or plait, to which add¬
ing twice, we have in the genitive j,3-ru^of}
whence the nominative neuter q. d. a book
folded in two leaves ; though there were fame in three,
and others in four or five leaves. An ingenious au¬
thor imagines this name to have been firft given them
to diftinguiffi them from the books that were rolled,,
called volumina.
It is certain there were profane diptych a in the
Greek empire, as well as facred ones in the Greek
church. The former were the matricula, or regifter,
wherein the names of the magiftrates were enter,
ed ; in which fenfe diptycha is a term in the Greek
chancery.
Sacred DiP<rrcHA. The word is plural; diptycha
being a double catalogue, in one whereof were writ¬
ten the names of the living, and in the other thofe of
the dead, which were to be rehearfed during the office.
We meet with fomething not unlike the facred dip-
tychsof the Greeks, in the canon of the mafs accord¬
ing to the Latin ufage; where the people are enjoin¬
ed to pray once for the living, and once for the dead j
feveral faints are invoked in different times, &c. In.
thefe diptycha were entered the names of biihops, who
had governed their flocks aright; and thefe were never
expunged out of the fame, unlefs they were convifted
of herefy, or fome other grofs crime. In the diptycha
were likewife entered the names of fuch as had done
any fignal fefvice to the church, whether they were
living
DIB. f 4<5 ] DIR
living or dead, and mention was made of them in the DIRIGENT, or Directrix, a term in geometry, Dirigent ?
celebration of the liturgy. fignifying the line of motion, along which the deferi- H . I
Cafaubon, in his obfervations on Athenseus, lib. vi. bent line or furface is carried in the genefis of any plane 'nient10*^
cap. 14. fuppofes the Chriftians to have borrowed the or folid figure. ‘-—‘Y
euftom of writing names in a book, and rehearfing DIS, an infeparable article prefixed to divers words;
'them at mafs, from the heathens, who entered the the efFeft whereof is either to give them a fignification
names of perfons they would do any fignal honour to, contrary to what the fimple words have, as difobligz,
"in the verfes of the Salii; as was done to Germanicus difobey, &c.; or to fignify a feparation, detachment,
and Verus, fons of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and &c. as dtfptjing, dijlributing.
long time before, during the age of the republic, to Dis, a town of Norfolk, feated on the river Wave-
Mamurcus Veturius, and Lucia Volumnia, as we are nay, on the fide of a hill. It is a neat ilourifhing town,
•told by Tacitus, lib. ii. Spartian, Ovid, Feftus, Plu- with one large church, a Prelbyterian and a (Quaker
tarch, &c. But Fa. Rofweyd does not approve this meeting. It has about 600 good houfes, the Itreets
’ c ended St Dionyfius, u are well paved, pretty wide, and always clean. At
■itrary, and afferts the the weft end of the town is a large meer or lake; but
yhave been founded fo muddy, that the inhabitants can make no other ufe
aim cxvi. 15. Rof- of it but in catching of eels. In the town are carried
and takes thefe to have on manufactories of fail-cloth, hofe, and the making
t . hurch had a view to, of ftays. E. Long. 1. 16. N. Lat. 52. 25.
Dis, a god of the Gauls, the fame as.Pluto the
notion of Cafaubon. !phe ?
very ancient author, ft \ j
'firft eftabliftunent of tl,
on Scripture, 2 Tim. ii.
vveyd adds Ecclefiaftic. xb
been the paffages the am
'rather than the Salian verfes.
The profane diptycha were frequently fent as pre- god of hell. The inhabitants of Gaul fuppofed them-
fents to ptinces, &c. on which occafion they were fine- felves defeended from that deity.
■ly gilt, and embellilhed ; as appears from Symmachus, DISA, in botany : A genus of the diandria order,
lib. ii. ep. 81. Thofe prefented w’ere ufually of ivory, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants. The fpa*
The firft law, Be Expenf. Ludor. C. Theod. forbids tba is univalvular ; the petals three ; the third fmaller
all magiflrates below confuls to make prefents of dip- than the reft, bifid, and gibbous at th£ bafe.
•tycha of ivory in the puplic ceremonies. DISABILITY, in law, is when a man is difabled,
D1RCA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia or made incapable to inherit any lands, or take that
order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants ; and benefit which otherwife he might have done : and this
in the natural method ranking under the 31ft order, may happen four ways; by the aft of an anceftor, or
Veprecula. There is no clayx ; the corolla is tubular, of the party himfelf; by the. aft of God, or of the
with the limb indiftinft ; the ftamina are longer than law. 1. Difability by the aft of the anceftor, is where
;the tube ; the berry is monofpermous. the anceftor is attainted of high treafon, Sic. which
DIRiE, the general name of the three Furies in the corrupts the blood of his children, fo that they may
"Pagan fyftem of theology. They were fo called, as not inherit his eftate. 2. Difabiiity by the aft of the
hc\n^~quqfi Deorum irue, the minifters of divine ven- party, is where a man binds himfelf by obligation, that,
geanc in punilhing guilty fouls after death. They upon furrender of a leafe, he will grant a new eftate
were the daughters of Night and Acheron. See Furies. to a leffee ; and afterwards he grants over the rever-
DIRECTlON, in mechanics, fignifies the line or fion to another, which puts it out of his power to per-
path of a body’s motion, along which it endeavours to form it. 3. Difability by the aft of God, is where a
proceed according to the force imprefled upon it. See man is non fana memcria, whereby he is incapable to
Mechanics. make any grant, &c. So that, if he pafieth an e-
DIRECTOR, in commercial polity, a perfon who ftate out of him, it may after his death be made void;
has the management of the affairs of a trading company: but it is a maxim inlaw, “ That a man of full age
thus we fay, the direftors of the India company, South- {hall never be received to difable his own perfon.” 4.
fea company, &c. See Company. Difability by the aft of the law, is where a man by the
The diveftors are confiderable proprietors in the foie aft of the law, without any thing by him done,
ftocks of their refpeftives companies, being chofen by is rendered incapable of the benefit of the law; as an
plurality of votes from among the body of proprietors, alien born, &c.
The Dutch Eaft India company have 60 Inch direc- DISANDRA, in botany: A genus oftthe digynia
tors ; that of France, 2 \; the Britifti Eaft India com- order, belonging to the heptandria clafs of plants. The
pany has 24, including the chairman, who may be re- calyx has feven leaves; the corolla parted into feven,
elected for four years fuceeffively. Thefe laft have fa- and flat; the capfule two-celled,
laries of 150!. a-year each, and the chairman 2001. Islands ot DISAPOINTMENT, arc a clufter of
They meet at leaft once a-week, and commonly oftener, fmall iflands, lying in S. Lat. 14. TO. W.Long. 141.
being fummoned as occafion requires. The direftors 16. They were difeovered by Commodore Byron in
of the Bank of England are 24 in number, including 1765, who gave them their name from the {bores af-
governor and-.deputy governor. fording do anchorage for his {hips; for which reafon
Director, in furgery, a grooved probe, to direft he was obliged to quit them without landing, or pro-
the edge of the knife or feiffars in opening finufes or curing any refrefliments for his crew, who were then
fiftulse, that by this means the adjacent veffel, nerves, ilanguiftiing with ficknefs. They are inhabited by In-
and tendons, may remain unhurt. See Surgery. dians, who appeared on the beach with fpears in their
DIRIBIl ORES, among the Romans, officers ap- hands, that were at leaft 16 feet long. They every
pointed to diftribute tablets to the people at the co- where difeovered hoftile intentions, and feemed by figns
Biitia. See Comitia. to threaten the people in the boat with death if they
BIS T 47 1 D 1 s
B!ft came aftdre. There are cocoa-trees in great abundance,
II and the (hore abounds with turtle.
Bifapline. DISC, in antiquity, a quoit made of ftone, iron,
or copper, five or fix fingers broad, and more than a
foot long, inclining to an oval figure, which they
hurled in form of a bowl, to a vaft diftance, by the
help of a leathern thong tied round the perfon’s hand
who threw it, and put through a hole in the middle.
Homer has made Ajax and Ulyffes great artiils at this
fport.
Disc, in aftronomy, the body and face of the fun
and moon, fuch as it appears to us on the earth ; or
tire body and face of the earth, fuch as it appears to a
fpeftator in the moon.
Disc, in optics, is the width of the aperture of te-
lefcopic glaffes, whatever their form be, whether plain,
convex, concave, &c.
DISCERNING, or Discernment, a faculty of
the mind whereby it diftinguiflres between ideas. See
Metaphysics.
DISCIPLE, one who learns any thing from ano¬
ther: thus, the followers of any teacher, philofopher,
&c. are called difciples. In the Chriftian fenfe, they
were followers of Jefus Chrift, in general; but in a
more reftrained fenfe, the difciples denote thofe alone
who were the immediate followers and attendants on
his perfon, of which there were 70 or 72. The names
difciple and apojile are often fynonymoufly ufed in the
gofpel-hiftory ; but fometimes the apoftles are diftin-
guilhed from difciples, as peWons fele&ed out of the
number of difciples, to be the principal minifters of
his religion: of thele there were only 12. The Latins
kept the feftival of the 70 or 72 difciples on July 15th,
and the Greeks on January 4th.
DISCIPLINE, in a general fenfe, denotes inftrue-
tion and government, as military difcipline, ecclefiaf-
tical difcipline, &c.
Ecclefiaftical difcipline confifts in putting thofe laws
in execution by which the church is governed, and in-
fiifting the penalties enjoined by them againft the fe-
veral forts of offenders that profefs the religion of Je¬
fus. The primitive church never pretended to exercife
difcipline upon any but fuch as were within her pale,
in the largeft fenfe, by fome aft of their own profef-
fion; and even upon thefe fhe never pretended to ex¬
ercife her difcipline fo ’far as to cancel or difannul their
baptifm: all that fhe pretended to, was to deprive men
©f the benefits of external communion, fuch as public
prayer, receiving the, eucharift, and other afts of di¬
vine worfhip. The church-difciplinq was only confined
to the admonition of the party, and to the leffer and
greater excommunication
As to the objefts of ecclefiaftical difcipline, they
were all fuch delinquents as fell into great and fcan-
dalous crimes after baptifm.
Difcipline, in- a more peculiar fenfe, is ufed for the
chaftifements or bodily punifhments inflifted on a re¬
ligious of the Romifh church who has been found a
delinquent; or even for that which, the religious volun¬
tarily undergo or inflift on themfelves, by way of mo¬
dification.
Book of Discipline in the hiftory of the church of
Scotland, is a common order, drawn up by the af-
fcmbly of minifters in 1650, for the reformation and
uniformity' to be obferved in the difciphne and policy Difco-tf:
of the church. In t-his book the government of the
church by prelates is fet afide, church-feffions are e-
ftablifhed, the fuperftitious obfervation of faft-days
and faints days is condemned, and other regulations
for the government of the church are determined.
This book was approved by the privy-council, and is
called the firjl book of difcipline.
DISCORD, in general, fignifies difagreement, or
oppofition between different perfons or things.
Discord, in mufic, every found which, joined with
another, forms an affemblage difagreeable to the ear ;
or rather, every interval whole extremes do not coa-
lefce. Now, as there are no other concords or confo-
nances, except thofe which form amongft themfelves,
and with their fundamental found, perfeft chords, it
follows, that every other interval muff be a real diffo-
nance or difcord: even the third and fixth were rec¬
koned fuch among the ancients, who excluded them
from the number of confonant chords.
The term diffonance, which is fynonymous with dif¬
cord, is compounded of two words, the infeparable
prepofition dis and the verb fonare ; which, both in a
literal and metaphorical fenfe, fignifies difagreement or
difunion. In reality, that which renders diffonances.
grating, is, that the founds which form them, far from
uniting in the ear, feem to repel each other, and are
heard each by itfelf as two diftinft founds tho’ produced
at the fame time.
This repulfion or violent ofoillation of founds is
heard more or lefs as-the vibrations which produce it
are more or lefs frequently coincident. When two vo¬
cal firings are gradually tuned, till they approach a
confonant interval, the pulfations become flower as
the chord grows more juft, till at laft they are fcarcely
heard, if heard at all; from whence it appears certain,
that the pleafure produced in us by harmony refults
from the more or lefs exaft and frequent coincidence
of vibrations; though the reafon why this coincidence
Ihould give pleafure, more than any other modifica¬
tion or combination of founds, appears to us infcru-
table. The agreeable effefts of diffonance in harmony,
are no objeftion to this theory ; fince it is allowed,
that the fenfations excited by difcord are not in them¬
felves immediately and neceffarily pleafing, but only
pleafe by auricular deception. The ear is furprifed
with the ftioek it receives, without being able to ima¬
gine how it (hould have happened ; and in proportion
as it is harfh and grating, we feel the pleafure of re¬
turning harmony enhanced, and the difappointment
of being artfully and infenfibly extricated more agree¬
able.
The name of diffonance, is given fometimes to the in¬
terval, and fometimes to each of the two founds which,
form it. But though two founds equally form a dif¬
fonance between themfelves, the name is moft frequent¬
ly given to that found in particular which is moft ex¬
traneous to the chord.
The number of poffible diffonances is indefinite
but as in mufic we exclude all intervals which are not
found in the fyftera received, the number of diffonances
is reduced to a very few: befideSj in praftice, we can
only feleft from thofe few, fuch as are agreeable to tlie
fpecies, and the mode in which we compofe; and from
this,.
D I S [ 48 ] D I S
’ Diicord this laft number we muft exclude fucb as cannot be ufed
II confidently with the rules prefcribed. But what are
Irfeount. ruics ? Have they any foundation in nature, or
are they merely arbitrary ? This is what RoufTeau,
whom in this article we have followed or abandoned
as his obfervations appeared ufeful or frivolous, pro-
pofes to inveftigate as its principal objetd.
But where does his fcrutiny terminate? Not in the
abolition of the rules prefcribed. Thefe have ftill fub-
fifted, and will ftill fubfift, while the frame of man,
and the nature of mufic, remain what they are. If then
the rules be permanent and univerfal, the principle
upon which they are founded may be latent or ambi¬
guous; but the rules themfelves can never be purely
arbitrary. How elfe could it happen, that Rameau,
D’Alembert, and Roufleau, ftiould admit the force and
effect of thefe rules, whilft each of thofe mafters exerts
his whole genius to give a different account of their
caufe and origin? Rouffeau himfelf, as we have feen in
a former article, inculcates the noceffity of diffonances
for the completion of harmony; (fee Chord). Now
if this be true, the eafieft methods of introducing and
difmiffing thefe difcords muft be the moft eligible,
and of confequence the rules for ufing them muft be
eftablifhed. It is not then upon the fubfiftence or de¬
molition of any particular theory that they depend.
Should we attend to the particular obje&ions which
may be urgedagainft any fyftem whatever; where is the
theory which will be found proof againft the efforts of
fcepticifm ? After all, the objections of Rouffeau againft
Rameau’s theory, as applied by D’Alembert to the
origin of confonances, (fee Music, art. 94, 95, 96,
97, 98, 99,) appear to be much more frivolous than
the analogies from which he pretends this origin to be
deduced. It appears from D’Alembert’s expofition
of this theory, that, if not for all, it affords a folution
for the moft material and effential phenomena in har¬
mony ; which is fufficient for its eftabliihment, till an¬
other can be found, which gives a rational and con-
fiftent account of the whole: a difcovery which has not
yet been made. But, whilft we acknowledge the fu¬
tility of Rouffeau’s objections againft D’Alembert’s
explication of diffonances, we muft at the fame time
admire the ingenuity with which he has deduced them
from principles purely mechanical, without departing
from the fyftem of M. Rameau. This mechanical ex¬
plication will be found in his Mufical Dictionary,
under the article Di/fonance.
Discord, (the goddefs of), in Pagan theology.
She is reprefented by Ariftides with fiery eyes, a pale
countenance, livid lips, and wearing a dagger in her
bofom. It was fhe who at the marriage of Peleus and
Thetis threw in the golden apple, whereon was written ,
“ To the faireftwhich occafioned a contention be¬
tween the goddeffes Juno, Minerva, and Venus; each
pretending a title to the apple. She was likewife call¬
ed Jlte and Erls.
DISCOVERY, in dramatic poetry, a manner of
unravelling a plot or fable in tragedies, comedies, and
romances; wherein, by fome unforefeen accident, a
difcovery is made of the name, fortune, quality, &c.
of a principal perfon, which were before unknown.
See Catastrophe.
DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among traders,
merchants, and bankers. It is ufed by the two former
NQIQ2.
on occafion of their buying commodities on the ufual Diferete,
time of credit, with a condition that the feller fhall al- D‘icretion.
low the buyer a certain difcount at the rate of fo much “■ v——*
per cent, per annum, for the time for which the credit
is generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays
ready money for fuch commodities, inftead of taking
the time o'f credit. Traders and merchants alfo fre¬
quently taking promiffory notes for moneys due pay¬
able to them or order at a certain time, and fome-
times having occafion for money before the time is e-
lapfed, procure thefe notes to be difcounted by bankers ^
before the time of payment. Bills of exchange are
alfo difcounted by bankers,; and in this confifts one
article of the profits of banking. See Bank.
DISCRETE, or disjunct. Proportion, is when
the ratio of two or more pairs of numbers or quantities
is the fame, but there is not the fame proportion be¬
tween all the four numbers. Thus if the numbers
3 : 6 :: 8 : 16 be confidered, the ratio between 3 : 6
is the fame as that between 8:16, afid therefore the
numbers are proportional: but it is only difcretely or
disjUndtly, for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 ; that is, the
proportion is broken off between 8 and 3, and is not
continued as in the following continual proportionals,
3 : 6:: 12:24.
DISCRETION, prudence, or knowledge to go¬
vern one’s felf.
There are many more Alining qualities in the mind
of man, but there is none fo ufeful as difcretion ; it is
this indeed that gives a value to all the reft, which fets
them at work in their proper times and places; and turns
them to the advantage of the perfon who is poffeffed of
them. Without it learning is pedantry, and wit imper¬
tinence ; virtue itfelf looks like weaknefs; the beft parts
only qualify a man to be more fprightly in errors, and
adlive to his own prejudice.
Nor does difcretion only make a man mafter of his
own parts, but of other mens. The difcreet man finds
out the talents of thofe he converfes with, and knows
how to apply them to proper ufes. Accordingly, if
we look into particular communities and divifions of
men, we may obferve that it is the difcreet man, not the
witty, nor the learned, nor the brave, who guides the
converfation, and gives meafures to the fociety. A man
with great talents, but void of difcretion, is like Poly¬
phemus in the fable, ftrong and blind, endued with an
irrefiftible force, whicV for want of fight is of no ufe to
him. Though a man has all other perfections, and wants
difcretion, he will be of no great confequence in the
world; but if he has this Angle talent inperfedtion, and
but a common ftiare of others, he may do what he pleafes
in his particular ftation of life.
It is proper, however, to diilinguifti between difcre-
tion and cunning, the latter being the accompliftiment
only of little mean ungenerous minds. Difcretion.
points out the nobleft ends to us, and purfues the moft
proper and laudable methods of attaining them : cun¬
ning has only private felfifh aims, and Hicks at nothing
which may make them fucceed. Difcretion has large
and extended views, and, like a well-formed eye, com¬
mands a whole horizon : cunning is a kind of ftiort-
fightednefs, that difcovers the minuteft objects which
are near at hand, but is not able to difcern things at a
diftance. Difcretion, the more it is difcovered, gives
the greater authority to the perfon who poffeffes it s
cunning,
D I S [ 49 ] D I S
Difcus cunning, when It Is once detefted, lofes Its force, and
II makes a man incapable of bringing about even thofe
Dl ea e' , events which he might have done, had he pafled only
' for a plain man. Difcretion is the perfe&ion of rea-
fon, and a guide to us in all the duties of life; cun¬
ning is a kind of inflinft, that only looks out after our
immediate intereft and welfare. Difcretion is only
found in men of ftrong fenfe and good underftanding:
cunning is often to be met with in brutes themfelves,
and in perfons who are but the feweft removes from
them. In (hort, cunning is only the mimic of difcre¬
tion, and may pafs upon weak men, in the fame man¬
ner as vivacity is often miftaken for wit, and gravity
for wifdom.
DISCUS, in antiquity. See Disc.
Discus, in botany, the middle part of a radiated
compound flower, generally confifting of fmall florets,
with a hollow regular petal. It is commonly fur-
rounded by large, plain, or flat, tongue-lhaped pe¬
tals, in the circumference or margin ; as in daify,
groundfel, and leopards bane: fometimes the circum¬
ference is naked, as in cotton-weed and fome fpecies
of colts-foot.
Discus Folii, the furface of the leaf.
DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, fignifies
•the clear treating or handling of any particular point,
or problem, fo as to (hake off the difficulties with
which it is embarrafled: thus we fay, fucb a point <was
•well difcufled, when it was well treated of and cleared
up.
DISCUTIENTS, in medicine, are fuch remedies,
as, by their fubtilty, diflblve a ftagnating or coagula¬
ted fluid, and diffipate the fame without an external
folution of continuity.
DISDIACL ASTIC crystal, in natural hiftory,
a name given, by Bartholine and fome others, to the
pellucid foffile fubftance, more ufually called, from the
place whence it was firft brought, IJland crjjlal; tho’
properly it is no cryftal at all, but a fine pellucid fpar,
called by Dr Hill, from its fhape, parallelopipedum.
See Island Cryftal.
DISDlAPASON, or Bisdiapason, in mufic, a
Compound concord, defcribed by F. Parran, in the
quadruple ratio of 4 : I, or 8 : 2.
Disdiapason Diapente, a concord in a fextuple ratio
of 1:6.
Disdiapason Semi-Diapente> a compound concord
In the proportion of 16:3.
Disdiapason Ditone, a compound confonance in the
proportion of 10:2.
Disdiapason Semi-Ditone, a compound concord in
the proportion of 24 : 5.
DISEASE, has been varioufly defined by phyfi-
cians, almofl: every founder of a new fyftem having
given a definition of difeafe, differing in fome refpedts
from his predeceflbrs. For a particular account of
thefe definitions, fee Medicine.
Of all animals, man is fubjeft to the mod difeafes;
and of men, the ftudious and fpeculative are mbft ex-
pofed thereto. Other animals have their difeafes ; but
they are in fmall number: nor are plants without them}
though their maladies fcarce exceed half a fcore. T he
ancients deified their difeafes. Some difeafes only im¬
pair the ufe of the part immediately affected ; as the
ophthalmia, gout, &c. Others deftroy it entirely : as
V*l. VI. Part I.
the gutta ferena, palfy, &c. Some affeft the whole
body { as the fever, apoplexy, epilepfy, &c. Others
only impair a. part; as the afthma, colic, dropfy, &c*
Some only affe& the body; as the gout: others di-
fturb the mind ; as melancholy, delirium, &c. Laflly,
others affeft both the body and mind ; as the mania,
phrenfy, &c.
The colder the country, in general, the fewer and
the lefs violent are the difeafes. Scheffer tells us that
the Laplanders know no fuch thing as the plague, or
fevers of the burning kind, nor are fubjeft to half the
diftempers we are. They are robuft and ftrong, and
live to 80, 90, and many of them to more than 100
years; and at this great age they are not feeble and
decrepid as with us ; but a man of 90 is able to work
or travel as well as a man of 60 with us. They are
fubjeft, however, to fome difeafes more than other na¬
tions : thus they have often diftempers of the eyes,
which is owing to their living in fmoke, or being blind¬
ed by the fnow. Pleurifies and inflammations of the
lungs are alfo very frequent among them ; and the
fmall-pox often rages with great violence. They have
one general remedy againft thefe and all other internal
difeafes : this is the root of that fort of mofs, as Schef¬
fer expreffes it, which they call jerth. They make a
decoftion of this root in the whey of rein-deer milk,
and drink very large dofes of it warm, to keep up a
breathing fweat; if they cannot get this, they ufe the
ftalks of angelica boiled in the fame manner: they have
not fo great an opinion of this as of the other remedy;
but the keeping in a fweat, and drinking plentifully of
diluting liquors, may go a great way in the cure of
their difeafes, whether either the one or the other of
the drugs have any virtue or not. They cure pleuri¬
fies by this method in a very few days ; and get fo well
through the fmall-pox with it, that very few die of it.
It has been always obferved, that people of particu¬
lar places were peculiarly fubjeft to particular difeafes,
which are owing to their manner of living, or to the
air and effluvia of the earth and waters. Hoffman has
made fome curious obfervations on difeafes of this kind.
He obferves, that fwellings of the throat have always
been common to the inhabitants of mountainous coun¬
tries : and the old Roman authors fay, Who wonders
at a fwelled throat in the A Ips ? S he people of Swifter*
land, Carynthia, Styria, the Hart/, foreft, Tranfylva-
nia, and the inhabitants of Cronftadt, he obferves, are
all fubjedl to this difeafe from the fame caufe.
The French are peculiarly troubled with fevers, with
worms, and with hydroceles and farcoceles; and all
thefe diforders feem to be owing originally to their eat¬
ing very large quantities of chefnuts. The people of
our own nation are peculiarly afflicted with hoarfeneffes,
catarrhs, coughs, dyfenteries, confumptions, and the
feurvy ; and the women with the Jluor albus or whites ;
and children with a difeafe fcarce known elfewhere,
which we call the rickets. In different parts of Italy
different difeafes reign. A t Naples the venereal difeafe
is more common than in any other part of the world.
At Venice, people are peculiarly fubjedf to the bleeding
piles. At Rome, tertian agues and lethargic diftem¬
pers are moft common. In Tufcany, the epilepfy or
falling ficknefs. And in Apulia they are moft lubjedt
tb burning fevers, pleurifies, and to that fort of mad-
nefs which is attributed to the bite of the tarantula,
G a«d
D’feafe.
D I S l 50 ] D I S
and which, it is faid, is only to be cured by mufic. difcourfe yet feparates the parts of it, are called dif- Diflc !
In Spain apoplexies are common, as alfo melancholy, juhSive conjunSions. II
hypochondriacal complaints, and bleeding piles. The DISK. See Disc. Difpenfar
Dutch are peculiarly fubjeft to the fcurvy, and to the DISLOCATION, the putting a bone out of joint  "v"
ftone in the kidneys. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, by fome violence, ufually called by the phyficians luxa~
Pomerania, and Livonia, are all terribly affli&ed with tion.
the fcurvy : and it is remarkable, that in Denmark, DISMISSION of a Biil, in chancery. Iftheplain-
Sweden, and Norway, fevers are very common; but tiff does not attend on the day fixed for the hearing,
in Iceland, Lapland, and Finland, there is fcarce ever his bill is difmiffed with coils. It may be alfo difmif-
fuch a difeafe met with ; though peripneumonies are fed for want of profecution, which is in the nature of a
very common in thefe places, as alfo difeafes of the non-fuit at law, if\he fuffers three terms to elapfe with-
eyes and violent pains of the head. The Ruffians and out moving forward in the caufe.
Tartars are affli&ed with ulcers, made by the cold, of DISMOUNTING, in the military art, the a£l of
the nature of what we call chilblains, but greatly worfe ; unhorfing. Thus, to difmount the cavalry, the dra-
and in Poland and Lithuania there reigns a peculiar goons, or the like, is to make them alight. To dif-
difeafe called the. plica polemic a, fo terribly painful and mount the cannon, is to break their carriages, wheels,
offenfive, that fcarce any thing can be thought of and axletrees, fo as to render them unfit for fervice.
worfe. The people of Hungary are very fubjedl to Horfes are alfo difmounted when they are rendered un-
ihe gout and rheumatifm : they are more infetled alfo fit for fervice.
with lice and fleas than any other people in the world, DISPARAGEMENT, in law, is ufed for the
and they have a peculiar difeafe which they call cremor. matching an heir, &c. in marriage, below his or her
The Germans, in different parts of the empire, are degree or condition, or againft the rules of decency,
fubjeft to different reigning difeafes. In Weftphalia, The word is a compound of the privative particle dis,
they are peculiarly troubled with periprieumonies and and par, “ equal.”
the itch. In Silefia, Franconia, Auftria, and other DISPART, in gunnery, is the fetting a mark up-
plac.es thereabout, they are very liable to fevers of the on the muzzle-ring, or thereabouts, of a piece of ord-
fcurning kind, to bleedings at the nofe, and other hte- nance, fo that a fight-line taken upon the top of the
morrhages; and to the gout, inflammations, and con- bafe-ring againft the touch-hole, by the mark fet on or
fumptions. In Mifnia they have purple fevers; and near the muzz.le, may be parallel to the axis of the con-
the children are peculiarly infefted with worms. In cave cylinder. The common way of doing this, is to
Greece, Macedonia, and Thrace, there are very few take the two diameters of the bafe ring, and of the
difeafes ; but what they have are principally burning place where the difpart is to Hand, and divide the dif-
fevers and phrenzies. At Gonftantinople the plague ference between them into two equal parts, one of which
always rages ; and in the Weft Indian iflands, malig- will be the length of the difpart which is fet on the gun
nant fevers, and the moil terrible colics. Thefe. dif- with wax or pitch, or faftened there with a piece of
cafes are called endemic. twine or marlin. By means of an inftrument it may
Diseases of Horfes. See Farriery. be done with all poffible nicety.
Diseases of Dogs. See Dogs. DISPATCH, a letter on fome affair of ftatp, or
Diseases of Plants. See Agriculture, no 69, other bufmefs of importance, fent with care and expe-
ef/ey. and Blight, Mildew, &c. dition, by a courier exprefs. The bufinefs of dif-
DISEMBOGUE. When a fhip paffes out of the patches lies on the fecretaries of ftate and their clerks,
mouth of fome great gulf or bay, they call it difem- The king gives diredions to his minifters abroad by
boguing. They fay alfo of a river, that at fuch a place, difpatches. The word is alfo ufed for the packet or
or after it has run fo many leagues, it difembogues it- mail containing fuch letters. The French, during the
felf into the fea. reign of Louis XIV. had a confeil des depeches, “ coun-
DISFRANCHISING, among civilians, fignifies cil of difpatches,” held in the king’s prefence, at which
the depriving a perfon of the rights and privileges of a the dauphin, the duke of Orleans, the chancellor, and,
free citizen or fubjed. , four fecretaries of ftate, aflifted.
DISGUISE, a counterfeit habit. Perfons doing DISPAUPER. A perfon filing in forma paupe-
unlawful ads in difguife are by our ftatutes fometimes r«, is faid to be difpaupered, if, before the fuit is
fubjeded to great penalties, and even declared felons, ended, he has any lands or other eftate fallen to him,.
Thus by an ad, commonly called the black aft, per- or if he has any thing to make him lofe his privilege,
fons appearing difguifed and armed in a foreft or See the article Forma Pauperis.
grounds inclofed, or hunting deer, or robbing a war- DISPENSARY, or Dispensatory, denotes a
ren or a fifh-pond, are declared felons. book containing the method of preparing the various
DISH, in mining, is a trough made of wood, a- kinds of medicines ufed in pharmacy. Such are thofe
bout 28 inches long, four inches deep, and fix inches of Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Me-
wide ; by which all miners meafure their ore. If any fue, Salmpn, Lemery, Quincy, &c. but the lateft and
be taken felling their ore, not firft meafuring it by the moft efteemed, befide the London and Edinburgh Phar-
bar-mafter’s dilh, and paying the king’s duty, the macopceias, is the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory, being
feller forfeits his ore, and the buyer forfeits for every an improvement upon that of Dr Lewis’s,
fuch offence 40 fliillings to the lord of the field or far- Dispensary, or Difpenfatory, is likewife a maga-
xner. . zine or office for felling medicines at prime coft to the
DISJUNCTIVE, fomething that feparates or dif- poor. The college of phyficians maintain three of
joins. Thus, or, neither, &c. which in conneding a thefe in London } one at the college itfclf in Warwick-
lane j.
D I S t 51 I D I S
Difpenfa- lane; another in St Peter's alley, Cornhill; and a third
rionj in St Martin’s lane. Difpenfaries have alfo been efta-
)jfperfion. jn feveral of the principal towns in Scotland
JL" * and England ; particularly in Edinburgh, Dundee,
and Kelfo ; as alfo at Newcaftle upon Tyne.
DISPENSATION, in law, the granting a licenfe
of doing fome certain action that otherwife is not per¬
mitted.
DISPERSION, in general, fignifies the fcattering
or diffipating fomething. Hence
Dispersion, in optics, the fame with the divergen¬
cy of the rays of light.
Point jof Dispersion, in dioptrics, the point from
which refra&ed rays begin to diverge, where their re-
fra&ion renders them divergent.
Dispersion of Inflammation, in medicine and fur-
gery, is the removing the inflammation, and reftoring
the inflamed part to its natural ftate.
Dispersion of Mankind, in the hiftory of the world,
was occafloned by the confulion of tongues, and took
place in confequence of the overthrow of Babel at the
birth of Peleg; whence he derived his name: and it
appears by the account given of his anceftors, Gen,
chap. xi. 10— 16, to have happened in the 101ft year
after the flood according to the Hebrew chronology,
and by the Samaritan computation in the 401ft. How¬
ever, various difficulties have been fuggefted by chro-
nologers concerning the true era of this event. Sir
John Marfham and others, in order to reconcile the
Hebrew and Egyptian chronologies, maintain a dif-
perfion of mankind before the birth of Peleg. Others,
unable to find numbers fufficient for the plantation of
colonies in the fpace of 101 years, according to the
Hebrew computation, fix the difperfion towards the
end of Peleg’s life, thus following the computation of
the Jews. Petavius affigns the 153d year after the
flood ; Cumberland the 180th; and Ulber, though he
generally refers it to the time of Peleg’s birth, in one
place affigns the 131ft after the flood for this event.
Mr Shuckford fuppofes the difperfion to have been
gradual, and to have commenced with the feparation
of fome companies at the birth of Peleg, and to have
[ ’ been completed 31 years after. According to the cal¬
culation of Petavius, the number of inhabitants on the
earth at the birth of Peleg amounted to 32,768 : Cum-
berland makes them 30,000: Mr Mede ftates them at
7000 men, befides women and children: and Mr Whi-
fton, who fuppofes that ma ikind now double them-
felves in 400 years, and that they doubled themfekes
between the deluge and the time of David in 60 years
at a medium, when their lives were fix or feven times
as long as they have been fince, by his computation
produces about 2389 ; a number much too inconfidcr-
able for the purpofes of feparating and forming diftinft
nations. This difficulty induced Mr Whifton to rejeft
the Hebrew and to adopt the Samaritan chronology,
as many otherc have done ; which, by allowing an in¬
terval of 401 years between the-flood and the birth of
Peleg, furnifhes, by the laft mentioned mode of com¬
putation, more than 240,000 perfons.
As to the manner of the difperfion of the pofterity
of Noah from the plain of Shinar, it was undoubtedly
conduced with the 81 mo ft regularity and order. The
facred hiftorian informs us, that they were divided in
their lands; every one according to his tongue, ac¬
cording to his family, and according to his nation, rhfperfia
Gen. x. 5, 20, 31 : and thus, as Mr Mede obferves,
they were ranged according to their nations, and every
nation was ranged by their families; fo that each na¬
tion had a feparate lot, and each family in every na¬
tion. The following abftracl will ferve to give a ge¬
neral idea of their rcfpettive fettlements : Japhet,
Noah’s eldeft fon, had feven fons; viz. Gomer, whofe
defendants inhabited thofe parts of Afia which lie
upon the iEgean Sea and Hellefpont northward, con¬
taining Phrygia, Pontus, Bithynia, and a great part
of Galatia. The Galatians, according to Jofephus,
were called Gomerai; and the Cimmerii, according to
Herodotus, occupied this traft of country i and from
thefe Gomerians, Cimmerii, or Celts, Mr Camden de¬
rives our ancient Britons, who ftill retain the name
Cymro or Cymru. Magog, the.fecond fon of Japhet,
was probably the father of the Scythians on the eaft
and north-eaft of the Euxine Sea. Madai planted
Media, though Mr Mede affigns Macedonia to his
ffiare. Javan was the father of the Grecians about
Ionia, whofe country lies along upon the Mediterra¬
nean Sea; the radicals of Javan and Ionia being the
fame To Tubal and Mdhech belonged Cappadocia
and the country which lies on the borders of the Eu¬
xine-Sea ; and from them, migrating over the Cauca-
fus, it is fuppofed the Ruffians and Mofcovites are de¬
fended. And Tiras occupied Thrace. The fons of
-Shem were five : Elam, whofe country lay between
the Medes and Mefopotamians, and was called by the
Gentile writers Elymais; and Jofephus calls the Ela¬
mites the founders of the Perlians : Aftrur, who was
driven out of Shinar by Nimrod, afterwards fettled in
Aflyria, and there built Nineveh and other cities:
Arphaxad, who gave name to the country which Pto¬
lemy calls Arraphacitis, a province of Affyria, though
Jofephus makes him the father of the Chaldees: Dud,
who inhabited and gave name to the country of Lydia
about the river Moeander, remarkable for its windings, in
Afia Minor: and Aram, the father of the Syrians. Ham,
the youngeft fon of Noah, had four fons ; vi%. Cufti,
whofe pofterity fpread into the feveral parts of Ara¬
bia, over the borders of the land of Edom, into Arabia
Felix, up to Midian and Egypt: Mizraim, the father
of them who inhabited Egypt and other parts of A-
frica: Phut, to whom Bochart affigns the remaining
pan of Africa, from the lake Tritonides to the Atlan¬
tic Ocean, called Lybia: and Canaan, to whom be¬
longed the land of Canaan, whence the Phoenicians de¬
rived their origin.
Dr Bryant has advanced a new hypothefis on this
fubject, and fupported it with his ufual acutenefs and
learning. He maintains, that the difperfion as well
as the confufion of tongues was local, and limited to
the inhabitants of the province of Babel; that the fe¬
paration and diftribution recorded to have taken place
in the days of Peleg, Gea. x. 25,31,32, which was the
refult of Divine appointment, occalioned a general mi¬
gration ; and that all the families among the fons of men
were concerned in it. The houfe of Shem, from which
the Meffiah was to fprihg, was particularly regarded in
this diftribution; the portion of his children was near
the place of feparation ; they in general had Afia to
their lot; as Japhet had Europe, and Ham the large
continent of Africa. But the fons of Clius would not
G 2 fubmit
Difquifi-
D I S [52
Biipiayed fabmit to the divine difpenfation ; they went off under
the conduct of Nimrod, and feem to have been for a
long time in a roving {late. However, at laft they ar-
j rived at the plains of Shinar; and having ejefted Afliur
and his fons, who were placed there by Divine appoint¬
ment, feized his dominions, and laid there the foun¬
dation of a great monarchy. But afterwards fearing
left they ftiould be divided and fcattered abroad, they
built the tower of Babel as a landmark to which they
might repair; and probably to anfwer the purpofes of
an idolatrous temple, or high altar, dedicated to the
hoft of heaven, from which they were never long to
be abfent. They only, vim. the fons of Chus or the
Cuthites, and their affociates from other families, who
had been guilty of rebellion againft divine authority,
and of wicked ambition and tyranny, were punilhed
with the judgment of confounded fpeech through a
failure in labial utterance, and of the difperfion record¬
ed in Gen. x. 8, 9 : in cdnfequence of which they
were fcattered abroad from this city and tower, with¬
out any certain place of deftination. The Cuthites
invaded Egypt or the land of Mizraim in its infant
ftate, feized the whole country, and held it for dome
ages in fubjedtion ; and they extended likewife to the
Indies and Ganges, and ftill farther into China and
Japan. From them the province of Cufhan or Goftien
in Egypt derived its name. Here they obtained the
appellation of royal Jhepherds; and when they were by
force driven out of the country, after having been in pof-
feffion of it for 260 or 280 years, the land which they
had been obliged to quit was given to the Ifraelites, who
were alfo denominated Jhepherds, but fttould not be
confounded with the former or the antecedent inhabi¬
tants of Goftien.
DISPLAYED, in heraldry, is underftood of the
pofition of an eagle, or any other bird, when it is ereft,
with its wings expanded or fpread forth.
DISPONDEE, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
double, fpondee or foot, confifting of four long fylla-
bles; as mae'cenates, concludentes.
DISPOSITION, in Scots law, is that deed or wai¬
ting which contains the fcale or grant of any fubjedl:
when applied to heritable fubje&s, it in fome cafes gets
the name of charter, which differs from a difpofition in
nothing elfe than a few immaterial forms.
Disposition, in architedlure, the juft placing the
feveral parts of an edifice according to their nature and
office. See Architecture, n° 31, &c.
Disposition, in oratory. See Oratory, Part I.
Disposition, in painting. See Painting.
Disposition, in human nature.—In every man there
is fomething original, that ferves to diftinguifli him
from others, that tends to form a charadler, and to
make him meek or fiery, candid or deceitful, refolute
or timorous, cheerful or morofe. This original bent,
termed difpoftfion, muftbe diftinguiftied from z.principle:
the latter, fignifying a law of human nature, makes
part of the common nature of man; the former makes
part of the nature of this or that man. Propenjity is
a name common to both; for it fignifies a principle as
well as a difpofition.
DISQUISITION (from dis and queero “ I in¬
quire”), an inquiry into the nature, kinds, and cir-
tumftances of any problem, queftion, or topic j in or-
] DIS
der to gain a right notion of it, and to difcourfe clearly 1
about it.
DISSECTION, in anatomy, the cutting up a body J
with a view of jexamining the ftrudture and ufe of the
parts. See Anatomy.
Le Gendre obferves, that the diffe&ion of a human
body, even dead, was held a facrilege till the time of
Francis I. And the fame author affures us, he has feen
a confultation held by the divines of Salamanca, at the
requeft of Charles V. to fettle the queftion whether or
no it were lawful in point of confcience to diffedt a hu¬
man body in order to learn the ftrufture thereof.
DISSEISIN, in law, an unlawful difpoffeffing a
perfon of his lands or tenements.
DISSEPIMENTUM, in botany, the name by
which Linnssus denominates the partitions which in
dry feed-veffels, as capfules and pods (filiqua), divide
the fruit internally into cells.
DISSENTERS, feparatifts from the fervice and
worftrip of any eftabliftied church.
DISSIDENTS, a denomination applied in Poland
to thofe of the Lutheran, Calviniftic, and Greek pro-
feffion. The king of Poland engages by the pa9a
conventa to tolerate them in the free exercife of their
religion, but they have often had reafon to complain,
of the violation of thefe promifes. See (Hijlory of}
Poland.
DISSIMILITUDE, unlikenefs or want of fimili-
tude. See the article Resemblance anddij/imilitude.
DISSIMULATION, in morals, the aft of diffem-
bling, by fallacious appearances, or falfe pretenfions.
Good princes regard diffimulation as a neceffary
vice ; but tyrants confider it as a virtue.
It is apparent that fecrecy is often neceffary, to
oppofe thofe who may be willing to circumvent our
lawful intentions. But the neceffity of precaution
would become very rare, were no enterprizes to ba
formed, but fuch as could be avowed openly. The
franknefs with which we could then aft, would
engage people in our interefts. Marlhal Biron would
have faved his life, by dealing ingenuoufly with
Henry IV.
With refpeft to diffimulation, three things are to ba
obferved; 1. That the charaftcrs of thofe are not to
be efteemed, who are referved and cautious without
diftinftion. 2. Not to make fecrets of unimportant
matters. 3. To conduft ourfelves in fuch manner, as
to have ais few fecrets as poffible.
DISSIPATION, in phyfics, an infenfible lofs or
confumption of the minute parts of the body; or that
flux whereby, they fly off, and are loft.
Circle of Dissipation, in optics, is ufed for that
circular fpace upon the retina, which is taken up by
one of the extreme pencils or rays iffuing from an
objeft.
DISSOLVENT, in general, whatever diffolves or
reduces a folid body into fuch minute parts as to be fu-s
ftained in a fluid.
The principal diffolvents for metals are aqua-regia t
and aqua-fortis y for falls, earths, and gums, water.5;
for coral, and other alkaline fubftances, diftiHed vine¬
gar or fpirits of wine. Diffolvents are the fame with
what the chemifts call menjhuums. See the article
Menstruum.
I Univerfol
D I S [ 53 1 D I S
DiiTolvenf, Umverfal Dissolvent. See the article Alkahest.
Diflblution. DISSOLUTION, in phyfics: a difcontinuation, or
analyiis, of the ftrudure of a mixed body ; whereby,
what was one, and contiguous, is divided into little
parts, either homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Diffolution, then, is a general name for all reduc¬
tions of concrete bodies into their fmalleft parts, with¬
out any regard either to folidity or fluidity : though
in the ufual acceptation of the word among authors, it
is reftrained to the redudiion of folid bodies into a ftate
of fluidity ; which is more properly expreffed by folu-
tion, as a branch of dijfolution.
According to the opinion of Fr. Tertius de Lanis,
Boerhaave, and fome other learned men, the power or
faculty of diflblving is lodged in fire alone. See Fire
and Heat.
According to this hypothefis, other fluids common¬
ly fuppofed diffolvents, only produce their effedt by
means of the fiery fpicula they abound with; and even
air, which is judged a powerful menftruum, owes all
its force to the rays of light diffufed therein.
Sir Ifaac Newton accounts for all difiblutions, and
the feveral phenomena thereof, from the great prin¬
ciple of attradtion ; and, in elfedf, the phenomena of
diffolution furnifh a great part of the arguments and
confiderations whereby he proves the reality of that
principle. The following is a fpecimen of that great
author’s way of philofophifing on the fubjedt of diffo¬
lution.
“ When fait of tartar diffolves by lying in a moifl:
place, is not this done by an attradtion between the
particles of the fait of tartar and thofe of the water
which float in the air in form of vapours ? and why
does not common fait, or falt-petre, or vitriol, do the
like, but for want of fuch an altradtion ? And when
aqua-fortis, or fpirit of vitriol, poured on Iteel-filings,
diffolves the filings with a great heat and ebullition ;
is not this heat and ebullition effedtedby a violent mo¬
tion of the parts ? and does not that motion argue, that
the acid parts of the liquor rufh towards the parts of
the metal with violence, and run forcibly into its pores;
till, getting between the utmoft particles and the main
mafs of metal, they loofen them therefrom, and fet them
at liberty to float off into the water? When a folution
of iron in aqura-fortis diflblves lapis calaminaris, and lets
go the iron ; or a folution of copper diffolves iron im-
merfed in it, and lets go the copper; or a folution of
mercury in aqua-fortis poured on iron, copper, tin, or
lead, diffolves the metal, and lets go the mercury;
does not this argue, that the'acid particles of the aqua¬
fortis are attradled more Ilrongly by the lapis calami¬
naris than by iron ; by iron than by copper ; by cop¬
per than by filver ; and by iron, copper, tin, and lead,
than by mercury ? And is it not for the fame reafon,
that iron requires more aqua-fortis to diffolve it than
copper, and copper more than the other metals; and
that of all metals iron is diffolved moff eafily, and is
molt apt to ruff ; and next after iron, copper ? When
aqua-fortis diffolves filver, and not gold; and aqua-'
regia diffolves gold, and not lilver ; may it not be faid,
that aqua-fortis is fubtile enough to penetrate the'pores
of gold as well as of filver, but wants the attractive
force to give it entrance ; and the fame of aqua-regia
and filver ? And when metals are diffolved in acid men-
ffruums, and the acids in conjun&ion with the. metal
aft after a different manner, fo as that the tafte of the DiflblutJon.
compound is milder than that of the fimples and fome-' 
times a fweet one; is it not becaufe the acids adhere to
the metallic particles, and thereby lofe much of their
aftivity ? And if the acid be in too fmall a proportion
to make the compound diffoluble in water ; will it not,
by adhering tlrongly to the metal, become unaftive,and
lofe its talle, and the compound become a taftelefs
earth ? for fuch things as are not diffoluble by the moi-
fture of the tongue are infipid.”
Dr Freind gives us a mechanical account of diffolu¬
tion, in the inftance of fait diffolved in water, which is-
the moll Ample operation that falls under this head.
This motion he afcribes to that attraftive force, which
is fo very extenfive in natural philofophy, that there is
no kind of matter but what is under its influence. It
may be obferved, fays he, that the corpufcles of falts,
which are the mod Ample of any, are withal very mi¬
nute, and for their bulk very folid ; and therefore
exert a very ftrong attraftive force, which, cteteris pa¬
ribus, is proportional to the quantity of matter. Hence
it comes to pafs, that the particles of water are more
ftrongly attrafted by the faline particles than they are
by one another : the particles of water, therefore,
cohering but loofely, and being eafily moveable, ap¬
proach the corpufcles of falts, and run, as it were, in¬
to their embraces : and the motion of them is quicker
or flower, according to their lefs or greater diftances ;
the attraftive force in all bodies being llrongeft, at the
point of contaft. Therefore, if fait be thrown into
the middle of a dilh full of water, we lhall find the
aqueous particles which are in the middle of the difb
fliarp and pungent to the tafte, but the water upon
the lides of the veffel almoft infipid; fo that, when fuch'
a motion once arifes, the aqueous particles are carried,
with an equal force towards the falts, afid the moment
of them is to be eftimated from the ratio of their
weight and celerity conjunftly. By the force of this-
impulfe, they open to themfelves a paffage into the
pores of the falts, which are very numerous ; and at
length fo break and divide their texture, that all co-
hefion of their parts is deftroyed : hereupon, being fe-
parated, and removed to a convenient diftanee from one;
another, they are difperfed, and float here and there
about the water.
The Ample diffolution of faline fubftances of every
kind in water, may indeed be plaufibly enough ex¬
plained on the hypothefis of attraftion; but where the.
diffolution is attended with heat, the emiffion of va¬
pour, &c. it feems neceffary to feek for fome other
principle than mere attraftion to folve thefe phenome¬
na. When diluted oil of vitriol, for inftance, is pour¬
ed upon iron-filings, a great quantity of vapour arifes,-
which, if it was attempted to be confined, would cer¬
tainly break the containing veffeh—It is impoflible to
imagine any conneftion between attraftion and the e-
miflion of a vapour; and what is ftill more unaccount¬
able, this vapour is inflammable, though neither the
oil of vitriol nor the iron are fo by themfelves. Ano¬
ther very ftrong objeftion againft the hypothefis of at¬
traftion may be derived from the phenomena of me¬
tallic diffolutions in general; for they do not diffolve
completely in acids, as falts do in water. By diffolu¬
tion they are always decompofed, and cannot be reco¬
vered in their proper form without a good deal of'.
trouble.-
13 I S L 54 1 D I S
T>iffo!mlon. trouble. One metal, indeed, will very often preci-
''1 ' ' pitate another from an acid in its metalline form ; but
this is attended with the decompofitlon of the fecond
metal; fo that this can by no means be reckoned a
fair experiment. But, whatever other method is ufed,
the diffolved metal is always recovered in form of an
earthy powder, that we could fcarcely imagine capa¬
ble of ever becoming malleable, and affuming the
fplendid appearance of a metal. Now, if there was a
ftrong attra&ion between this and the acid, we might
very juftly conjefture, that the diffolution happened
by means of that attraftion ; but fo far from this, af¬
ter a metal has been diffolved by any acid, and the
calx has been feparated from it, it is always difficult,
and very often impoffible, to procure a difiblutioh of
th^ calx in the fame acid. The aftion of the acid in
this cafe feems not unlike that of fire upon wood or
any other inflammable fubftance. Dry wood, thrown
into the fire, burns and flames with great violence; but
the fame wood reduced to afhes, inftead of burning,
extinguilhes fire already kindled. In like manner, a
;piece of clear metal thrown into an acid, diflblves with
great violence : but the fame metal, deprived of its
phlogiitic principle, and reduced to a calx, cannot be
a£led upon by acids, in whatever manner they are ap¬
plied ; at leaft, not without the greatelt difficulty ;
and the more perfett the calx is, i. e. the more com¬
pletely it is deprived of its inflammable principle, the
greater the difficulty is of combining it afterwards with
an acid.
Another thing in which the diflblution of metals by
an acid rcfembles the burning of Combuftibles by fire
is, that in both cafes there is a feparation of the prin¬
ciple of inflammability. In the cafe of oil of vitriol
and iron-filings, this is exceedingly obvious; for there
the vapour which arifes from the mixture takes fire,
and explodes with great vehemence. In all other cafes
it is very eafily proved; for the calx is always capable
■of being revived into metal by the addition of any
fubfiance containing phlogifton. The calces prepa¬
red by fire, and by precipitation from acids, alfo re¬
ferable one another fo much, that in many cafes they
are fcarce to be diftinguiihed.
Thefe confiderations feem to favour the hypothefis
of Dr Boerhaave; and much more does the following,
.namely, that almoft all metallic folutions producefome
degree of fenfible heat. In fome metals this is very
confiderable; but the greateft heat producible by an a-
queous folution of any fubftance is by diffolving quick¬
lime in the nitrous acid. The heat here greatly ex¬
ceeds that of boiling water. In fome diflblutions of
inflammable matters by a mixture of the vitriolic and
nitrous acids, the heat is fo great, that the whole mix¬
ture takes fire almoft inftantaneoufly. Hence the Boer-
haavians think they have fufficient grounds to conclude,
that fire alone is the agent by which all diffolutions
are performed.
Thefe appearances have alfo been explained on the
principles of attraftion ; and it has been faid, that the
lieat, &c. were owing to nothing but the violent adiion
of the particles of the acid and metal upon each other.
But the late difeoveries made by Dr Black, with re¬
gard to heat, fhow, that it is capable of remaining
concealed in fubitances for any length of time, and af¬
terwards breaking out in its proper form. It is pro-Bifformnce
bable, therefore, that the heat produced in thefe diflb- . .,!!
lutions is no other than what exifted before, either in D ^1:lati,ir>;
the acid or in the metal. But for a full difeuflion of v""t
this fubjeft fee the articles Cold, Congelation, E-
vaporation, Fire, Heat, &c.
DISSONANCE, in mufic. See Discord.
DISSYLEABLE, among grammarians, a worcl
Confifting only of two fyllables: fuch are nature, fcience,
&c.
DISTAFF, an inftrument about which flax is tied
in order to be fpun.
DISTANCE, in general, an internal between two
things, either with regard to time or place. See Me¬
taphysics.
Accejfible Distances, in geometry, are fuch as may
be meafured by the chain, &c. See Geometry.
Inaccejjible Distances, are fuch as cannot be mea¬
fured by the chain, &c. by reafon of fome river, or the
like, &c. which obftrudts our paffing from one object
to another. See Geometry.
Distance, in aftronomy. The diftance of the fun,
planets, and comets, is found only from their paral¬
lax, as it cannot be found either by eclipfes or their
different phafes : for from the theory of the motions
of the earth and planets we know, at any time, the
proportion of the diftances of the fun and planets from
us; and the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal
proportion to thefe diftances. See Astronomy.
DISTASTE properly fignifies an averfion or dif-
like to certain foods; and may be either conftitutional,
or owing to fome diforder of the ftomach.
DISTEMPER, among phyficians, the fame with
Disease.
Distemper, in painting, a term ufed for the work¬
ing up of colours with fomething befides water or oil.
If the colours are prepared with water, that kind of
painting is called limning ; and if with oil, it is called
painting in oil, and Amply painting. If the colours are
mixed with fize, whites of eggs, or any fuch proper
glutinous or umStuous matter, and not with oil, then
they fay It is done in dijlemper.
DISTENSION, in general, fignifies the ftretching
or extending a thing to its full length or breadth.
DISTICH, a couplet of verfes making a com¬
plete fenfe. Thus hexameter and pentameter verfes
are difpofed in diftichs. There are excellent morals in
Cato’s difticha.
DISTICHIASIS, in furgery, a difeafe of the eye¬
lids, when under the ordinary eye-lafhes there grows
another extraordinary row of hair, which frequently
eradicates the former, and, pricking the me nbrane of -
the eye, excites pain, and brings on a defluxion.—It is
cured by pulling out the fecond row of hairs with nip¬
pers, and cauterizing the pores out of which they
iffued.
DISTILLATION. See Chemistry, Index.
The obje&s of diftillation, confidered as a trade di-
ftindt from the other branches of chemiftry, are chiefly
fpirituous liquors, and thofe waters impregnated with
the effential oil of plants, commonly called Jimple di-
Jlilled waters. The diftilling compound fpirits and wa- Difference
ters is reckoned a different branch of bufinefs, and they between d*.
who deal in that vfay are commonly called reElifiers. auA
D
jiHftillation, This difference, howei
is [55] D I s
though it exifts among com- cient to burft the veffeh It (hould even be fuffered to DiftiUatioiw
mercial people, is not at all founded in the nature of remain till it has become perffedtly fine and tranfparent
tSpirits pe
fe<ftly fla
the thing,; compound fpirits being made, and fimple
fpirits being reftified, by the very fame operations by
which they are at firft diftilled, or at leaft with very
trifling alterations.
The great objeft with every diftillcr ought to be, to
procure a fpirit perfeftly flavourlefs, or at leaft as well
freed from any particular flavour as may be ; and in
this country the procuring of fuch a fpirit is no eafy
matter. The only materials for diftillation that have
been ufed in large quantity, are malt and molaffes or
treacle. Both of thefe, efpecially the firft, abound with
an oily matter, which, rifing along with the fpirit, com¬
municates a difagreeable flavour to it, and from which
it can fcarce be freed afterwards by any means what¬
ever.—Some experiments have been made upon carrots,
as a fubjeA for the diftillers: but thefe are not as yet
fufficiently decifive; nor is it probable,- that a fpirit
drawn from carrots would be at all devoid of flavour,
more than one drawn from malt.—To diffipate the ef-
fential oil which gives the difagreeable flavour to malt
fpirits, it has been propofed to infpiflate the wort into
a rob, or thin extract like a fyrup ; afterwards to thin
as by this means the fpirit will not only be fuperior in
quantity, but alfo in fragrance, pungency, and vinofity,
to that commonly produced. ^
With regard to performing the operation of diftilling, For diftitla.
there is only one general rule that can be given, namely,tidlu
to let the heat, in all cafes, be as gentle as pofiible. Ac¬
cidents will be effe&ually prevented by having the
vyorm of a proper widenefs, and by reftifying the fpi¬
rits in a water-bath; which, if fufficiently large, will
perform the operation with all the difpatch requifite
for the moll extenfive bufinefs.—The veffel in which
the re&ification is performed, ought to be covered with
water up to the neck, and to be loaded with lead at
the bottom-, fo that it may fink in the water. Thus
the operation will go on as quickly as if it was on an
open lire, and without the leaft danger of a mifcarriage;
nor will it ever be neceflary to make the water in the
bath come to a boiling heat.
As the end of reaification is to make the fpirit clean For
as well as Jlrong, or to deprive it of the effential oil as cation,
well as the aqueous part, it will be proper to have re¬
gard to this even in the firft diftillation. For this pur-
T\t\ fio Vl 1V1 ♦- «-* n ■.«. It *»f\- ~        H 11 1
it with water, and ferment it in the ufual manner. This pofe, the fpirit, as it firft comes over, {hould be re-
certainly promifes great fuccefs ; there is no fubjedl we ceived into a quantity of cold water; as by this means
know of that is nofTeffed of anv kind nfeffpntial nil. hut- the ronne^inn hpf-wivt it nn.-l  m 1 _
know of that is poffefled of any kind of eflential oil, but
what will part with it by diftillation or by long boil¬
ing. The infpiflating of the wort, however, does not
feem to be either neceflary or fafe to be attempted;
for, in this cafe, there is great danger of its contradling
an empyreuma, which never could be remedied. The
quantity loft by evaporation, therefore, might be occa-
fionally added, with an equal certainty of diffipating
the obnoxious oil. Whether the yield of fpirit would
be as great in this cafe as in the other, is a queftion
that can by no means be difcufied without further ex-
Eflential periments. According to a theory adopted by fome
oil by fome diftillers, namely, that eflential oils
thought ‘ " ‘ ' ' '
„ ardent fpirits; and that the more oily any fubje£t is,
b"© fpirit t^e Sreatcr quantity of fpirit is obtainable from it; the
the connexion betwixt it and the oily matter will be
confiderably leffened. For the fame reafon, after it
has been once rectified in the water-bath, it ffiould be
again mixed with an equal quantity of water, and di-
ftilled a fecond time. Thus the fpirit will be freed from
moft of the oily matter, even though it hath been very
much impregnated with it at firft. It is neceflary to
obferve, however, that by ufing fuch a quantity of wa¬
ter, a confiderable part of the water will be left in the
refiduum of each re&ification. All thefe refiduums,
therefore, muft be mixed together, and diftilled on an:
open fire, with a briikheat, that the remainder of the
convertible into fpirit may be got out.
After the fpirit has been diftilled once or twice in.
this manner from water, it may be diftilled in a water-
pradice of diffipating the oil before fermentation muft bath without any addition ; and this laft redification
certainly be a lofs. But we are too little acquainted
with the compofition of vinous fpirits, to have any juft
foundation for adopting fuch theories. Befides, it is
certain, that the quantity of ardent fpirit producible
from any fubftance, malt for inftanee, very greatly ex¬
ceeds the quantity of efiential oil which can by any
means be obtained from the fame; nor do we find that
thofe fubftances, which abound moft in eflential oil,
yield the greateft quantity of fpirits. So far from thic,
fine fugar, which contains little or no efiential oil,
yields a great deal of ardent fpirit.
will free it from moft of the water it contains. But if
it is required to be highly dephlegmated, a quantity of
pure and dry fait of tartar muft "be added. The at-
tradion betwixt this fait and water is greater than that
betwixt water and fpirit of wine. The fait therefore
imbibes the water contained in the fpirit, and finks
with it to the bottom. The fpirit, by a Angle diftil¬
lation, may then be rendered perfedly free from water;:
but there is great danger of fome of the alkaline fait
rifing^along with it, and impregnating it with what is
called an urinousflavour. When this once happens, it is
Directions Previous to the operation of diftilling, thofe of impoffible to be remedied; and the only way_to prevent
concerning brewing and fermentation are neceflary: but as thefe it is, to make the heat with which the fpirit is diftilled
fermenta- are fully treated of under the article Brewing, we fliall as gentle as poffible. It hath been propofed, indeed
*i0n- here only obferve, that unlefs the boiling of the wort, to prevent the rifing of any thing alkaline, by the adC
before fermentation, is found to diffipate the eflential mixture of fome calcined vitriol, fal catharticus amarus
oil, fo as to take away the flavour of the malt, there is or other imperfedt neutral fait; but this can fcarce be
no neceflity for being at the trouble of that operation, fuppofed to anfwer any good purpofe, as the alkali
The wort may be immediately cooled and fermented, unites itfelf with the oily*matter of the fpirit, and
—The fermentation ought always to be carried on as forms a kind of faponaceous compound, which is not
flowly as poffible, and performed in veflels clofely flop- fo eafily affefted by the acid of the vitriol or other fait
ped; only having at the bung a valve prefled down by efpecially as thefe falls will not diffolve in the fpirit:
a fpring, which will yield with lefs force than is fuffi- itfelf.
Qas.
D I S [ 56 ] D I S
Diftillation. One very great defideratum among the diftillers of duced to brandies. This large flock of fmall wines, Diftillation.'j
v th;s country is, a method of imitating the foreign fpi- with which they are almoft over-run in France, fuffi-  
Of imita- r*ts’ brandy, rum, gin, &c. to a tolerable degree of ciehtly accounts for their making fuch vaft quantities
ting foreign Per^e<^*on » an(l notwithftanding the many attempts of brandy in that country, more than in others which
fpints. that are daily made for this purpofe, the fuccefs in ge- lie in warmer climates and are much better adapted to
neral hath been but very indifferent. On this fubjedl, the production of grapes.—Nor is this the only fund
Mr Cooper hath the following obfervations, in his of their brandies: for all the wine that turns eager, is
rvn  *1    .1.,. 1 ^ a:ii . __ j •_ n ^ n . 1 : .1
Complete Syflem of Diflillation; which, as they are
8 applicable to all other fpirits as well as brandy, we
Method of fhall here tranfcribe.—“ The general method of diflil-
mahing _ {ing brandies in France need not be formally defcribed,
as it differs in nothing from that pradlifed here in
working from malt-wafh or molalfes; nor are they in
the leaft more cleanly dr exadt in the operation. They
alfo condemned to the flill; and, in fhort, all that they
can neither export nor confume at home, which amounts
to a large quantity; fxnce much of the wine laid in for
their family provilion is fo poor as not to keep during
the time of fpending. ^
“ Hence many of our Englifh fpirits, with proper How bran-
management, are convertible into brandies that fhall d> may be
only obferve more particularly to throw in a little of hardly be diflinguifhed from the foreign
the natural ley into the flill along with the wine, as
finding this gives their fpirit the flavour for which it is
generally admired nbroad.—But, though brandy is ex-
■tradled from wine, experience tells us that there is a
great difference in the grapes from which the wine is
■made. Every foil, every climate, every kind of grapes,
varies with regard to the quantity and quality of the
fpints extradled from them. There are fome grapes
which are only fit for eating; others for drying, as
thofe of Damafcus, Corinth, Provence', and Avignon,
but not fit to make wine.—Some wines are very pro¬
per for diflillation, and others much lefs fo. The
wines of Languedoc and Provence afford a great deal
of brandy by diflillation, when the operation is per¬
formed on them in their full flrength. The Orleans
wdnes, and thofe of Blois, afford yet more: but the
beft are thofe of the territories of Cogniac and An-
daye ; which are, however, in the number of thofe the
leafl drunk in France. Whereas thofe of Burgundy
and Champagne, though of a very fine flavour, are im¬
proper, becaufe they yield but very little in diflilla¬
tion.
fpecls, provided the operation be neatly performed.
u The common method of redtifying fpirits from
alkaline falts, deftroys their vinofity, and in its flead
introduces an urinous or lixivioiis taile. But as it is
‘ It mufl alfo be farther obferved, that all the wines milder and fofter.
abfolutely neceffary to reflore, or at leafl to fubflitute
in its room, fome degree of vinofity, feveral methods
have been propofed, and a multitude of experiments
performed, in order to difcover this great defideratum.
But none has fucceeded equal to the fpirit of nitre ;
and accordingly this fpirit, either flrong or dulcified,
has been ufed by mofl diflillers to give an agreeable
vinofity to their fpirits. Several difficulties, however,
occur in the method of ufing it; the principal of which
isy its being apt to quit the liquor in a fhort time, and
confequently depriving the liquor of that vinofity it
was intended to give. In order to remove this diffi¬
culty, and prevent the vinofity from quitting the goods,
the dulcified fpirit of nitre, which is much better than
the flrong fpirit, fhould be prepared by a previous di-
geflion, continued for fome time, with alcohol; the
longer the digeflion is continued, the more intimately
will they be blended, and the compound rendered the
for diflillation, as thofe of Spain, the Canaries, of Ali- After a proper digeflion, the dulcified fpirit fhould
cant, of Cyprus, of St Peres, of Toquet, of Grave, of be mixed with the brandy, by which the vinofity will
Hungary, and others of the fame kind, yield very little
brandy by diflillation; and confequently would cofl the
difliller confiderably more than he could fell it for.
What is drawn from them is indeed very good, always
retaining the faccharine quality and rich flavour of the
be intimately blended with the goods, and not difpofed
to fly off for a very confiderable time.—No general
rule can be given for the quantity of this mineral acid
requilite to be employed; becaufe different proportion*
of it are neceffary in different fpirits. It fhould, how-
ine from whence it is drawn ; but as it grows old, ever, be carefully attended to, that though a fmall
• a fi.._ 1  1 ■    r -n ° , ,
this flavour often becomes aromatic, and is not agree¬
able to all palates.
‘ Hence we fee that brandies always differ accord-
quantity of it will undoubtedly give an agreeable vi¬
nofity refembling that naturally found in the fine fub-
tile fpirits drawn from wines, yet an over large dofe
ing as they are extradled from different fpecies of of it will not only caufe a difagreeable flavour, but alfo
■grapes. Nor would there be fo great a fimilarity as
there is between the different kinds of French bran¬
dies, were the flrongefl wines ufed for this purpofe:
but this is rarely the cafe; the weakeft and lowefl fla¬
voured wines only are diflilled for their fpirit, or fuch
as prove abfolutely unfit for any other ufe.
“ A large quantity of brandy is diflilled in France
during the time of the vintage ; for all thofe poor
grapes that prove unfit for wine, are ufually firfl ga¬
thered, prdfed, their juice fermented, and diredlly di¬
flilled. This rids their hands of their poor wines at
render the whole defign abortive, by difeovering the
impofition. Thofe, therefore, who endeavour to cover
a foul tafle in goods by large dofes of dulcified fpirit of
nitre, will find themfelves deceived.
“ But the befl, and indeed the only method of imi¬
tating French brandies to perfe&ion, is by an effential
oil of wine ; this being the very thing that gives the
French brandies their flavour. It muft, however, be
remembered, that, in order to ufe even this ingredient
to advantage, a pure taflelefs fpirit mufl firfl be pro¬
cured ; for it is ridiculous to expedl that this effential
once, and leaves their calks empty for the reception of oil fhould be able to give the agreefable flavour of
better. It is a general rule with them not to diftil French brandies to our fulfome malt fpirit, already
wine that will fetch any price as wine; for, in this flate, loaded with its own naufeous oil, or llrongly impreg-
the profits upon them are vaflly greater than when re- nated with a lixivious tafle from the alkaline falts ufed
Np 102. ia
Spin'ts ho
Coloured.
D I S  [57
in reftification. How a pure inlipid fpirit may be ob¬
tained, has already been conlidered ; it only therefore
remains to Ihow the method of procuring this elfential
oil of wine, which is this:
“ Take fome cakes of dry wine-lees, fuch as are
ufed by our hatters, dilfolve them in fix or eight times
their weight of water, ditlil the liquor with a flow fire,
and feparate the oil with a feparating glafs; referving
for the niceft ufes only that which comes over firft, the
fucceeding oil being coarfer and more refinous.—Ha¬
ving procured this fine oil of wine, it may be mixed
into a quinteflence with pure alcohol ; by which means
it may be preferved a long time fully pofleffed of all its
flavour and virtues; but, without fuch management,
it will foon grow refinous and rancid.
“ When a fine eflential oil of wine is thus procured,
and alfo a pure and infipid fpirit, French brandies may
be imitated to perfection, with regard to the flavour.
It mull, however, be remembered, and carefully ad¬
verted to, that the efiential oil be drawn from the .fame
kind of lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured
from; we mean, in order to imitate Coniac brandy, it
will be neceffary to diltil the effential oil from Coniac
lees; and the fame for any other kind of brandy. For,
as different brandies have different flavours, and as
thefe flavours are entirely owihg to the eflential oil of
the grape, it would be prepofterous to endeavour to
imitate the flavour of Coniac brandy with an efiential
oil procured from the lees ofBourdeaux wine.—When
the flavour of the brandy is well imitated by a proper
dofe of the effential oil, and the whole reduced into one
Ample and homogeneous fluid, other difficulties are Hill
behind: The flavour, though the efiential part, is not,
however, the only one; the colour, the proof, and the
foftnefs, mull alfo be regarded, before a fpirit that per¬
fectly refembles brandy can be procured. With re¬
gard to the proof, it may be eafily hit, by ufing a fpi¬
rit rectified above proof; which, after being intimately
mixed with the effential oil of wine, may be let down
to a proper ftandard with fair water. And the foft¬
nefs may, in a great meafure, be obtained by diftilling
and rectifying the fpirit wuth a gentle fire ; and what
is wanting of this criterion in the liquor when firll
made, will be fupplied by time: for it muff be remem¬
bered, that it is time alone that gives this property to
French brandies; they being at firft acrid, foul, and
fiery. But, with regard to the colour, a particular
method is required to imitate it to perfection,
iv “ The art of colouring fpirits owes its rife to obfer-
vationson foreign brandies. A piece of French brandy
•that has acquired by age a great degree of foftnefs and
ripenefs, is obferved at the fame time to have acqui¬
red a yellowiftr brown colour; and hence our diftillers
have endeavoured to imitate this colour in fuch fpirits
as are intended to pafs for French brandy'. And in or¬
der to this, a great variety of experiments have been
made on different fubftances. But in order to know a
direCt and fure method of imitating this colour to per-
feCtion, it is neceffary we flrould be informed whence
the French brandies themfelves acquire their colour.
This difcovery is very eafily made. The common ex¬
periment-of trying whether brandy will turn blackifh
with a folution of iron, (hows that the colour is owing
to fome of-the reiinous matter of the oak-cafk diffolved
in the fpirit. There .can be no difficulty, therefore, in
Von. VI. Parti.
] D I 8
imitating this colour to perfeftion. A fmatl quantity Bifhll
of the extraCl of oak, or the (havings of that wood, ^
properly digefted, will furniftr us with a tinfture ca¬
pable of giving the fpirit any degree of colour required.
But it muft be remembered, that as tire tinCture is ex¬
tracted from the calk by brandy, that is, alcohol and
water, it is neceffary to ufe both in extracting the
tinCture ; for each of thefe diffolves different parts of
the wood. Let, therefore, a fufficient quantity of oak
(havings be digefted in ftrong fpirit of wine, and alfo
at the fame time other oak-fhavings be digefted in wa¬
ter ; and when the liquors have acquired a ftrong tinc¬
ture from the oak, let both be poured off from the
(havings into different veffels, and both placed over a
gentle fire till reduced to the confidence of treacle. la
this condition let the two extraCls be intimately' mixed
together; which may be effectually done by adding a
fmall quantity of loaf-fugar, in fine powder, and rub¬
bing the whole well together. By this means a liquid
effential extraCl of oak will be procured, and always
ready to be ufed as occafion (hall require.
“ There are other methods in ufe for colouring
brandies; but the bed, befides the extraCl of oak a-
bove mentioned, are treacle and burnt fugar. The
treacle gives the fpirit a fine colour, nearly refem-
bling that of French brandy ; but as its colour is
dilute, a large quantity muft be ufed: this is not, how¬
ever, attended with any bad confequences; for not-
withftanding the fpirit is really weakened by this ad¬
dition, yet the bubble proof, the general criterion of
fpirits, is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to
the liquor by the treacle. The fpirit alfo acquires from
the mixture a fweetifli or lufeious tafte, and a fullnefs
in the mouth ; both which properties render it very
agreeable to the palates of the common people, who
are in fad the principal confumers of thefe fpirits. A
much fmaller quantity of burnt fugar than of treacle
will be fufficient for colouring the fame quantity of
fpirits: the-tafte is alfo very different; for inftead of
the fweetnefs imparted by the treacle, the fpirit ac¬
quires from the burnt fugar an agreeable bitternefs,
and by that means recommends itfelf to nicer palates,
which are offended with a lufeious fpirit. The burnt
fugar is prepared by diffolving a proper quantity of
fugar in a little water, arid fcorching it over the fire
till it acquires a black colour. Either treacle or burnt
fugar will nearly imitate the genuine colour of old
French brandy; but neither of them will fucceed when
put to the teft of the vitriolic folution.
“ The fpirit di (tilled from molaffes or treacle is very
clean or pure. It is made from common treacle dif¬
folved in water, and fermented in the fame manner as
the wafh for the common malt fpirit. But if fome par¬
ticular art is not ufed in diftilling this fpirit, it will
not prove fo vinous as malt fpirit, but more flat and
lefs pungent and acid, though otherwife much cleaner
tailed, as its effential oil is of a much lefs offenfive fla¬
vour. . Therefore, if good fre(h wine lees, abounding
in tartar, be added and duly fermented with the mo¬
laffes, the fpirit will acquire a much greater vinolity
and brilknefs, and approach much nearer to the nature
of foreign fpirits. Where the molaffes fpirit is brought
to the common proof-ftrength, if it is found not to have
a fuflicient vinofity, it will be very proper to add fome
good dulcified fpirit of nitre; and if the fpirit be clean
H worked.
D I S t j3
Piftilkd n. worked, it may, by this addition only, be made to pafs
V" v_ ' on ordinary judges for French brandy. Great quanti¬
ties of this fpirit are ufed in adulterating foreign bran¬
dy, rum, and arrack. Much of it is alfo ufed alone in
making -cherry-brandy and other drams by infuiion ;
in all which many, and perhaps with juitice, prefer it
to foreign brandies. Molaffes, like all other fptrifcs, is
entirely colourlefs when firft extracted; but diilillers
always give it as nearly as poflible the colour of fo-
It reign fpirits.”
Rum how If thefe principles hold good, the imitation of fo-
imuated. re,‘gn fpirits of all kinds mull be an eafy matter. It
will only coft the procuring of fome of thofe fubflances
from which the fpirit is drawn; and diddling this with
water, the eflential qil will always give the flavour de-
fired. Thus, to imitate Jamaica rum, it will only be
neceflary to procure fome of the tops, or other ufelefs
parts, of the fugar-canes; from which an eflential oil
being drawn, and mixed wuth clean molafles fpirit, wull
give it the true flavour. The principal difficulty mull
lie in procuring a fpirit totally, or nearly, free of all
flavour of its own. The fpirit drawn from the refufe
of a fugar-houfe is by our author commended as fupe-
rior to that drawn from molafles: though even this is
not entirely devoid of fome kind of flavour of its own ;
nor indeed is that drawn from the beft refined fugar
entirely flavourlefs. It is very probable, therefore, that
to procure an abfolutely flavourlefs fpirit is impoffible.
The only method, therefore, of imitating foreign fpi-
rits is, by chooling fuch materials as will yield a fpirit
Raifins the flavoured as much like them as poffible. The materials
beft mate- moft recommended by our author in this cafe, andpro-
ciTrin^ Pr°'bably the beft that can be ufed, are raifins. Concern-
pure fpirit. tug thefe he gives the following dire&ions : “ In order
to extraft this fpirit, the raifins muft be infufed in a
proper quantity of water, and fermented in the manner
already directed. When the fermentation is completed,
the whole is to be thrown into the ftill, and the fpirit
extracted by a ftrong fire. The reafon why we here
diredl a ftrong fire is, becaufe by that means a greater
quantity of the eflential oil will come over the helm
with the fpirit, which will render it fitter for the di-
ililler’s purpofe ; for this fpirit is commonly ufed to
mix with common malt goods: and it is furprifing
how far it will go in this refpeft, ten gallons of it be¬
ing often fufficient to give a determining flavour and
agreeable vinofity to a whole piece of malt fpirits. It
is therefore well worth the diftiller’s while to endea¬
vour at improving the common method of extracting
fpirits from raifins ; and perhaps the following hint
may merit attention. When the fermentation is com¬
pleted, and the ftill charged with fermented liquor as
above diie&ed, let the whole be drawn off with as
feriflc a fire as poffible; but, inftead of the calk or can
generally ufed by diftillers for a receiver, let a large
glafs, called by chemifts a feparating glafs, be placed
under the nofe of the worm, and a common receiver
applied to the fpout of the feparating glafs : by this
means the effential oil will fwim upon the top of the
fpirit, or rather lo-w wine, in the feparating glafs, and
may be eafily preferved at the end of the operation.
The ufe of this limpid effential oil is well known to di¬
ftillers; for in this refides the whole flavour, and con-
fequently may be ufed to the greateft advantage in gi¬
ving that diftinguifiling ufte and true viuofity to the
1 D i s
common malt fpirits. After the oil is feparated froiaDiMUi-;4ii
the low-wine, the liquor may be re&ified in balneo iT
marise into a pure and almoft taftelefs fpirit, and there¬
fore well adapted to make the fined compound cor¬
dials, or to imitate or mix with the fineft French bran¬
dies, arracks, See. In the fame manner a fpirit may
be obtained from cyder. But as its particular flavour
is not fo defirable as that obtained from raiiins, it fhpuld
be diftilled in a more gentle manner, and carefully rec¬
tified according to the direftions we have already gi-
ve?’ . . ... a
Thefe directions may fuffice for the diftillation of Direaif«w||
any kind of fimple fpirits. The diftillation of com-ft>rd‘fti,lmjl
pound ones depends on the obfervation of the follow-
ing general rules, which are very eafy to be learned |
and praCtifed.
i. The aitift muft always be Careful to ufe a well
cleanfed fpirit, or one freed from its own effential oil. {
For, as a compound water is nothing more than a fpi-
ric impregnated with the effential oil of the ingredients,
it is neceffary that the fpiiit fhould have depolited its-
own.
2 Let the time of previous digeftion be proportion¬
ed to the tenacity of the ingredients, or the pondero-
fity of their oil.
3. Let the ftrength of the fire alfo be proportioned
to the ponderofity of the oil intended to be raifed with
the fpirit.
4. Let only a due proportion of the fineft parts of
the effential oil be united with the fpirit; the groffer
and lefs fragrant parts of the oil not giving the fpirit
fo agreeable a flavour, and at the fame time rendering
it unfightly. This may in a great meafure be effected
by leaving out the faints, and making up to proof with
fine foft water in their ftead.
A careful obfervation of thefe four rules will render
this part of diflillation much more perfeCt than it is at
prefent. Nor will there be any occafion for the ufe of
burnt alum, white of eggs, ilinglafs, &c. to fin,e down
cordial waters; for they will prefently be fine, fweet
and pleafant tafted, without any further trouble. We
fhall now fubjoin particular receipts for making fome
of thofe compound waters, or fpirits, that are moft
commonly to be met with, and are in the moft general
eftimation. I4
Strong Cinnamon-water. Take eight pounds of fine Receiptsf@r
cinnamon bruifed, 17 gallons of clean reftified fpiril, a numt3eru^ i
and two gallons of water. Put them into your ;
and digeft them 24 hours with a gentle heat; after 1
which draw off 16 gallons with a pretty ftrong heat.—
A cheaper fpirit, but of an inferior quality, may be
obtained by ufing caffia lignea inftead of cinnamon.
If you would dulcify your cinnamofi water, take double-
refined fugar in what quantity you pleafe ; the general
proportion is about two pounds to a gallon ; and dif-
folve it in the fpirit, after you have made it up proof
with clean water. One general caution is here necef-
fary to be added ; namely, that near the end of the
operation, you carefully watch the fpirit as it runs into
the receiver, in order to prevent the faints from mix¬
ing with the goods. This you may difeover by often
catching fome of it as it runs from the worm in a glafs,
and obferving whether it is fine and tranfparent; for
as foon as ever the faints begin to rife, the fpirit will
have an azure or bluifh call. As foon as this altera-
tioa
D I S [ 59 1 BIS
pDJfri'ladon. tlon in colour is perceived, the receiver rauS. be imme-
  diately changed ; for if the faints are fuffered to mix
themfelves with the reft, the value of the goods will
be greatly leflened.— Here we may obferve, that the
diftillers call fuch goods as are made up proof, double
goods ; and thofe below Jingle.
Clove-water. Take of cloves bruifed, four pounds;
pimento, or all-fpice, half a pound; proof-fpirit, 16
gallons. Pigeft the mixture 12 hours in a gentle heat,
and then draw off 15 gallons witli a pretty brilk fire.
The water may be coloured red, either by a ftrong
tinAure of cochineal, alkanet, or corn-poppy flowers.
It may be dulcified at pleafure with double refined fu-
gar.
Lemon-water. Take of dried lemon-peel, four pounds';
clean proof fpirit 10 gallons and a half, and one gal¬
lon of water. Draw off 10 gallons by a gentle fire,
and dulcify with fine fugar.
Citron-water. Take of dry yellow rhinds of citrons,
three pounds; of orange-peel, two pounds; .nutmegs
bruifed, three quarters of a pound; clean proof-fpirit,
ten gallons and a half; water, one gallon : digeft with
a gentle heat; then draw off ten gallons in balneo ma-
rise, and dulcify with fine fugar.
Anifeed-water. Take ol anifeed bruifed, two pounds ;
proof-fpirit, 12 gallons and a half; water, one gallon :
draw off ten gallons with a moderate fire.—This wa¬
ter ftiould never be reduced below proof; becaufe the
large quantity of oil with which it is impregnated,
will render the goods milky and foul when brought
down below proof. But if there is a neceffity for do¬
ing this, their tranfparency may be reftored by filtra¬
tion.
Orange-water. Take of the yellow part of freflr
orange-peel, five pounds; clean proof-fpirit, ten gal¬
lons and a half; water, two gallons : draw off ten gal¬
lons with a gentle fire.
Cedrat-wahr. The cedrat is a fpecies of citron,
and very highly efteemed in Italy where it grows na¬
turally. The fruit is difficult to be procured in this
country; but as the effential oil is often imported from
Italy, it may be made with it according to the fol¬
lowing receipt.—Take of the fineft loaf-fugar reduced
to powder, a quarter of a pound ; put it into a glafs
mortar, with 120 drops of the effence of cedrat ; rub
them together with a glafs peflle ; and put them into
a glafs alembic, with a gallon of fine proof-fpirits and
a quart of water. Place the alembic in balneo mariae,
and draw off one gallon, or till the faints begin to rife;
and dulcify with fine fugar. This is reckoned the fineft
cordial yet known; it will therefore be neeeffary to be
particularly careful that the fpirit is perfedly clean,
and, as much as poffible, freed from any flavour of its
own.
Orange Cordial-water, or Eau de Bigarade. Take
the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14 bigarades,
(a kind of oranges) ; half an ounce of nutmegs, a
quarter of an ounce of mace, a gallon of fine proof-
fpirit, and two quarts of water. Digeft all thefe to¬
gether two days in a clofe veffel; after which draw off
51 gallon with a gentle fire, and dulcify with fine fugar.
This cordial is greatly efteemed abroad, but is not fo
well known in this country.
Ros Solis. Take of the herb called Ros Solis, picked
clean, four pounds ; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, Diftillation.
of each three ounces and a half; marigold flowers, one —y—
pound ; caraway- feeds, ten ounces; proof-fpirit, ten
gallons ; water, three gallons. Diftil with a pretty
itroug fire, till the faints begin to rife. Then take of
liquorice-root fliced, half a pound ; raifms ftoned, two
pounds; red faunders, half a pound: digeft thefe three
days in two quarts of water ; then ftrain out the clear
liquor, in which diffolve three pounds of fine fugar,
and mix it with the fpirit drawn by diftillation.
UJquelaugh. Take nutmegs, cloves, and cinna¬
mon, of each two ounces ; the feeds of anife, cara-
way, and coriander, of each four ounces; of liquorice-
root diced, half a pound. Bruife the feeds and fpices ;
and put them, together with the liquorice, into the ftill
with r i gallons of proof-fpirits, and two gallons of
water. Diftil with a pretty bride fire till the faints
begin to rife. But, as foon as the ftill begins to work,
fatten to the nofe of the worm two ounces of Englifh
faffron tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run thro*
it, and extraA all its tinAure; and in order to this,
you ffiould frequently prefs the faffron with your fin¬
gers. When the operation is finiflied, dulcify your
goods with fine fugar.
Ratafia. Is a liquor prepared from different kinds
of fruits, and is of different colours according to the
fruits made ufe of. Of red ratafia there are three kinds,
the fine, the dry or fliarp, and the common. The
fruits moft proper for making red ratafia, are the black
heart-cherry, the common red cherry, the black cherry,
the mery or honey cherry, the ftrawberry, the rafpberry,
the red goofeberry, and the mulberry. Thefe fruits
ffiould be gathered when in their greateft perfeAion, and
thelargeft and moft beautiful of them chofen for the pur-
pofe.—The following is areceipt for making red ratafia,
fine andfoft. Takeof theblackheart-chemes24pounds;
black cherries, four pounds; rafpberries andftrawberries,
of each three pounds. Pick the fruits from their flalks,
and bruife them ; in which ftate let them continue 12
hours : prefs out the juice; and to every pint of it add
a quarter of a pound of fugar. When the fugar is
diffolved, run the whole through the filtrating bag,
and add to it three quarts of clean proof-fpirits. Then
take of cinnamon, four ounces; of mace, one ounce; and
of cloves, two drams. Bruife thefe fpices ; put them
into an alembic with a gallon of clean proof-fpirits and
two quarts of water, and draw off a gallon with a briik
fire. . Add as much of this fpicy fpirit to your ratafia
as will render it agreeable to your palate ; about one
fourth is the ufual proportion.
Ratafia made according to the above receipt will be
of a very rich flavour and elegant colour. It may be
rendered more orlefs of a fpicy flavour, by adding or
diminilhing the quantity of fpirit diflilled from the
fpices.—-Some, in making ratafia, fuffer the expreffed
juices of their fruits to ferment feveral days: by this
means the vinofity of the ratafia is increafed ; but, at
the fame time, the elegant flavour of the fruits is greatly
diminiffied. Therefore, if the ratafia is defired ftronger
or more vinous, it may be done by adding more fpirits
to the expreffed juice; by which means the flavour of
the fruits may be preferved: as well as the ratafia ren¬
dered ftronger. It is alfo a method with fome to tic
the fpices in a linen bag, and fufpend them in the ra-
Jd 2 tafia.
D I S E 60 ] D I S
jDIftillation. tafia. But if this method is taken, it will be
fary to augment the quantity of fpirit firft added to
the expreffed juice. There is no great difference in
the two methods of adding the fpices, except that by
fufpending them in the ratafia the liquor is rendered
lefs tranfparent.
Dry or Jharp Ratafia. Take cherries and goofe-
berries, of each 30 pounds; mulberries, feven pounds;
rafpben ies, ten pounds. Pick allthefe fruits clean from
their ftalks, &c. bruife them, and let them ftand 12
hours ; but do not fuffer them to ferment. Prefs out
the juice, and to every pint add three ounces of fugar.
When the fugar is diffolved, run it through the filtra¬
ting bag, and to every five pints of liquor add four
pints of clean proof-fpirit; together with the fame pro¬
portion of fpirit drawn from the fpices in the foregoing
compofition.
Common Ratafia. Take of nutmegs, eight ounces;
bitter almonds, ten pounds; Lifbon fugar, eight pounds;
ambergreafe, ten grains: infufe thefe ingredients three
days in ten gallons of clean proof-fpirit, and filter thro’
a flannel bag for ufe. The nutmegs and bitter almonds
mult be bruifed, and the ambergreafe rubbed with the
Lifbon fugar in a marble mortar, before they are in-
fufed in the fpirit.
Gold Cordial. Take of the roots of angelica, four
pounds ; raifins ftoned, two pounds ; coriander feeds,
half a pound ; caraway-feeds and cinnamon, of each
half a pound ; cloves, two ounces ; figs and liquorice-
root, of each one pound ; proof-fpirit, eleven gallons;
water, two gallons. The angelica, liquorice, and figs,
muft be fliced before they are added. Digeft two
days ; and draw off by a gentle heat till the faints be¬
gin to rife ; hanging in a piece of linen, fattened to the
mouth of the worm, an ounce of Englifh fafiron. Then
difiblve eight pounds of fugar in three quarts of rofe-
water, and add to it the diltilled liquor.—This liquor
derives its name of Gold Cordial, from a quantity of
leaf-gold being formerly added to it; but this is now
generally difufed, as it cannot poffibly add any vir¬
tue.
Cardamum, or All-fours. Take of pimento, cara¬
way, and coriander feeds, and lemon-peel, each three
pounds; of malt fpirits, eleven gallons ; water, three
gallons. Draw off with a gentle fire, dulcify with
common fugar, and make up to the ftrength defined
with clear water.—This is a dram greatly ufed by the
poorer fort of people in fome countries.
Geneva. There was formerly fold in the apotheca¬
ries fhops a diftilled fpirituous water of juniper; but
the vulgar being fond of it as a dram, the diftillers fup-
planted the apothecaries, and fold it under the name of
Geneva. The common kind, however, is not made
from juniper-berries, but from oil of turpentine ; and
indeed it is furprifing, that people ftiould accuftom
themfelves to drink fuch liquors for pleafure.—The
receipt for making this kind of fpirit, fold in the gin-
fhops at London, is as follows. Take of the ordinary
malt fpirits, ten gallons; oil of turpentine, two ounces ;
bay-falt, three handfuls. Draw off by a gentle fire till
the faints b^gin to rife ; and make up your goods to
the ftrength required with clear water.
■ The beft kind is made by the following recipe.—
Take of juniper-berries, three pounds ; ■ proof-fpirit,
ten gallons; water, four gallons ; Draw off by a gentle
fire till the faints begin to rife, and make up your goods DittHlerf
to the ftrength required with clean water. >1
There is a fort of this liquor called Hollands Geneva, rc
from its being imported from Holland, which is greatly *
eiteemed.—The ingredients ufed by the Dutch are the
fame with thofe given in the laft recipe ; only, inftead
of malt-fpirits, they ufe French brandy. But from
what has been already obferved concerning the nature
of thefe kind of fpirits, it is eafy to fee, that by the
help of a well re&ified fpirit, geneva may be made in
this country at lead nearly equal to the Dutch, pro¬
vided it is kept to a proper age ; for all fpirituous li¬
quors contradt a foftnefs and mellownefs by age, im-
pofiible to be imitated any other way.
DISTILLERY, the art of diftilling brandy and-
other fpirits. This art was firft brought into Europe
by the Moors of Spain, about the year 115.0 : they
learned it tif the African Moors, who had it from the
Egyptians : and the Egyptians are faid to have pradti-
fed 4 in the reign of the emperor Dioclefian, though
it was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans.
See Distillation, and Fermentation.
DISTINCTION, in logic, is an affemblage of two-
or more w'ords, whereby difparate things, or their con¬
ceptions, are denoted.
DISTORTION, in medicine, is when any part of
the human body remarkably deviates from its natural
ftiape or pofitiom Diftortions of different parts may
arife either from a convulfion or palfy ; though fome-
times a terrible diftortion in the ftiape of the whole
body hath arifen merely from careleffnefs and ill ha¬
bits. Mr Winflow, in. the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris, gives a very remarkable account
of a lady of quality, whom he had known to be per-
fedtly ftraight for feveral years; but who taking after¬
wards to a fedentary courfe of life, got a cuttom of
drefling herfelf very carelefsly, and of leaning as flle
fat, either forwards or to a fide. It was not many
months before (he found it painful and troublefome to
ftand or fit upright; and foon afterwards Ihe found an
inequality in the lower part of the back-bone. Alarm¬
ed at this, fhe confulted the gentleman who gave the
account. To prevent the increafe of the malady, he
ordered her to wear a particular fort of jumps inftead
of ftays, and had a pad of a proper fize applied : but
this was foon negle&ed ; and the confequence was, that
in a little time the back-bone became more and more
crooked, and at length bent itfelf lidewife in two con¬
trary directions, fo as to reprefent the figure of the
Roman S ; and the lady, ftill refufing to take the pro¬
per meafures, loft a fourth part of her height; and
continued for the remainder of her life, not only
crooked from right to left and from left to right, but
fo oddly folded together, that the firft of the falfe ribs
on one fide approached very near the creft of the os
ilium on that fide, and the vifeera of the lower belly
became ftrangely puftied out of their regular places to
the oppofite fide; and the ftomach itfelf was fo ftrong-
ly compreffed, that whatever Ihe fwallowed feemed to
her to fall into two feparate cavities.
DISTRESS, in its ordinary acceptation, denotes
calamity^ mifery, or painful fuffering.
The Contemplation of Distress, a fource of pleafure.
On this fubjeCt we have a very pleafing and ingenious
effay by Dr Barnes, in the Memoirs of the Literary
and
D I S
[ 6
and Phllofophical Society of Manchefter *. It is in-
J troduced with the following motto i
Suave mar! magno, turbantibus tequorn ventls,
£ terra alterius magnum fpeftare periclum.
Non quia vexari qucnquam ejl jucunda vo!,.ftae ;
Sed quibus ipfe mails careas, quia cernere fuave eft.
.Lucretius.
“ The pleafure here defcribed by the poet, and of
vhich he has mentioned fo ftriking and appofite an in*
fiance, may perhaps at firft feern of fo lingular and
aftonilhing a nature, that fame may be difpofed to
doubt of its exiftence. But that it does exift, in the
cafe here referred to, and in many others of a fimilar
kind, is an undoubted faff ; and it may not appear an
nfelefs or difagreeable entertainment, to trace its fource
in the human bread, together with the final caufe for
which it was implanted there by our benevolent Crea¬
tor.
“ Shall I, it may be faid, feel complacency in behold¬
ing a fcene in which many of my fellow-creatures are
agonizing with terror, whild I can neither diminffii
their danger, nor, by my. fympathy, divide their an-
guilh ? At the fight of another’s wo, does not my
bofom naturally feel pain ? Do I not fhare in his fenfa-
tions ? And is not this drong and exquifite fenfibility
intended by my Maker to urge me on to adtive and
immediate aflidance ? Thefe fenfations are indeed at¬
tended with a noble pleafure, when I can, by friendly
attention, or by benevolent communication, foothe the
forrows of the poor mourner, fnatch him from impend¬
ing danger, or fnpply his preffing wants. But in ge¬
neral, where my fympathy is of no avail to the wretch¬
ed fufferer, I fly from the fpedtacle of his mifery, un¬
able or unwilling to endure a pain which is not allayed
by the fweet fatisfadlion of doing good.’7
It will be neceflary, in anfwer to thefe obje&ions,
in the fird place to prove the reality of the feeling,
the caufe of which, in the human conditution, we
here attempt to explore.
Mr Addifon, in his beautiful papers on the Pie a Cures
of the Imagination, has obferved, “ that objefts or
fcenes, which, when real, give difgud or pain, in de-
fcription often become beautiful and agreeable. Thus,
even a dunghill may, by the charms of poetic imagery,
excite pleafure and entertainment. Scenes of this na¬
ture, dignified by apt and driking defcription, we
regard with fomething of the fame feelings with which
we look upon a cjead monder.
 Informe cadaver
frotrahitur nequeunt-expleri cor da tuendo
- ‘Terribiles oculos, vultum, villofaque fetis
PeSora fcmiferi, atque extiuciusfaucibus ignes. VlRGIL.
“ This (he obferves) is more particularly the cafe,
where the defcription raifes a ferment in the mind and
works with violence upon the paffions. One would
wonder (adds he) how it comes to pafs, that paffions,
which are very unpleafant at all other times, are very
agreeable when excited by proper defcription ; fuch as
terror, deje&ion, grief, &c. This pleafure arifes from
the reflection we make upon durfelves, 'whild reading
it, that we are not in danger from them. When we
read of wounds, death, &c. our pleafure does not rife
fo properly from the grief which thefe melancholy de-
fcriptions give us, as from the fecret comparifon we
make of ourfelves with thofe who fuffer. We Ihould
i 1 d i s
not feel the fame kind of pleafure, if we actually faw Bidrefs.
a perfon lying under the tortures that we meet with in v J
a defcription.”
And yet, upon the principle affigned by this amiable
writer, we might feel the fame, or even higher plea¬
fure, from the aftual view of didrefs, than from any
defcription ; becaufe the comparifon of ourfelves with
the fufferer would be more vivid, and confequently the
feeling more intenfe. We would only obferve, that the
caufe which he affigns for this pleafure is the very fame
with that affigned by, Lucretius in our motto. Mr
Addifon applies it to the defcription ; the poet, to the
adfual contemplation of affedting fcenes. In both the
pleafure is fuppofed to originate in felfifhnefs. But
wherever the focial paffions are deeply intereded, as
they are here fuppofed to be, from the pathetic de¬
fcription, or the dill more pathetic furvey, of the fuf-
ferings of another, the fympathetic feelings will of
themfelves, at once, and previoufly to all refledlion, be¬
come a fource of agreeable and tender ^motions. They
will thus dignify and enhance^ the fatisfadtion, if anv
fuch be felt, arifing merely from the confideration of
our own perfonal fecurity. And the more entirely we
enter into the fcene, by lofing all ideas of its being either
pad or fabulous, the more perfedtly we forget ourfelves,
and are abforbed in the feeling,—the more exquifite is
the fenfation.
But as our fubfequent fpeculations will chiefly turn
upon the pleafure derived from real fcenes of calamity,
and not from thofe which are imaginary, it may be ex-
pedled that we produce indances in proof that fuch
pleafure is felt by perfons very different in their tafle
and mental cultivation.
We fhall not mention the horrid joy with which the
favage feads his eye upon the agonies and contortions
of his expiring prifoner—expiring in all the pains which
artificial cruelty can inflidl! Nor will we recur to the
almod equally favage fons of ancient Rome, when the
majefty of the Roman people could ru(h, with eager-
nefs and tranfport, to behold hundreds of gladiator*
contending in fatal conflift, and probably more than-
half the number extended, weltering in blood and writh¬
ing in agony, upon the plain. Nor will we mention
the Spanifh buli-feads; nor the fervent acclamations
of an Englifh mob around their fellow-creatures, when
engaged in furious battle, in which it is poffible that
fome of the combatants may receive a mortal blow,
and be hurried in this awful date to the bar of his-
Judge. Let us furvey the multitudes which, in every
part of the kingdom, always attend an execution. It
may perhaps be faid, that in all places the vulgar have
little of the fenfibility and tendernefs of more poliffied
bofoms. But, in the lad mentioned indance, an exe¬
cution^ there is no exultation in the fufferings of the
poor criminal. He is regarded by every eye with the
mod melting compaffion. The whole affembly fympa-
thizes with him in his unhappy fituation. An awful
dillnefs prevails at the dreadful moment. Many are
wrung with unutterable fenfations and prayer and fi-
lence declare, more loudly than any language could,
the intered they feel in his didrefs. Should a reprieve
come to refeue him from death, how great is the ge¬
neral triumph and congratulation! And probably in this
multitude you will find not the mere vulgar herd alone,
but the man- of fuperior knowledge and of more refined
feufibility -
D 1 S [ 6
J/iJlrefs. fcnfibllity ; who, led by fome (Irong principle, which
— we wifli to explain, feels a pleaftire greater than all the
pain, great and exquifite as one Ihould imagine it to be,
from fuch a fpeiftacle.
The man who condemns many of the fcenes we have
already mentioned as barbarous and ihocking, would
probably run with the greateft eagernefs to fome high
cliff, overhanging the ocean, to lee it fwelled into a
tempeft, though a poor veffel, or even a fleet of veffels,
were to appear as one part of the dreadful fcenery, now
lifted to the heavens on the foaming furge, now plun¬
ged deep into the fathomlefs abyfs, and now daflied
upon the rocks, where they are in a moment fhivered
into fragments, and, with all their mariners, entombed
in the wave. Or, to vary the queftion a little ; Who
would not be forward to ftand fate, on the top of fome
•mountain or tower, adjoining to a field of battle, in
which two armies meet in defperate conflict, though
probably'thoufands may foon lie before him proftrate
on the ground, and the whole field prefent the moft
horrid fcenes of carnage and d.efolation ?
That in all thefe cafes pleafure predominates in the
compounded feeling, is plain from hence, becaufe you
continue to furvey the feene ; whereas when pain be¬
came the flxonger fenfation, you would certainly re¬
tire.
Cultivation may indeed have produced fome minuter
differences in the tafte and feelings of different minds.
Thofe whofe fenfibilities have not been refined by edu¬
cation or fcience, may feel the pleafure in a more grofs
"and brutal form. But do not the moil polifhed natures
feel a fimilar, a kindred pleafure, in the deep-wrought
diflreffes of the well-imagined feene ? Here the endea¬
vour is, to introduce whatever is dreadful or pathetic,
whatever can harrow up the feelings or extort the tear.
And the deeper and more tragical the feene becomes,
the more it agitates the feveral pafiions of terror, grief,
or pity—the more intenfely it delights, even the moft
polifhed minds. They feem to enjoy the various and
vivid emotions of contending paffions. They love to
have the tear trembling in the eye, and to feel the
whole foul wrapt in thrilling fenfations. For that mo¬
ment they feem to forget the fiftion ; and afterwards
commend that exhibition moll, in which they moft en¬
tirely loft fight of the author, and of their own fitua-
tion, and were alive to all the unutterable vibrations of
ftrong or melting fe-nfibility.
Taking it then for granted, that in the contempla¬
tion of many fcenes of diftrefs, both imaginary and
real, a gratification is felt, let us endeavour to account
for it, by mentioning fome of thofe principles, wo¬
ven into the web of human nature, by its benevolent
Creator, on w^hich that gratification depends.
Dr Akenfide, with his accuftomed ftrength and bril¬
liancy of colouring, deferibes and accounts for it in
the following manner.
 “ Behold the ways
Of heaven’s eternal deftiny to man !
For ever jufl, benevolent, and wife !
That Virtue’s awful fteps, howe’er purfued
By vexing fortune, and intrufive pain.
Should never be divided from her chafte.
Her fair attendant, Pleafure. Need I urge
Thy tardy thought, through all the various round
Of this exiftence, that thy foftening foul
At length may learn, what energy the hand
Of Virtue mingles in the bitter tide
: ] D I S
Of Paflion, fwelling with diftrefs and pain.
To mitigate the fharp, with gracious drops
Of cordial Pleafurc. Afk the faitliful youth, -
Why the cold urn of her, whom long he loved.
So often fills his arm ? So often draws
His lonely footfteps, at the filrnt hour,
To pay the mournful tribute of his tears ?
O ! he will tell thee, that the wealth of worlds
Should ne’er feduce his befomto forego
That facred hour, when ftealing from the noife
Of care and envy, fweet remembrance fooths.
With Virtue’s kindeft looks, lus achingbreaft,
And turns his tears to rapture. Afk the croud.
Which flies impatient from the village-walk
To climb the neighbouring cliffs, when far below
The cruel winds have hut led upon the coaft
Some helplefs bark: whiifl facred Pity melts
The general eye, or Terror’s icy hand
Smites their diftorted limbs, or horrent hair.
While every mother clofer to her breaft
Catches her child; and, pointing where the waves
Foam through the fhattered vefiel, fhrieks aloud,
As one poor wretch, that fpreads his piteous arms
Fur fuccour, fwaliowed by the roaring furge,
As now another, dafhed againit the rock,
Drops lifelefs down. O deemeft thou indeed
No kind endearment here, by nature given,
To mutual terror, and compafli n’s tears ?
No fweetly meltingfoftnefs, which a-tracts
O’er all that edge of pain, the focial powers.
To this their proper action, and their end ?"
The poet purfues the fentiment in the fame animated
imagery, deferibing the ftrong, but pleafurable, fen-
fatious which the foul feels, in reading the fufferings
of heroes who nobly died in the caufe of liberty and
their country:
 “ When the pious band
Of youths, who f >ught for freedom, and thei:-fires,
Lie fide by fide in gore.”
Or, in the ftrong movements of indignation and re¬
venge againft the tyrant, who invades that liberty,
and enflaves their country.
  “ When the patriot’s tear
Starts from thine eye, and thy extended arm
In fancy hurls the thunderbolt of Jove,
To fire the impious wreath on Phi ip’s brow.
Or dafh Odiavius from his trophied car;
Say—Does thy fecret foul repine to tafte
The big ditlrefs? Or, would’it thou then exchange
Thofe heart-ennobling forrows for the lot
Of him, who fits amid the gaudy herd
Of mute barbarians, bending to his nod.
And hears aloft his gold-invefted front,
Ami fays within himfelf, l' I am a king.
And wherefore fhould the clamorous voice of wo
Intrude upon mine ear ?”
The fentiment of this charming and moral poet is»
that fympathetic feelings are virtuous, and therefore
pleafant. And from the whole, he deduces this im*
portant conclufion ; that every virtuous emotion muft
be agreeable, and that this is the fanftion and the re¬
ward of virtue. The thought is amiable ; the con¬
clufion noble: but ftill the folution appears to us to
be imperfeft.
We have already faid, that the pleafure arifingfrom
the contemplation of diftrefsful fcenes is a compound¬
ed feeling, arifing from feveral diftinft fources in the hu¬
man breaft. The kind and degree of the fenfation muft
depend upon the various blendings of the feveral in¬
gredients which enter into the compofition. The caufc
alfigned by Mr Addifon, the fenfe of our own fecir-
rity, may be fuppofed to have fome ftiare in the mafs
cf feelings. That of Dr Akenfide may be allowed to
have
D i s
D1A efs. have a fllll larger proportion. Let us attempt to trace
Ir-v fome of the relt.
There are few principles in human nature of more
general and important influence than that of fympa-
thy. A late ingenious writer, led by the fafhionable
idea of Amplifying all the fprings of human nature in¬
to one fource, has, in his beautiful Theory of Moral
Sentiments, endeavoured to analyfe a very large num¬
ber of the feelings of the heart into fympathetic vibra¬
tion. Though it appears to us moil probable, that
the human mind, like the human body, poffeffes va¬
rious and diftinft fprings of a&ion and of happinefs, yet
he has ihown, in an amazing diverlity of inftances, the
operation and importance of this principle of human
• nature. Let us apply it to our prefent fubjedt.
We naturally fympathize with the paffions of o-
thers. But if the pafiions they appear to feel be not
thofe of mere diftrefs alone; if, midft the fcenes of ca¬
lamity, they difplay fortitude, generofity, and for-
givenefs; if, “rifing fuperior to the cloud of ills which
covers them,” they nobly ftand firm, collefted, and pa¬
tient; here a Hill higher fourceof pleafure opens upon us,
from complacence, admiration, and that unutterable
fympathy which the heart feels with virtuous and heroic
minds. By the operation of this principle, we place our-
felves in their fituation; we feel, as it were, fome fhare of
that confcious integrity and peace which they muft en¬
joy. Hence, as before obferved, the pleafure will vary,
both as to its nature and degree, according to the
fcene and charadters before us. The fhock of con¬
tending armies in the field, —the ocean wrought to
tempeft, and covered with the wreck of fliattered vef-
£els,—and a worthy family filently, yet nobly, bearing
up againft a multitude of furrounding forrows, will ex¬
cite very different emotions, becaufe the component
parts of the pleafurable fenfation confift of very dif¬
ferent materials. They all excite admiration; but ad¬
miration, how diverfified, both as to its degree and
its caufe ! Thefe feveral ingredients may doubtlefs be
fo blended together, that the pleafure fhall make but
a very fraall part of the mixed fenfation. The more
agreeable tints may bear little proportion to the ter¬
rifying red or the gloomy black.
In many of the inftances which have been mention¬
ed, the pleafure muff arife chiefly, if not folely, from
the circumftances or accompanyments of the fcene.
The fublime feelings excited by the view of an agita¬
ted ocean, relieve and foften thofe occafioned by the
fhipwreck. And tire awe excited by the prefence of
thoufands of men, afting as with one foul, and dif-
playing magnanimity and firmnefs in the moft fo-
lemn trial, tempers thofe fenfations of horror and of
pain which would arife from the field of battle.
The gratification we are attempting to account for,
depends alfo, in a very confiderable degree, upon a
principle of human nature, implanted in it for the
wifeft ends ; the exercife which it gives to the mind,
by roofing it to energy and feeling. Nothing is fo
infupportable, as that langour and ennui, for the full
exprefiion of which our language does not afford a
term. How agreeable it is, to have the foul called
forth to exertion and fenfibility, let the gamefter wit-
ntfs, who, unable to endure the laffitude and fame-
nefs of unanimated luxury, runs with eagernefs to the
D 1 S
place where probably await him all the irritation and Diftreft.
agony of tumultuous paffions. •—y—.
Again ; it is a law of our nature, that oppofite paf-
fionsj when felt in fucceffion, and, above all, when
felt at the fame moment, heighten and increafe each
other. Eafe fucceeding pain, certainty after fufpenfe,
friendffiip after averfion, are unfpeakably ftronger than
if they had not been thus contrafted. In this conflict
of feelings, the mind rifes from paffive to aftive energy.
It is rouied to intenfe fenfation ; and it enjoys that pe¬
culiar, exquifite, and complex feeling, in which, as
in many articles of our table, the acid and the fweet,
the pleafurable and painful, pungencies are fo happily
mixed together, as to render the united fenfation a-
mazingly more ftrong and delightful.
We have not yet mentioned the principle of curio-
fity, that bufy and active power, which appears fo
early, continues almdft unimpaired fo long, and to
which, for the wifeft ends, is annexed fo great a fenfe
of enjoyment. To this principle, rather than to a-
love of cruelty, would we aferibe that pleafure which
children fometimes feem to feel from torturing flics
and leffer animals. They have not yet formed an idea
of the pain they infliff. It is, indeed, of imfpeakabfe
confequence, that this practice be checked as foon and
as effeftuaUy as poffible, becaufe it is k> important,
that they learn to connedt the ideas of pleafure and
pain with the motions and aftions of the animal crea¬
tion. And to this principle may we alfo refer no
fmall (hare of that pleafure in the contemplation at
diftrefsful fcenes, the fprings of which, in the human'
heart, we are now endeavouring to open.
To curiofity, then—to fympathy—to mental exer¬
tion—to the idea of our own fecurity—and to the
ftrong feelings occafioned by viewing the a&ions and
paffions of mankind in interefting fituations, do we a-
feribe that gratification which the mind feels from
the furvey of many fcenes of forrow. We have called
it a pleafure ; but it will approach, towards, or recede
from, pleafure, according to the nature and proportion
of the ingredients of which the fenfation is compo-
fed. In fome cafes, pain will predominate. In others,
there will be exquifite enjoyment.
The final caufe of this conftitution of the human
mind is probably, that by means of this ftrong fenfa¬
tion, the foul may be preferved in contknial and vigo¬
rous motion—that its feelings may be kept lively and.
tender—that it may learn to pradtife the virtues it ad¬
mires—and to affift thofe to. whom its fympathy can
reach—and that it may thus be led, by thefe focial
exercifes of the heart, to foften with compaffion—to
expand with benevolence—and generoufly to aftift in
every cafe, in which affiftance can be given. An end
this fufficient,
 “ To afiert eternal ProviMence,
And juftify the ways of God to man.”
Distress, in law, the feizing or diftraining any
thing for rent in arrear, or other duty unperformed.
The effeft of this diftrefs is to compel the pjirty ei¬
ther to replevy the things diftrained, and conteft the
taking, in an aftion df trefpafs againft the diftrainer ;
or rather to oblige him to compound and pay the debt
or duty for which he was fo diftrained.
There are likewife compulfory diftreffes in a6Hons>
to.
r 6s i
D I T [ 64 ] D I T
Csiftrefs to caufe a perfon appear in court; of which kind there
si is a diftrefs perfonal of one’s moveable goods, and the
Ditxh. profits of his lands, for contempt in not appearing after
fummons : there is likewife. did refs real, of a perfon’s
immoveable goods. In thefe cafes none fhall be di-
ftraintd to anfwer for any thing touching their free¬
holds, but by the king’s writ.
Diilrefs may be either finite or infinite. Finite di-
ilrefs is that which is limited by law, in regard to the
number of times it fhall be made, in order to bring the
party to a trial of the a£tion. Infinite diftrefs is that
which is without any limitation, being made till the
perfon appears : it is farther applied to jurors that do
not appear; as, upon a certificate of affife, the procefs
is venire facias^ habeas corpora, and diftrefs infinite.
It is alfo divided into grand diftrefs and ordinary
diftrefs; of thefe the former extends to all the goods
and chattels that the party has .within the county. A
perfon, of common right, may diftrain for rents and all
manner of fervices; and where a rent is referred on a
fift in tail, leafe for life, or years, &c. though there
e no claufe of diftrefs in the grant or leafe, fo as that
he has the reverfion: but on a feoffment made in fee,
a diftrefs may not be taken, unlefs it be exprefsly re¬
ferred in the deed.
DISTRIBUTION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
dividing a thing into feveral parts, in order to the dif-
pofing each in its proper place.
Distribution, in architefture, the dividing and dif-
pofing the feveral parts and pieces which compofe a
building, as the plan direfts. See Architecture.
Distribution, in rhetoric, a kind of defeription,
whereby an orderly divifion and enumeration is made
of the principal qualities of the fubjeft. David fup-
plies us with an example of this kind, when, in the heat
of his indignation againft: finners, he gives a defeription
of their iniquity : “ Their throat is an open fepulchre;
they flatter with their tongues ; the poifon of afps is
under their lips; their mouth is full of. curfing and
lies; and their feet are fvvift to Ihed blood.”
Distribution, in printing, the taking a form afun-
der, feparating the letters, and difpofing them in the
cafes again, each in its proper cell.. See Printing.
DISTRICT, in geography, a part of a province,
diftinguiflied by peculiar magiftrates, or certain privi¬
leges ; in which fenfe it is fynonymous with hundred.
fSee Hundred.
DISTRINGAS, in law, a writ commanding the
ftieriff, or other officer, that he diftrain a perfon for
debt to the king,, &c. or for his appearance at a cer¬
tain day.
Vistkingas Juralores, a writ direfted to the ftieriff,
whereby he is commanded to diftrain upon a jury to
appear, and to return iffues on their lands, &c. for non-
appearance. This writ of diftringas juratores iffues for
the flieriff to have their bodies in court, &c. at the re-
jturn .of the writ.
DITCH, a common fence or inclofure in marfhes, or
other wet land where there are no hedges. They al¬
low thefe ditches fix feet wide againft highways that
are broad ; and againft commons, five, feet. But the
common ditches about inclofures, dug at the bottom
of the bank on which the quick is raifed, are three feet
wide at the top, one at the bottom, and two feet deep.
By this means each fide has a Hope, which is of great
N° 102. ‘ 2
advantage ; for where thiiis neglefted, and the ditches
dug perpendicular, the fides are always waftiing down,
befides, in a narrow bottomed ditch, if cattle get down
into it, they cannot Hand to turn themfelves to crop
the quick: but where the ditch is four feet wide, it
ffiould be two and a half deep ;_and where it is five
wide, it ffiould be three deep; and fo in proportion.
JDiTCH-Waler is often ufed as an objeft for the mi-
crofeope, and feldom fails to afford a great variety of
animalcules. This water very often appears of a yel-
lowifti, greenifti, or reddifti colour ; and this is wholly
owing to the multitudes of animals of thofe colours
which inhabit it. Thefe animals are ufually of the
fiirimp kind : and Swammerdam, who very accurately
examined them, has called them, from the figure of
their horns, pulex aquaticus arlorefcens. They copu¬
late in May or June; and are often fo numerous at that
feafon, that the whole body .of the water they are found
in, is feen to be of a red, green, or yellowifh colour,
according to the colours of their bodies. The green
thin feum alfo, fo frequently feen on the furface of
Handing waters in fummer, is no other than a multi¬
tude of fmall animalcules of this or fome of the other
kinds. Dunghill water is not lefs full of animals tha»
that of ditches ; and is often found fo thronged with
animalcules, that it feems altogether alive: it is then fo
veiy much crowded with thefe creatures, that it muft
be diluted with clear water before they can be diftinftly
viewed. There are ufually in this fluid a fort of eels,
which are extremely aftive; and befides thefe and many
other of the common inhabitants of fluids, there is one
fpecies found in this which feems peculiar to it: the
middle pait of them is dark and befet with hairs, but-
the ends are tranfparent; their tails are tapering, with
a long fprig at the extremity, and their motion is flow
and waddling. See Animalcule.
Ditch, in fortification, called alfo fofs and moat, a
trench dug round the rampart or wall of a fortified
place, between the fcarp and counterfcarp. See For¬
tification.
DI THYRAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a hymn in
honour of Bacchus, full of tranfport and poetical rage.
This poetry owes its birth to Greece, and to the tranf-
ports of wine ; and yet art is not quite exploded, but
delicately applied to guide and reftrain the dithyram-
bic impetuofity, which is indulged only in pleafing
flights. Horace and Ariftotle tell us, that the an¬
cients gave the name of dithyrambus to thpfe verfes
wherein none of the common rules or meafures were
obferved. As we have now no remains of the dithy-
rambus of the ancients, we cannot fay exaftly what
their meafure was.
DITONE, in mufic, an interval comprehending two
tones. The proportion of the founds that form the
ditone is 4 : 5, and that of the femiditone is 5 : 6.
DITRIHEDRIA, in mineralogy, a genus of fpars
with twice three fides, or fix planes ; being formed of
two trigonal pyramids joined bafe to bafe, without any
intermediate column. See Spar.
The fpecies of ditrihedria are diftinguiflied by the
different figures of thefe pyramids.,
DITTANDER, in botany. See Lepidium.
DITTANY, in botany. See Dictamnus.
DITTO, in books of accounts, ufually written D0,
fignifies the aforementioned. The word is corrupted
from
I . » I V [
BL *-Dival from the Italian detto, “ the faid:” as in ourlaw-phrafe,
• , il, “ the faid premifles,” meaning the fame as were afore-
^Kverufy- ment^one(l.
1 i. '"g' , DIVAL, in heraldry, the herh nightfhade, ufed by
B' fuch as blazon by flowers and herbs, inftead of colours
and metals, for fable or black.
DIVALIA, in antiquity, "a feaft held among the
ancient Romans, on the 21 ft day ®f December, in ho¬
nour of the goddefs Angerona ; whence it is alfo call¬
ed —On the day of this feaft, the pontifi-
•oes performed facrifice in the temple of Voluptia, or
the goddefs of joy ajid pleafure ; who, fome fay, was
(the fame with Angerona, and fuppofed to drive away
all the forrows and chagrins of life.
DIVAN, a council-chamber or court of juftice a-
mong the eaftem nations, particularly the Turks.—The
word is Arabic, and lignifies the fame with sofa in the
Turkifli dialed!.
There are two forts of divans; that of the grand
fignior, called tAe council of Jiate., which con fills of feven
of the principal officers of the empire; and that of the
grand vizir, compofed of fix other vizirs or counfellors
of ftate? the chancellor, and fecretaries of ftate, for the
diftribution of juftice.
The word is alfo ufed for a hall in the private houfes
of the orientals. The cuftom of China does not allow
the receiving of vilits in the inner parts of the houfe,
but only at the entry, in a divan contrived on purpofe
for ceremonies.
Travellers relate wonders of the filence and expedi¬
tion of the divans of the Baft.
DirAN-Beghi, the fuperintendant of juftice in Perfia,
whofe place is the laft of the fix minifters of the fecond
rank, who are all under the athemadauler or firft mi-
nifter. To this tribunal of the divan-beghi he appeals
from fentences palled by the governors. He has a
fixed ftipend of 50,000 crowns for adminiftering juf¬
tice. AH the ferjeants, ulhers, &c. of the court are in
his fervice. He takes cognifance of the criminal caufes
of the chams, governors, and other great lords of Per¬
fia, when accufed of any fault. There are divan-beghis
not only at court and in the capital, but alfo in the pro¬
vinces and other cities of the empire. The alcoran is
the foie rule of his adminiftration of juftice, which alfo
he interpiets at pleafure. He takes no cognifance of
civil caufes ; but aU differences arifmg between the of¬
ficers of the king’s houfehold and between foreign mi¬
nifters are determined by him.
DIVANDUROW, the name of feven illands which
lie a league north of the Maldives, and 24 from the
coaft of Malabar, almoft oppofite to Cananor.
DIVER, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DIVERGENT,ormvERGiNG,Dines, in geometry,
are thofe which conftantly recede from each other.
Divergent Rays, in optics, are thofe which, going
frojn a point of the vifible object, are difperfed, and
continually depart one from another, in proportion as
they are removed from the objedl: in which fenfe it is
oppofed to convergent. See Optics.
DIVERSIFYING, in rhetoric, is of infinite fer¬
vice to the orator ; it is an accomplilhment effential to
his chara&er, and may fitly be called the fubjeft of all
his tropes and figures. Voffius lays down fix ways of
diverfifying a fubjeft. 1. By enlarging on what was
briefly mentioned before. 2. By a concife enumera-
Vot. VI. Part I.
65 ] D I V
tion of what had been infilled on at length. 3. By Diverlioa
adding fomething new to what is repeated. 4. By re- II
peating only the principal heads of what had been faid. Divination.
5. By tranfpofing the words and periods. 6. By imi- "
tating them.
DIVERSION, in military affairs, is when an ene¬
my is attacked in one place where they are weak and
unprovided, in order to draw off their forces from ano¬
ther place where they have made or intend to make an
irruption. Thus the Romans had no other way in their
power of driving Hannibal out of Italy, but by making
a diverfion in attacking Carthage.
DIVESTING, properly fignifies undreffing, or
ftripping off one’s garment; in contradiftimftion from
invefting.
In law, it is ufed for the a£l of furfendering or re-
linquilhing one’s effedls. By a contradl of donation
or fale, the donor or feller is faid to be diffeifed and
diverted of their property in fuch a commodity, and
the donee or purchafer becomes invefted-therewith. See
Investiture.
A demife is a general diveftiture which the fathers
and mothers make of aU their effeds in favour of their
children.
DIVIDEND* in arithmetic, the number propofed
to be divided into equal parts. See Arithmetic,
n° 14-
Dividend of Stocks, is a lhare or proportion of the
intereft of Hocks ereded on public funds, as the fouth-
fea, &c. divided among and paid to the adventurers
half-yearly.
DIVINATION, , the knowledge of things ob-
fcure or future, which cannot be attained by any natural
means.
It was a received opinion among the heathens, that
the gods were wont to converfe familiarly with fome
men, whom they endowed with extraordinary powers,
and admitted to the knowledge of their councils and
defigns. Plato, Ariftotle, Plutarch, Cicero, and o-
thers, divide divination into two forts or fpecies, viz.
natural and artificial.
The former was fo called, becaufe not attained by
any rules or precepts of art, but infufed or infpired in¬
to the diviner, without his taking any further care
about it than to purify and prepare himfelf for the re¬
ception of the divine afflatus. Of this kind were all
thofe who delivered oracles, and foretold future events
by infpiration, without obferving external figns or ac¬
cidents.
The fecond fpecies of divination was caUed artificial,
becaufe it was not obtained by immediate infpiration,
but proceeded upon certain experiments and obferva-
tions arbitrarily inftituted, and moftly fuperftitious. Of
this fort there were various kinds, as by facrifices, en¬
trails, flame, cakes, flour, wine, water, birds, lots, ver-
fes, omens, &c.
In holy fcripture we find mention made of nine dif¬
ferent kin^s of divination. The firft performed by the
infpe&ion of planets, liars, and clouds: it is fuppofed
to be the pra&ifers of this whom Mofes caHs PVu meo-
nen, of 13N anan, “ cloud,” Deuter. ch. xviii. v. 10.
2. Thofe whom the prophet calls in the fame place
etqo menachefeh, which the vulgate and generality of
interpreters render augur. 3. Thofe who in the fame
place arc called mecafcheph, which the feptuagint
I and
D I V r 66 ] D I V
• and vulgate tranflate “ a man given to ill praftices.” and their influences; and in this fenfe it is the fame Divination.
4. Such authors whom Mofes in the fame chapter, with judicial aftrology, or makes a part of it.  
ver, 11. calls min hholer. 5. Thofe who confult the 2. Hor of copy, which may alfo be confidered as a part
fpirits called Python; or, as Mofes expreffes it in the of aftrology, is the art by which they draw a figure,
fame book, “ thofe who alk queftions of Py- or celeftial fcheme, containing the 12 houfes, wherein
thon.” 6. Witches or magicians, whom Mofes calls they mark the difpofition of the heavens at a certain
"VT judeoni. 7, Thofe who confult the dead, necro- moment; for example, that at which a man is born, in
mancers. 8. The prophet Hofea, chap. iv. ver* 12. order to foretel his fortune, or the incidents of his life,
mentions fetch as confult ftaves, bxtr; which kind In a word, it is the difpofition of the ftarsand planets
of divination may be called rhabdomancy. 9. The laft at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But as there
kind of divination mentioned in fcripture is hepatofcopy, cannot be any probable or poffible relation between
or the confideration of the liver. the conftellations and the human race, all the principles
Divination of all kinds was neceffarily made an oc- they lay down, and the prophecies they draw from
cult fcience, which naturally remained in the hands of them, are chimerical, falfe, abfurd, and a criminal im-
the priefts and prieftefles, the magi, the foothfayers, pofition on mankind.
the augurs, the vifionaries, the priefts of the oracles, 3. The art of augury confifted, among the ancient
the falfe prophets, and other like profeflbrs, till the Romans, in obferving the flight, the finging and eat-
time of the coming of Jefus Chrift. The light of the ing of birds, efpecially fuch as were held facred. See , 1
gofpel, it is true, has diflipated much of this darknefs; Augury.
but it is more difficult, than is commonly conceived, 4. The equally deceitful art of harufpicy confifted,
to eradicate from the human mind a deep-rooted fu- on the contrary, in the infpeftion of the bowels of ani-
perftition, even though the truth be fet in the ftrongeft mals, but principally of vicftims ; and from thence pre-
light, efpecially when the error has been believed al- difting grand incidents relative to the republic, and
moft from the origin of the world : fo we ftill find ex- ’ the good or bad events- of its enterprifes.
ifting among us the remains of this pagan fuperftition, Aeromancy the art of divining by the air.
in the following chimeras, which enthufiaftic and de- This vain feftnee has alfo come to us from the Pagans:,
figning men have formed into arts and fciences; though but is rejefted by reafon as well as Chriftianity, as falfe
it muft be owned, to the honour of the 18th century, and abfurd.
that the pure doftrines of Chriftianity, and the fpirit 6. Pyromancy is a divination made by the infpec-
©f philofophy, which become every day more diftu- tion of a flame, either by obferving to which fide it
fed, equally concur in banifliing thefe vifionary opi- turns, or by throwing into it fome combuftibk matter,
nions. The vogue for thefe pretended fciences and or a bladder filled with wine, or any thing elfe from,
arts, moreover, is paft, and they can no longer be which they imagined they were able to predid;.
named without exciting ridicule in all feufible people. 7. Hydromancy is the fuppofed art of divining by
By relating them here, therefore, and drawing them water. The Perfians, according to Varro, invented it;
from their obfeurity, we only mean to ihow their Pythagoras and Numa Pompilius made ufe of it; and
futility, and to mark thofe rocks againft which the hu- we ftill admire the like wonderful prognofticators.
man mind, without the affiftance of a pilot, might eafi- 8. Geamancy was a divination made by obferving of
ly run. . cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo performed t
For the attaining of thefe fupernatural qualifications, by points made on paper, or any other fubftance, at a
there are ftill exifting in the world the remains of, venture; and they judged of future events from the
1. AJlrology: a conjedural fcience which teaches to figures that refulted from thence. This was certain-
judge of the effeds and influences of the ftars; and to ly very ridiculous; but it is nothing lefs fo to pre-
predid future events by the fituation of the planets tend to predid future events by the infpedion of the
and their different afpeds. It is divided into natu- grounds of a difh of tea or coffee, or by cards, and ma¬
rs/ ajlrology, or meteorology; which is confined to the ny other like matters.—Thus have defigning men made
foretelling of natural effeds, as the winds, rain, hail, ufe of the four elements to deceive their credulous
and fnow, frofts and. tempefts. In this confifts one brethren.
branch of the art of almanack-makers ; and by merely 9. Chiromancy is the art which teaches to know,,
confronting thefe predidions in the kalendar, with the by infpeding the hand, not only the inclinations oft
weather each day produces, every man of fenfe will a man, but his future deftiny alfo. The fools or
fee what regard is to be paid to this part of aftrology. impoftors who pradife this art pretend, that the dift
The other part, which is called judicial ajlrology, is ftill ferent parts or the lines of the hand ha ve a rela-
far more illufive and rafh than the former: and having tion to the internal parts of the body, as fome to ther
been at firft the wonderful art of vifionaries, it after- heart, others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe
wards became that of impoftors ; a very common fate fuppofition, and on many others equally extravagant,,
with all thofe chimerical fciences, of which we fhall the principles of clriromancy are founded and on
here fpeak. This art pretends to teach the method of which, however, feveral authors, as Robert Flud an
prediding all forts of events that fhall happen upon the Englifhman, Artemidorus, M. de la Chambre, John
earth, as well fuch as relate to the public as to pri- of Indagina, and many others,,have written large trea-
vate perfons; and that by the fame infpedion of the tifes.
ftars and planets and their different conftellations. 10. Phyfiognomy, orphyfiognomancy, is a fcience that
The cabala fignifies, in like manner, the knowledge of pretends to teach the nature, the temperament, the
things that are above the moon, as the celeftial bodies underftanding, and the inclinations of men, by the in-
4 fpediom
D I V [ 67 ] D I V
Divine, fpeftion of .their countenances, and is therefore very
H little lefs frivolous than chiromancy; though Ariftotle,
DlvinS- and a number of learned men after him, have written ex-
* " ' prefs treatifes concerning it.
DIVINE, fomething relating to God. The word
is alfo ufed, figuratively, for any thing that is excellent,
extraordinary, and that feems to go beyond the power
of nature and the capacity of mankind. In which
fenfe, the compafs, telefcope, clocks, &c. are faid to
be divine inventions: Plato is called the divine author,
the divine Plato; and the fame appellation is given to
Seneca : Hippocrates is called, “ the divine old man,”
divinus fenex, &c.
DIVING, the art or aft of defcending under wa¬
ter to confiderable depths, and abiding there a compe¬
tent time.
The ufes of diving are very confiderable, particular¬
ly in the fifhing for pearls, corals, fpunges, &c. See
PEARL-FiJhing, &c.
There have been various methods propofed, and ma¬
chines contrived, to render the bufinefs of diving more
fafe and eafy. The great point is to furnilh the diver
with freih air; without which, he mull either make a
Ihort Hay or perilh.
Thofe who dive for fpunges in the Mediterranean,
help themfelves by carrying down fpunges dipt in oil
in their mouths. But confidering the fmall quantity
of air that can be contained in the pores of a fpunge,
and how much that little will be contrafted by the
preffure of the incumbent water, fuch a fupply cannot
long fubfill the diver. For it is found by experiment,
that a gallon of air included in a bladder, and by a pipe
reciprocally infpired and exfpired by the lungs, becomes
unfit for refpiration in little more than one minute of
time. For though its elallicity be but little altered in
palling the lungs, yet it lofes its vivifying fpirit, and
is rendered effete.
In effeft, a naked diver. Dr Halley affures us, with¬
out. a fpunge, cannot remain above a couple of mi¬
nutes inclofed in water, nor much longer with one,
without fuffocating ; nor, without long praftice, near
fo long; ordinary perfons beginning to llille in about
half a minute. Befides, if the depth be confider¬
able, the preffure of the water in the veffels makes the
eyes blood-lhotten, and frequently oCcafions a fpitting
of blood.
Hence, where there has been occafion to continue
long at the bottom, fome have contrived double flexible
pipes, to circulate air down into a cavity, inclofing
the diver as with armour, both to furnilh air and
to bear off the preffure of the water, and give leave
to his breaft to dilate upon infpiration ; the freih air
being forced down one of the pipes with bellows, and
returning by the other of them, not unlike to an artery
and vein. •
But this method is imprafticable when the depth
furpaffes three fathoms ; the water embracing the bare
limbs fo clofely as to obftruft the circulation of the
blood in them; and withal prefling fo llrongly on all
the junftures where the armour is made tight with lea¬
ther, that, if there be the lead defeft in any of them,
the water rulhes in, and inilantly fills the whole engine,
to the great danger of the diver’s life.
It is certain, however, that people, by being accu-
flomed to the water from their infancy, will at length
be enabled, not only to Hay much longer under water Diving,
than the time above mentioned, but put on a kind 0f—r—^
amphibious nature, fo that they feem to have the ufe
of all their faculties as well when their bodies are im-
merfed in water as when they are On dry-land. Molt
favage nations are remarkable for this. According to
the accounts of our late voyagers, the inhabitants of
the South-fea Hands are fuch expert divers, that when
a nail or any piece of iron was thrown overboard, they
would inllantly jump into the fea after it, and never
failed to recover it, notwithflanding the quick defeent
of the metal. Even among civilized nations, many per¬
fons have been found capable of continuing an incre^
dible length of time below water. The moll remark¬
able inftance of this kind is the famous Sicilian diver
NicolotPefce. The authenticity of the account, in¬
deed, depends entirely on the authority of F. Kircher.
He affures us, that he had it from the archives of the
kings of Sicily: but, notwithftanding this affertion,
the whole hath fo much of the marvellous in it, that
we believe there are few who will not look upon it to
have been exaggerated. “ In the times of Frederic
king of Sicily (fays Kircher), there lived a celebrated
diver, whofe name was Nicholas, and who, from his
amazing Ikill in fwimming, and his perfeverance under
water, was furnamed the This man had from his
infancy been ufed to the fea; and earned his fcanty
fubfiftence by diving for corals and qyfters, which he
fold to the villagers on fhore. His long acquaintance
with the fea, at latt, brought it to be almoft his natu¬
ral element. He was frequently known to fpend five
days in the midft of the waves, without any other pro-
vifions than the fifli which he caught there and ate
raw. He often fwam over from Sicily into Calabria,
a tempeiluous and dangerous paffage, carrying letters
from the king. He was frequently known to fwim
among the gulphs of the Lipari Hands, noway appre-
henfive of danger.
“ Some mariners out at fea, one day obferved fome¬
thing at fome dillance from them, which they regaid-
ed as a fea-monfter ; but upon its approach it was
known to be Nicholas, whom they took into their fliip.
When they a Iked him whither he was going in fo ftor-
my and rough a fea, and at fuch a dillance from land,
he Ihowed them a packet of letters, which he was car¬
rying to one of the towns of Italy, exaftly done up
in a leather bag, in fuch a manner as that they could
not be wetted by the fea. He kept them thus com¬
pany for fome time in their voyage, converfing, and
alking quellious ; and after eating an hearty meal with
-them, he took his leave, and, jumping into the fea,
purfued his voyage alone.
“ In order to aid thefe powers of enduring in the
deep, nature feemed to have affilled him. in a very ex¬
traordinary manner : for the fpaces between his fingers
and toes were .webbed, as in a goofe ; and his chell be¬
came fo very capacious, that he could take in, at one
infpiration, as much breath as would ferve him for a
whole day.
“ The account of fo extraordinary a perfon did not
fail to reach the king himfelf; who commanded Ni¬
cholas to be brought before him. It was no eafy mat¬
ter to find Nicholas, who generally fpent his time in
the folitudes of the deep ; but, at lall, after much
fearching, he was found, and brought before his maje-
D I V [ 68 ] D I V
Divinff. fty. Thr curiofity of this monarch had been long ex-
-) c;te(j j^y t}!e accounts he had heard of the bottom of
the gulph of Charybdis; he now therefore conceived,
that it would be a- proper opportunity to have more
certain information. He therefore commanded our
poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful
whirlpool; and as an incitement to his obedience, he
ordered a golden cup to be flung into it. Nicholas was
not infenfible of the danger to which he was expofed ;
dangers beft known only to himfelf; and therefore he
prefumed to remonftrate : but the hopes of the reward,
the defire of pleafing the king, and the pleafure of
' fhowing his fldll, at laft prevailed. He inftantly jump¬
ed into the gulph, and was as inftantly {wallowed up
fn its bofom. He continued for three quarters of an
hour below ; during which time the king and his at¬
tendants remained on fhore, anxious for his fate ; but
he at laft appeared, holding the cup in triumph in one
hand, and making his way good among the waves with
the other. It may be fuppofed he was received with
applaufe when he came on fhore : the cup was made
the reward of his adventure ; the king ordered him to
be taken proper care of; and, as he was fomewhat fa¬
tigued and debilitated by his labour, after an hearty
meal he was put to bed, and permitted to refrefli him¬
felf by fleeping.
“ When his fpirits were thus reftored, he was again
brought to fatisfy the king’s curiofity with a narrative
of the wonders he had feen ; and his account was to
the following effeft. He would never, he fajd, have
obeyed the king’s commands, had he been apprifed of
half the dangers that were before him. There were
four things, he faid, which rendered the gulph dread¬
ful, not only to men, but to fifties themfelves. i.The
force of the water burfting up from the bottom, which
required great ftrength to refill. 2. The abruptnefs
of the rocks that on every fide threatened deftruc-
tion. 3. The force of the whirlpool dafliing againft
thofe rocks. And, 4. The number and magnitude
of the polypous fifti, fome of which appeared as large
as a man ; and which, every where flicking againft
the rocks, projefted their fibrous arms to entangle
him. Being allied how he was able fo readily to find
the cup that had been thrown in, he replied, that it
happened to be flung by the waves into the cavity of
a rock againft which he himfelf was urged in his de-
fcent. This account, however, did not fatisfy the
king’s curiofity. Being requefted to venture once
more into the gulph for further difcoveries, he at firft
refufed s> but the king, defirous of having the moft
cxaft information poffible of all things to be found
in the gulph, repeated his folicitations; and, to give
them ftill greater weight, produced a larger cup than
the former, and added alfo a purfe of gold. Upon
thefe confiderations the unfortunate diver once again
plunged into the whirlpool, and was never heard of
more.”
To obviate the inconveniences of diving to thofe
who have not the extraordinary powers of the diver
above mentioned, different inftruments have been con¬
trived. The chief of thefe is the diving bell; which
is moft conveniently made in form of a truncated cone,
the fmaller bafe being clofed, and the larger open.
It is to be poifed with lead; and fo fufpended, that
the veffel may fink full of air, with its open bafis down¬
ward, and as near as may be in a fituation parallel to r>h
the horizon, fo as to clofe with the furface of the wa-  '
ter all at once.
Under this covercle the diver fitting, finks down
with the included air to the depth defired : and if the
cavity of the veffel can contain a tun of water, a Angle
man may remain a full hour, without much inconve¬
nience, at five or fix fathoms deep. But the lower
you go, ftill the included air contrafts itfelf accord¬
ing to the weight of the water which compreffes it: fo-
that at 33 feet deep the bell becomes half full of wa¬
ter, the preffure of the incumbent water being then
equal to that of the atmofphere; and at all other
depths the fpace occupied by the compreffed air in the
upper part of the bell will be to the under part of its
capacity filled with water, as 33 feet to the furfaca
of the water in the bell below the common furface
thereof. And this condenfed air being taken in with
the breath foon infinuates itfelf into all the cavities of
the body, and has no ill effeft, provided the bell be
permitted to defcend fo flowlyas to allow time for
that purpofe. One inconvenience that attends it, is
found in the ears, within which there are cavities which
open only outwards, and that by pores fo fmall as not
to give admiffion even to the air itfelf, unlefs they be
dilated and diftended by a confiderable force. Hence,
on the firft defcent of the bell, a preffure begins to be
felt on each ear; which,' by degrees, grows painful;
till the force overcoming the obftacle, what conftrin-
ges thefe pores yields to the preffure, and letting fome
condenfed-air flip in, prefently eafe enfues. The bell
defcending lower, the pain is renewed, and again eafed
in the fame manner.
But the greateft inconvenience of this engine is;
that the water entering it, contrafts the bulk of air
into fo fmall a compafs, that it foon heats and be¬
comes unfit for refpiration : fo that there is a necelfity
for its being drawn up to recruit it; befides the un¬
comfortable abiding of the diver almoft covered with
water.
To obviate the difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr Hal¬
ley, to whom we owe the preceding account, contrived’
fome further apparatus, whereby not only to recruit
and refreftr the air from time to time, but alfo to keep
the water wholly out of it at any depth. The man¬
ner in which this was effefted, he relates in the follow¬
ing words.
The bell I made ufe of was of wood, containing
about 60 cubic feet in its concavity; and was of the
form of a truncate cone, whofe diameter at the top was
three feet, and at the bottom five. This. I coated with
lead fo heavy that it would fink empty ; and I diftri-
buted the weight fo about its bottom, that it would go
"down in a perpendicular direftion, and.no other. In
the top I fixed a ftrong but clear glafs, as a window,
to let in the light from above; and likewife a cock to
let out the hot air that had been breathed: and below,
about a yard under the bell, I placed a ftage which
hung by three ropes, each of which was charged with
about one hundred weight to keep it fteady. This
machine I fufpended from the mail of a fliip by a fprit,
which was fufficiently fecured by ftays to the maft-
head, and was direfted by braces to carry it overboard
clear of the ftiip’s fide, and to bring it again within
board as occafioa required.
To
D r V [ 69 ] D I V
« To fuppty nir to this bell when under water, I to be taken up. And, by the return of the air-barrels, Dm'ng.
caufed a couple of barrels of about 36 gallons each to I often fent up orders written with an iron pen, on ■pv—
be cafed with lead, fo as to fink empty ; each of them fmall plates of lead, direfting how to move us from
having a bung-hole in its lowed: parts to let in the wa- place to place as occafion Required. At other times,
ter, as the air in them condenfed on their defcent; when the water was troubled and thick, it would
and to let it out again when they were drawn up full be as dark as night below ; but in fuch cafes I have
from below. And to a hole in the uppermoft part of been able to keep a candle burning in the bell as long
thefe barrels, I fixed a leathern trunk or hofe well li- as I pleafed, notwithftanding the great expence of air
quored with bees wax and oil, and long enough to fall neceffary to maintain flame.—By an additional contri-
below the bung-hole, being kept down by a weight vance, I have found it not impra&icable for a diver to
appended : fo that the air in the upper part of the go out of an engine to a good diftance from* it, the air
barrels could not efcape, unlefs the lower ends of thefe being conveyed to him with a continued ftream, by
hofe were firft lifted up. fmall flexible pipes ; which pipes may ferve as a clue,
“ The air-barrels being thus prepared, I fitted to direft him back again when he would return to
them with tackle proper to make them rife and fall al- the bell.”
ternately, after the manner of two buckets in a well; Plate CLXIII. fig. 1. {hows Dr Halley’s diving bell,,
which was done with fo much eafe, that two men, with with the divers at work. DBLKRIMP reprefents
lefs than half their ftrength, could perform all the the body of the bell. D, the glafs which ferves as a
labour required: and in their defcent they were di- window. B, the cock for letting out the air which
refted by lines faftened to the under edge of the bell, has been breathed. LM, the feats. C, one of tho
the which pafled through rings on both fides the lea- air-barrels. P, H, two of the divers. F, another di-.
them hofe in each barrel; fo that, Aiding down by ver at a diftance from the tydl, and breathing through
thefe lines, they came readily to the hand of a man the flexible tube K.—This diver is fuppofed to have a
who flood the ftage on purpofe to receive them, head-piece of lead, made to fit quite clofe about his-
and to take up the ends- of the hofe into the bell. Ihoulders: this head-piece was capable of containing
Through thefe hofe, as foon as their ends came above as much air as would fupply him for a minute or two.
the furface of the water in the barrels, all the air. that When he had occalion for more air, he turned a cock
was included in the upper parts of them was blown at F, by which means a communication was opened
with great force into the bell; whilft the water enter- . with the air in the bell, and thus he could receive a
cd at the bung-holes below, and filled them: and as new fupply at pleafure.
foon as the air of one barrel had been thus received, hi nee the invention of this diving machine, there
upon a fignal given, that was drawn up, and at the has been one contrived by Mr Triewald, F. R. S. and
fame time the other defeended ; and, by an alternate military architeft to the king of Sweden, which, for a
fuccefiion, furniftied air fo quick, and in fo great plen- fingle perfon, is in fame refpe&s thought to be more
ty, that I myfelf have been one of five who have been eligible than Dr Halley’s, and. is conttrufted as fol-
together at the bottom in nine or ten fathom water, lows. AB is the bell, which is funk by lead weights Fig. 2.
for above an hour and an half at a time, without any DD hung to its bottom. This bell is of .copper, and
fort of ill confequence: and I might have continued tinned all over in the infide, which is illuminated by
there as long as I pleafed, for any thing that appear- three ftrong convex lenfes, G, G, G,- with copper lids
ed to the contrary. Befides, the whole cavity of the H, H, H, to defend them. The iron ring or plate E
bell was kept entirely free from water, fo that I fat ferves the diver to Hand on when he is at work; and is
on a bench which was diametrically placed near the fufpended at fuch a diftance from^ the bottom of the
bottom, wholly dreffed, with all my cloaths on. I- bell by the chains F, F, F, that when the diver hands
only obferved, that it was neceffary to be let down gra- upright, his head is juft above the water in the bell,
dually at firft, as about 1 2 feet at a time ; and then where the air is much better than higher up; becaufe
to ftop and drive out the air that entered, by recei- it is colder, and confequently more fit for refpiration.
ving three or four barrels of frefti air before I defeend- But as the diver muft always be within the bell, and
ed further. But being arrived at the depth defign- his head of courfe in the upper part, the inventor has
ed, I then let out as much of the hot air that had contrived, that even there, when he has breathed the
been breathed, as each barrel would replenifh with hot air as well as he can, he may, by means of a fpi-
cool, by means of the cock at the top of the bell; ral copper- tube be, placed clofe to the infide of the
through whofe aperture, though very fmall, the air bell, draw the- cooler and freftier air from the lower-
would rufti with fo much violence, as to make the moft parts: for which purpofe, a flexible leather tube,.
furface of the fea boil, and to cover it with a white about two feet long, is fixed to the upper end of the
foam, notwithftanding the weight of the water over copper tube at 3; and to the other end of this tube ia
Us, fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by which the diver draws
“ Thus I found that I could do any thing that re- in the air.
quired to be done juft under us ; and that, by taking The greateft improvement, however, which the di-
off the ftage, I could, for a fpace as wide as the cir- ving bell ever received,, or probably can receive, was front
cuit of the bell, lay the bottom of the fea fo far dry, the late Mr Spalding of Edinburgh. A fedtion of his-
as not to be overfhoes thereon. And, by the glafs improved diving-bell is reprefented in fig, 3., This con-. Fig. 3,
window, fo much light was tranfmitted, that when the ftrudtion is deligned to remedy fome inconveniences of
fea was clear, and efpecially when the fun ftione, -I Dr Halley’s, which are very evident, and of very dan-
could fee perfedlly well to write or read; much more gerous tendency. Thefe are, 1. By Dr Halley’s con-
to fallen or lay hold en any thing under us that was ftru£xion} the finking or raifing of the bell depends en-
6 tirelyy
Div’ng.
D I V [ 7o ] D I V
tirely on the people who are at the furface of the water;
and as the bell even when in the water has a very confi-
derable weight, the raifing it not only requires a great
deal of labour, but there is a pofiibility of the rope
breaking by which it is raifed, and thus every perfon
in the bell would inevitably perifli. 2. As there are, in
many places of the fea, rocks which lie at a confiderable
depth, the figure of which cannot poffibly be perceived
from above, there is danger that fome of their ragged
prominences may catch hold of one of the edges of
the bell in its defcent, and thus overfet it before any
fignal can be given to thofe above, which would infal¬
libly be attended with the deftrudtion of the people in
the bell: and as it mull always be unknown, before trial,
what kind of a bottom the fea has in any place, it is
plain, that without fome contrivance to obviate this
laft danger, the defcent in Dr Halley’s diving-bell is
not at all eligible.
How thefe inconveniences are remedied by Mr Spal¬
ding’s new conftruftion will be eafily underftood from
the following defcription.—ABCD reprefents a fec-
tion of the bell, which is made of wood ; e, e, are iron
hooks, by means of which it is fufpended by ropes
QJ3 F e, and Q^A E R e, and QJ>, as expreffed in
the figure: c, c, are iron hooks, to which are appended
lead weights, that keep the mouth of the bell always
parallel to the furface of the water, whether the ma¬
chine taken altogether is lighter or heavier than an
equal bulk of water. By thefe weights alone, how¬
ever, the bell would not fink : another is therefore
added, reprefented at L ; and which can be raifed or
lowered at pleafure, by means of a rope palling over the
pulley a, and fallened to one of the fides of the bell at
M. As the bell defeends, this weight, called by Mr
Spalding the balance weight, hangs down a confider¬
able way below the mouth of the bell. In cafe the
edge of the bell is catched by any obitacle, the balance-
weight is immediately lowered down fo that it may reft
upon the bottom. By this means the bell is lightened
fo that all danger of overfetting is removed; for being
lighter, without the balance-weight, than an equal
bulk of water, it is evident that the bell will rife, as
far as the length of the rope affixed to the balance-
weight will allow it. This weighty therefore, will
ferve as a kind of anchor to keep the bell at any par¬
ticular depth which the divers may think neceflary ; or
by pulling it quite up, the defcent may be continued
to the very bottom.
By another very ingenious contrivance, Mr Spal¬
ding rendered it poffible for the divers to raife the
bell, with all the weights appended to it, even to the
furface, or to ftop at any particular depth, as they
think proper ; and thus they could ftill be fafe, even
though the rope defigned for pulling up the bell was
broke. For this purpofe the bell is divided into two
cavities, both of which are made as tight as poffible.
Juft above the fecond bottom E F, are fmall flits in the
fides of the bell; through which the water, entering
as the bell defeends, difplaces the air originally con¬
tained in this cavity, which flies out at the upper ori¬
fice of the cock G FI. When this is done, the divers
turn the handle G, which Hops the cock ; fo that if
any more air was to get into the cavity AEFB, it
could not longer be difeharged through the orifice H
as before. When this cavity is full of water, the bell
finks ; but when a confiderable quantity of air is ad- Divings
mitted, it rifes. If therefore the divers have a mind to -y—-4
raife themfelves, they turn the fmall cock g, by which
a communication is made between the upper and under
cavities of the bell. The confequence of this is, that a
quantity of air immediately enters the upper cavity,
forces out a quantity of the water contained in it, and
thus renders the bell lighter by the whole weight of the
water which is difplaced. Thus, if a certain quantity
of air is admitted into the upper cavity, the bell will de-
ic6nd very flowly; if a greater quantity, it will neither a-
feend nor defeend, but remain ftationary ; and if a lar¬
ger quantity of air is ftill admitted, it will arife to the
top. It is to be obferved, however, that the air which
is thus let out into the upper cavity mull be immedi¬
ately replaced from the air-barrel; and the air is to be
let out very flowly, or the bell will rife to the top with
fo great velocity that the divers will be in danger of be¬
ing lhaken out of their feats. But, by following thefe
direflions, every poffible accident may be prevented,
and people may defeend to great depths without the
leaft apprehenfion of danger. The bell alfo becomes 1
fo eafily manageable in the water, that it may be con-
dudted from one place to another by a fmall boat with
the greateft eafe, and with'perfedt fafety to thofe who
are in it.
Inltead of wooden feats ufed by Dr Halley, Mr
Spalding made ufe of ropes fufpended by hooks Ibb ;
and on thefe ropes the divers may fit without any in¬
convenience. I and K are two windows made of thick
ftrong glafs, for “admitting light to the divers. N re¬
prefents an air-caflc with its tackle, and OCP the flex¬
ible pipe through which the air is admitted to the bell.
In the afeent and defcent of this calk the pipe is kept
down by a fmall weight appended, as in Dr Halley’s
machine. R is a fmall cock by which the hot air is
difeharged as often as it becomes troublefome. Fig. 4.
is a reprefentation of the whole diving apparatus,
which it is hoped wall be readily underftood without
any further explanation. Two air-barrels are repre- Fig. 4.
fented in this figure; but Mr Spalding was of opinion,
that one capable of containing 30 gallons is fufficient
for an ordinary machine.
We are told of another method put in pra&ice by
a gentleman of Devonlhire. He has contrived a latge
cafe of ftrong leather, perfedily water-proof, which
may hold about half a hoglhead of air. This is fo
contrived, that, when he flruts himfelf up in this cafe,
he may walk at the bottom of the fea, and go into any
part of a wrecked veffel, and deliver out the goods.
This method, we are told, he has pradtifed for many
years, and has thus acquired a large fortune. It Jj
would be a confiderable improvement on this machine
to condenfe the air in it as much as poffible before the
diver defeended ; as he would thus be furnilhed with
an atmofphcre endued with elafticity fufficient to refill
the weight of the water, which othervvife would fqueeze
his cafe into much lefs room than it originally took up.
The condenfed air alfo would ferve for refpiration a
much longer time than that which is in its ordinary
ftate.
DiriNG-Bladder, a machine invented by Borelli,
and by him preferred, though without any good rea-
fon, to the diving-bell. It is a globular vefiel of brafs
or copper, about two feet in diameter, which contains
the
}
D I V [7
Diving the diver’s head. It is fixed to a goat’s-fltin habit ex-
II a&ly fitted to his perfon. Within the veffel are pipes;
ivifibility. ky means of which a circulation of air " is contrived ;
and the perfon carries an air-pump by his fide, by
which he can make himfelf heavier or lighter as fifhes
do, by contra&ing or dilating their air bladder. By
this means he thought all the objections to which o-
ther diving machines are liable were entirely obviated,
and particularly that of want of air; the air which had
been breathed, being, as he imagined, deprived of its
noxious qualities by circulating through the pipes.
Thefe advantages, however, it is evident, are only ima¬
ginary. The diver’s limbs, being defended from the
preflure of the water only by a'goat’s-lkin, would in¬
fallibly be crufhed if he defcended to any confiderable
depth ; and from the difcoveries now made by Dr
Prieftley and others, it is abundantly evident, that air,
which is once rendered foul by breathing, cannot in
any degree be reftored by circulation through pipes.
Concerning the ufe of copper machines in general, Mr
Spalding favoured us with the following curious ob-
fervation, namely. That when a perfon has breathed
in them a few minutes, he feels in his mouth a very
difagreeable brally talle, which continues all the time
he remains in the veffel; fo that, on this account, cop¬
per feems by no means an eligible material. This tafte
molt probably arifes from the aCtion of the alkalefcent
effluvia of the body upon the copper ; for volatile al¬
kali is a ftrong diffolvent of this metal: but how thefe
effluvia volatilife the copper'in fuch a manner as to make
the tafte of it fenfible in the mouth, it is not eafy to fay.
DIVINITY, properly fignifies the nature, quality,
and elfence of God.
Divinity, is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theo-
iogy.
DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the par¬
ticles of matter in all bodies are capable of a feparation
or difunion from each other.
The Peripatetics and Cartefians hold divifibility to
be an affedtion of all matter. The Epicureans, again,
allow it to agree to every phyfical continuum; but they
deny that this affection agrees to all bodies, for the
primary corpufcles or. atoms they maintain to be per-
fedtly infecable and indivifible.
As it is evident that body is extended, fo it is no
lefs evident that it is divilible : for fince no two parti¬
cles of matter can exift: in the fame place, it follows,
that they are really diftindt from each other; which is
all that is meant by being divifible. In this fenfe the
leatt conceivable particle muft ftill be divifible, fince it
will confift of parts which will be really diftindl. To
illuftrate this by a familiar inftance. Let the leaft ima¬
ginable piece of matter be conceived lying on a fmooth
plain furface, it is evident the farface will not touch
it every where:, thofe parts therefore which it does not
touch may be fuppofed feparable from the others, and
fo on as far as we pleafe ; and this is all that is meant
when we fay matter is infinitely divifible.
Plate The infinite divifibility of mathematical quantity is
C'l.Xll. <Jemonftrate(j thus geometrically. Suppofe the line
AC perpendicular to BF; and another, as GH, at a
fmall diftance from it, alfo perpendicular to the fame
line : with the centres CCC, &c. deforibe circles cut¬
ting the line GH in the points rfe, &c. Now the
i ] D I V
greater the radius AC is, the lefs is the part e¥L. But Diyifihility,
the radius may be augmented in infinitum ; fo long, DlV1^011,,
therefore, the part e H may be divided into ftill lefs ' *
portions; confequently it may be divided in infinitum.
All that is fuppofed in ftridt geometry (fays Mr
Maclaurin) concerning the divifibility of magnitude,
amounts to no more than that a given magnitude may
be conceived to be divided into a number of parts equal
to any given or propofed number. It is true, that the
number of parts into which a given magnitude qnay be
conceived to be divided, is not to be fixed or limited,
becaufe no given number is fo great but a greater may
be conceived and afligned : but there is not, therefore,
any neceffity of fuppofing the number of parts aftually
infinite ; and if fome have drawn very abftrufe confe-
quences from fuch a fuppofition, yet geometry ought
not to be loaded with them.
How far matter may aftually be divided, may in
fome meafure be conceived from hence, that a piece of
wire gilt with fo frnall a quantity as eight grains of
gold, may be drawn out to a length of 13,000 feet,
the whole furface of it ftill remaining covered with
gold. We have alfo a furprifing inftance of the mi-
nutenefs of fome parts of matter from the nature of
light and vifion. Let a candle be lighted, and placed
in an open plain, it will then be vifible two miles round;
and confequently was it placed two miles above the
furface of the earth, it would fill with luminous par¬
ticles a fphere whofe diameter was four miles, and that
before it had loft any fenfible part of its weight. A
quantity of vitriol being difiblved, and mixed with
9000 times as much water, will tinge the whole; con-
fequently will be divided into as many parts as there
are vifible portions of matter in that quantity of water.
There are perfumes, which, without a fenfible dimi¬
nution of their quantity, Ihall fill a very large fpacc
with, their odoriferous particles; which muft therefore
be of an inconceivable fmallnefs, fince there will be a
fufiicient number in every part of that fpace fenfibly
to affeft the organ of fmelling. Dr Keill demonftrates,
that any particle of matter, how fmall foever, and any
finite fpace, how large foever, being given, it ispoffible
for that fmall particle of matter to be diffufed through'
all th?t fpace, and to fill it in fuch a manner, as that
there Ihall be no pore in it whofe diameter Ihall excee'd
any given line.
The chief obje&ions againft the divifibility of mat¬
ter in infinitum are, That an infinite cannot be con¬
tained by a finite; and that it follows from a divifibi¬
lity in infinitum, either that all bodies are equal, or that
one infinite is greater than another. But the anfwer
to thefe is eafy; for the properties of a determined
quantity are not to be attributed to an infinite confi-
dered in a'general fenfe; and who has ever proved that
there could not be an infinite number of infinitely
fmall parts in a finite quantity, or that all infinites are
equal? The contrary is demonftrated by mathematicians
in innumerable inftances. See the article Infinite,.
and ’S Gravefande Ekm. Mathern. 1. i. c. 4.
DIVISION, in general, is the feparating-a thing
into two or more parts.
Mechanical Division, iignifies that reparation which.!
is occafioned in the parts of a body by help of mecha.-
nical inftruments.—The mcchaaical divifion of bodies
does-
D I V [ 72 ] D I V
does indeed feparate them into {mailer, homogeneous,
fimilar parts ; but this reparation cannot extend to the
primary integrant molecules of any body; and confe-
quently is incapable of breaking what is properly call¬
ed their aggregation: alfo, no union is formed betwixt
the divided and dividing bodies, in which refpeft di-
vifion effentially differs -from diffolution.
Divifion is not properly a chemical operation- It is
only employed preparatorily to facilitate other opera¬
tions, and particularly folution. For this purpofe -it
is very ufeful, as it increafes the quantity of furface,
and coafequently the points of contaft of any body.—
Different methods are ufed to divide - bodies according
to their nature. Thofe which are tenacious and elaftic,
as horns and gums, require to be cut, rafped, or filed.
Metals, becaufe of their ductility, require the fame
treatment: but as they are alfo fufible, they may be
quickly and conveniently reduced into grains fmall
enough for mod operations, by pouring them, when
melted, into water. All brittle bodies may be redu¬
ced conveniently into fine parts by being bruifed in a
mortar with a peftle. Very hard bodies, fuch as glafs,
cryitals, ftones, particularly thofe of the vitrifiable
kind, before they are pounded, ought to be plunged
when red-hot into water, by which they are fplit and
cracked, and rendered more eafily pulverable. Bodies
of this kind may alfo be bruifed or ground by meaps
of a hard and flat done, .upon which the matter is to
be put, and bruifed by another hard done fo fmall as
to be held and moved upon the larger done with the
hand. The larger:done.is called a porphyry, from its
being.generally of that kind of done ; and the opera¬
tion c’eHz<\ porphyrifation. Indead of porphyrifation,
a mill may be ufed, compofed of a hai-d grit mildone,
moving round upon another done of the fame kind,
which mud be fixed: in the upper done is a groove
or channel, through which the matter to be ground
paffes. By.this method a fubdance may be more quick¬
ly reduced to a fine powder than by porphyrifation.
But thefe mills can be"only employed for confiderable
quantities of matter.
Thefe methods qf mechanically dividing bodies are
attended with .feme pradtical inconveniences; the mod
confiderable of which is, that feme parts of the divi¬
ding indruments are always druck off, and mixed with
the matter to be divided. This may greatly affeft the
operations. For indance, indruments of iron and cop¬
per furnifh metallic colouring particles, and copper is
very prejudicial to health. Porphyry is coloured by a
j-eddifh brown matter, which injures the colour of
crydal glades, enamels, and porcelains made wdth mat¬
ters ground upon this done. Thefe matters therefore
mud be cleanfed after their porphyrifation, or elfe no
indruments capable of injuring the intended operations
ought to be employed. Thus, for the preparation of
all medicines to be taken internally, no copper indra-
ments, as mortars, pedles, See. ought to be ufed; thofe
made of iron are preferable ; and indead of porphyries,
mortars, grinding-dones and mildones made of hard
and white dones ought to be employed for fubdances
which are to enter into the compofition of enamels^
crydal glafs, and porcelain, the whitenefs of which is
.a mod necefiary quality.
Division, in algebra. See Algebra, p. 402.
N° 102.
Division, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, no n.
Divisions of an Army., in the military art, the
feveral brigades and fquadrons into which it is can¬
toned.
Divisions of a Battalion, are the feveral platoons in¬
to which it is divided in marching or firing, each of
which is commanded by an officer.
Division, in fea affairs, a fele& number of {hips in
a fleet or fquadron pf men of war, didinguiihed by a
particular flag or pendant, and ufually commanded by
a general officer. A fquadron is commonly ranged
into three divifions, the commanding officer of which
is always dationed in the centre.
When a fleet confids of 60 fail of the line, that is,
of (hips having at lead 60 cannon each, the admiral
divides it into three fquadrons, each of which has it*
divifions and commanding officers. Each fquadron
has its proper colours, according to the rank of the
admiral who commands it, and every divifion its proper
mad. Thus the white flag denotes the fird divifion of
France; the white and blue the iecond; and the third
is charaAerifed by the blue. In Britain, the fird ad¬
miral, or the admiral of the fleet, difplays the union-
flag at the main-top-mad head; next follows the white
flag with St George’s crofs; and afterwards the blue.
The private (hips carry pendants of the fame colour
with their refpedtive fquadrons at the mad of their
particular divifions; fo that the lad {hip in the divifion
of the blue fquadron carries a blue pendant ather mizen-
top-mad head.
DIVISOR, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, n°i x.
DIUM (anc. geog.), a town of Chalcidice in Ma¬
cedonia, near mount Athos. Alfo a promontory of
Crete, on the north fide of the ifland.—A third Diurn,
a promontory of Euboea; or a town of that name in
Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum, on the north-
wed fide of the ifland, called alfo Dia.—A fourth Dium
in Pieria of Macedonia, on the wed fide of the Sinus
Thermaicus. Strabo and Livy place it on the borders
of Pieria to the fouth, at the foot of mount Olympus
towards Theffaly. That it was a fplendid city, appears
from Polybius ; who relates, that its gymnafium and
walls were overthrown by the jEtolians. From which
overthrow, however, it again recovered, Alexander
adding new fplendor to it, by the brafs datues cad by
Lyfippus, and erected there in memory of the flain at
the Granicus : an ornament which was continued down
to the time of the Romans; who made it a colony,
called Dienfis.—A fifth Dium beyond Jordan, near
Pella in the Pirsea.
DIVODURUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Me-
diomatrici in Gallia Belgica ; fituated on the Mofelle,
in the fpot where now Metz dands: now a city of Lor-
rain. E. Long. 6. o. Lat. 49. 16.
DIVORCE, a breach or diffolution of the bond of
marriage. See Marriage; and Law, N° clx. 23.
Divorce is of two kinds: the one, a vinculo matri¬
monii, which alone is properly divorce; the other, a
menfa IA thoro, “ a feparation from bed and board.”
The woman divorced a vinculo matrimonii receives all
again that (he brought with her: the other has a fuitable
feparate maintenance allowed her out of her huflrand’s
effedls. The fird only happens thro* feme effential impe¬
diment, as confanguinity or affinity within the degrees
forbidden.
*
D I V C 73 ] D I V
:«3ivorce. forbidden, pre-contraft, impotency, adultery, &c. of
i; jr-v—*' which impediments the canon law allows 14, compre¬
hended in thefe verfes :
Error, conditio, •votum, cognatio, crimen,
Cultus, difparitas, vis, ordo, ligamen, bonejlc
Sifts ajjinis,ft forte coirc nequibis.
Si parochi Uf* duplids defit prafentia tejiis,
Raptave fit mulicr, ncc parti reddita tuta.
Divorce is a fpiritual judgment, and therefore is
palled in the fpiritual court. Under the old law, the
Woman divorced was to have of her hufband a writing,
as St Jerom and Jofephus teftify, to this effeft: I pro-
inife, that hereafter I will lay no claim to thee ; which was
called a bill of divorce.
Divorce was allowed of in great latitude both among
the pagans and Jews. At Rome, barrennefs, age,
difeafe, madnefs, and banilhment, were the ordinary
caufes of divorce. Spurius Carvilius, between 500 and
600 years after the building of Rome, under the con-
fullhip of M. Attilius, and P. Valerius, was the firft
who put away his- wife becaufe Ihe was barren; though
Plutarch, in his Roman Queftions, maintains, that Do-
mitian was the firft who permitted divorce. Juftinian
afterwards added impotence, a vow of chaftity, and
the profeffion of a monaftic life, as valid reafons of di¬
vorce.
The Roman lawyers diftinguilh between repudium
and divortium ; making the former to be the breaking
of a contraft or efpoufal, and the latter feparation af¬
ter matrimony. Romulus enabled a fevere law, which
fuffered not a wife to leave her hulband, but gave the
man the liberty of turning off his wife, either upon
poifoning her children, counterfeiting his private keys,
or for the crime of adultery; but if the hulband on
any other occafion put her away, he ordered one moie¬
ty of his eftate for the wife, and the other to the god-
defs Ceres: befides an atonement to the gods of the
earth. However, in later times, the women as well as
the men might fue a divorce. The common way of
divorcing was by fending a bill to the woman, con¬
taining the reafons of feparation, and the tender of all
her goods which Ihe brought with her: and this was
called repudium mittere; or elfe it was performed in
her prefence, and before feven witneffes, and accom¬
panied with the formalities of tearing the writings,
refunding the portion, taking away the keys, and
turning the woman out of doors.
The Grecian laws concerning divorces were diffe¬
rent : The Cretans allowed divorce to any man
that wTas afraid of having too many children. The
Spartans feldom divorced their wives ; and it was ex¬
tremely fcandalous for a woman to depart from her
'hulband. The Athenians allowed divorce on very
fmall grounds, by a bill, containing the reafon of the
divorce, and approved, if the party appealed, by the
chief magiftrate ; and women alfo were allowed to
leave their hulbands on juft occafions. Perfons di¬
vorcing their wives were obliged to return their por¬
tions ; otherwife, the Athenian laws obliged them to
pay nine oboli a month for alimony. The terms ex-
preffing the feparation of men and women from each
other were different; the men were faid or
-arcoxivur, to difnifs their wives ; but wives, a.xo>,uretn, to
leave their hufbands.
« The law of Mofes (Mr Paley obferves), for rea*
Vox.. VI. Part I.
fons of local expediency, permitted the Jewilh hulband Divorce.
to put away his wife; but whether for every caufe,  v——^
or for what caufe, appears to have been controverted Palsy's Mo-
amongft the interpreters of thofe times. Chrift, the rat and Pali.
precepts of whofe religion were calculated for moret,:al PhilefJ-
general ufe and obfervation, revokes this permiffion,^’P'*7'3'
as given to the Jews ‘ for their hardnefs of hearts,’ and
promulges a law which was thencefotward to confine
divorces to the fingle caufe of adultery in the wife:
‘ Whofoever lhall put away his wife, except it be for
fornication, and lhall marry another, committeth adul¬
tery ; and who fo marrieth her which is put away,
doth commit adultery.’ Matt. xix. 9.
“ Inferior caufes may juftify the feparation of hulband
and 'wife, although they will not authorife fueh a dif-
folution of the marriage con trad as would leave either
at liberty to marry again : for it is that liberty in
which the danger and mifchief of divorces principally
confift. The law of this country, in conformity to
our Saviour’s injundion, confines the diffolution of the
marriage contrad to the fingle cafe of adultery in
the wife ; and a divorce even in that oafe can only be
brought about by the operation of an ad of parlia¬
ment, founded upon a previous fentence in the fpiritual
court, and a verdid againft the adulterer at common
law: which proceedings taken together compofe as
complete an inveftigation of the complaint as a caufe
can receive. It has lately been propofed to the legif-
lature to annex a claufe to thefe ads, reftraining the
offending party from marrying with the companion of
her crime, who by the courfe of proceeding is always
known and convided: for there is reafon to fear, that
adulterous connedions are often formed with the pro-
fped of bringing them to this conclufion ; at leaft,
when the feducer has once captivated the affedion of
a married woman, he may avail himfelf of this tempt¬
ing argument to fubdue her fcruples, and complete Ids
vidory; and the legillature, as the bufinefs is managed
at prefent, affifts by its interpofition the criminal de-
fign of the offenders, and confers a privilege where it
ought to inflid a punilhment. The propofal deferved
an experiment; but fomething more penal, it is appre¬
hended, would be found neceffary to check the pro-
grefs of this alarming depravity. Whether a law might
not be framed, direding the fortune of the adulterefs to
defend as in cafe of her natural death; refer ving, how¬
ever, a certain proportion of the produce of it, by way
of annpity, for her fubfiftence (fuch annuity in no
cafe to exceed a certain fum); and alfo fo far fuf-
pepding the eftate in the hands of the heir, as to pre-
ferve the inheritance to any children ftie might bear t»
a fecond marriage, in cafe there was none to fucceed
in the place of their mother by the firft: whether fuch
a law would not render female virtue in higher life lefs
vincible, as well as the feducers of that virtue lefs ur¬
gent in their fuit, I would recommend to the de¬
liberation of thofe who are willing to attempt the re¬
formation of this important but moft incorrigible clafs
of the community. A paffion for fplendor, for expen-
five amufements and diftindions, is commonly found
in that defcription of women who would become the
fubjeds of fuch a law, not lefs inordinate than their
other appetites. A feverity of the kind propofed ap¬
plies immediately to that paflion. And there is no
room for any complaint of injuftice, fince the provi-
K fions
:
DOB t 74 ] DOC
f/ons above ftated, with others which might be cotv-
trived, confine the punithment, fo far as it is poiiible,
to the perfon of the offender ; faffering the eftate to
remain to the heir, or within the family of the an-
ceftor from whom it came, or to. attend tire appoint¬
ments of his will.
“ Sentences of the ecclefiaflicalcourts, which releafe
the parties a vinculo matrimonii., by reafon of impuberty,
frigidity, cenfanguinity within the prohibited degrees,
prior marriage, or want of the requifite confent of pa¬
rents or guardians, are not diffolutions of the marriage
contrail, but judicial declarations that there never was
any marriage ; fueh impediment fubfifting at the time
as rendered the celebration of the marriage rite a mere
nullity. And the rite itfelf contains an exception of
thefe impediments. The man and woman to be mar¬
ried are charged, “ if they know any impediment why
they may not be lawfully joined together, to confefs
it;” and affured, “ that fo many as are coupled to¬
gether, otherwife than God’s word doth allow, are not
joined together by God1, neither is their matrimony
lawfulall which is intended by way of folemn no¬
tice to the parties, that the vow they are about to make
will bind their confciences and authorife their cohabi-
tation only upon the fupoofition that no legal impedi¬
ment exiit.”
DIURETICS (from ■?'« ly, and >"'»v urine), medi¬
cines which provoke a discharge by urine.
Such is water drank plentifully ; white wine drank
in a morning; alkali falls of all kinds; fea-ialt, fal-
gemmse, nitre, borax, alum, tartar, fal ammoniac,
whey, four milk, lemon-juice, ftc. Aqueous liquors
are generally diuretic efpecially if mixed with fait,
and drank cold. Fermented liquors are the leaft diu¬
retic of all; and the lefs fo, as they are the fatter.
Sharp thin four wines, rhenilh, &c. as alfo acid fpirits
of vinegar, fait, fulphur, alum, vitriol, &c. afparagus,
bitter almonds, fmallage, eryngium, eupatorium, faffa-
ffas, &c. are all diuretics.
DIURNAL, in aitronomy, fomething relating to
day; in oppoiition to no Sternal, whichregards the night.
DIVUS, Diva, in antiquity, appellations given to
men and women who had been deified, or placed in
the number of the gods. See Deification, &c.
Hence it is, that on medals ftruck for the confecra-
tion of an emperor or emprefs, they give them the
title of clivus or c/ivae for example, DIVUS JULIUS.
DIVO ANTONINO PIO. DIVO PIO. DIVO
CLAUDIO. DIVA FAUSTINA AUG. &c,
DIZZINESS, in medicine. See Vertigo.
DO, iii mufic, a note of the Italian fcale, corre-
fponding to ut of the common gamut. See Music.
DOBSON (William), an eminent Englifh portrait
and hiftory painter, born at London in 1610. He
ferved an apprentjedhip with one Peck, a ftationer
arid picture dealer; and owed his improvement to the
copying fome pictures of Titian and Van Dyck, whofe
manner he always retained. He had farther obliga¬
tions to the latter of thefe artifts; for it isfoid, that a
piiTure of his painting being expofed at a (hop on
Snow-hill, Van Dyck paffing by was (truck with it
exceedingly; and inquiring after the author, found him
at work in a poor garret. Van Dyck had the gene-
vefity to equip him in a manner fuitable to his. merit.
He prefented him to king Charles I. who took him un¬
der his protection, kept him with him at Oxford all
the time his majefty continued in that city, and not
only fat to himfeveral times for his picture, but caufed
the prince of Wales, prince Rupert, and moll of the
lords of his court, to do fo too. Mr Dobfon, how¬
ever, being fomewhat loofe and irregular in his way of
life, was far from improving the many opportunities
he had of making his fortune; and died very poor in
1647, at his houfe in St Martin’s Lane.
DOBUNI, or Bonum; an ancient people of Bri¬
tain, who polfelfed the territory which now forms the
counties of Oxford and Gloucefter. Both the names
of this Britifli nation feem to have been derived from
the low lituation of a great part of the country which
they inhabited: for both Duvn and Boehm fignify
“ profound” or “ low”, in the ancient language of
Gaul and Britain. The Dobuni are not mentioned
among the Britifh nations who refifted the Romans
under Julius Ctefar, which was probably owing to the
dittance of their country from the feene of atlion; and>
before the next invafion under Claudius, they had been
fo much oppreffed by their ambitious neighbeurs the
Catiivellauni, that they fubmitted with pleafure to the
Romans, in order to be delivered from that oppreffiom
Cogidunus, who was at that time (as his name im¬
ports) prince of the Dobuni, recommended himfelf fo.
efFe£tually to the favour of the emperor Claudius, by
his ready fubmiifion, and other means, that he was not
only'continued in the government of his own territo¬
ries, but had fome other dates put under his authority.
This prince lived fo long, and remained fo ileady a
friend and ally to tire Romans, that his fubjeCL, be¬
ing habituated to their obedience in his time, never
revolted, nor flood in need of many forts or forces to
keep them in fubjeCIiorf. This is certainly the reafoa
that we meet with fo few Roman towns and ilatious ia
the country anciently inhabited by the Dobani. The
Durocornovium of Antoninus, and the Corinium of
Ptolemy, are believed by antiquaries to have been the
fame place, the capital of the Dobuni, and fituated at
Cirencefler, in GbucefteFfhire, where there are many
marks of a Roman ftation. Clevum or Glevum, in
the thirteenth iter of Antoninus* flood where the city
of Gloucefler now hands; and Abone, in.the fourteenth
iter, was probably fituated at Avinton on the Severn-
The country of the Dobuni was comprehended in the
Roman province Britannia Prima.
DOCETjE (from to appear), in ecclefiaflical
hiftory, the followers of Julius Caffianus, one of the
Valentinian fcCt, towards the clofe of the fecond cen¬
tury, who revived a notion that had been adopted by
a branch of the Gnoftics, againft whom St John, Ig¬
natius, and Polycarp, had afferted the truth of the in¬
carnation. They believed and taught, as their name
imports, that the aClions and fufferings of Jefus Chrifi
were not in reality, but only in appearance.
DOCIMASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of
the magiftrates and perfons employed in public bufi-
nefs at Athens. It was performed publicly in the fo¬
rum, where they were obliged to give account of them-
felves and their paft life before certain judges. A-
mong feveral queftiotis propofed to them, we find the
following: Whether they had been dutiful to their pa¬
rents,
Dobunti.
it :
Docimafi!
doc r
tooctmafiic rents, had ferved in the wars, and had a competent
!l eftate ?
^ Dock. DOCIMASTIC art, a name given to the art of
,U’”’~V 1 eifaying by operations in fmall, the nature and quan¬
tity of metallic or other matters which may be ob¬
tained from mineral or other compound bodies. See
Refining and Metallurgy.
DOCIMENUM marmor, a name given by the
ancients to a fpecies of marble of a bright and clear
white, much ufed in large and fumptuous buildings,
fuch as temples and the like. It had its name from
Dochnenos, a city of Phrygia, afterwards called Synaia;
near which it was dug, and from whence it was fent
to Rome* It was accounted little inferior to the Pa¬
rian in colour, but not capable of fo elegant a polifh ;
whence it was lefs ufed by the ftatuaries, or in other
fmaller works. The emperor Adrian is faid to have
ftfed this marble in building the temple of Jupiter;
•and many others of the great works of the Romans
ate of it.
DOCK, in botany. See Rumex.
Dock, in the manege, is ufed for a large cafe of
leather, as long as the dock of a horfe’s tail, which
ferves it for a cover. The French call the dock
trviifiqueue. It is made fall byflraps to the Crupper,
and has leathern thongs that pafs between his thighs,
j and along his flanks to the faddle-ftraps, in order to
keep the tail tight, and to hinder it from whifking
about.
Dock, in maritime affairs, a fort of broad and deep
trench, formed on the fide of a harbour, or on the
banks of a river; and commodioufly iitted either to
build fhips or receive them to be repaired and breamed
therein. Thefe forts of docks have generally ftrong
flood-gates to prevent the flux of the tide from enter¬
ing the dock while the flap is under repair.—There
are likewife docks of another kind, called wet -docks^
where a fhip can only be cleaned during the recefs of
the tide, or in the interval between the time when the
tide left her dry a-gfound and the period when it a-
gain reaches her by the return of the flood. Docks of
the latter kind are not furnifhed with the ufual flood-
gates.
Docii-Tards, certain magazines containing all forts
of naval ftores and timber for fhip'-building. In Eng¬
land, the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Portfmouth,
Plymouth, Deptford, Woolwich, and ’Sheernefe. His
majefty’s fhips and veffels of war are generally moored
£t thefe ports during the time of peace; and fuch as
want repairing are taken into the docks, examined, and
refitted for fervice.
The principal dock-yards are governed by a Com-
tniffioner, refident at the port; who fuperintends all the
mufleis of the officers, artificers, .and labourers, em¬
ployed in tire dock-yard and ordinary. He alfo con¬
trols their payment therein ; examines the accounts ;
contrails, and draws bills on the navy-office to fupply
the deficiency of ftores; and, finally, regulates what¬
ever belongs to the dock-yard, maintaining due order
iii -the refpeilive offices.
Thefe yards are generally fupplied from the northern
crowns with hemp, pitch, tar, rofin, canvas, oak-plank,
■and feveral other fpecies. With regard to the malls,
particularly thofc of the largefl fize, they are ufudly
imported from New-England.
75 1 DOC
DOCTOR, a perfon who has paffed all the degrees
of a faculty, and is impowered to teach or praitife the ”
fame : thus we fay, doilor in divinity, dodtor in phy-
fic, doctor of laws.
The eftablifhment of the doSorak, fuch as now in
ufe among us, is ordinarily attributed to Irnerius, who
himfelf drew up the formulary. The firft ceremony
of this kind was performed at Bologna, in the perfon
of Bulgarus, who began to profefs the Roman law,
and on that occafion was folemnly promoted to the d-ic-
torate, i. e. inftalled juris utriufque doBor. But the cu-
ftom was foon transferred from the faculty of la v to
that of theology ; the firft inftance whereof was given
in the univerfity of Paris, where Peter Lombard and
Gilbert de la Portree, the two chief divines of thofe
days, were created doilors in theology, facra theologie
doBores.
Spelman ‘akes the title of doctor not to have com¬
menced till after the publication of Lombard’s fert-
tences, about the year 1140; and affirms, that fuch
as explained that work to their fcholars were the fi'rk
that had the appellation of doilors. Others go much
higher, and hold Bede to have been the firft doctor at
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, which
latter died in the year 721. But Spelman will not al¬
low dodtor to have been the name of any title or de¬
gree in England till the reign of king John, about the
year 1207.
To pafs doitor in divinity at Oxford, it is neceffary
the candidate have been four years bachelor of divinity.
For doftor of laws, he muft have been feven years in
the univerfity to commence bachelor of law; five years
after which he may be admitted doctor of laws. Other-
wife, in three years after taking the degree of mailer
of arts, he may take the degree of bachelor in law ;
and in four years more, that of LL. D. which fame
method and time are likewife required to pafs the de¬
gree of dodtor in phyfic.
At Cambridge, to take the degree of dodtor in di¬
vinity, it is required the candidate have been feven
years bachelor of divinity. Though in feveral of the
colleges the taking of the bachelor of divinity’s degree
is difpenfed with, and they may go out per Jaltum. To
commence dodtor in laws, the candidate muft have
been five years bachelor of law , or feven years mafter
of arts. To pafs dodtor in phyfic, he muft have been
bachelor in phyfic five years, or feven years mafter of
arts. A doctor of the civil law may exercife eccle-
fiaftical jurifdidtion, though a layman, ilat. 37 Hen.
VII1. cap. 17. fedt. 4.
Doctor of the Law, a title of honour among the Jews.
The inveftiture, if we may fo fay, of this order was
performed by putting a key and table-book in their
hands ; which is what fome authors imagine our Savi¬
our had in view, Luke xi. 52. when, ipeaking of the
dodtors of the law, he fays, “ Wo unto you dodtors
of the law, for you have taken away the key of know¬
ledge : you entered not in yotirfelves, and them that
were entering you hindered.”
Doctor, of the Church, a title given to certain, of the
fathers whole dodlrines and opinions have been the moil
generally followed and authorifed. We ufually reckon
four dodtors of the Greek church, and three of the
Latin. The firft are St Athanafius, St Bal'd, St Gre¬
gory Nazianzcn, and St Chryfoftom. The latter are
• K 2 St
D O D
[ 76 ]
D O D
Document St Jerom, St Auguftine, and Gregory the Great. In and his extravagance ftill continuing, he became in- Dodder
I! the Roman breviary there is a particular office for the vclved in difficulties, which tempted him to forge a II
P»dd. do&ors. It only differs from that of the confeffors, bond from his late pupil lord Chefterfield, Feb. 4. Dodr“an'
by the anthem of the Magnificat, and the leffons. I777> for L.4200, which he a&ually received: but _ v-’- j
Doctor, is alfo an appellation adjoined to feveral being dete&ed, he was tried at the Old Bailey, found (
fpecific epithets, expreffing the merit of fome of the guilty, and received fentence of death; and, infpite^^'i |
fchoolmen : thus, Alexander Hales is called the irre- of every application for mercy, was executed at Ty- '
7. Dr Dodd was a voluminous
fragable doftor; Thomas Aquinas, the angelic dodtor ; burn, June 27. 1777.
St Bonaventure, the feraphic dodlor ; John Duns Sco- writer, and poffeffed confiderable abilities,, with little
tus, the fubtile doftor ; Raimond Lully, the illumi- judgment and much vanity. An accurate lift of his
nated doftor; Roger Bacon, the admirable dodtor, &c. various writings is prefixed to his “ Thoughts in Pri-
Doctor, AiJao-xaxof, in the Greek church, is a par- fon,” ed. 1781,
ticular officer, appointed to interpret part of the fcrip-
tures. He who interprets the Gofpels, is called do8or
of the Gfpels; he who interprets St Paul’s Epiftles,
doftor of the Apojlle: he who interprets the Pfalms,
doflor of the Pfalter.
DocTORs-Commons. See College of Civilians.
DODDER, in botany. See Ouscuta.
DODDRIDGE (Philip), D. D. an eminent Pref-
byterian minifter, was the fon of Daniel Doddridge an
oil-man in London, where he was born on the 26th of
June 1702 ; and having completed the ftudy of the
claffics in feveral fchools, was, in 1719, placed under
DOCUMENT, in law, fome written monument the tuition of the reverend Mr John Jennings, who
produced in proof of any thing afferted. kept an academy at Kil worth in Leicefterfiiire. He was
DODAR 1’IA, in botany : A genus of the angio- firft fettled as a minifter at Kilworth, where he preach-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of ed to a fmall congregation in an obfcure village : but,
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the on Mr Jennings’s death, fucceeded to the care of his
40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quinquedentated; academy ; and foon after was chofen minifter of a large
the under lip of the corolla twice as long as the upper ; congregation of Diffenters at Northampton, to which
the capfule bilocular and globofe. he removed his academy, and where the number of his
DODD (Dr William), an unfortunate Engliffi di- pupils increafed. He inftrufted his pupils with the
vine, eldeft fon of the Rev. William Dodd, many years freedom and tendernefs of a father ; and never expe&ed
vicar of Bourne in Lincolnlhire, was born May 29. nor defired that they (hould blindly follow his fenti-
1729. He was fent, at the age of 16, to the univer- ments, but encouraged them to judge for themfelves.
fity of Cambridge; and admitted, in the year 1745, He checked any appearance of bigotry and uncharir
a fizar of Clare-Hall. In 1749-50 he took the degree tablenefs, and endeavoured to cure them by {bowing
of B. A. with great honour, being upon that occafion what might be faid in defence of thofe principles they
in the lift of wranglers. Leaving the univerfity, he difliked. He died at Lilbon, whither he went for the
imprudently married a Mifs Mary Perkins in 1751, recovery of his health ; and his remains were interred in
was ordained a deacon the fame year, prieft in 1753, the burying-ground belonging to the Britifh faftory
and foon became a celebrated and popular preacher, there, and a handfome monument was ereded to his
His firft preferment was the le&urefhip of Weft Ham. memory in the meeting-houfe at Northampton, at the
In 1754 he was alfo chofen ledurer of St Olave’s, expence of the congregation, on which is an epitaph,
Hart-Street; and in 1757 took the degree of M. A. written by Gilbdt Weft, Efq. He wrote, 1. Free'
at Cambridge. On the foundation of the Magdalen Thoughts on the moft probable means of reviving the
Hofpital in 1758, he was a ftrenuous fupporter of that Diffenting Intereft. 2. The Life of Colonel James
charity, and foon after became preacher at the chapel Gardiner. 3. Sermons on the Education of Children,
of it. By the patronage of Biihop Squire, he in 1763 4. The Rife and Progrefs of Religion in the Soul:
obtained a prebend of Brecon, and by the intereft of 5. The Family Expofitor, in 6 vols 4to, &c. And fince
fome city-friends procured himfelf to be appointed one the author’s death, a volume of his Hymns have been
of the king’s chaplains ; foon after which, he had the publifhed, and his Theological Ledures. Several of.
education of the prefent earl of Chefterfield commit- his works have been tranllated into Dutch, German,
ted to his care. In 1766 he went to Cambridge and and French.
took the degree of LL. D. At this period, the efti- DODECAGON, in geometry, a regular polygon
mation in which he was held by the world was fufficient confiding of twelve equal fides and angles,
to give him expedations of preferment, and hopes of DODECAHEDRON, in geometry, one of the
riches and honours ; and thefe he might probably have platonic bodies, or regular folids, contained under
acquired, had he poflefled a common portion of pru- twelve equal and regular pentagons,
dence and difcretion. But, impatient of his fituation, DODECANDRIA (from twelve, and
and eager for advancement, he rafhly fell upon means a man).-, the name of the eleventh clafs in Linnaus’S
which in the end were the occafion of his ruin. On fexual fyftem, cqnlifting of plants with hermaphrodite'
the living of St George, Hanover-Square, becoming flowers, that, according to the title, have twelve ftami-
vacant, he wrote an anonymous letter to the chancel- na or male organs. This clafs, however, is not limited
lor’s lady, offering 3000 guineas if by her affiftance he with refped to the number of (lamina. Many genera-
was promoted to it. This being traced to him, com- have fixteen, eighteen, and even nineteen ftamina ; the
plaint was immediately made to the king, and Dr Dodd effential charadter feems to be, that, in the clafs in que-
was difmiffed with difgrace from his office of chaplain, ftion, the (lamina, however numerous, are inferted into-
From this period he lived negledted, if not defpifed ; the receptacle : whereas in the nevt elafe. Jei-ifanilVia.
whereas in the next clafs, icofandria,
which.
D O D [ 77 1 D O D
'spotleeas which is as little determined in point of number as the
| II prefent, they are attached to the infide of the calyx or
If0 ona' flower-cup.
1 v The orders in this clafs, which are fix, are founded
upon the number of the ftyles, or female organs. A-
I , farabacca, mangoftan, ftorax, purple loofe-ftrife, wild
Syrian rue, and purflane, have only one ftyle ; agrimony
and heliocarpus have two ; burning thorny plant, and
baftard rocket, three ; glinus, five; illicium, eight; and
houfe-leek, twelve.
DODECAS, in botany: A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is half quadrifid, having the corolla above ;
I the corolla quinquefid ; the capfule unilocular, conjoin¬
ed with the calyx.
DODECATHEON, in botany : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
21 ft order, Precia. The corolla is verticillated and
reflexed ; the ftamina placed in the tube; the capfule
unilocular and oblong.
DODO, in ornithology. See Didus.
DODONA, a town of Thefprotia in Epirus, or
I (according to others) in Theflaly. There was in its
neighbourhood a celebrated oracle of Jupiter. The
1 town and temple of the god were firft built by Deu¬
calion, after the univerfal deluge. It was fuppofed to
be the moft ancient oracle of all Greece ; and accord¬
ing to the traditions of the Egyptians mentioned by
R Herodotus, it was founded by a dove. Two black
doves, as he relates, took their flight from the city of
Thebes in Egypt; one of which flew to the temple of
Jupiter Ammon, and the other to Dodona, where
with an human voice they acquainted the inhabitants
of the country that Jupiter had confecrated the ground,
which in future would give oracles. The extenfive
grove which furrounded Jupiter’s temple was endowed
with the gift of prophecy ; and oracles were frequent¬
ly delivered by the facred oaks and the doves which in¬
habited the place. This fabulous tradition of the
1* oracular power of the doves is explained by Herodotus,
who obferves that fome Phenicians carried away two
priefteffes from Egypt, one of which went to fix her
refidence at Dodona, where the oracle was eftablilhed.
It may farther be obferved, that the fable might have
been founded upon the double meaning of the word
which fignifies dwes in moft parts.of Greece,
while in the dialed! of the Epirots it implies old uuo-
[ ' men. In ancient times the oracles were delivered by
the murmuring of a neighbouring fountain ; but the
cuftom was afterwards changed. Large kettles were
fufpended in the air near a brazen ftatue, which held
a laih in its hand. When the wind blew ftrong, the
ftatue was agitated and ftruck againft one of the ket¬
tles, which communicated the motion to all the reft,
and raifed that clattering and difeordant din, which
continued for a while, and from which the artifice of
the priefts drew the predictions. Some fuppofe that
the noife was occafioned by the fhaking of the leaves
and boughs of an old oak, which the fuperftition of
the people frequently confulted, and from which
they pretended to receive oracles. It may be ob¬
ferved with more probability, that the oracles were
delivered by the priefts, who, by artfully concealing
themfelves behind the oaks, gave occafion to the fuper-
ftitious multitude to believe that the trees were endow- Dodor.sea
ed with the power of prophecy. As the (hip Argo ’I .
was built with fome of the oaks of the foreft of Do-, 0 ^we
dona, there were fome beams which gave oracles to
the Argonauts, and warned them againft the approach
of calamity. Within the foreft of Dodona there was
a ftream and a fountain of cool water which had the
power of lighting a torch as foon as it touched it.
This fountain was totally dry at noon day, and was re-
ftored to its full courfe at midnight, from which time
till the following noon it began to decreafe, and at the
ufual hour was again deprived of its waters. The
oracles of Dodona were generally delivered by wo¬
men.
DODONiEA, in botany : A genus of the mono¬
gynia order belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is tetraphyllous ; there is no corolla ; the
capfule trilocular and inflated ; the fteds twofold.
DODONIAfa, Dodonaus, in antiquity, an epithet
given to Jupiter, becaufehe was worfhipped in a temple
built in the foreft of Dodona, where was the moft fa¬
mous, and (it is faid) the moft ancient, oracle of all
Greece. See Dodona.
DODONIDES, the prieftefles who gave oracles in
the temple of Jupiter in Dodona. According to fome
traditions the temple was originally inhabited by feven
daughters of Atlas, who nurfed Bacchus. Their names
were Ambrofia, Eudora, Pafithoe, Pytho, Plexaure,
Coronis, Tythe or Tyche. In the later ages the oracles
were always delivered by three old women ; which cu¬
ftom was firft eftabliftied when Jupiter enjoyed the com¬
pany of Dione, whom he permitted to receive divine
honour in his temple at Dodona. The Boeotians were
the only people of Greece who received their oracles
at Dodona from men, for reafons which Strabo, 1. 9>
fully explains.
DODRANS, in antiquity, three-fourths of the as.
See the article As.
DODSLEY (Robert), a late eminent bookfeller,
and ingenious writer, born at Mansfield in Nottingham-
fliire, in the year 1703. He was not indebted to edu¬
cation for his literary fame, being originally a livery
fervant; but his natural genius, and early pafiion for
reading, foon elevated him to a fuperior ftation. He
wrote an elegant little fatirical farce called The Toy-
Jhopy which was afted with applaufe in 1735, and which
recommended him to the patronage of Mr Pope. The
following year he produced the King and Miller of
Mansjield. The profits of thefe two farces enabled him
to commence bookfeller, and his own merit procured
him eminence in that profeffion. He wrote fome other
dramatic pieces, and publilhed a colleddion of his works
in one vol. 8vo, under the modeft title of Trifles ; which
was followed by Public Virtue, a poem in qto. Befide
what he wrote himfelf, the public were obliged to him
for exerting his judgment in the way of his bufinefs ;
he having colledted feveral volumes of well chofen Mif-
cellaneous Poems and Fugitive Pieces, whofe brevity
would elfe have endangered their being totally loft tO'
poilerity. He died in 1764.
DODWELL (Henry), a very learned controverfial
writer, born at Dublin, but of Englifti extradtion, in
1641. He wrote an incredible number of tradts : but
his fervices were fo little acknowledged, that bifliop
Burnet and others accufe him of doing more hurt than
good*
DOG [7
Doffljurg, good to the canfe of Chviftianity, by his indifcrect love
, ~og~ of paradoxes and novelties, and thus expoling himfelf
1 to the feoffs of unbelievers. His pamphlet on the im¬
mortality of the foul gave.rife to the well known con-
troverfy between Mr Collins and Dr Clark on that fub-
jeft. He died in 1711.
DOESBURG, a town of the united provinces, in
the county of Zutphen and province of Guelderland.
It is fmall, but well peopled, and very ftrong both by
art and nature, having the river Yffel on one fide, and
a morafs on the other, and is only to be approached
by a narrow neck of land. E. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat.
S2- 3* . -
DOG, in zoology : An animal remarkable for its
natural docility, fidelity, and affetlion for its mailer ;
which qualities mankind are careful to improve for
their own advantage. Thefe ufeful creatures guard our
honfes, gardens, and cattle, with fpirit and vigilance.
By then help we are enabled to take not only beads,
but birds; and to purfue game both over land and
through the waters. In fame northern countries, they
ferve to draw fleds, and are alfo employed to car¬
ry burdens. In feveral parts of Africa, China, and
by the Weft Indian negroes, dogs are eaten, and ac¬
counted excellent food. Nay, we have the teftimony
of Mr Forfter, that dogs fiefh, in tafte, exaclly refem-
* See Amt- g|es mutton *. They were alfo ufed as food by the
n.a, n go. Romans^ ancj jong before them by the Greeks, as we
learn from feveral treatifes of Hippocrates. In the
prefent times, their Ikins, drefl'ed with the hair on, are
ufed in muffs, made into a kind of bulkins for perfons
in the gout, and for other pufpofes. Prepared in ano¬
ther way, they are ufed for ladies gloves, and the linings
of malks, being thought to make the Ikin peculiarly
■white and fmooth. The French import many of thefe
flcins from Scotland, under a fmall duty. Here, when
tanned, they ferve for upper leathers for neat pumps.
Dogs fkins dreffed are exported under a fmal), and im¬
ported under a high, duty. The French import from
Denmark large quantities of dogs hair, both white and
black. The laft is efteemed the bell, and is worked
up in the black lift of a particular kind of woollen
cloth ; but is not ufed, as many have fuppofed, in ma¬
king of hats, being entirely unfit for this purpofe.
With regard to the qualities of dogs, thofe bred in
the ifland of Britain are juftly reckoned fuperior to the
dogs bred in any other country. The fwiftnefs of the
gre-hound is amazing : as are aifo the fteadineis and
perfeverance of other hounds and beagles j the holdnefs
of terriers in unearthing foxes, &c.; the fagacity of
pointers and fetting dogs, who are taught; a language
by figns as intelligible to fportfmen as fpeech ; and the
invincible fpirit of a bull-dog, which can be quelled
only by death.—All the nations in Europe not only
do juftice to the fuperior qualities of the Britifh dogs,
but adopt our terms and names, and thankfully receive
the creatures as prefents.—It is remarkable, however,
that almoft every kind of Britilh dogs degenerates in
foreign countries; nor is it poffible to prevent this de¬
generacy by any art whatever.
For the natural hiftoryof the dog, fee Canis.
Choqftng of Dogs. In order to choofe a dog and bitch
for good whelps, take care that the bitch come of a
generous kind, be well proportioned, having large ribs
and flanks; and likewife that the dog be of a good
5
S ] DOG
breed and young, for a young, dog and an old bitch
breed excellent whelps.
The bell time for hounds nitches, or bratchets, to
be lined in, are the months of January, February, and
March, The bitch -fliould be ufed to a kennel, that
ftie may like it after her whelping, and (he ought to
be kept warm. Let the whelps be weaned after two
months old; and though it be fome difficulty to choofe
a whelp under the dam that will prove the belt of the
litter, yet fome approve that which is laft, and account
him to he the heft. Others remove the whelps from
the kennel, and lay them feverally and apart one from
the other; then they watch which of them the bitch
firit takes and carries into her kennel again, and that
they fuppofe to be the heft. Others again imagine
that which weighs leall when it fucks to be the belt t
this is certain, that the lighter whelp will prove the
fwiftei% As foon as the bitch has littered, it is pro¬
per to choofe them you intend to prefefve, and drown
the reft: keep the black, brown, or of one colour ; for
the fpotted are not much to be efteemed, though of
hounds the fpotted are to be valued.
Hounds for chafe are to be chofen by their colours.
The white, with black ears, and a black fpot at the fet¬
ting on of the tail, are the moft principal to compofe
a kennel of, and of good feent and condition. The
black hound, or the black tanned, or the all liver-ea-
loured, or all white: the true talbots are the belt for
the ftvonget line ; the grizzled, whether mixed or un¬
mixed, fo they be {hag-haired, are the beft verminers,
and a couple of thefe are proper for a kenuel.—In fhort,
take thefe marks of a goad hound: That his head be
of a middle proportion, rather long than round ; his
noftrils wide, his eaVs large, his back bowed; his
fillet great, his haunches large, thighs well trailed,
ham ftrait, tail big near the reins, the reft {lender;
the leg big, the foie of the foot dry, and in the form
of that of a fox, with large claws.
Keeping Dogs in Health.—As pointers and fpaniels,
when good of their kinds and well broken, are very
valuable to a fportfman, it is worth while to take fome
care to preferve them in health. This very much de¬
pends on their diet and lodging : frequent cleaning
their kennels, and giving them frtfli ftraw to lie on, is
very neceffary 5 or, in fummer-time, deal-lhavings,
or fand, inftead of ftraw, will check the breeding
of fleas. If you rub your dog with chalk, and
brufli and comb him onee or twice a-week, he will
thrive much the better ; the chalk will clear his Hein
from all greafmefs, and he will be the lefs liable to be
mangy. A dog is of a very hot nature: he fhould
therefore never be without clean water by him, that
lie may drink when he is thirlly. In regard to their
food, carrion is by no means proper for them: it muff
hurt their fetife of fmelling, on which the excellence
of thefe dogs greatly depends. Barley-meal, the drofs
of wheat flour, or both mixed together, with broth or
flammed milk, is very proper food. For change, a
fmall quantity of greaves from which the tallow
is prefled by the chandlers, mixed with flour, or
{beep’s feet well baked or boiled, are a very good diet}
and when you indulge them writh flefti, it ftiould always
be boiled. In the feafon of hunting your dogs, it is
proper to feed them in the evening before, and give
them nothing in the morning you intend to take them
out
DOG L 79 ] DOG
.»Dosr. out except a little milk. If you flop for your own
■u_v-—' refrelhment in the day, you fhould alfo refreih your
s$rifmani dogs with a little bread and milk. It has been al-
J?. ready obferved that dogs are of a hot conftitution ; the
greateft. relief to them in the fummer is twitch-grafs,
or dog-grafs, which is the fame thing. You (hould
therefore plant feme of it in a place where you can turn
them into every morning: they will feed freely on it
to be cured of the ficknefs they are fubjeft to, and
cured of any extraordinary heat of blood : but unlefs
the grafs be of this fort, it will have no effedd.
Difeafes of Dogs.— i. Bites and Stings. If dogs are
bitten by any venomous creatures, as fnakes, ad¬
ders, &c. fqueeze out the blood, and wafh the place
with fait and urine; then lay a plafter to it made of
calamint, pounded in a mortar, with turpentine and
yellow wax, till it come to a falve. If you give your
dog fome of the juice of ealamint to drink in milk, it
will be good ; or an ounce of treacle diffolved in fome
fweet wu'ne.
2. Mange. Dogs are fubjeft to the mange from
being fed too high, and allowed no exercife or an op¬
portunity of refrefhing themfelves with dog-grafs ; or
by being ftarved at home, which will caufe them to
eat the vileft fluff abroad, fuch as carrion, or even hu¬
man excrement; or by want of water, and fometimea
by not being kept clean in their kennel, or by founder¬
ing and melting in their greafe. Either of thefe will
heat the blood to a great degree, which will have a
1 tendency to make them-mangy. The cure may be ef-
fedled by giving ftone-brimflone powdered fine, either
in milk or mixed up with butter, and rubbing them
well every day for a week with an ointment made of
fome of the brimftone and pork-lard, to which add a
fmall quanity of oil of turpentine.— Or, boil four
ounces of quickfilver in two quarts of wrater to half the
quantity ; bathe them every day with this water, and
let them have fome of it to lick till the cure is perfect¬
ed. Or, a fmall quantity of trooper’s ointment rubbed
on the parts on its firft appearance will cure it. It
will alfo free loufy puppies from tlieir lice. Or, take
two ounces of euphorbium ; Hour of fulphur, ’ Flan¬
ders oil of bays, and foft foap, each four ounces.
Anoint and rub your dog with it every other day ;
give him warm milk, and no water. I’he cure will be
performed in aTbout a week. The following receipt
is alfo faid to be efficacious. Take two handfuls of
wild creffes, and as much elecampane, and alfo of
the leaves and roots of roerb and forrel, and two pounds
of the roots of fodrels: boil all thefe well together in
lee and vinegar ; itrain the decoClion, and put into it
two pounds of grey foap, and when it is melted, rub
the dog with it four or five days fuceeffively, and it
will cure him.
5. Poifon.. If you fufpeCt your dog to be poifoned
with nux vomica (the poifon ufually employed by the
warreners, which caufes convulirve fits and foon kills),
the moft effectual remedy*, if immediately applied, is
to give him a good deal of common fait; to admini-
ffer which, you may open his mouth, and put a Hick
acrofs to prevent the fhutting it, whilft you cram
his throat full of fait, at the fame time holding his
mouth upwards ; and it will diffolve fo that a fuffici-
ent quantity will be fwallowed to purge and vomit
him. When his ftomach is fufficiently cleared by a
free paffage obtained by ftool, give him fome warm Hog:
broth frequently, to prevent his expiring from faint- J
nefs ; and he will recover. Spnrtfman's.
4. Worms. Dogs are very frequently troubled with
worms ; but more particularly whillt they are young.
Any thing bitter is fo naufeous to thefe worms, that
they are very often voided by taking two or three
purges of aloes; or (which is the fame thing) Scots
pills, four or five being a dofe for a large dog : this is
to be repeated two or three times in a week. If this
do not fucceed, you may give him an ounce of powder
of tin mixed up with butter, in three dofes ; which fel-
dom fails to cure. Or of the herb favin, dried and
rubbed to powder, give about as much as will lie on a
{hilling for a dofe ; which will entirely deftroy worm*-
and their feed.
6. Sore Feet. A pointer ought not to be hunted
oftener than two or three days in a week ; and unlef*.
you take care of his feet, and give him good lodging
as well as proper food, he will not be able to perform
that through the feafon. You fhould therefore, after a
hard day’s hunting, wa(K his feet with warm water and
fait; and when dry, wafh them with warm broth, or
beer and butter, which will heal their forenefs, and
prevent a fettled ftiffnefs from fixing.
7. Strains, Blows, or/mail Wounds. If your dog hat
received any little wounds by forcing through hedges,
or gets any lamenefs from a blow or lira in ; bathe the
wound or grieved part with fait and cold vinegar (for
warming it only evaporates the finefpirit) ; and whea
dry, if a wound, you may pour in it a little friar’s bal-
fam, which will perform the cure fooner than any me¬
thod hitherto experienced.
8. Coughrand Colds. Dogs are very fubjeft to a
cough, with an extraordinary choakiug, which is
tlrought to arife generally from a oold or fome inward
diforder; and probably it is often occafioned by their
eating of fifh-bones. To guard againfl it, order your
fervants to throw all fuch fiih-bones where the dog
can’t get at them. But if the dilbrder be from a-
cold, let bleeding be repeated in finall quantities, if ne-
ceflary ; hut if it be what is called the dijlemper in dogs*
and they appear to be very low in fpirits, the bleeding
is better omitted. Let meat-broth, or milk-broth warm¬
ed, be the principal part of his diet, ufing at the fame
time the following medicine. Take flour of fulphur,
cold drawn linfeed oil, and falt-petre, of each an ounce ;
divide it into four dofts, giving him. one dofe every
other day, and let him have plenty of dean, ilraw to
tie on; or one fpoonful of honey daily.
Doo-Madnefs. Of this there are no tefs than feven
forts common among dogs. The chief caufes are, high-
feeding, want of exercife, fulnefs of blood, and coitive-
nefs. As for the two firft,. you mull obferve wheu
you hunt them, that they fhould be better fed than,
when they reft; and let them be neither too fat nor
too lean ; but, of the two, rather fat than lean ; by
which means they will not only be preferved from,
madnefs but alfo from the mange and fcab: which
difeafes they will be fobjeift to for want of air, water,
or exercife; but if you have but the knowledge to
keep them in an even temper, they may live long, and
continue found. As for water, they fhould be left to.
their own pleafure ; but for exercife and diet, it muft.
he ordered according to diferetion, obferving a medi¬
um*.
[ 8o ] DOG
i the heat with four drama of ftavefacre pulverized ; mix thefe to-
DOG
Deg. um. Give them once a week, efpecially 4 ,  
^  of the year, five or fix fpoonfuls of falad oil, which will gether, and give it the dog in a drenching horn ; alfo Doge.
Spertfman's cleanfe them : at other times, the quantity of a hazel- let him blood in the ears, and in the two veins that “
init. nut of mithridate is an excellent thing to prevent dif- come down his (houlders ; and indeed bleeding is ne-
eafes. It is alfo very good to bleed them under the cefiary for all forts of madnefs in dogs,
tongue, and behind the ears. When a dog happens to be bit by a mad one, there
The fymptoms of madnefs are many and eafily dif- is nothing better than their licking the place with their
cerned. When any dog feparates himfelf contrary to own tongues, if they can reach it; if not, then let it
his former ufe, becomes melancholy or droops his head, be waihed with butter and vinegar, made luke-warm,
forbears eating, and as he runs fnatches at every thing; and let it afterwards be anointed with Venice turpen-
if he often looks upwards, and his ftern at his fetting tine; but, above all, take the juice of the ftalks of llrong
on be a little eredt, and the reft hanging down ; if his tobacco boiled in water, and bathe the place therewith;
eyes be red, his breath ftrong, his voice hoarfe, and he alfo wafh him in fea-water, or water artificially made
drivels and-foams at the month; you may.be affured fait: give him likewife a little mithridate inwardly in
he has this diftemper. two or three fpoonfuls of fack; and fo keep him apart;
The feven forts of madnefs are as follow ; of which and if you find him after fome time ftill te droop, the
the two firft are incurable, i. The hot burning mad- belt way is to hang him.
nefs. 2. Thb running madnefs. The animals labour- Some have afl'erted their having cured feveral crea-
ing under thefe are peculiarly dangerous ; for all tures that have been bit by mad dogs, with only giving
things they bite and draw blood from will have them the middle yellow bark of buckthorn ; which
the fame diftemper ; and they generally feize on muft be boiled in ale for a horfe or cow, and in milk
all they meet with, but chiefly on dogs: their pain for a dog ; but that it muft be boiled till it is as bitter
is fo great it foon kills them.—The five curable mad- as you can take it.
neffes are. As to the preventive of worming dogs, fee Worm-
3. Sleeping madnefs, fo called from the dog’s great ing.
drowfmefs, and almoft continual fleeping. This is cau- Doa-Days. See Canicula.
fed by the little worms that breed in the mouth of the Doo-Fifh, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
fiomach, from corrupt humours, vapours, and fumes Docs-Bane. See Apocynum.
whichafeend to the head: for cure of which, take fix Doc-Wood Tree. See Piscidia.
ounces of the juice of wormwood, two ounces of the DOGE, the chief magiftrate in the republics of Ve-
powder of hartfhorn burnt, and two drams of agaric ; nice and Genoa.
mix all thefe together in a little white-wine, and give The word properly fignifies duke, being formed
it the dog to drink in a drenching horn. from the Latin dux ; as dogate, and dogado, from du-
4. Dumb madnefs, lies alfo in the blood, and caufes cat us, “duchy.”
the dog not to feed, but to hold his mouth always wide The dogate, or office and dignity of doge, is elec-
open, frequently putting his feet to his mouth, as if he tive ; at Venice, the doge is ele&ed for life ; at Genoa,
had a bone in his throat: to cure this, take the juice only for two years ; he is addrefled under the title of
of black hellebore, the juice offpatula putrida, and of Serenity, which among the Venetians is fuperior to that
rue, of each four ounces; ftrain them well, and put ofhighnefs.
thereto two drams of unprepared fcammony ; and be- The doge is the chief of the council, and the mouth
ing mixed well together, put it down the dog’s of the republic; yet the Venetians do not go into
throat with a drenching horn, keeping his head up for mourning at his death, as not being their fovereign,
fome time, left he call it out again ; then bleed him in but only their firft minifter. In elfedt, the doge of
the mouth, by cutting two or three veins in his gums. Venice is no more than the phantom or (hadow of
It is faid, that about eight drams of the juice of an the majefty of a prince ; all the authority being re¬
herb called hartfhorn, or dog's tooth, being given to the ferved to the republic. He only lends'his name to the
Dog
dog, cures all forts of madnefs.
fenate ; the power is diffufed throughout the whole
5. Lank madnefs, is fo called by reafon of the dog’s body, though the anfwers be all made in the name of
•leannefs and pining away. For cure give them a purge the doge. If he gives any anfwers on his own ac-
as before dirafted, and alfo bleed them: but fome fay count, they muft be very cautioufly exprefled, and in
there is no cure for it. general terms, otherwife he is fure to meet with a re-
6. Rheumatic or flavoring madnefs, occafions the dog’s primand. So that it is abfolutely neceflary he be of
head to fvvell, his eyes to look yellow', and he will be an eafy and pliable difpofition.
always flavering and driveling at the mouth. To cure Anciently the doges were fovereigns; but things
which, take four ounces of the powher of the roots of are muclt»jiered ; and at prefent, all the prerogatives
polipody of the oak, fix ounces of the juice of fennel- referved to the quality of doge, are thefe which fol-
roots, with the like quantity of the roots of mifletoe, low : he gives audience to ambaffadors ; but does not
and four ounces of the juice of ivy: boil all thefe to- give them any anfwer from himfelf, in matters of any
gether in white-wine, and give it to the dog as hot as importance ; only he is allowed to anfwer according
he can take it, in a drenching horn. to his own pleafure, to the compliments they make to
7. Falling madnefs, is fo termed becaufe it lies in the the fignory ; fuch anfwers being of no confequence.
dog’s head, and makes him reel as he goes, and to fall The doge, as being firft magiftrate, is head of all the
•dowm. For the cure, take four ounces of the juice of councils ; and the credentials which the fenate furnilh-
briony, and the fame quantity of the juice of peony, es its minifters in foreign courts, are written in his
N° 102. name:
DOG [ 81 1 D O L
Doge name ; and yet Tie does not fign them; but a fecre-
II tary of flate figns them, and feals them with the arms
^ of the republic. The ambaffadors dired their dif-
^ patches to the doge ; and yet he may not open them
but in prefence of the counfellors. The money is
ftruck in the doge’s name, but not with his ftamp or
arms. All ,the magiftrates rife, and falute the doge
when he comes into council; and the doge rifes to
none but foreign ambafladors.
The doge nominates to all the benefices in the
church of St Mark ; he is proteftor of the monaftery
delle Virginc ; and beftows certain petty offices of
uffiers of the houfehold, called Commanders of the Pa¬
lace. His family is not under the jurifdi&ion of the
mafter of the ceremonies ; and his children may have
ftaff-officers, and gondoliers in livery.
His grandeur, at the fame time, is tempered with
a variety of circumftances, which render it burden-
fome. He may not go out of Venice without leave
of the council; and if he does go out, he is liable to
receive affronts, without being intitled to demand fa-
tisfa&ion; and, if any diforder fhould happen where
he was, it belongs not to him, but to the podefta,
as being invefled with the public authority, to com-
pofe it.
The children and brothers of the doge are excluded
from all the chief .offices of ftate. They may not re¬
ceive any benefice from the court of Rome ; but are
allowed to accept of the cardinalate, as being no be-
nifice, nor including any jurifdi&ion. The doge may
not divefl himfelf of his dignity, for his eafe ; and af¬
ter his death, his conduit is examined b^hree inqui-
fitors and five correitors, who fift it-with great feve-
rity.
DOGGER, a Dutch fifhing veffel navigated in the
German Ocean. It is generally employed in the her¬
ring fiffiery; being equipped with two malts, w'z. a
main-maft and a mizen-maft, andfomewhat refembling
a ketch. See the Plates at the article Ship.
DOGGERS, in the Engliffi alum works, a name
given by the workmen to a fort of ftone found in the
fame mines with the true alum rock, and containing
fome alum, though not near fo much as the right kind.
The county of York, which abounds greatly with the
true alum rock, affords alfo a very confiderable quantity
of thefe doggers; and in fome places they approach fo
much to the nature of the true rock, that they are
wrought to advantage.
DOGMA, a principle, maxim, tenet, or fettled opi¬
nion, particularly with regard to matters of faith and
philofophy.
DOGMATICAL, fomething belonging to a doc¬
trine or opinion. A dogmatical philofopher is one who
afferts things pofitively; in oppolition to a fceptic, who
doubts of every thing.
DOGMATISTS, a feft of ancient phyficians, of
which Hippocrates was the firft author. They are alfo
called logic's, “ logicians,” from their ufing the rules of
logic in fubjefts of their profeffion. They laid down
definitions and divifions; reducing difeafes to certain
genera, and thofe genera to fpecies, and furnifhing re¬
medies for them all; fuppofing principles, drawing con-
clufions, and applying thofe principles and conclufions
to particular difeafes under confideration : in which
fenie, the dogmatics Hand contradiftinguifned from em-
. Vol. VI. Part. I.
piries and methodifts. They rejeft all medicinal vir- Do,ce .
tues that they think not reducible to manifeft qualities: Dojj^ogt
but Galen hath long ago obferved of fuch men, that ■ ^—j
they muff either deny plain matter of fa&, or affign
but very poor reafons and caufes of many effefts they
pretend to explain.
DOLCE (Carlo, or Carlino), a celebrated hiftory
and portrait painter, was born at Florence in 161.6, and
was the difciple of Vignali. This great mafter was
particularly fond of reprefenting pious fubjefts, though
he fometimes painted portraits ; and his works are ea-
fily diftinguiftied by the peculiar delicacy with which
he perfefted all his compofitions, by a pleafing tint of
colour, and by a judicious management of the chiaro
feuro. His performance was remarkably flow; and it
is reported that his brain was fatally affefted by feeing
Luca Jordana difpatch more bufinefs in four or five
hours than he could have done in as many months. He
died in 1686.
DOLE, in the Saxon and Britifti tongue, fignified a
a part or portion, moft commonly of a meadow, where
feveral perfons have fhares. It alfo ftill fignifies a dif-
tribution or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift made by
a great man to the people.
Dole, in Scots law, fignifies a malevolent intention.
It is effential in every crime, that it be committed in¬
tentionally, or by an a£t of the will: hence the rule.
Crimen dolo contrahitur.
DOLICHOS, in botany: A genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of ’
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
3 2d order, Papilionacea. The bafis of the vexillum has
two callous knobs, oblong, parallel, and compreffing
the alas below. There are 25 fpecies ; the moft remark¬
able of which are the following.
1. The lablab, with a winding ftalk, is a native of
warm climates, where it is frequently cultivated for
the table. Mr Hafielquift informs us, that it is culti¬
vated in the Egyptian gardens, but is not a native of
that country. The Egyptians make pleafant arbours
with it in their houfes and gardens, by fupporting the
Hern and leading it where they think proper. They
not only fupport it with fticks and wood, but tie it
with cords; by which means the leaves form an excel¬
lent covering, and an agreeable ftiade.
2. The foja is a native of Japan, where it is termed
daidfu; and, from its excellence, mamei that is, '‘the
legumen or pod,” by way of eminence. It grows with
an ere&, flender, and hairy ftalk, to the height of about
four feet. The leaves are like thofe of the garden kid¬
ney-bean*. The flowers are of a bluifh white, and pro- „
duced from the bofom of the leaves, and fucceeded by
briftly hanging pods refembling thofe of the yellowJ ‘
lupine, which commonly contain two, fometimes three,
large white feeds. There is a variety of this kind, with
a fmall black fruit, which is ufed in medicine. Kemp-
fer affirms, that the feeds of this when pounded and
taken inwardly give relief in the afthma. This legri-
men is doubly ufeful in the Japanefe kitchens. It fervds
for the preparation of a fubftance named mifo, that is
ufed as butter; and likewife a pickle celebrated among
them under the name of fooju or foy. To make the
firft, they take a meafure of mame, or the beans pro¬
duced by the plant: after boiling them for a confider¬
able time in water, and to a proper degree of foftnefi,
L they
D O L [ 82 ] DOM
| ?x>lichf»s they beat or bray them into a fofti/h pulfe; rncorpora-
ting with it, by means of repeated braying, a large
quantity of common fait, four meafures in fummer, in
winter three. The lefs fait that is added, the fubftance
is more palatable; but what it gains in point of tafte,
it lofcs.in durability. They then add to this mixture
a certain preparation of rice, to which they give the
name of ioos; and having formed the whole into a
compoft, remove it into a wooden veflel which had
lately contained their common ale or beverage named
facli. In about two months it is fit for ufe. The koos
gives it a grateful tafte ; and the preparing of it, like
the polenta of the Germans, requires the fkilful hand
of an experienced mafter. For this reafon there are
certain people who make it their foie bufinefs to pre¬
pare the koos, and who fell it ready made for the pur-
pofe of making mifo: a fubftance which cannot fail to
be greatly valued in thofe countries where butter from
the milk of animals is unknown. To make fooju or
foy, they take equal quantities of the fame beans boil¬
ed to a certain degree of foftnefs; of muggi, that is
corn, whether barley or wheat, roughly ground ; and
of common fait. Having properly mixed the beans
with the pounded corn, they cover up the mixture, and
keep it for a day and a night in a warm place, in or¬
der to ferment; then putting the mafs into a pot, they
cover it with the fait, pouring over the whole two mea¬
fures and a half of water. This compound fubftance
they carefully ftir at leaft once a-day, if twice or thrice
the better, for two or three months: at the end of
which time, they filtrate and exprefs the mafs, prefer-
ving the liquor in wooden veffels. The older it is, the
better and the clearer ; and if made of wheat inftead
of barley, greatly blacker. The firft liquor being re¬
moved, they again pour water upon the remaining
mafs; which, after ftirring for fome days, as before,
they exprefs a fecond time, and thus obtain an inferior
fort of foy.
3. The prui lens, or cow-itch, is alfo a native of warm
climates. It hath a fibrous root, and an herbaceous
climbing ftalk, which is naked, dividing into a great
number of branches ; and rifes to a great height when
properly fupported. The leaves are alternate and tri¬
lobate, riling from the ftem and branches about 12
inches diftant from each other. The footftalk is cy¬
lindrical, from 6 to 14 inches long. From the axilla
of the leaf defcCnds a pendulous fdlitary fpike, from
4) to 14 inches long, covered with long blood-coloured
papilionaceous flowers, rifrng by threes in a double al¬
ternate manner from fmall flelhy protuberances, each
of which is a Ihort pedunculus of three flowers. Thefe
are fuceeeded by leguminous, coriaceous pods, four or
five inches long, crooked like an Italic f; denfely co¬
vered with fharp hairs, which penetrate the flcin, and
caufe great itching. This will grow in any foil in
thofe countries where it is a native : but is generally
eradicated from all cultivated grounds; becaufe the
hairs from the pods fly w ith the wunds, and torment
every animal they happen to touch. If it was not for
this mifehievous quality, the beauty of its flowers would
intitle it to a place in the heft gardens. It flowers in
the cool months, from September to March, according
to the fituation.—The fpiculse, or ftiarp-hairs, of this
plant, have been long ufed in South America in cafes
of worms; and have of late been frequently employed
in Britain. The Ipiculsc of one pod mixed with fyrup Dollar p
or molaffes, and taken in the morning falling, is a dofe jU
for an adult. The worms are faid to appear w>ith the .
fecond.or third dofe ; and by means of a purge in
fome cafes the ftools are faid to have confifted almoft l j
entirely of worms ; and in cafes of lumbrici, it is faid
to produce a fafe andeffecfual cure. Thofe who have j
ufed it moft, particularly Dr Bancroft and Dr Coch¬
rane, affirm that they have never feen any inconvenience I;
refulting from the internal ufe of it, notw'ithftanding i!
the great uneafinefs it occafions on the flighteft touch j
to any part of the furface.
DOLLAR, or Daller, a filver coin, nearly of
the value of the Spanifh piece of eight or French
crown.-
Dollars are coined in different parts of Germany and
Holland ; and have their diminutions, as femi-dollars, 3
quarter dollars, &c. See Mo key-Table.
They are not all of the fame finenefs nor weight.
The Dutch dollars are the moft frequent. In the Le¬
vant they are called ajlaint, from the impreffion of a lion
thereon.
DOLPHIN, in ichthyology. See Delphinus. .)
Dolphin of the Majl, a peculiar kind of wreath,
formed of plaited cordage, to be faftened occafionally
round the mafts, as a fupport to the puddening, whofe
ufe is to fuftain the weight of the fore and main yards ’ j
in cafe the rigging or chains by which thofe yards are j
fufpended fhould be fhot away in the time of battle; a
circumftance which might render their fails ufelefs at a l
feafon when their aflillance is extremely neceffary. See
the article Puddening.
DOM, or Don, a title of honour, invented and chief¬
ly ufed by the Spaniards, fignifying^r or lord.
This title, it feems, was firft given to Pelayo, in the
beginning of the eighth century. In Portugal no
perfon can affume the title of don. without the permif-
fion of the king, fince it is looked upon as a mark of
honour and nobility. In France it is fometimes ufed
among the religious. It is an abridgment of domnut,
from dominus.
Dom and Som, in old chatters, fignifies full property
and jurifdi&ion,
DOMAIN, the inheritance, eftate, or poffeflion of
anyone. See Demesne.
DOMAT (John), a celebrated French lawyer born
in 1625, who obferving the confufed ftate of the laws,
digefted them in 4 vols 4to, under the title of The
Civil Laws in their natural order: for which underta¬
king, Louis XIV. fettled on him a penfion of 2000 ;
livres. Domat was intimate with the famous Pafcal,
w ho left him his private papers at his death } he him-
felf died in 1696.
DOME, in architecture, a fpherical roof, or a roof
of a fpherical form, raifed over the middle of a build¬
ing, as a church, hall, pavilion, veftibule, ftair- cafe,
&c. by way of crowning.
Dome, in chemiftry, the upper part of furnaces,
particularly portable ones. It has the figure of a hol¬
low hemifphere or fmall dome. Its ufe is to form a
fpace in the upper part of the furnace, the air of which
is continually expelled by the fire : hence the current
of air is confiderably increal'ed, which is obliged to en¬
ter by the afh-hole, and to pafs through the fire, to
fupply the place of the air driven from the dome. The
form
DOM L 83 ] DOM
form of this piece renders it proper to refle& or rever¬
berate a part of the flame upon the matters which are
in the furnace, which has occafioned this kind of furnace
to be called a reverberating one. See Furnace.
Dome, or Doom, fignifies judgment, fentence, or
decree. The homagers oath in the black book of
Hereford ends thus: “ So help me God at his holy
dome, and by my trowthe.”
BOMENJLCHINO, a famous Italian painter, born
of a good family at Bologna in 158 f. He was at firft
a difciple of Calvart the Fleming, but foon quitted his
fchool for that of the Caraccis. He always applied
himfelf to his work with much ftudy and thoughtful-
nefs ; and never offered to touch his pencil but when he
found a proper kind of enthufiafm upon him. His
great (kill in architefture alfo procured him the ap¬
pointment of chief architeft of the apoftolical palace
from Pope Gregory XV.; nor was he without a theo¬
retical knowledge in mufic. He died in 1641.
DOMESDAY, or doomsday, Book, a mod an¬
cient record, made in the time of William I. furnamed
the Conqueror, and containing a furvey of all the lands
of England. It confifts of two volumes, a greater and
alefs. The firft is a large folio, written on 382 double
pages of vellum, in a fmall but plain chara&er; each
page having a double column. Some of the capital
letters and principal paffages are touched with red ink;
and fome have ftrokes of red ink run crofs them, as if
fcratched out. This volume contains the defcription of
31 counties. The other volume is in quarto, written
upon 450 double pages of vellum, but in a Angle co¬
lumn, and in a large but very fair chara&er. It con¬
tains the counties of Effex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of
the county of Rutland included in that of Northamp¬
ton, and part of Lancafhire in the counties of York
and Chefter.
This work, according to the red book in the ex¬
chequer, was begun by order of William the Con¬
queror, with the advice of his parliament, in the year
of our Lord 1080, and completed in the year 1086.
The reafon given for taking this furvey, as afligned by
feveral ancient records and hiftorians, was, that every
man fhould be fatisfied with his own right, and not
ufurp with impunity what belonged to another. But,
befides this, it is faid by others, that now all thofe
who pofTefled landed eftates became vafials to the king,
and paid him fo much money by way of fee or ho¬
mage in proportion to the lands they held. This ap¬
pears very probable, as there was at that time extant
a' general furvey of the whole kingdom, made by order
of king Alfred.
For the execution of the furvey recorded in domef-
day book, commiffioners were fent into every county
and (hire ; and juries fummoned in each hundred, out
of all orders of freemen, from barons down to the low-
eft farmers. Thefe commiffioners were to be informed
by the inhabitants, upon oath, of the name of each
manor, and that of its owner; alfo by whom it was.
held in the time of Edward the Confefibr; the number
of hides; the quantity of wood, of pafture, and of
meadow-land; how many ploughs were in the demefne,
and how many in the tenanted part of it; how many
mills, how many fifh-ponds or fifheries belonged to it ;
with the value of the whole together in the time of
king Edward, as well as when granted by king Wil¬
liam, and at the time of this furvey ; alfo whether it Domefiky.
was capable of improvement, or of being advanced in
its value : they were likewife direfted to return the te¬
nants of every degree, the quantity of lands then and
formerly held by each of them, what was the number
of villains or flaves, and alfo the number and kinds of
their cattle and live flock. Thefe inquifitions being firft
methodized in the county, were afterwards fent up
to the king’s exchequer.
This furvey, at the time it was made, gave great
offence to the people ; and occafioned a jealoufy that it
was intended fo/fome new impofition. But notwith-
ftanding all the precaution taken by the conqueror to
have this furvey faithfully and impartially executed, it
appears from indifputable authority, that a falfe return
was given in by fome of the commiffioners^ and that,
as it is faid, out of a pious motive. This was particu¬
larly the cafe with the abbey of Croyland in Lincoln-
fhire, the poffeffions of which were greatly under¬
rated both with regard to quantity and value. Per¬
haps more of thefe pious frauds were difcovered, as it
is faid Ralph Flambard, minifter to William Rufus,
propofed the making a frefh and more vigorous inqui-
lition ; but this was never executed.
Notwithftanding this proof of its falfehood in forr.e
inftances, which muft throw a fufpicion on all others,
the authority of domefday-book was never permitted
to be called in queftion ; and always, when it hath been
neceffary to diftinguifh whether lands were held in an¬
cient demefne, or in any other manner, recourfe was
had to domefday-book, and to that only, to determine
the doubt. From this definitive authority, from which,
as from the fentence pronounced at domejday, or the
day of judgment, there could be no appeal, the name
of the book is faid to have been derived. But Stowe
affigns another reafon “Ibr this appellation; namely,
that domefday-book is a corruption of domus Dei book;
a title given it becaufe heretofore depofited in the king’s
treafury, in a place of the church of Weftminfter or
Winchefter, called domus Dei. From the great care for¬
merly taken for the prefervation of this furvey, we may
learn the eftimation in which its importance was held.
The dialogue de Scaccariis fays, “ Liber ille (domef-
day) Jigilli regis comes ejl individuus in thefauro.” Un¬
til lately it has been kept under three different locks
and keys; one in the cuftody of the treafurer, and the
others in that of the two chamberlains of the exche¬
quer. It is now depofited in the chapter-houfe at Weft¬
minfter, where it may be confulted on paying to the
proper officers a fee of 6s. 8d. for a fearch, and four-
pence per line for a tranfcript.
Befides the two volumes above mentioned, there is al¬
fo a third made by order of the fame king; and which
differs from the others in form more than matter.
There is alfo a fourth called domejday, which is kept
in the exchequer ; which, though a very large volume,
is only an abridgement of the others. In the remem¬
brancer’s office in the exchequer is kept a fifth book,
likewife called domefday, which is the fame with the
fourth book already mentioned. King Alfred had a
roll which he called domefday; and the domefday-book
made by William the Conqueror referred to the time
of Edward the Confeffor, as that of king Alfred did
to the time of Ethelred. The fourth book of domef¬
day having many pictures and gilt letters in the begin-
L 2 ning
DOM [ 84 ] DOM
:• ning relating to the time of king Edward the Confef- around breathes rage and difcord. We are pleafed
J for, this had led fome into a falfe opinion that domef- to fee the arm, which is (hortly to deal death and de¬
day-book was compofed in the reign of king Edward, ilrudtion among a holt of foes, employed in carefiing an
DOMESTIC, any man who afts under another, infant fon with the embraces of paternal love. A pro-
ferving to compofehis family ; in which he lives, or is felfed critic would attribute the pleafing eftedt entirely
fuppofed to live, as a chaplain, fecretary, &c. Some to contrail; but the heart has declared, previoufly to
times domellic is applied to the wife and children ; bat the inquiries of criticilm, that it is chiefly derived from,
very feldom to fervants, fuch as footmen, lacqr.es, the fatisfadlion which we naturally take in beholding,
porters, &c. great charadiers engaged in tender, and amiable em-
Domestic, adj. is fometimes oppofed to forlign. ployments.
Thus “ domejiic occurrences” fignify thofe events which But after all that is faid of the purity and the fo»-
happen in our own country, in contradillinaion to lidity of domellic pleafures, they unfortunately appear,,
thofe of which we receive intelligence from abroad. to a great part of mankind, inlipid, unmanly, and ca-
In its more ufual acceptation, the term implies fome- pable of fatisfying none but the weak, the fpiritlels,.
thing peculiar to home or houfehold. Thus we fpeak of the inexperienced, and the effeminate. The pretend--
damejlic happinefs or pleafures: meaning the pleafures ers to wit and modern philofophy are often found to
enjoyed in the bofom of one’s family ; in oppolition to renounce the received opinions of prudential condudt 5,
thofe foqnd in the buille of public life, or delufively and, while they affea a fuperior liberality, to regulate:
fought in the haunts of diffipation. their lives by the mod feliilh principles. Whatever ap—
The folace of domeftic enjoyments has been coveted pears to have little tendency to promote perfonal plea-
by the wiled and greatell of men. Senators and heroes fure and advantage, they leave to be performed by.
have Unit out the acclamations of an applauding world, thofe Ample individuals, who are dull enough, as they
DomeftfeJm
to enjoy the prattling of their little ones, and to par¬
take the endearments of family converfatxon. They
knew that even their bed friends, in the common inter-
courfe of life, were in fome degree a&uated by inter¬
fay, to purfue the journey of life by the draight road
of common fenfe. i t is true, they will allow, that,
the world mud be replenilhed by a.perpetual fucceffion;
and it is no lefs true, that an, offspring, once introdu-
eded motives in difplaying their affection ; that many ced into the world, requires all the care of painful at-
of their followers applauded them in hopes of reward ; tention. But let the talk be referred for meaner fpirits.
and that the giddy multitude, however zealous, were If the paflions can be gratified without the painful con--
not alwaysjudicious in their approbation. But the at- fequences of fupporting a family, they eagerly feizs
tentions paid them at their fire-fide, the fmiles which the indulgence. But the toil, of education they leave,
exhilarated their own table, were the genuine refult of to tbofe whom they deem fools enough to take a plea-
undiffembled love. fore in it. There will always be a fufficient number,.
To purfoe the obfervations of an elegant effayid : fay they, whofe folly will lead them, for the fake of.
“ The nurfery has often alleviated the fatigues of the a filly paffion called virtuous love, to engage in a life,
bar and the fenate-houfe. Nothing contributes more of perpetual anxiety. The fool’s paradii'e, they add.
to raife the gently pleafing emotions, than the view of with derifion, will never be deferted..
infant innocence, enjoying the raptures of a game at “ Prefomptuous as are all fuch pretenders to newly-
play. All the fentiments of uncontrouled nature difplay ’ invented fyflems of life and conduct, it is not to be.
themfelves to the view, and furnilh matter for agreeable fuppofed they will think themfelves foperior to Cicero,
refleftion to the mind of the philofophical obferver. Yet Cicero, with all his liberality of mind, felt the
To partake with children in their little pleafures, is by tendernefs of conjugal and paternal attachment, and.
no means unmanly. It is one of the pureft fources of acknowledged that, at one time, he received no fatif-
mirth. It has an influence in amending the heart, fadtion in any company but that of his wife, his little
which neceffarily takes a tindlure from the company that daughter, and, to ufe his own epithet, his honied
forrounds us. Innocence as well as guilt is communi- young Cicero. The great Sir Thomas More, whom,
cated and increafed by the contagion of example. And nobody will fufpedl of narrownefs of mind, who by a
the great A uthor of evangelical philofophy has taught us very Angular treatife evinced that he was capable of.
to emulate the fimplicity of the infantine age. He thinking and of choofing for himfelf, has left it on re*
feems indeed himfelf to have been delighted with young cord that he devoted a great (hare o.C his time, from,
children, and found in them, what he in vain fought the united motives of duty and delight, to the amufe-
among thofe who judged themfelves their fuperiors, un- ment of his children.
polluted purity of heart. “ It will be obj.e&ed by thofe who pretend to have
“ Among the great variety of pi&ures which the formed their ideas of life from adlual obfervation, that,
vivid imagination of Homer has difplayed throughout domeftic happinefs, however pleafing in defcription, like
the Iliad, there is not one more pleafing than the fa- many a poetic dream, is but an alluring pidlure, defign-
inily piece, which reprefents the parting interview be- ed by a good heart, and painted in glowing-colours
tween He£lor and Andromache. It deeply interefts by a lively fancy. The conftant company, they urge,
the heart, while it delights the imagination. The hero even of thofe we love,, occafions an infipidity. Infi-
ceafes to be terrible, that he may become amiable, pidity grows into difguft. Difguft, long continued,.
We admire him while he Hands completely armed in fours the temper. Peeviftmefs is the natural confe-
the field, of battle ; but we love him more while he is quence. The domeftic circle becomes the fcene of dif-
taking off his helmet, that he may not frighten his pute. Mutual antipathy is ingenious in devifing mu-
little boy with its nodding plumes. We are refreflied tual torment. Sullen filence or malignant remarks fill,
with the tender fcene of domeftic love, while all up every hour, till the arrival of a ftranger caufes a tem-
2 porary
D O Mr [ 85 J DOM
Jomeftic porary reftrai'nt, and excites that good humour which
R ought to be difplayed among thofe whom the bonds of
} ^nnnant. a{fe(ftion and blood have already united.
“ Experience, indeed, proves that thefe remarks are
fometimes verihed. But that there is much domeftic
mifery is no argument that there is no domeftic hap-
pinefs, or that the evil may not be removed. Natural
ftupidity, natural ill temper, acquired ill habits, want
i] of education, illiberal manners, and a neglect of the
common rules of difcretion, will render every fpecies
of intercourfe difagreeable. When thofe are united by
connubial ties who were feparated by natural and inhe¬
rent diverfity, no wonder if that degree of happinefs
which can only refult from a proper union, is unknown.
In the forced alliance, which the poet of Venufium
|l mentions, of the ferpent with the dove, of the tyger
with the lamb, there can be no love. When we expa¬
tiate on the happinefs of the domeftic groupe, we pre-
fuppofe that all who compofe it are originally affimi-
lated by affe&ion, and are ftill kept in union by dif-
Creet friendfhip. Where this is not the cafe, the cen-
Eire mull fall on the difcordant difpofition of the par¬
ties. and not on the efiential nature of family inter¬
courfe.
“ To form, under the direftion of prudence, and by
the impulfe of virtuous love, an early conjugal attach¬
ment, is one of the beft fecurities of virtue, as well as
the moft probable means of happinefs. The duties,
which are powerfully called forth by the relations of
hulband and father, are of that tender kind which in-
fpires goodnefs and humanity. He who beholds a wo¬
man whom he loves, and an helplefs infant, looking up
to him for fupport, will not eafily be induced to in¬
dulge in unbecoming extravagance, or devote himfelf
to indolence. He who has a riling family to intro¬
duce into a vicious world, wall be cautious of fetting a
bad example, the contagion of which, when it pro-
oeeeds from parentaf authority, mult be irrefiftibly ma¬
lignant. Thus many who, in their individual and un¬
connected ftate, would probably have fpent a life not
only ufelefs to others, but profligate and carelefs in it-
felf, have become valuable members of the commur
nity, and have arrived at a degree of moral improve¬
ment, to which they would not otherwife have at¬
tained.
“ The contempt in which domeftic pleafures have in
modern times been held, is a mark of profligacy. It
is alfo a proof of a prevailing ignorance of real enjoy¬
ment. It argues a defedt in tafte and judgment as
well as in morals. For the general voice of the expe¬
rienced has in all ages declared, that the trueft happi¬
nefs is to be found at home.”
DOMICILE, in Scots law, is the dwelling-place
where a perfon lives with an intention to remain.
DOMIFY1NG, in aftrology, the dividing or dif-
tributing the heavens into 12 houfes, in order to eredf
a theme, or horofcope, by means of fix great circles,
called circles of ppfitton.
There are various ways of domifying : that of Regio¬
montanus, which isthe rooff common, makes the circles
pofition pafs through the interfedions of the meri¬
dian and the horizon : others make them pafs through
the poles of the zodiac.
DOMINANT (from the Latin word dominari 5to
rule or govern”), among muficians, is ufed either as Dominant
an adjedtive or fubftantive ; but thefe different accepta- II
tions are far from being indifcriminate. In both fenfes , P°mil!ic-t
it is explained by Roufleau as follows-
The dominant or fenlible chord is that which is prac-
tifed upon the dominant of the tone* and which intro¬
duces a perfebt cadence. Every perfebt major chord
becomes a dominant chord, • as foon as the feventh mi¬
nor is added to it.
Dominant [inbik.). Of the three notes effential to •
the tone, it is that which is a fifth from the tonick.
The tonick and the dominant ^ the tone ; in it they
are each of them the fundamental found of a particular
chord ; whereas the mediant, which conftitutes the
mode, has no chord peculiar to itfelf,. and only makes
a part of the chord of the tonick.
Mr Rameau gives the name of. dominant in genera! i
to every note'which carries a chord of the feventh, and ;
diftinguilhes that which carries the fenfible. chord by
the name of a tonick. dominant; but, on account of the
length of the word, this addition to the name has not
been adopted by artifts : they continue Amply to call:
that note a dominant which is a fifth from the nick ;
and they do not call the other notes which carry a
chord of the feventh dominants, but fundamentals ;
which is fufficient to render their meaning plain, and-
prevents confufion.
A dominant, in that :fpecies of church-mufic which is
CdiYLtiS. plain-chant, is that note which is moft-freqUently
repeated or beaten, in whatever degree it may be from
the tonick. In this fpecies of mufic there are dominants
and tonicks, but no mediant-
DOMINATION, or Dominion, in theology, the.
fourth order of angels or blefled fpirits in the hierarchy,
reckoning from the feraphim. See Angel.
DOMINGO, or St Domingo, the capital of the
ifland of Hifpaniola in the Weft Indies, isfeated in that
part belonging to the Spaniards on the fouth fide of
the ifland, and has a commodious harbour. The town
is built in the Spanifli. manner, with a great fquare in
the middle of it; about which are the cathedral and
other public buildings. From this fquare run the
principal ftreets, in a diredl line, they being croffed
by others at right angles, fo that the form of the town
is almoft fquare. The country on the north and call
fide is pleafant and fruitful; and there is a large navi¬
gable river on the weft, with the ocean on the fouth-
It is the fee of an archbiftiop, an ancient royal au¬
dience, and the feat of the governor. It has feveral
fine churches and monafteries ; and is fp .well fortified,
that a fleet and army fent by Oliver Cromwell in 1654.-.
could not take it. The inhabitants are Spaniards,
Negroes, Mulattoes, Meftices, and Albatraces; of
whom about a fixth part may be Spaniards. It had
formerly about 2000 houfes, but it is much declined of
late years. The river on. which it is feated is called
0%ama. W. Long. 69. 30. N. Lat. 18. 25.
DOMINIC (de Gufman), founder of the Domini¬
can order of monks, was born at Calaroga in Old Ca-.
ftile, 1170. He preached with great fury againft the*
Albigenfes, when Pope Innocent III. made a croifade-
againft that unhappy people ; and was inquifitor in
Languedoc, where he founded his order, and got it
confirmed by the Lateran council in 1215. He died
atx
Dominica
II
Dominical.
DOM [ 86 ] DO M
at Bologna in 1221, and was afterwards canonized.
The dominican order has produced many illuftrious
men. See Dominicans.
DOMINICA, one of the Caribbee ilknds in the
Weft Indies, about 39 miles long and 13 broad, fitua-
ted between 6i°and 62° W. Long, and between 15*
and 16° of N. Lat. This ifland formerly belonged to
the French, but was ceded to Britain by the treaty in
1763. It is very advantageous to the latter, as being
fituated between the French iflandsof Gaudaloupe and
Martinico, fo that it is equally alarming to both; and
its fafe and commodious roads enable the Britifh pri¬
vateers to intercept, without rifle, the navigation of
France in her colonies, whenever a war happens be¬
tween the. two nations.
This illand was reduced, in the year 1778, by the
French, under the marquis de Bouille, governor of
Martinico. At that time the ifland, though very well
fortified, had been unaccountably neglected by the
Britifti government, in fuch a manner as to be almoft
entirely deftitute of a gartifon. The French com¬
mander therefore, who made a defeent with zooomen,
found only too regular forces and a fcw companies
of militia to oppofe him. All refiftanc?"therefore be¬
ing vain, the only thing the garrifon could do was to
procure as favourable terms of capitulation as pofiible.
Thefe were granted with fuch readinefs as did great
honour to the charafter of this officer; the inhabitants
experiencing no kind of change except that of trans¬
ferring their obedience from Britain to France, being
left unmolefted in the enjoyment of all their rights
both civil and religious. The capitulation was ftrictly
obferved by the Marquis; no plunder or irregularity
being allowed, and a pecuniary gratification being dis¬
tributed among the foldiers and volunteers who ac¬
companied him in the expedition. An hundred and
fixty-four pieces of excellent cannon, and twenty-four
brafs mortars, befides a large quantity of military ilores,
were found in the place; infomuch that the French
themfelves exprefled their furprife at finding fo few
hands to make ufe of them. The Marquis, however,
took care to fupply this defeat, by leaving a garrifon
of 1500 of the beft men he had with him. It was re-
ftored to Britain at the conclufion of the peace in
*783-
La Dominica, one of the Marquesas Iflands in the
South-Sea.
DOMINICAL letter, popularly called Snnday-
Letter, one of the feven letters A B C D E F G, ufed
in almanacks, ephemerides, &c. to denote the Sundays
throughout the year. See Chronology, n° 32. The
word is formed from dominica or domintcus dies, “ Lord’s-
day, Sunday.”
The dominical letters were introduced in the kalen-
darby the primitive Chriftians, in lieu of the nundinal
letters in the Roman kalendar.
Dominical, in church-hiftory. The council of
Auxerre, held in 578, decrees, that women communi¬
cate with their dominical. Some authors contend, that
this dominical was a linen cloth, wherein they received
the fpecies; as not being allowed to receive them in
the bare hand. Others will have it a kind of veil,
wherewith they covered the head. The moft proba¬
ble account is, that it was a fort of linen cloth or hand¬
kerchief wherein they received and preferved the eu-
charift in times of perfecution, to be taken on occafion
at home. This appears to have been the cafe by the
practice of the fit ft Chriftians, and by Tertullian’sbook
udd Uxorem,
DOMINICANS, an order of religious, called in
fome places Jacobins; and in others, Predicants, or
Preaching Friers.
The Dominicans take their name from their founder
Dominic de Guzman, a Spanifh gentleman, born in
1170, at Calaroga in Old Caftile. He was firft ca¬
non and archdeacon of Ofma; and afterwards preached
with great zeal and vehemence againft the Albigenfes
in Languedoc, where he laid the firft foundation of his
order. It was approved of in 1215 by Innocent III.
and confirmed in 1216 by a bull of Honorius III.
under the tile of St Augujlin; to which Dominic added
feveral auftere precepts and obfervances, obliging the
brethren to take a vow of abfolute poverty, and to a-
bandon entirely all their revenues and poffeffions ; and
alfo the title of Preaching Friers, becaufe public in-
ftru&ion was the main end of their inftitution.
The firft convent was founded at Tholoufe by the
bifhop thereof and Simon de Montfort. Two years
afterwards they had another at Paris, near the bifliop’s
houfe ; and fome time after a third in the rue St
Jacques, St James’s ttreet, whence the denomination
of Jacobins.
Juft before his death, Dominic fent Gilbert de Fref-
ney, with twelve of the brethren, into England, where
they founded their firft monaftery at Oxford in the
year 1221, and foon after another at London. In
the year 1276, the mayor and aldermen of the city of
London gave them two whole ftreets by the river
Thames, wliere they eredled a very commodious con¬
vent, whence that place is ftill called Black Friers,
from the name by which the Dominicans v/ere called
in England.
St Dominic, at firft, only took the habit of the
regular canons; that is, a black caffock and rochet:
but this he quitted in 1219, for that which they now
wear, which it is pretended was fhown by the hleffed
Virgin herfelf to the beatified Renaud d’Orleans.
This order is diffufed throughout the whole known
world. It has forty-five provinces under the general,
who refides at Rome; and twelve particular congrega¬
tions or reforms, governed by vicars general.
They reckon three popes of this order, above fixty
cardinals, feveral patriarchs, a hundred and fifty arch-
bifhops, and about eight hundred bilhops; befide ma¬
ilers of the facred palace, whofe office has been con-
ftantly difeharged by a religious of this order, ever
fince St Dominic, who held it under Honorius III. in
1218.
Of all the monaftic orders, none enjoyed a higher
degree of power and authority than the Dominican
friers, whofe credit was great, and their influence uni-
verfal. But the meafures they ufed in order to main¬
tain and extend their authority were fo perfidious and
cruel, that their influence began to decline towards the
beginning of the fixteenth century. The tragic ftory
of Jetzer, conducted at Bern in 1509, for determining
an uninterefting difpute between them and the Fran-
eifeans, relating to the immaculate conception, will reflect
indelible infamy on this order. See an account of
it in Burnet’s Travels through France, Italy, Germany,
3
DOM [ 87 ] DON
Jaminion and Switzerland, p. 31. or Molheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. Hi.
! !! p. 294, 8vo. They were indeed perpetually employed
tfliniiiium. jn ftigmatizing with the opprobrious narpe of herefy
* numbers of learned and pious men; in encroaching
upon the rights and properties of others, to augment
their poffefTions; and in laying the moft iniquitous
fnares and itratagems for the deftruftion of their ad-
verfaries. They were the principal counfellors, by
whofe inftigation and advice Leo X. was determined
to the public condemnation of Luther. The papal
fee never had more attive and ufeful abettors than this
order, and that of the Jefuits.
^ The dogmata of the Dominicans are ufually oppo-
fite to thole of the Francifcans.
There are alfo nuns or fillers of this order, called in
fome places Preaching Sifters. Thefe are even more
ancient than the friers; St Dominic having founded
a fociety of religious maids at Prouilles fome years
before the inllitution of his order of men ; viz. in
1206.
There is alfo a third order of Dominicans, both for
men and women.
DOMINION, dominium, in the civil law, fig-
mifies the power to ufe or difpofe of a thing as we
‘ i pleafe.
Dominion, or Domination. See Domination.
DOMINIS (Mark Anthony de), archbifhop of Spa-
latro in Dalmatia at the clofe of the 15th and begin¬
ning of the 16th centuries, was a man whofe ficklenefs
in religion proved his ruin. His preferment, inllead
of attaching him to the church of Rome, rendered
i him difaffetted to it. Becoming acquainted with our
■feilhop Bedell, while chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton
ambalfador from James I. at Venice, he communicated
his books De Republica Ecclefiajlica to 'him; which were
afterwards publiflied at London, with Bedell’s correc¬
tions. He came to England with Bedell; where he
/ was received with great refpedt, and preached and
wrote againft the Romilh religion. He is faid to have
had a principal hand in publilhing father Paul’s Hijlory
■tf the Council of Trent, at London, which was infcribed
to James in 1619. But on the promotion of Pope
■Gregory XIV. who had been his fchool-fellow and old
acquaintance, he was deluded by Gondomar the Spa-
»ifh ambaffador into the hopes of procuring a cardi-
Hal’s hat, by which he fancied he Ihould prove an in¬
strument of great reformation in the church. Accord¬
ingly he returned to Rome in 1622, recanted his er¬
rors, and was at firft well received: but he afterwards
wrote letters to England, repenting his recantation ;
which being intercepted, he was imprifoned by Pope
Urban VIII. and died in 1625. He was alfo the
imthor of the firft philofophieal explanation of the
rainbow, which before his time was accounted a pro-
«gy.
DOMINIUM eminens, in Scots law, that power
which the Hate or fovereign has over private property,
by which the proprietor may be compelled to fell it for
an adequate price where public utility requires. See
Law, N°clxii. 1.
DaMimvM Direflum, in Scots law, the right which
a fuperior retains in his lands, notwithftanding the feu¬
dal grant to his vaffal. See Law, N° clxvi. 1.
Dominium. Utile, io Scots law, the right which* the
vafial acquires in the lands by the feudal grant from Dominus
his fuperior. See Law, N° clxvi. 1, 11
DOMINUS, in ancient times, a title prefixed to a P°nat*on.
name, ufually to denote the perfon either a knight or v *
a clergyman -See Pice-Dominus.
The title was fometimes alfo given to a gentle¬
man not dubbed ; efpecially if he were lord of a ma¬
nor. See Dom, Gentleman, and Sire.
In Holland, the title dsminus is Hill retained, to di-
ftinguifti a minifter of the reformed church.
DOMITIAN, the Roman emperor, fon to Vef-
pafian, was the laft of the 12 Caefars. See (Hijlory
of) Roms.
DON, or Tanais, a river of Rufiia, which takes
its rife from the fmall lake of St John, near Tula, in
the government of Mofcow, and paffing through
part of the province of Voronetz, a fmall portion of
the Ukraina-Slobodlkaia, and the whole province of
Azof, divides itfelf near Tcherkalk into three ftreams,
and falls in thefe feparate branches into the Sea of A-
zof. The river has fo many windings, is in many parts
fo fhallow, and abounds with fuch numerous fltoals, as
to be fcarcely navigable, excepting in the fpring, upon
the melting of the fnows; and its mouth is alfo fo
choaked up with fand, that only flat-bottomed veflels,
excepting in the fame feafon, can pafs into the fea of
. Azof. The banks of the Don, and the rivulets which
fall into it, are clothed with large tradb of foreft, whofe
timber is floated down the ftream to St Demetri anfl
Roilof, where the frigates for the fea of Azof are
chiefly conftrufted. The navigation of the Don, Mr
Cox obferves, may pofiibly hereafter be rendered high¬
ly valuable, by conveying to the Black Sea the iron of
Siberia, the Chinefe goods, and the Perfian merchan¬
dize : which latter commodities, as well as the pro-
dudls of India, formerly found their way into Europe
through this fame channel.
Don is alfo the name of a river in Scotland, no¬
ticed under the article Aberdeen; the Old Town,
being fituated at its mouth. See Aberdeen.
DONARIA, among the ancients, in its primary
fignification, was taken for the places where the obla¬
tions offered to the gods were kept ; but afterwards
was ufed to denote the offerings themfelves; and fome¬
times, though improperly, the temples.
DONATIA, in botany : A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is a triphyllous perianthium, with fnort fubu-
lated leaves Handing at a diftance from one another.
The corolla has from eight to ten petals of an oblong
linear fhape, twice as long as the calyx. The ftarnina
are three fubulated filaments the length of the calyx ;
the anthene roundifti, didymous, and two-lobed at the
bafe.
DONATION, Donatio, an a£l or contraft where¬
by a man transfers to another either the property or
the ufe of the whole or a part of his effedts as a free,
gift.
A donation, to be valid and complete, fuppofes a
capacity both in the donor and the donee; and requires
confent, acceptance, and delivery; and by the French
law regiftry alfo.
Donation Mortis Caufa, in law, a difpofition of pro¬
perty made by a perfon in his laft fickntfs, who appre¬
hending.
DON r 83 1 DON
.Donatiftj. bending his diffolution near, delivers, or caufes to be
Y*“~ delivered to another, the poffeffion of any perfonal
•goods, to keep' in cafe of his deceafe. If the donor
dies, this gift needs not the • confent of his executor;
but it /hall not prevail againft creditors ; and it is ac-
rcompanied with this implied truft, that, if the donor
lives, the property (hall revert to himfelf, being only
given in profpeft of death, or mortis caufa. This me¬
thod of donation feems to have been conveyed to us
from the .civil lawyers, who borrowed it from the
-Greeks.
DONATISTS, ancient fchifmatics in Africa, fo
denominated from their leader Donatus.
They had their origin in the year 311, when, in
the room of Menfurius, who died in that year on his
return to Rome, Caecilian was elefted bifhop of Car¬
thage, and confecrated without the concurrence of the
Numidian biihops, by thofe of Africa alone; whom
the people refufed to acknowledge, and to whom they
oppofed Majorinus; who, accordingly, was ordained
by Donatus bifhop of Cafse Nigra. They were con¬
demned, in a council held at Rome, two years after
their feparation; and afterwards in another at Arles,
•the year following ; and again at Milan, before Con-
ftantine the Great, in 316, who deprived them of
their churches, and fent their feditious biftiops into
banifhment, and punifhed fome of them with death.
Their caufe was efpoufed by another Donatus, called
the great, the principal bifhop of that feft, who, with
numbers of his followers, was exiled by order of Con-
-llans. Many of them were punifhed with great feve-
rity. See Circumcelliones. However, after the
acceflion of Julian to the throne in 362, they were
permitted to return, and reftored to their former li¬
berty. Gratian publifhed feveral edi&s againft themj
-and in 377 deprived them of their churches, and pro¬
hibited all their affemblies. But notwithflanding the
feverities they fuffered, it appears that they had a very
confiderable number of churches towards the clofe of
this century ; but at this time they began to decline,
on account of a fchifm among themfelves, occalioned
by the ele&ion of two biftiops, in the room of Parme-
nian, the fucceffor of Donatus; one party ele&ed
.Primian, and were called Primlanijls, and another Ma-
•y.imian, and were called Maxhnianijls. Their decline
vwas alfo precipitated by the zealous oppofition of St
Auguftin, and by the violent meafures which were
^purfued againft them, by order of the emperor Hono-
rius, at the felicitation of two councils held at Car-
-thage ; the one in 404, and the other in 41 x. Many
of them were fined, their bifliops were bamfhed, and
fome put to death. This feci revived and multiplied
•under the protection of the Vandals, who invaded A-
frica in 427, and took poffeffion of this province; but
it funk again under new feverities, when their empire
was overturned in 534. Neverthelefs, they remained
in a feparate body till the clofe of this century,, when
Gregory, the Roman pontiff, ufed various methods
for fuppreffing them ; his zeal fucceeded, and there
are few traces to be found of the Donatifts after this
period. They were diftinguifned by other appella¬
tions ; as Circumcelliones, Montenfes, or Mountaineers,
Campjtes, Rupites, &c. They held three councils, or
conciliabules; that of Cirta in Numidia, and two at
Carthage.
103.
The errors of the Donatifts, befide their fchifm, were, Donatlvit:
l. That baptifm conferred out of the church, that —“'v"—**'
is, out of their fed, was null; and accordingly they Va
rebaptized thofe who joined their party from other ' 1
churches, and re-ordained their minifters. 2. That |
theirs was the only true, pure, and holy church ; all
the reft of the churches they held as proftitute and ;
fallen.
Donatus feems likewife to have given into the doc¬
trine of the Arians, with whom he was clofely allied ;
and, accordingly, St Epiphanius, Theodoret, and fome |[
others, accufed the Donatifts of Arianifm ; and it is i|
probable that the charge was well founded, becaufe
they were patronized by the Vandals, w,ho were of
thefe fentiments. But St Auguftine, ep. x-By, to count
Bonniface, & Haer. 69. affirms, that the Donatifts, in
this point, kept clear of the errors of their leader.
DONATIVE, Donativum., a prefent made by ||
any perfon ; called’alfo gratuity.
The Romans made large .donatives to their foldiery.
Julia Pia, wife of the emperor Severus, is called on
certain medals mater caflrorum, becaufe of the care (he . J
took of the foldiery, by interpofing fot the augmen- 1
tation of their donatives, &c.
Donative was properly a gift made to the foldiery ;
as congiarium was that made to the people. Salma-
fius, on his notes to Lampridius, in his Life of He-
liogabalus, mentioning a donative that emperor gave
of three pieces of gold/w head, obferves, that this Jj
was the common and legitimate rate of a donative. >■ 1
Cafaubon, in his notes on the Life of Pertinax by Ca
pitolinus, obferves, that Pertinax made a promife of
.3000 denarii to each foldier; which amounts to up- 1
wards of 97 pounds fterling. The fame author writes,
that the legal donative was 20,000 denarii; and that
it was not cuftomary to give lefs, efpecially to the
praetorian foldiers ; that the centurions had double,
and the tribunes, See. more in proportion.
Donative, in the canon law, a benefice given, and
collated to a perfon, by the founder or patron; with¬
out either prefentation, inftitiition, or induction by the
ordinary.
If chapels founded by laymen be not approved by
the diocefan, and, as it is called, fpiritualized, they
are not accounted proper benefices, neither can they
be conferred by the biftiop, but remain to the piou#
difpofition of the founders; fo that the founders,
and their heirs, may give fuch chapels without the bi-
(hop.
Gwin obferves, that the king might of ancient time
found a free chapel, and exempt it from the jurifdi^
tion of the diocefan ; fo may he, by letters patent,
give liberty to a common perfon to found fuch a cha;
pel, and make it donative, not prefentable; and the
chaplain, or beneficiary, fliall be deprivable by th^
founder or his heir, and not by the bifhop. And this
feems to be the original of donatives in England. w|
Donatives are within the ftatute againft fimony; and
if they have cure of fouls, within that againft plurali¬
ties. If the patron of a donative doth not nominate
a clerk, there can be no lapfe thereof, unlefs it be
fpecially provided for in the foundation ; but the bi-
(hop may compel him to do it by fpiritual cenfures.
But if it be augmented by queen Anne’s bounty, it
will lapfe like other prefentative livings, x Geo. L flat.
a*
Tlate CL XIV.
C
fyjc/o.
' ■/'////; ///'. y .
- (^y>/Y/Cj) /o/yJhJ .
>/•////;£>? /mY:
DON [ 89 ] DOR
.)onato'7 2. cap. TO. The ordinary cannot vifit a donative, and
' therefore it is free from procuration, and the incum-
' bent is exempted from attendance at vifitations.
All bilhopricks in ancient time were donative by the
king. Again, where a biihop has the gift of a bene¬
fice, it is properly called a donative, becaufe he can¬
not prefent to himfelf.
DONATORY, in Scots law, that perfon to whom
the king beftows his right to any forfeiture that has
fallen to the crown.
DONATUS, a fchifmatic bifhop of Carthage,
founder of the feft of Donati'sts. His followers
fwore by him, and honoured him like a god. He died
• about 368.
Donatus (iElius), a famous grammarian, lived at
Rome in 354. He was one of St Jerome’s mailers; and
compofed commentaries on Terence and Virgil, which
are elleemed.
DONAWERT, a flrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Bavaria on die .’lenders of Suabia. It has
been taken and retaken feveral times in the wars of
Germany; and was formerly an imperial city, but at
prefent is fubjedl to the duke of Bavaria. E. Dong.
10. 32. N. Lat. 48. 32.
DONAX, a genus of infedls belonging to the or¬
der of vermes tellacea. It is an animal of the oyfter
kind; and the flic 11 has two valves, with a very obtufe
margin in the fore-part. , There are 10 fpecies, prin-
late cipally dillinguifhed by the figure of their fhells.*
VI'r> DONCASTER, a market-town of Yorkfhire, 30
miles fouth of York. It was noted for knitting wor-
fled ftockings; that article of their trade is now on the
decline. Doncafter gives the Englifh title of Earl to
the duke of Buccleugh in Scotland, which belonged
to his anceftor the duke of Monmouth, but was omit¬
ted out of the forfeiture. W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat.
53 - 30.
DONNE (Dr John), an excellent poet and divine
of the 17th centtiry. His parents were of the Romifh
religion, and ufed their utmoll efforts to keep him firm
to it; but his early examination of the controverfy be¬
tween the church of Rome and the Proteflants, at laft
determined him to choofe the latter. He travelled
into Italy and Spain ; where he made many ufeful ob-
fervations, and learned their languages to perfeftion.
<•> Soon after his return to England, Sir Thomas Eger-
ton, keeper of the great feal, appointed him his fecre-
tary; in which poll he continued five years. He mar-
rying privately Anne the daughter of Sir George
Moore then chancellor of the garter, and niece to the
lord keeper’s lady, was difmiffed from his place, and
thrown into prifon. But he was reconciled to Sir
George by the good offices of Sir Francis Wolley. In
f6i2, he accompanied Sir Robert Drury to Paris.
During this time, many of the nobility folicited the
king for feme fecular employment for him. But his
majefty, who took pleafure in his converfation, had en¬
gaged him in writing his Pfeudo Martyr, printed at
London in 161.0; and was fo highly pleafed with
that work, that in 1614 he prevailed with him to en¬
ter into holy orders ; appointed him one of his chap¬
lains, and procured him the degree of Dodlor of Di¬
vinity from the univerfity of Oxford. In 1619, he
attended the earl of Doncafter in his embaffy into
Germany. In 1621, he was made dean of Bt Paul’s;
Von. VI. Part. I.
and the vicarage of St Dunftan in the weft, in Lon- Donor
don, foon after fell to him ; the advowfon of it having II.
been given to him long before by Richard earl of Dor- Dona'
fet. By thefe and other preferments, he was enabled
to be charitable to the poor, kind to his friends, and
to make good provifion for his children. He wrote,
befides the above, 1. Devotions upon emergent occa-
fions. 2. The Ancient Hiftory of the Septuagint,
tranflated from the Greek of Arilleus, quarto. 3. Three
volumes of fermons, folio. 4. A confiderable num¬
ber of poems ; and other works. He died in 1631 ;
and was interred in St Paul’s cathedral, w^ere a monu¬
ment was eredled to his memory. His writings fhow
him to be a man of incomparable wit and learning;
but his greateft excellence was fatire. He had a pro¬
digious richnefs of fancy, but his thoughts were much
debafed by his vcrlification. He was, however, highly
celebrated by all the great men of that age.
DONOR, in law, the perfon who gives lands or
tenements to another in tail, &c.; as he to whom fuch
lands, &c. are given, is the donee.
DOOMSDAY book. See Domesday Booh.
DOOR, in architecture. SeeARCHiTECTURE,n°76.
DOR, the Englifh name of the common black beetle.
Some apply it alfo to the dufty beetle, that flies about
hedges in the evening. See Scarabjeus.
DORADO, in aitronomy, a fouthern conflellation,
not vilible in our latitude ; it is alfo called xiphias.
The liars of this conllellation, in Sharp’s Catalogue,
are fix.
DORCHESTER, the captital of Dorfetlhire, fi-
tuated on the river Froom, fix miles north of Wey¬
mouth : W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 50. 40. It gives
the title of marquis to tbe noble family of Pierpoint,
duke of Kingilon ; and fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
DOREE, or John Doree, in ichthyology. See
Zeus.
DORIA (Andrew), a gallant Genoefe fea-officer,
born in 1466. He entered into the fervice of Francis I,
of France; but preferved that fpirit of independence
fo natural to a failor and a republican. When the
French attempted to render Savona, long the ob-
jeft of jealoufy to Genoa, its rival in trade, Doria
remonftrated againft the meafure in a high tone; which
bold aClion, reprefented by the malice of his courtiers
in the moll odious light, irritated Francis to that de¬
gree, that he ordered his admiral Barbdieux to fail to
Genoa, then in the hands of the French troops, to ar-
rtft Doria, and to feize his galleys. This ralh order
Doria got timely hints of; retired with all his galleys
to a place of fafety; and, while his refentment was
thus railed, he doled with the offers of the emperor
Charles V. returned his coin million with the collar of
St Michael to Francis, and hoilled the Imperial colours.
To deliver his country, weary alike of the French and
Imcprial yoke, from the dominion of foreigners, was
now Doria’s highell ambition ; and the favourable mo¬
ment offered. Genoa was affh&ed with the pdtilence,
the French garrifon was greatly reduced and ill-paid,
and the inhabitants were fufficiently difpofed to fecond
his views. He failed to the harbour with 13 galleys,
landed 500 men, and made himfdf mailer of the gates
and the palace with very little refiftance. The French
governor with his feeble gai rifon retired to the citadel,
M but
DOR [ 90 ] DOR
Doric, but was quickly forced to capitulate ; wben the people
 ' ran together, and levelled the citadel with the ground.
It was now in Doria’s power to have rendered him-
i'vif the fovereign of his country ; but, with a mag¬
nanimity of which there are few examples, he affembled
the people in the court before the palace, difclaimed
all pre-eminence, and recommended to them to fettle
that form of government they chofe to eftablifh. The
people, animated by his fpirit, forgot their factions,
and fixed that form of government which has fubfifted
ever fince with little variation. This event happened
in 1528. Doria lived to a great age, refpefted and
beloved as a private citizen ; and is Hill celebrated in
Genoa by the moll honourable of all appellations,
“ The father of his country, and the reftorer of its
liberty.” *
DORIC, in general, any thing belonging to the
Dorians, an ancient people of Greece, inhabiting near
mount Parnaffus. See Doris.
Doric, in architefture, is the fecond of the five
orders; being that between the Tufcan and Ionic. It
is utually placed upon the Attic bafe, though original¬
ly it had no bafe. See Architecture, n° 43.
At its firfi invention it was more fimple than at pre-
fent; and when in after-times they came to adorn and
enrich it more, the appellation Doric was reftrained to
this richer manner, and the primitive fimple manner
they called by a new name, the Tufcan order, which
was chiefly ufed in temples; as the former, being more
light and delicate, was for porticos and theatres. The
tradition is, that Dorus, king of Achaia, having firft
built a temple of this order at Argos, which he dedicated
to Juno, occafioned it to be called Doric; though others
derive its name, from its being invented or ufed by the
Dorians.
The moderns, on account of its folidity, ufe it in
large ftrong buildings ; as in the gates of cities and ci¬
tadels, the outfides of churches, and other maffy works,
where delicacy of ornaments would be unfuitable.
The gate of Burlington-houfe in Piccadilly is of the
Doric order.
The moll confiderable antient monuments of this or¬
der, are the theatre of Marcellus at Rome; wherein
.the capital, the height of the frize, and its projedture,
are much fmaller than in the modern architedlure;
and the Parthenion, or temple of Minerva at Athens,
in which the fhort and maffy columns bear upon
the pavement without a bafe; and the capital is a
fimple torus, with its cindture, and a fquare, plain,
and folid abacus.
Doric Cymatium. See Cyma.
Doric Diak8, one of the five dialedls, or manners
cf fpeaking, which obtained among the Greeks.
It was firfi: ufed by the Lacedemonians, and parti¬
cularly thofe of Argos ; thence it pafied into Epirus,
Libya, Sicily, the iflands of Rhodes, and Crete. In
this > ialed, Archimedes and Theocritus wrote, who
were both of Syracufe ; as likewife Pindar.
In ftriftnefs, however, w6 fhould rather define
Doric, the manner of fpeaking peculiar to the Do¬
rians, after their recefs near Painaffus and Afopus;
and which afterwards came to obtain among the
Lacedemonian, &c. Some even diftinguilh between
the Lacedemonian and Doric ; but, in reality, they
were the fame} fetting afide a few particularities in the
language of the Lacedemonians; as is fhown by Ru- Done, |
landus, in his excellent treatife De Lingua Graca DonntJ-:
ejufque Dialeclis, lib. v.
Befide the authors already mentioned to have writ¬
ten in the Doric dialed!:, we might add Archytas of
Tarentum, Bion, Callinus, Simonides, Bacchylides,
Cypfelas, Aleman, and Sophron.
Moft of the medals of the cities of Graecia Magna,
and Sicily, favour of the Doric dialed!: in their inferip-
tion: witnefs, ambpakiatan, ahoaaaniatan, axs-
PONTAN, AXTPITAN, HPAXAEATAN, TPAXIN1 AN, OEP-
MITAN, KATAONIATAN, KOIHATAN, TATPOMENITAN,
&c. Which Ihows the countries wherein the Doric
dialed!, was ufed.
The general rules of this dialed! are thus given by
the Port-royalifis.
D't Hra, (Pagrand, d’t, do fS* d\ l'a fait le Dare.
IP* 11 fait nra ; d\, u W A; aa fait cncort.
OJie 1 de I'infni : Sis’ pour le ftngulier
He fert au femenin du nombre plurier.
But they are much better explained in the fourth book
of Rulandus ; where he even notes the minuter differ¬
ences of the dialedts of Sicily, Crete, Tarentum,
Rhodes, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Macedonia, and
Theffaly.
The a abounds every where in the Doric ; but this
dialed! bears fo near a conformity with the iEolic, that
many reckon them but one.
Doric Mode, in mufic, the firft of the authentic
modes of the ancients. Its charad!er is to be fevere, •
tempered with gravity and joy ; and is proper upon
religious occafions, as alfo to be ufed in war. It be¬
gins D, la,Jol, rc. Plato admires the mufic of the
Doric mode, and judges it proper to preferve good
manners as being mafeuline ; and on this account al¬
lows it in his commonwealth. The ancients had like¬
wife their fubdoric or hypodoric mode, which was one
of the plagal modes. Its charadter was to be very
grave and folemn : it began withVe, a fourth lower
than the doric.
DORING, or Daring, among fportfmen, a term
ufed to exprefs a method of taking larks, by means of
a clap-net and a looking-glafs. For this fport there
muft be provided four Hicks very llraight and liglxt,
about the bignefs of a pike ; two of thefe are to be
four feet nine inches long, and all notched at the edges^
or the ends. At one end of each of thefe Hicks there
is to be fattened another of about a foot long on one
fide; and on the pther fide a fmall wooden peg about
three inches long. Then four or more Hicks are to be
prepared, each of one foot length ; and each of thefe
muft have a cord of nine feet long fattened to it at the
end. Every one fhould have a buckle for the com- 5
modious fattening on to the refpedlive flicks when the
net is to be fpread.—A cord muft alfo be provided,
which mutt have two branches. The one muft have
nine feet and a half, and the other ten feet long, with
a buckle at the end of each; the reft, or body of the
cord, muft be 24 yards long. All thefe cords, as well
the long ones as thofe about the flicks, muft be well
twitted and of the bignefs of one’s little finger. The next
thing to be provided is a ftaff of four feet long, pointed
at one end, and with a ball of wood at the other, for
the carrying thefe conveniences in a fack or wallet.—
There fhould alfo be carried, on this occafion, a fpade
to
DOR
TJonng, to 'level the ground where there may be any little irre-
l>>ns. gularities; and two fmall rods, each 18 inches long,
fjfF y and having a fmall rod fixed with a pack-thread at the
larger end of the other. To thefe are to be tied fome
pack-thread loops, which are to faften in the legs of
feme larks ; and there are to be reels to thefe, that the
birds may fly a little way up and down. When all
this is done, the looking-glafs is to be prepared in the
following manner. Take a piece of wood about an
inch and an half thick, and cut it in form of a bow, fo
that there may be about nine inches fpace between the
two ends; and let it have its full thicknefs at the bot¬
tom, that it may receive into it a falfe piece ; in the
five corners of which there are to be fet in five pieces
of looking-glafs. Thefe ary fo fixed, that they may
dart their light upwards ; and the whole machine is to
be fupported on a moveable pin, with the end of a long
line fixed to it, and made in the manner of the chil¬
dren’s play-thing of an apple and a plum-ftone ; fo
that the other end of the cord being carried through
a hedge, the barely pulling it may fet the whole ma¬
chine of the glafles a-turning. This and the other
contrivances are to be placed in the middle between
the two nets. The larks fixed to the place, and termed
calls, and the glittering of the looking-glafles as they
twirl round in the fun, invite the other larks down;
and the ebrd that communicates with the nets, and
goes through the hedge, gives the perfon behind an
opportunity of pulling up the nets, fo as to meet over
the whole, and take every thing that is between them.
The places where this fort of fporting fucceeds bell
are open fields remote from any trees and hedges ex¬
cept one by way of fhelter for the fportfman : and the
wind Ihould always be either in the front or back;
for if it blows fideways, it prevents the playing of the
net.
DORIS, a country of Greece, between Phocis,
Thefialy, and Acarnania. It received its name from
Dorus the fon of Deucalion, who made a iettJement
there. It was called Tetrapolis from the four cities of
Pindus or Dryopis, Erineum, Cytinium, Borium,
which it contained. To thefe four fome add Lilaeum
and Carphia, and therefore call it Hexapolis. The
name of Doris has been common to many. parts of
Greece. The Dorians in the age of Deucalion in¬
habited Phthiotis, which they exchanged for Hiitiaso-
tis, in the age of Dorus. From thence they were dri¬
ven by the Cadmeans, and came to fettle near the
town of Pindus. From thence they paffed into Dry-
.opis, and afterwards into Peloponnefus. Hercules
having re-eltablifhed Aigimius king of Phthiotis or
Doris, who had been driven from his country by the
Dapitha*, the grateful king appointed Hyllus the fon
of his patron to be his fuccefibr, and the Heraclidas
marched from that part of the country to go reco¬
ver Peloponnefus. The Dorians fent many colonies
into different places, which bore the fame name as
their native country. The moft famous of thefe is
iu Afia Minor, of which Halicarnaffus was once the
capital. This part of Afia Minor was called Hexapolis,
and afterwards Pentapolis.
Doris, a genus of infefts, belonging to the order
of vermes teftacea. The body is oblong, flat beneath ;
creeping: mouth placed below: vent behind furround-
ed with a fringe : two feelers, retraftile. There are
D* O R
feveral fpecies.—The argo, or lemon doris, has an ova! dormant
body, convex, marked with numerous punftures, of a 0o[!fet
lemon colour, thd^vent befet with degant ramifications, (hire.
It inhabits different parts of our feas, called about v—i.i
Brighthdmftone the fea-lemon. See Plate CLXlV.
DORMANT, in heraldry, is ufed for the pofture
of a lion, or any other bead, lying along in a fleeping
attitude with the head on the fore-paws; by which it
is diftinguilhed from the couchant, where though the
beaft is lying, yet he holds up his head.
DORMER, in architefture, fignifies a window made
in the roof of an houfe, or above the entablature, be¬
ing raifed upon the rafters.
DORMITORY, a gallery in convents or religious
houfes, divided into feveral cells, in which the religious
fleep or lodge.
DORMOUSE, in zoology. See Mus. and Sci-
URUS.
DORONICUM, leopard’s bane: Agenusofthe
polygamia Tuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofitdi. The receptacle is
naked, the pappus Ample ; the feales of the calyx in a
double row, longer than the dife. The feeds of the
radius naked without any pappus. There are three
fpecies ; of which the only one worthy of notice is the
pardalianches, with obtufe heart-fliaped leaves. It
grows naturally in Hungary, and on the Helvetian
mountains; but is frequently preferved in the Englifli
gardens. It hath thick fleffiy roots, which divide into
many knobs or knees, fending out ttrong flelhy fibres
which penetrate deep into the ground; from thefe
arife in the fpring a clufter of heart-fhaped leaves,
which are hairy, and Hand upon footffalks: between
thefe arife the flower-ftalks, which are channelled and
hairy, near three feet high, putting out one or two
fmaller ftalks from the fide. Each llalk is terminated
by one large yellow flower. The plant multiplies very
faff by its fpreading roots ; and the feeds, if permitted
to fcatter, will produce plants wherever they happen
to fall; fo that it very foon becomes a weed in the
places where it is once eftablifhed. It loves a moiil
foil and ffiady fituation. The roots were formerly
ufed in medicine as alexipharmics and purifiers of the
blood, but their operation was fo violent that they are
now entirely laid afide.
DORSAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs ,
to the back. See Dorsum.
DORSET (Thomas Sackville), Lord Buckhurff.
See Sackville.
Dorset (Charles Sackville), Earl of. See Sack¬
ville.
DORSETSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by the Englifh channel, on the north by
Somerfetfhire and Wiltfliire, on the eaff by Hamp-
fliire, and on the weft by Devonlhire and fome part
of Somerfetffiire. It is between 40 and 50 miles long
from eaft to weft, and 34 broad from fouth to north,
and contains 34 hundreds, 22 market-towns, and 248
parifhes. This county enjoys a mild, pleafant, and
wholefome air, and a deep, rich, and fertile foil, finely
diverfified. Towards the north it is level, under the
high lands that divide it from Somerfetffiire,' where
there are fine arable grounds that will yield large crops
of different kinds of grain. But on the fouth, from
r 9> 1
DOR [ 9* ] DOR-
Dorfiferous the borders of Hampfhire by the fea-coall, for an ex-
tent of alinoft 20 miles in length, and in fome places
t four or five in breadth, is an heathy common, which
renders this country lefs populous than it otherwife
would be. From call to welt run a ridge of hills cal¬
led the Downs, abounding with fweet and Ihort her¬
bage, which nouriihes a vail number of Iheep equally
elteemed for their flelh and fleece. The country is alfo
very plentifully watered; and in all refpedts fo well
i'uited both for pleafure and profit, that it was diflin-
guiflied by the Romans above all others. They had
more Rations and fummer-camps in Dorfetlhire than
in any other county. That the Saxons had the fame
regard for it, is evident from the number of palaces
they had in it, the ftately minfters they built, and the
exprefs dire&ions they gave that their bodies fhould be
irtterred in thofe monuments of their piety. This coun¬
ty yields many and very valuable commodities. The
quarries in Purbeck and Portland fupply ftones of dif¬
ferent qualities, fuited to various ufes, and in prodigious
quantities, together with fome very rich and beautiful
marble. The bell tobacco-pipe clay in England is alfo
found in this county. Madder, hemp, and flax, alfo
thrive in many places, grain of all forts, &c.
DORSIFEROUS plants, among botanifts, fuch
as are of the capillary kind, without ftalks, and which
bear their feeds on the back-iide of their leaves.
DORSTENIA, CONTP.AYERVA: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
53d order, Scabrida. The receptacle is common, mo-
nophyllous, and carnous; the feeds tying fingly in the
carnous fuhftance. There are four fpecies, all of them
low herbaceous plants, growing in the warm countries
of America. The root is ufed in medicine. It is full
of knots; an inch or two in length, about half an inch
thick ; externally of a reddifh brown colour, and pale
within ; long, tough, flender fibres fhoot out from all
fides of it, which are generally loaded with fmall round
knots. The root has a peculiar kind of aromatic fmell,
and a fomewhat aftringent, warm, bitteriffi tafie, with
a light and fweetilh kind of acrimony when chewed.
The fibres have little tafte or fmell; the tuberous part
therefore fhould only be chofen.—Contrayerva is one
of the mildefl: of thofe fubftances called alexlpharmics :
it is indifputably a good and ufeful diaphoretic. Its
virtues are extrafted both by water and re&ified fpirit,
and do not arife by evaporation with either. The
plants cannot be propagated in this country without
the greateft difficulty.
DORSUM, the Back, in anatomy, comprehends all
the pofterior part of the trunk of the body from the
Beck to the buttocks. See Anatomy, n° 29, &c.
DORT, or Dordrecht, a city of Holland, which
holds the firlt rank in the aflembly of the Rates. It is
feated in a fmall ifland formed by the rivers Meufe,
Merue, Rhine, and Linghe. The Meufe, on which it
Rands, gives it a good harbour, and feparates it from
the iflands of Iffelmonde and Ablas. It is divided from
Beyerland by a canal. The harbour is very commo¬
dious for the merchandizes which come down the
Rhine and the Meufe, which keep it in a flourifhing
condition. Its Rrength confiRs in being furrounded
with water. Its vyalls are old, and defended by round
towers. It is very rich, and well built with brick, and
had formerly the exclufive right of coining money. It Bort
is at prefent the Raple town for wines, particularly If
Rhenith. It was detached from the main land in 1421, Porythorf.
on the 17th of November, by a flood occafioned by ' *" ' J
the breaking down of the dyke, which overwhelmed 70
villages, and about 100,000 perfons. However, by
time and the induRry of the inhabitants, a great part
of the land is recovered. It has two principal canals,
namely, the New and Old Flaven, by which heavy-
loaded veflels may enter into the city. Over the Old
Haven is a large bridge well built with biiok.
Dort was almoR reduced to afires in the year 1457;
there being then confumed 2000 houfes, with the halls,
hofpital, and church of Notre Dame: but they are
now well provided with fire-engines and watchmen to
prevent the like difaRer. This city is famous for the
meeting of the clergy called the Senate of Dort, in
which the CalviniRs obtained a fentence againR the
Arminians, who were called the Remonjlrants. The
difpute between the contending parties occafioned
Rrange diforders, fleirmilhes, and murders, in moR of
the principal cities. Thofe miniRers who would not
fubferibe to the decree of the fynod were baniflied, of
whom there were above too. E. Long. 4. 36. N. Lat.
51-39-
Synod of Dort, a national fynod, fummoned by au¬
thority of the States General, the provinces of Holland,
Utrecht, and Overyffel excepted, and held at Dort in
1618. The moR eminent divines of the United Pro¬
vinces, and deputies from the churches of England,
Scotland, Switzerland, Bremen, Hellia, and the Pa¬
latinate, alfembled oh this occafion in order to decide
the controverfy between the Gomarilts or CalviniRs
and Arminians; the latter of whom were declared
corrupters of the true religion. But the authority of
this fynod was far from being univerfally acknowledged
either in Holland or in England. The provinces of
Fviefland, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, and Gro¬
ningen, could not be peri’uaded to adopt their deci-
fions; and they were oppofed by the authority of
ArchbiRiop Laud and King James I. in England. The
reformed churches in,France, though at firit difpofed to
give a favourable reception to the decifions of this fa¬
mous fynod, in procefs of time efpoufed doctrines very
different from thofe of the Gomarifts; and the churches
of Brandenburgh and Bremen would not fuffer their
doctors to be tied down to the opinions and tenets of
the Dutch divines. The liberty of private judgment
with refpe& to the doctrines of predeftination and
grace, which the fpirit that prevailed among the di¬
vines of Dort feemed fo much adapted to difeourage
and fupprefs, acquired new vigour in confequence of
the arbitrary proceedings of this affembly.
DORTMUND, a rich, populous, and imperial city
of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia. It is pretty
large, but not well built. Formerly it was one of the
Hanfe towns. Its territory alfo was formerly a county,
and had lords of its own; but fince 1504, it hath been
poffeffed entirely by the city.
DORYPHORI (from tapu fpear, and ?<Pa Jbear), an
appellation given to the life-guard-men of the Roman
emperors. They were held in fuch high eftimation,
as frequently to have the command of armies conferred
on them.—It was ufual alfo for chief commanders to
have their doryphori or life-guard to attend them.
DOSE,
♦DOS [93l DOU
DOSE, Lt pharmacy, &c. the quantity of a medi¬
cine to be taken at one time. .The word is formed
from the Greek which figniiies g:j!, or a thing
given; from (t0, “ 1 give.”
DOSITHEANS, Dosithei, an ancient fed among
the Samaritans in the firft century of the Chn[lian era.
Ment ion is made in Origen, Epiphanhts, Jerom, and
divers other Greek and Latin lathers, of one Dofitheus,
the chief of a fattion among the Samaritans; but the
learned are not at all agreed as to tire time wherein he
lived. St Jerom, in his dialogue againib the Luciie-
lians, places him before our Saviour; wherein he is fol¬
lowed by Drufms, who in his anfwer to Serrarms pla¬
ces him about the time of Sennacherib king of Afly-
ria. But Scaliger will have him pofterior to our Sa¬
viour’s time : And in effect Origen intimates him to
have been contemporary with tire apoftles ; where he
ebferves, that he endeavoured to perfuade the Sama¬
ritans that he was the Meffiah foretold by Moles.
He had many followers ; and his fedb was itill fub-
fifting at Alexandria in the time of the patriarch Eu-
logius, as appears from a decree c<f that patriarch pub-
liihed by Photius. In that decree, Eulogius accufes
Dofitheus of injurioufly treating the ancient patriarchs
and prophets, and attributing to himfelf the fpirit of
prophecy. He makes him contemporary with Simon
Magus ; and accufes him of corrupting the Pentateuch
in divers places, and of compoling feveral books dire£t-
]y contrary to the law of God.
Archbiffiop Ulher takes Dofitheus to be the author
of all the changes made in the Samaritan Pentateuch,
which he argues from the authority of Eulogius. But
all we can jullly gather from the telbimony of Eulogius
is, that Dofitheus corrupted the Samaritans copies fmce
ufed by that fe£t: hut that corruption did not pafs
Into all the copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch now in
trie among us, which vary but little from the Jewifh
Pentateuch: And in this fenfe we are to underhand
that paffage in a Samaritan chronicle, where it is faid
that Doufis, i. e. Dofitheus, altered feveral things in
the law of Mofcs. The author of that chronicle, who
was a Samaritan by religion, adds, that their high-
pricll fent feveral Samaritans to feize Doufis and his
corrupted copy of the Pentateuch.
Epiphanius takes Dolitheus to have been a Jew by
birth, and to have abandoned the Jewilh party for that
of the Samaritans. He imagines him likewife to have
been the author of the fett of the Sadducees :. Which
feems inconfiftent with his being later than our Saviour;
and yet the Jefuit Serrarius agrees to make Dofitheus
the mailer of Sadoc, from whom the'Sadducees are
derived.
Tertullian, making mention of the fame Dofitheus,
obferves, that he was the firff who dared to rejeft the
authority of the prophets by denying their infpiration.
But he charges that as a crime peculiar to this fetbary,
which in reality is common to the whole feft, who
have never allowed any but the five books of Mofes for
divine.
DOSSER, a fort of baflcet to be carried on the
flioulders of men. It is ufed in carrying the overplus
earth from one part of a fortification to another where
it is wanted. There are likewife fmall carts and wheel¬
barrows for the fame ufe.
DOSSIL, in furgery, is lint made into a cylindric
form, or refembling the fhape of dates or olive-flones. D /tterel
Dofiils are fometimes fecureA bv a thread tied round „ ,
their middle. 1 —T,»
DOTTEREL, in ornithology. See Cnaradp.ius.
DOU, or Douw, (Gerard). See Douw.
DOUAY, or Dow ay, a large and ftrohg city of the
French Netherlands, fituated in E. Long. 3. o. N. Lat.
50. 25. It is fituated on the river Scarpe, in a very-
fertile and pleafant country. The town is large and
populous, and exceedingly well fortified. You enter
it by fix gates, and the itreets from each of thefe gates
Lad to the market-place. Here is a venerable old
town-houfe, adorned with the ftatues of the earls of
Flanders, in which the magiftrates affemble, and are
renewed every thirteen months. Here alfo are held
feveral country courts for the dependencies of Douay,
which contain about 39 villages. The parliament of
Douay was at firft only a fupreme council, eftabliflied
at Tournay in 1668, and ercrited into a parliament in
t686. But Tournay being taken by the allies in 1709,
the parliament was removed to Cambray; and upon
the yielding of Tournay to the Auflrians by the treaty
of Utrecht, the parliament was removed to Douay,
where it ftill continues. This city was erected into an
univerfity like that of Louvain by Philip 11, becaufe
of its being in the middle of fo many great cities, and
Louvain at fo great a diftance, that the children on
that fide of the country were generally fent for their
education into France. It contains 14 colleges, all
governed and fettled after the manner of thofe at Lou¬
vain ; and the fchools of philofqphy, canon and civil
law, and phyfic, are difpofed alfo after the fame man¬
ner, only the reftor here is chofen annually. There
is a confiderable feminary here of Englifh Roman Ca¬
tholics, founded by Philip II. of Spain about the year
1569. There is alfo a great number of convents; and
among the reft two Englilh, one of Francifcan friars,
the other of Benedidtine monks. Douay was taken
from the Spaniards by the French king in perfon in
1667, after a ftiort refiftance. That prince made it
very Itrong, and built a fort about a cannon fhot be¬
low it upon the Scarp, with iluices, by which the adja¬
cent country could be drowned. The allies laid fiege to
it in 1710, under the command of the Duke of Marl¬
borough ; and after a vigorous defence, the town and
Fort Scarp furrendered upon honourable terms. It
was retaken by the French in 1712, after the fufpen-
fion of arms between Great Britain and France.
DOUBLE; two of a fort, one.correfponding to the
other.
Double Children* Doulle Cats, Double Pears, &c,
Inftanoes of thefe are frequent in the Phdofoph. Tranf-
ad. and. elfewhere. See Mcmjster.
Sir John Floyer, in the fame Tranfactions, giving an
account of a double turkey, furnifhes fome refiedrions on
the production of double animals in general. Two tur¬
keys, he relates, were taken out of an egg of the com- •
mon iize, when the reft were well hatched, which grew
together by the fldh of the breaft-bone, but in all:
other parts were diftindt. They feemed lefs than the
ordinary lize, as wanting bulk, nutriment, and room.
for their growth; which latter, too, was apparently
the occafion of their cohefion. For, having two di-
ftiadl cavities in their bodies, and two hearts, they
muft have srifen from two cicatriculas ; and, confe-
quently,,
D O U [ 9+ ] D O IT
quently, the egg had two yolks; which is no uncom¬
mon accident. He mentions a dried double chicken in
his poffefiion, which, though it had four legs, four
•wings, &c. had but one cavity in the body, one heart,
and one head; and, confequently, was produced from
one cicatricula.
So, Paraeus mentions a double infant, with only one
heart: in which cafe, the original or ftamen of the
infant was one, and the veffels regular; only, the nerves
and arteries towards the extremities dividing into more
branches than ordinary, produced double parts.
The fame is the cafe in the double flowers of plants,
occaiioned by the ricbnefs of the foil. So it is in the
eggs of quadrupeds, &c.
There are, therefore, two reafonsof duplicity in em¬
bryos : I. The conjoining or connection of two per-
fe£t animals; and, 2. /’mi extraordinary divihon and
ramification of the original veffels, nerves, arteries, &c.
Double Employment, in mafic, a name given by M.
Rameau to the two different manners in which the
chord of the fiib-dominant may be regarded and treat¬
ed, viz. as.the fundamental chord of the fixth fuper-
added, or as the chord of the great frxth, inverted from
a fundamental chord of the feventh. ki reality, the
chords carry exactly the fame notes, are figured in the
fame manner, are employed upon the fame chord of
the tone, in fuch a manner, that frequently we cannot
difcern which 'of the two chords the author employs,
but by the affiftance of the fubfequent chord, which
refolves it, and which is different in thefe different cafes.
To make this diftinftion, we muft confider the dia¬
tonic progrefs of the two notes which form the fifth
and the fixth, and which, conllituting between them
the interval of a fecond, muft one or the other confti-
tute the diffonance of the chord. Now, this progrefs
is determined hy the motion of the bafs. Of thefe two
notes, then, if the fuperior be the diffonance, it will rife
by one gradation into the fubfequent chord, the lower
note will keep its place, and the higher note will be a
fuperadded fixth. If the lower be the diffonance, it
will defcend into the fubfequent chord, the higher will
remajn in its place, and the chord will be that of the
great fixth. See the two cafes of the double employ¬
ment in Rouffeau’s Mufical Diftionary, Plate D, fig. 1 2.
With refpeft to the compoftr, the ufe which he may
make of the double-employment, is to confider the
chord in its different points of view, that from thence
he may know how to make his entrance to it, and his
exit from it; fo that having arrived, for inftahee, at
the chord of the fupei added fixth, he may refolve it as
a chord of the great fixth, and reciprocally.
M. D’Alembert hasfhown, that one of the chief ufes
of the double-employinent is, that we be able to carry
the diatonic fuccellion of the gamut even to an odlave,
without changing the mode, at leaft whilft we rife; for
in defeending we muft change it. Of this gamut and
its fundamental bafs, an example will be found in Rouf-
feau’s Mufical DicHonary, Plate D, fig. 13. It is evi¬
dent, according to the fyftem of M. Rameau, that all
the harmonic fuccefiions which refult from it, are in
the fame tone : .for, in ftriftnefs, no other chords are
there employed but three, that of the tonic, that of the
dominant, and that of the fub-dominant; as this laft,
in the double-employment, conftitutes the feventh from
the fecond note, which is employed upon the fixth.
With refpefl to what M. D’Alembert adds in his
Elements of Mufic, p. 80. and which he repeats in the
Encyclopedic, article Double-emplai, viz. that the chord
of the feventh re fa la ut, though we Ihould even re¬
gard it only as an inverfion of fa la ut re, cannot be
followed by the chord ut mi fol ut; “ I cannot (fays
Rouffeau) be of his opinion in this point.
“ The proof which he gives for it is, that the dif¬
fonance ut of the firft chord cannot be refolved in the
fecond ; and this is true, fince it remains in its place :
but in this chord of the feventh re fa la ut, inverted
from this chord of the fuperadded fixth fa la ut re, it
is not the ut, but the re, which is the diflonance; which,
of confequence, ought to be refolved in afeending up¬
on mi, as it really does in the fubfequent chord ; fo that
this procedure in the bafs itfelf is forced, which, from
re. cannot without an error return to ut, but ought to
afeend to mi, in order to refolve the diffonance.
M. D’Alembert afterwards fhows, that this chord
re fa la ut, when preceded and followed by that of the
tonic, cannot beauthorifed by the double-employment?
and this is likewife very true ; becaufe this chord, tho’
figured with a 7, is not treated as a chord of the fe¬
venth, neither when we make our entrance to it, nor
our exit from it ; or at leaft that it is not neceffary to
treat it as fuch, but fimply as an inverfion of the fuper¬
added fixth, of which the diffonance is the bafs : in
which cafe we ought by no means to forget, that this
diffonance is never prepared. Thus, though in fuch a
tranfition the double-employment is not in queftion,
though the chord of the feventh be no more than ap¬
parent, and impoffible to be refolved by the rules, this
does not hinder the tranfition from being proper and
regular, as I have juft proved to theorifts., I fhall
immediately prove to practical artifts, by an inftancc of
this tranfition ; which certainly will not be condemned
by any one of them, nor juftified by any other funda¬
mental bafs except my own. (5ee the Mufical Dic¬
tionary, Plate D,1ig. 14.)
“ I ackhowledge, that this inverfion of the chord of
the fixth fuperadded, which transfers the diffonance to
the bafs, has been cenfured by M. Rameau. , This au¬
thor, taking for a fundamental chord the chord of the
feventh, which refults from it, rather chofe to make
the fundamental bafs defcend diatonically, and refolve
one feventh by another, than to unfold this feventh by
an inverfion. I had diffipated this error, and many
others, in fome papers which long ago had paffed into
the hands of M. D’Alembert, when he was compofing
his Elements of Mufic ; fo that it is not his fentiment
which I attack, but my own opinion which I defend.'"
For what remains, the double-employment cannot
be ufed with too much referve, and the greateft mafters
are the moft temperate in putting it in pra&ice.
Double Fichy, or Fiche, in heraldry, the denomina¬
tion of a crofs, when the extremity has two points; in
contradiftin&ion to fiche, where the extremity is fharp-
ened away to one point.
Double Oblave, in mufic, an interval compofed of
fifteen notes in diatonic progreffion ; and which, for
that reafon, is called * fifteenth. “ It is (fays Rouf¬
feau ) an interval compofed of two oftaves, called by
the Greeks dfdiapafon.”
It deferves, however, to be remarked, that in intervals
lefs diftant and compounded, as in the third, the fifth,
6 the
Double.
D O U
Bsmblef. the fimple oBave, &c. the loweft and highefl extremes
V„ are included in the number from whence the interval
takes its name. But, in the double oBave, when termed
a fifteenth, the fimple number of which it_is compofed
gives the name. This is by no means analogical, -and
may occafion fome confufion. We fhould rather choofe,
therefore, to run any hazard which might occur from
uniformly including all the terms of which the compo¬
nent intervals confift, and call the double odtave a fix-
teenth, according to the general analogy. See In¬
terval
DOUBLET, among lapidaries, implies a counter¬
feit ftone compofed of two pieces of cryllal, and fome-
times glafs foftened, together with proper colours be¬
tween them ; fo that they make the fame appearance
f 95 1
D O U
., that they may be thoroughly commixed. Warm Donblef,
then the doublets to the fame degree of heat as the Doublets.^
melted mixture ; and paint the upper furface of the "
lower part, and put the upper one inftantly upon it,
preffing them to each other, but taking care that they
may be conjoined in the moft perfectly even manner.
When the cement or paint is quite cold and fet, the re¬
dundant part of it, which has been preffed out of the
joint of the two pieces, Ihould be gently fcraped off
the fide, till there be no appearance of any colour on
the outfide of the doublets : and they fhould then be
fkilfully fet ; obferving to carry the mounting over the
joint, that the upper piece may be well fecured from
feparating from the under one.”
'I he colour of the ruby may be beft. imitated, by
to the eye as if the whole fubftance of the cryllal had mixing a fourth part of carmine with fome of the finelt
been tinged with thefe colours.
The impracticability of imparting tinges to the bo¬
dy of cryftals, while in their proper and natural Hate,
and the foftnefs of glafs, which renders ornaments
made of it greatly inferior in wear to cryftal, gave in¬
ducements to the introdudlion of colouring the furface
of cryftal wrought in a proper form, in fuch a manner,
that the furfaces of two pieces fo coloured being laid
together, the effeft might appear the fame as if the
whole fubftance of the cryftal had been coloured. The
cryftals, and fometimes white tranfparent glafs fo
treated, were called doublets ; and at one time prevailed
greatly in ufe, on account of the advantages, with re-
fpect to wear, fuch doublets had, when made of cryftal,
over glafsr and the brightnefs of the colours which
could with certainty be given to counterfeit (loses this
way, when coloured glafs could not be procured, or at
lealt not without a much greater expence. Doublets
crimfon lake that can be procured.
The fapphire may be counterfeited by very bright
Pruffian blue, mixed with a little of the above men¬
tioned crimfon lake, to give it a call of the purple.
The Pruffian blue ffiould not be very deep-coloured,
or but little of it Ihould be ufed : for otherwife, it will
give a black (hade that will be injurious to the luftre
of the doublets.
The emerald may be well counterfeited by dillilled
verdigreafe, with a little powdered aloes. But the mix¬
ture Ihould not be ftrongly heated, nor kept long over
the fire after the verdigreafe is added : for the colour
is to be foon impaired by it.
The refemblance of the garnet may be made by dra¬
gon’s blood ; which, if it cannot be procured of fuffi-
cient brightnefs, may be helped by a very fmall quan¬
tity of carmine.
The amethyft may be imitated by the mixture of
have not indeed the property which the others have, of fome Pruffian blue with the crimfon lake ; but the pro¬
bearing to be fet tranfparent, as is frequently required
in drops of ear-rings and other ornaments: but when
portions can only be regulated by dire&ion, as differ¬
ent parcels of the lake and Pruffian blue vary extreme-
mounted in rings, or ufed in fuch manner that the tides ly in the degree of ftrength of the colour.
of the pieces, where the joint, is made, cannot be in-
fpedled, they have, when formed of cryftal, the title to
a preference to the coloured glafs ; and the art of ma¬
naging them is therefore, in fome degree, of the fame
importance with that of preparing glafs for the coun¬
terfeiting gems; and is therefore properly an appen¬
dage to it, as being entirely fubfervient to the fame in¬
tention. The manner of making doublets is as fol¬
lows :
Let the cryftal or glafs Be firft cut by the lapidaries
in the manner of a brilliant, except that, in this cafe,
the figure mull be compofed from two feparate Hones,
or parts of ftones, formed in the manner of the upper
and under pads.of a brilliant, if it was divided in an
horizontal dire&ion, a little lower than the middle.
After the two plates of the intended ftone are thus cut,
and fitted fo exactly that no divifion can appear when
they are laid together, the upper part muft be polilhed
ready for fetting; and then the colour muft be put be¬
twixt the two plates by this method. “ Take of Ve-
The yellow topazes may be counterfeited by mixing
the powdered aloe's with a little dragon’s blood, or by
good bpanilh anotto: but the colour muft be very fpa-
ringly ufed, or the tinge will be too ftrong for the ap¬
pearance of that ftone.
The chryfolite, hyacinth, vinegar garnet, eagle ma¬
rine, and other fuch weaker or more diluted colours,
may be formed in the fame manner, by leffening the
proportions of the colours, or by compounding them
together correfpondently to the hue of the ftone to be
imitated; to which end it is proper to have an original
ftone, or an exadl imitation of one, at hand when the
mixture is made, in order to the more certain adapting
the colours to the effedl defined : and when thefe pre¬
cautions are taken, and the operation well conducted,
it is practicable to bring the doublets to fo near a re¬
femblance of the true ftones, that even the beft judges
cannot diftinguifh them, when well fet, without a pe¬
culiar manner of infpeftion.
There is, however, an eafy method of diftinguifhing
nice or Cyprus turpentine two fcruples ; and add to it ^doublets, which is only to behold them betwixt the eye
f   ■ .  n* u  r  v j i* v*. *  /i*; ^i.t ^   r_
one fcruple of the grains of maftich chofen perfectly
pure, free from foulnds, and previoufly powdered.
Welt them together in a fmall filver orbrafsfpoon ladle,
or other veffel, and put to them gradually any of the
coloured fubftances below mentioned, being firft well
and light, in fuch pofition, that the light may pal's
through the upper part and corners of the ftone ; when
it will eafily be perceived that there is no colour in the
body of the ftone.
DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables; the
powdered ; llirring them together as the colour is put men, which are only 15, being placed thus ; Upon the
fioe,
D O U C 96 ] D O U
Doubling fice, cinque, and quatre points, there ftand three men what to do or fay. Tacitus fundfhes us with an in-
it. a-piece ; and upon the trey, duce, and ace, only two. fiance of doubting, almoft to a degree of diflraftion,
He that throws higheft hath the benefit of throwing in thofe words of Tiberius written to the fenate :
firft, and what he throws he lays down, and fo doth Quid fcribam, P. S. ant quomodo fcrihani, aut quid omni-
the other: what the one throws, and hath not, the o- no non fc'ribam hoc tempore, dii me deaque pejus pendant
ther lays down for him, ,but on his own account; and quamperire quotidie fentio, ft [do.
thus they do till all the men are down, and then they DOUCETS, orDouucETs, among fportfmen, de¬
bear. He that is down full, bears firfl.; and will doubt- note the teftes of a deer or flag,
lefs win the game, if the other throws not doublets to DOUCINE, in archite&ure, a moulding concave
overtake him : which he is fare to do, fince he advances above and convex below, ferving commonly as a cy-
or bears as many as the doublets make, viz. eight for matium to a delicate corniche. It is likewife called
two fours. gula. .
DOUBLING, in the military art, is the putting DOVE, in ornithology. See Columba.
two ranks or files of foldiers into one. Thus, when the DonE-Tailing,. in carpentry, is the manner of fa-
word of command is, double your ranks, the fecond, flening boards together by letting one piece into ano-
fourth, and fixth ranks march into the firft, third, and therein the form of the tail of a dove. The dove-tail
fifth, fo that the fix ranks are reduced to three, and is the ftrongeft of the affemblages or jointings ; becaufe
the intervals between the ranks become double what the tenon, or piece of wood which is put into the other,
they were before. goes widening to the extreme, fo that it cannot be
Doubling, among hunters, who fay that a hare drawn out again, by reafon the extreme or tip is big-
doubles, when fhe keeps in plain fields, and winds about ger than the hole.
to deceive the hounds. DOVER, a borough and port town of England,
Doubling, in the manege, a term ufed of a horfe, in the county of Kent, fituated in E. Long. o. 25,
who is faid to double his reins, when he leaps feveral N. Lat 51.10. It fends two members to parliament,
times together, to throw his rider: thus we fay, the ftyled barons of the Cinque-ports, whereofDover is the
rammgue doubles his reins, and makes pontlevis. chief. Dover gave the title of duke in the Qneenf-
Doubling, in navigation, the a£t of failing round, berry family, but extinft: now a revived barony in the
or paffing beyond, a cape or promontory, fo as that . York family.
the cape-or point of laud feparates the fliip from her By the Romans this town was named Dulris, and
former fituation, or lies between her and any diftant by the Saxons Dofra, probably from the Britifh word
pbferver. Dour, which fignifies water. The convenience of its
DouBUNG-Upon, in naval taffies, the afd of inclo- fituation drew the attention of the Roman governors,
fing any part of a holtile fleet between two fires, or of who ruled here while they pofleffed this part of the
cannonading it on both fides. ifland; and there flill remain indubitable teftimonies
It is ufually performed by the van or rear of that of their care and refpeft for this important place. For
fleet which is fuperior in number, taking the advantage the defence of the town, the Romans, or, according
of the wind, or of its fituation and circumftances, and to fome, Arviragus, a Britifh king, their confederate,
tacking or veering round the van or rear of the enemy, by cutting out walls with infinite labour in the folid
who will thereby be expofed to great danger, and can rock, conftrufted a ftony fortrefs ; and, as Jits vene-
fcarcely avoid being thrown into a general confufion. rable remains ftill prove, erefted alfo a light-houfe for
DOUBLON, or Dubloon, a Spanifh and Portu- the benefit of navigation. The Saxons, Danes, and
guefe coin, being the double of. a Pistole. Normans, had a very high opinion of this place ; and
DOUBTING, the aft of with-holding our aflent when the barons invited over the young prince, after-
from any propofition, on fufpicion that we are nottho- wards Louis VIII. of France, his father Philip Au-
roughly apprifed of the merits thereof, or from not guftus conceived a bad opinion of the expedition, be-
being able peremptorily to decide between the reafons caufe the caflle and port of Dover were held for king
for and againfl it. John, though a great part of the kingdom had fubmit-
Doubting is dillinguifhed by the fchoolmen into two ted to Louis. In its moil flourifhing flate, the for-
kinds, dubitatio Jlerilis, and dubitatio efficax. The for- trefs was impregnable, and the town a very opulent
mer is that where no determination enfues: in this emporium, it had 21 wards, each of whichfurnifli-
manner the Sceptics and Academics doubt, who with- ed a fliip for the public fervice, 10 gates, 7 parifll-
hold their aflent from everything. See Sceptics, &c. churches, many religious houfes, hofpitals, and other
The latter is followed by judgment, w'bich dittin- public edifices. The decay of the town was brought
guifhes truth from falfehood : fuck is the doubting of on by that of the harbour. To recover this, Hen-
the Peripatetics and Cartefians. The laft in particular ryVIII. fpent no lefs than 63,000!. in conllruftiug
are perpetually inculcating the deceitfulnefs of our piers, and ^oool. in building a caflle between this
fenfes, and tell us that we are to doubt of every one of and Folkftone, called Sandgate ; where the fhore whs
their reports, till they have been examined and con- flat, and the landing eafy. Notwithftanding all this
firmed by reafon. On the other hand, the Epicuieans expence, however, it was again choaked up in the
teach, that our fenfes always tell truth ; and that, if reign of queen Elizabeth, by whom it was again clear-
you go ever fo little from them, you come within the ed at a vail expence, fo that fnips of fome hundred
province of doubting. See Cartesians, Epicure- tons could enter it. Since that time it has again de-
ans, &c. dined, notwithftanding of many efforts for its relief.
Doubting,, in rhetoric, a figure whereon the ora- and great afliftance from time to time given by par-
tor appears fome time fluftuating, and undetermined liameht'for this purpofe. As the haven, however,
103. 4 is
Deucet*
D O V [ 97 1 D O U
Dover, is ftili capable of receiving veflels of fmall burden;
and as the packets t6 France and Flanders are fta-
tioned here in time of peace, it is ftill a place of
fome confe'quence,. and the people are aftive and in-
duftrious.
Dover Straits, the narrow channel between Dover and
Calais, which feparates our ifland from the oppofite con¬
tinent. Britain is fuppofed by many todiave been once
peninfulated, the prelent fl-raits occupying the file of the
ifthmus which joined it to Gaul. “ No certain caufe
•JrB.Zool. (fays Mr Pennant*) can be given for the mighty con-
Vol. L yullion which tore us from this continent; whether it
nt.™ ‘ was rent by an earthquake, or whether it was worn
through by the. cqntinual dalhing of the waters, no
Pythagords is left to folve the Fortuna locorutn:
Vidi ego, quodfuerat quondam foliJiJJlma tellus
Ep/return. - .
But it is moll probable, that the great philofopher
alluded to the partial deltru&ion of the Atlantica infula,
mentioned by Plato as a diftant tradition in his days.
It was effefted by an earthquake and a deluge, which
might have rent afunder tbe narrow ifthmus in queftion,
and left Britain, large as it feems at prefent, the mere
wreck of its original fize. The Scilly illes, the He¬
brides, Orkneys, Schetlands, and perhaps the Feroe
illands, may poffibly be no more than fragments of the
once far-extended region. I have no quarrel about
the word ijland. The little ifthmus, compared to the
whole, might have been a jun&ion never attended to
in the limited navigations of very early times. The
peninfula had never been wholly explored, and it paffed
with the ancients for a genuine ifland. The corre-
fporidency of ftrata on part of the oppolite ftiores of
Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt but that
they were once united. The chalky cliffs of Blano
nez between Calais and Bologne, and, thofe to the
weftward of Dover, exactly tally : the laft are vaft and
Continued; the former ftiort, and the termination of
the immenfe bed. Between Bologne and Folkftone
(about fix miles from the latter) is another memorial
of the junclion of the two countries; a narrow fub-
marine hill, called the Rip-raps, about a quarter of a
mile broad, and ten miles long, extending eaftwards to¬
wards the Goodwin Sands. Its materials are boulder-
ftones, adventitious to many ftrata. The depth of wa¬
ter on it, in very low fpring-tides, is bnly fourteen
feet. The fiftierroen from Folkftone have often touch¬
ed it with a fifteen feet oar; fo that it is juftly the
dread of navigators. Many a tall ftiip has perilhed on
it, and funk inftantly into twenty-one fathoms water.
In July 1782, the Belleifle of fixty-four guns ftruck,
and lay on it during three hours ; but, by ttarting her
beer and water, got clear off.”
Thefe celebrated ftraits are only twenty-one miles
wide in the narroweft part. From the pier at Dover
to that at Calais is twenty-four. It is conjeftured,
that their breadth leffens, and that they are two miles
.narrower than they were in ancient times. An accu¬
rate obferverof fifty years remarks to me, that the in-
i* creafed height of water, from a decreafe of breadth,
has been apparent even in that fpace. The depth of
the channel at a medium in higheft fpring-tides is
about twenty-five fathoms. The bottom either coarfe
fand or rugged fears, which have for ages unknown re-
fifted the attrition of the currents. From the ftraitg
Vox..VI. Parti.
both eaftward and weftward is a gradual increafe of Dover,
depth through the channel to a hundred fathoms, till Dou°las,
foundings are totally loft or unattended to. The v
fpring-tides in the ftraits rife on an average twenty-
four feet, the neap-tides fifteen. The tide flows from
the German fea, paffes the ftraits, and meets, with a
great rippling, the weftern tide from the ocean be¬
tween Fairleigh near Mailings and Bologne; a proof
that, if the feparation of the land was effedfted by the
feas, it mull have been by the Overpowering weight of
thofe of the north.
Dover, a town of Delaware in North America. It
is the chief town of the county of Kent in the Dela¬
ware ftate, and is the feat of governn>ent. It Hands
on Jones’s creek, a few miles from' the Delaware river,
and conxifts of about 100 houfes, principally of brick.
Four ftreets interfedl each other at right angles, in the
centre of the town, whofe incidencies form a fpacious
parade, on the eaft fide of which is an elegant ftate-
houfe of brick. The town has a lively appearance,
and drives on a confiderable trade with Philadelphia.
Wheat is the principal article of export. The landing
is five or fix miles from the town of Dover.
DOUGLAS (Lord). See (Hijlory of) Scot¬
land.
Douglas (Gavin), bilhop ofDnnkeldin Scotland,
was the third fon of Archibald earl of Angus, and
born in the year 1474. Where he was educated, is not
known ; but it is certain that he ftudied theology : a
ftudy, however, which did not eftrange him from the
mufes ; for he employed himfelf at intervals in tranf-
lating into beautiful verfe the poem of Ovid de Remedio
Amoris. The advantages of foreign travel, and the
converfation of the moll learned men in France and
Germany, to whom his merit procured the readied ac-
.cefs, completed his education. With his fuperior re¬
commendations and worth it was impofiible he could
remain unnoticed. His firft preferment was to be pro-
voft of the collegiate church of St Giles in Edinburgh;
a place at that time of great dignity and revenue. °In
the year 1514, the queen mother, then regent of Scot¬
land, appointed Douglas abbot of Aberbrothock, and
foon after archbilhop of St Andrew’s; but the queen’s
power not being fufficient to eftablilh him in the pof-
feffion of that dignity, he relinquilhed his claim in fa¬
vour of his competitor Foreman, who was fupported
by the pope. In 1515, he was by the queen appoint¬
ed bifliop of Dunkeld; and that appointment was foon
after confirmed by his holinefs Leo X. Neverthelefs
it was fome time before he Could obtain peaceable pof-
feflion of his fee. The duke of Albany, who in this
year was declared regent, oppofed him becaufe he was
fupported by the queen; and, in order to deprive him
of his bijhopric, aecufed him of adling contrary to law
in receiving bulls from Rome. On this accufation
he was committed to the caftle of Edinburgh, where
he continued in confinement above a year; but the re-
gent and the queen being at laft reconciled, he obtain¬
ed hfs liberty, and was confecrated bifliop of Dunkeld. -
In 1517, he attended the duke of Albany to France j
but returned foon after to Scotland. In 1521, the
difputes between the earls of Arran-and Angus bavin<<•
thrpwn the kingdom into violent commotion, our pre^
late retired to. England, where he became intimately
acquainted with Polydore Virgil the hiftorian. Fie
N , died
D O U C 98 ] D O U
Douglas, dltd Jn London of the plague in 1522 ; and was bu-
^ Dt)“w- rIed in the Savoy. He wrote, 1. The Palace of Ho¬
nour: a moft ingenious poem under the fimilitude of a
vifion ; in which he paints the vanity and inconftaHcy
of all worldly glory. It abounds with incidents, and
a very rich vein of poetry. The palace of happinefs,
in the pidfure of Cebes, feems to be the ground-work
of it. 2. Aureus Narrationes: a performance now loll;
in which, it is faid, he explained, in a moft agreeable
manner, the mythology of the poetical fiftions of the
ancients. 3. Comadhe aliquot fact a:: None of which
are now to be found. 4. Thirteen Bukes of Eneades,
of the famofe poet Virgil, tranflatet out of Latin verfes
into Scottifh metre, every buke having its particular
prologe. Imprinted at London 1553, in 4to; and
reprinted at Edinburgh 1710, in folio. The laft is
the moft efteemed of all his works. He undertook it
at the defire of lord Henry Sinclair, a munificent pa¬
tron of arts in thofe times: and he completed it in 18
months ; a circumftance which his admirers are too
fond of repeating to his advantage. David Hume of
Godfcroft, an author of uncommon merit, and an ad¬
mirable judge of poetry, gives the following teftimony
in his favour. “ He wrote (fays he) in his native
tongue divers things; but his chiefeft work is his
tranflation of Virgil, yet extant, in verfe: in which he
tics himfelf fo ftridtly as is pofiible ; and yet it is fo
weir expreffed, that vvhofoever will effay to do the
like, will find it a hard piece of work to go through
with it. In his prologues before every book, where
he hath his liberty, he fhoweth a natural and ample
vein of poetry, fo pure, pleafant, and judicious, that I
believe there is none that hath written before or fince
but cometh fhort of him.” It has been faid, that he
compiled an hiftorical treatife De rebus Scoticis; but no
remain of it hath defcended to the prefent times.
Douglas, the principal town of the Hie of Man,
and which has lately increafed both in trade and build¬
ings. , The harbour, for fhips of a tolerable burden, is
the fafeft in the ifland, and is much mended by a fine
mole that has been built. It is feated on the eaftern
fide. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 54. 7.
DOUW (Gerhard), a celebrated painter, was born
at Leyden in 1613; and received his firft inftru&ions
in drawing and defign from Bartholomew Dolendo an
engraver, and alfo from Peter Kouwhoorn a painter
on glafs; but at the age of fifteen he became a difciple
of Rembrandt. In that famous fchool he continued
for three years; and then found himfelf qualified to
ftudy nature, the moft unerring diredtor.
From Rembrandt he learned the true principles of
colouring, and obtained a complete knowledge of the
chiaro- feuro ; but to that knowledge he added a deli¬
cacy of pencil, and a patience in working up his co¬
lours to the higheft degree of neatnefs, fuperior to any
other matter. He therefore was more pleafed with
thofe pictures of Rembrandt which were painted in
his youth than thofe by which he was diftinguilhed in
his more advanced age; becaufe the firft feemed fi-
nilhed with more care and attention, the latter with
more boldnefs, freedom, and negligence, which was
quite oppofite to the tafte of Douw. But although
his manner appears fo different from that of his ma¬
iler, yet it was to Rembrandt alone that he owed all
that excellence in colouring by which he triumphed Douw.
over all the artifts of his own country. ' 
His pictures ufually are of a fmall fize, wuth figures
fo exquifitely touched, fo tranfparent, fo wonderfully
delicate, as to excite aftonifhment as well as pleafure.
He defigned every objedf after nature, and with an ex-
aftnefs fo lingular, that each object appears, as perfect
as nature itfelf, in refpe£t to colour, frefhnefs, and
force. His general manner of painting portraits Was
by the aid of a concave mirror, and fometimes by
looking at the objedt through a frame with many ex-
adt fquares of fine filk. But the latter cuftom is dif-
ufed, as the eye of a good artift feems a more compe¬
tent rule, though the ufe of the former is ftill prac-
tifed by painters in miniature.
It is. almoft incredible what vaft fums have been gi¬
ven and are given at this day for the jndtures of Douw,
even in his own country; as alfo in Italy and every
polite part of Europe: for he was exceedingly curious
in finilhing them, and patiently afliduous beyond ex¬
ample. Of that patience Sandrart gives a ftrong proof
in a circumftance which he mentions relative to this-
artift. He fays, that having once, in company with
Bamboccio, vifited Gerhard Douw, they could not
forbear to admire the prodigious, neatnefs of a picture
which he was then painting, in which they took par¬
ticular notice of a broom ; and exprefiing their fur-
prife at the exceffive neatnefs of the finilhing that mi¬
nute objedt, Douw told them he Ihould fpend three
days more in working on that broom before he Ihould
account it entirely complete. In a family pidture of
Mrs Spiering, the fame author fays, that the lady had
fat five days for the finilhing one of her hands that
leaned on an arm-chair. For that reafon not many
would fit to him for their portraits ; and he therefore
indulged himfejfimoftly in works of fancy, in which he
could introducembjedts of ftill life, and employ as much
time on them as fuited his own inclination. Hou-
braken teftifies, that his great patron Mr Spiering al¬
lowed him a thoufand guilders a-year, and paid befide
whatever he demanded for his pidlures, and purchafed
fome of them for their weight in filver; but Sandrart,
with more probability, allures us, that the thoufand
guilders a-year were paid to Gerhard, on no other
confideration than that the artift Ihould give his bene-
fa&or the option of every pidture he painted, for
which he was immediately to receive the utmoft of his
demand. This great mailer died in 1674, aged 61.
Douw appears iiiconteftably to be the moft wonderful;
in his finilhing of all the Flemilh mailers. Every
thing that came from his pencil is precious, and hi^
colouring hath exadtly the true and the lovely tints of
nature ; nor do his colours appear tortured, nor is
their vigour leffened by his patient pencil; foqwhat-
ever pains he may have taken, there is no look of la¬
bour or ftiffnefs ; and his pidtures are remarkable, not
only for retaining their original luftre, but for having
the fame beautiful effedt at a proper diftance as they'
have when brought to the neareft view.
At Turin are feveral pidlures by Gerhard Douw,
wonderfully beautiful; efpecially one, of a Dodlor at¬
tending a fick woman, and furveying an urinal. The
execution of that painting is aftonilhingly fine, and
although the lhadows appear a little too dark, the
r whole
DOW [ 99 1 DOW
Donleia whole has an inexpreffible effe£t. In the gallery at
Down Florence there is a night-piece by candle-light, which
own‘ is exquifitely finiihed ; and in the fame apartment, a
mountebank attended by a number of figures, which it
feems impoffible either fufficiently to commend or to
defcribe.
DOULEIA, Aouxtia, among the Athenians, a kind
of punifhment, by which the criminal was reduced
into the condition of a flave. It was never inflidt-
ed upon any but the «?•»/«><, fojourners and freed fer-
^ •vants.
To DOUSE, in fea language, is to lower fuddenly,
or flacken; and it is applied to a [fail in a fquall of
wind, an extended hawfer, &c.
DOWAGER, Dotissa (y. </. a widow endowed,
or that has a jointure), a title, or [addition, applied to
the widows of princes, dukes, earls, and perfons of
high rank only.
Queen Dowager, is the widow of the king, and as
fuch enjoys moft of the privileges belonging to her as
queeh confort: but it is not high treafon to violate her
chaftity or confpire her death, becaufe the fucceffion
is not endangered thereby; but no man can marry her
without fpecial licenfe from the king, on pain of for¬
feiting his lands and goods. See Queen.
DOWER, (Dotarium, Doarium, or Dos,) a por¬
tion of lands or tenements which a widow enjoys for
term of life from her hufband, in cafe file furvives him:
and which, at her death, defcends to their children.
But file muft have been the wife of the party at the
time of his deceafe ; or not divorced a vinculo matrimo¬
nii : nor, if flie has eloped from her hufband, and lives
with an adulterer, fhall ftie be intitled to dower, unlefs
her hufband be voluntarily reconciled to her. The
widows of traitors are alfo barred of their dower by 5
and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 11. but not the fvidows of felons.
An alien cannot be endowed, unlefs file be queeri-con-
fort. And if a woman levies a fine with her hufhand,
or if a common recovery be had with the hufband and
wife of the hufband’s lands, fhe is barred of her dower.
A widow, clear of thefe impediments, is by law inti¬
tled to be endowed of all lands and tenements, of
which her hufband^ was feifed in fee-fimple or fee-tail
at any time during the coverture ; and of which any
iffue fhe might have had might by pollibility have been
heir. See Jointure.
DOWN, a county of Ireland in the province of Ul-
fler, bounded on the ealt and fouth by St George’s
channel; on the welt by the county of Armagh ; and
on the north by the county of Antrim. It lies oppo-
fite to the Ifle of Man, Cumberland, and Weftmore-
land ; and the north part of it fronts the Mull of Gal¬
loway in Scotland, and is about 44. miles from it.
It is about 44 miles in length and 30 in breadth. It
fends 14 members to parliament, two for the county,
and 12 for the following boroughs, Down-Patrick,
Newry, Newtown, Killeleagh, Bangor, and Hillfbo-
rough.
This county is rough and full of hills, and yet the
aiy is temperate and healthy. The foil naturally pro¬
duces wood, unlefs conflantly kept open and ploughed ;
and the low grounds degenerate into bogs and mofs,
where the drains are negletted. But by the induftry
of the inhabitants it produces good crops of corn,
particularly oats ; and, where marl is found, barley.
Thislaft is exported from Killogh toDublin. Theftaple D
commodity of this county is the linen manufatture/ D
Down, or Down-Patrick, a town of Ireland, in the ,
county of Down, is one of the moft. ancient in that
kingdom. It is a market-town and a bifhoprick, faid
to be erefted in the fifth century by St Patrick, but
is now united to the fee of Connor. Within aoci
paces of the town, on the afcent of a hill, are the
ruins of an old cathedral, remarkable for the tomb of
St Patrick the founder, in which they fay the bodies
of St Bridget and St Columb are alfo laid. The town,
which is fea ted on the fouth corner of Lough Coin,
now called the lake of Strangforcl, is adorned with fe-
veral handfome public building^. Among the hills,
and in many iflands, are flights of fwans and other wa-*
ter-fowl; and the Lough abounds with falmon, mul¬
lets, and other fea-fifh. About a mile from this town
is St Patrick’s well, which many people frequent to
drink at fome feafons of the year, and others to per¬
form a penance enjoined them by the popifh pt lefts.
The linen manufacture is carried on here, as it is in
feveral places in this country. W. Long. 5. 50. N.
Lat. 54. 23.
Down, the fine feathers from the breafts of feve¬
ral birds, particularly of the'duck kind.—That of the
eider-duck (fee Anas, n°iy.) is the moft; valuable.
Thefe birds pluck it from their breafts and line their
nefts with it. We are told that the quantity of down
found in one neft more than filled the crown of an hat,
yet weighed no more than three quarters of an ounce.
Br. Zool.—Three pounds of this down may be com-
preffed into a fpace fcarce bigger than one’s fill; yet
is afterwards fo dilatable as to fill a quilt five feet
fquare. Salem. Orn. p. 416.—That found in the
nefts is moft. valued, and termed live down; it is in¬
finitely more elaltic than that plucked from the dead
bird, which is little efteemed in Iceland. The beft
fort is fold at 45 fifh/rr pound when cleanfed, and
at 16 when not cleanfed. There are generally ex¬
ported every year, on the company’s account, fifteen
hundred or two thoufand pounds of both forts, ex-
clufive of what is privately exported by foreigners. In
1750 the Iceland Company fold &s much in quantity
of this article as amounted to three thoufand feven hun
dred and forty-five baneo-dollars, befides what was
fent dire&ly to Gluckfladt.—Von Troil. p. 146.
Down or hair of plants. See Hair.
DOWNETON, or Dunkton, a borough-town of
Wiltfhire, five miles fouth of Salifbury. It fends two
members to parliament.
DOWNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, 10 miles
fouth of Lynn, famous for its good butter; there be¬
ing 1000, and fometimes 2000, firkins bought here
every Monday, and fent up the river Oufe to Cam¬
bridge, from whence it is conveyed to London in the
Cambridge-waggons.
DOWNS, a bank or elevation of fand, which the
fea gathers and forms along its fhores; and which
ferves it as a barrier. The word is formed from the
French dune, of the Celtic dum, a “ mountain.”
Charles de Vifch. in his CompencL Chronology Exord. iff
Progreff. Abbat. Clariff. B. Marine, de Dunis, fays, Val-
lem reperit arenarum collibus (quos incola Duynen vacant)
undique cinBam.
Downs are particularly ufed for a famous road for
N 2 fhipfj
Drabs ’
D R A [ 1C
Dowry /hips, along the eaftern coall of the county of Kent,
|| from Dover to the North Foreland ; where both the
Drabiing. outward and homeward-bound Ihips frequently make
fome ftay; and fquadrons of men of war rendezvous
in time of war.
It affords excellent anchorage ; and is defended by
the caftles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich.
DOWRY, the money or fortune -which the wife
brings her hufband in marriage: it is otherwife called
maritagium, marriage-goods, and differs from dower.
See Dower.
DOXOLOGY, an hymn ufed in praife of the Al¬
mighty, diftinguifhed by the title oigreater and lejfer.
The leffer doxology was*anciently only a Angle fen-
tence, without refponfe, running in thefe words, Glory
be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghojl,
‘world ‘without end. Amen. Part of the latter claufe, As
it was in the beginning, is 'now, and ever Jhall be, was in-
ferted fojne time after the Arft compofition. Some
read this ^ancient hymn. Glory be to the Father, and to
the Son with the Holy Ghojl. Others, Glory be to the Fa¬
ther in or by the Son, and by the Holy Ghojl. This dif¬
ference of exprefiion occafioned no difputes in the
church, till the rife of the Arian herefy; but when
the followers of Arius began to make ufe of the lat¬
ter as a diftinguifhing charadler of their party, it was
entirely laid afide by the Catholics, and the ufe of it
was enough to bring any one under fufpicion of hete¬
rodoxy.
The doxology was ufed at the elofe of every folemn
office. The weftern church repeated it at the end of
every pfalm, and the eaflern church at the end of the
laft pfalm. Many of their prayers were alfo concluded
with it, particularly the folemn thankfgiving or confe-
cration prayer at the eucharift. It was alfo the ordi¬
nary conclufion of their fermons.
The greater doxology, or angelic hymn, was like-
wife of great note in the ancient church. It began
with thefe words, which the angels fung at our Savi¬
our’s birth, Glory be to God on high, life. It was chiefly
ufed in communion fervice, and in mens private devo¬
tions. Both the.doxologies have a place in the church
of England, the former being repeated after eve¬
ry pfalm, and the latter ufed in the communion fer¬
vice.
DRABA, in botany : A genus of the filiculofa or¬
der, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 39th or¬
der, Siliquojie. The filicula is entire, and oval oblong;
with the valves a little plane, parallel to the partition:
there is no ftyle. There are fix fpecies; of which the
only one worthy of notice is the verna, or early whit¬
low'-grafs. It hath naked ftalks, with leaves a little
ferrated. - The bloflbms are white, and at night the
flowers hang down. It grows on old walls and dry7
banks. It is one of the earlieft flowering plants wre
have, and is good to eat as a falad. Goats, flieep*
and horfes eat it; cows are not fond gf it; fwine re-
fufe it.
DRABLER, in the fea-language, a fmall fail in a
fhip, which is the famfe to a bonnet that a bonnet is
to a courfe, and is only ufed when the courfe and bon¬
net are too flioal to clothe the mail. See Bonnet and
Course.
DRABLING, in angling, is a method of catch-
d ] D R A
ing barbfls. Take a ftrong line of fix yards ; which,
before you fallen it to your rod, mull be put through j-jr!jc0
a piece of lead, that if the filh bite; it may flip to and nc°'
fro, and that the water may fomething move it on the
ground; bait with a lobe worm well fecured, and fo
by its motion the barbel will be enticed into the danger
without fufpicion. The bell places are in running wa¬
ter near piles, or under wooden bridges, fuppprted with
oaks floated and flimy.
DRABS, in the falt-works, a kind of wooden
boxes for holding the fait when taken out of the boil¬
ing pan ; the bottoms of which are made {helving or *
inclining forwards, that the briny moiilure of the fait
may drain off.
DRAG, an imaginary being, much dreaded by the
country people in many parts of France. The dracs
are fuppofed to be malicious or at leail trickfome de¬
mons; but, which is very rare, if one of them happens
to take a fancy to a man or woman, they are fure to be
the better for it. They are ftill faid to lay gold cups
and rings on the furface over pits and rivers, as baits to
draw women and children in; though their ufual dwell¬
ing is fome old empty houfe, whence they make excur-
fions in human form, vifible or invifible as beft fuits
their purpofe. The country folks (hudder at’the very
name of tjie drac. Some are pofitive that they have
feen him ; for happy indeed is that village in which
there is not a houfe execrated as the lurking-place of
this tremendous drac.
DRACJENA, in botany; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. The
corolla is fexpartite and eredl; the filaments a little
thicker about the middle ; the berry trilocular and
monofpermous.
DRACHM, a Grecian coin, of the value of feven-
pence three farthings. Drachm is alfo a weight ufed
by our phyficians; containing juft fixty grains three
fcruples, or the eighth prjt of an ounce.
DRACO, a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. When
he exercifed the office of archon, he made a code of
laws for the ufe of his citizens, which, on account of
their feverity, were faid to be written in letters of
blood. By them idlenefs was puniflred with as much
feverity as murder, and death was denounced againft.
the one as well as the other. Such a code of rigorous
laws gave occafion to a certain Athenian to alk of the
legiflator, why he was fo fevere in his puniflunents? and
Draco gave for anfwer, that as the fmalleft tranfgref-
fion had appeared to him deferving death, he could not
find any punifliment more rigorous for more atrocious
crimes. Thefe laws were at firft enforced, but they
were often negle&ed on account of their extreme feve¬
rity ; and Solon totally aboliflied them, except that
one which punifhed a murderer with death. The po¬
pularity of Draco was uncommon, but the gratitude
of his admirers proved fatal to him. When once he
appeared on the theatre, he was received with repeated
applaufe ; and the people, according to the cuftom of
the Athenians, (howed their refpedl to their lawgiver
by throwing garments upon him. This was done in
fuch profulion, that Draco was foon hid under them*
and fmotbered by the too great veneration of his ckh
zens. He lived about 624 years before the Chriltian
era.
Draco, the Dragon, in zoology, a genus belong-
1 ing
D R A L ioi ] D R A
. Draco ing to the order of amphibia reptilia ; the characters
|| of which are thefe : it has four legs, a cylindrical tail,
Dracon- an(j two membranaceous wings, radiated like the fins
. tium‘ of a fifli, by which he is enabled to fly, but not to any
W""""v great diftance at a time. There are two fpecies. I. The
Plate volans, or flying dragon, with the wings entirely di-
CLXIV. ftinfl; from ' e for -legs It is found in Africa and the
Eaft Indies. 2. The pnepos, with the wings fixed to
the fore-legs. It is a native of America. They are both
harmlefs creatures; and feed upon flies, ants, and fmall
infedts.
Draco Volans, in meteorology, a fiery exhalation,
frequent in marfiry and cold countries.
It is moil common in fummer; and though princi¬
pally feen playing near the banks of rivers, or in boggy
places, ydt fometimes mounts up to a confiderable height
in the air, to the no fmall terror of the amazed behold¬
ers ; its appearance being that of an oblong,, fome¬
times roundilh, fiery body, with a long tail. It is entire¬
ly harmlefs, frequently flicking to the hands and cloaths
of people without injuring them in the leaft.
Draco, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern
hemifphere ; whole ftars, according to Ptolemy, are
81 ; according to Tycho, 32; according to Hevelius,
40 ; according to Bayer, 33 ; and according to Mr
FlamfteeS, 80. See Astronomy, n° 406.
DRACOCEPH ALUM, dragon’s head ; a genus
of the gymuofpermia order, belonging to the didyna-
mia clafs of plants. The throat of the corolla is infla¬
ted, the upper lip concave. There are 13 fpccies, moft
of them herbaceous, annual, or perennial plants, from.
18 inches to three feet high, garuiflred moftly with en¬
tire leaves, and whorled fpikes of fmall monopetalous
and ringent flowers of a blue, white, or purple colour.
They are all eaiily propagated by feeds, which may be
fown either in the fpring or autumn; and after the plants
are come up they will require no other culture but to
be kept clear from weeds.
DRACONARIUS, in antiquity, dragon-bearer-
Several nations', as the Pcrfiaris, Parthians, Scythians,
Ike. bore dragons on their flandards; whence the
ftandards themfelves were called dracones, “ dragons.”
The Romans borrowed the fame cuflom from the Par¬
thians ; or, as Cafitubon has it, from the Dacae; or,
as Codin, from the Afllyrians.
The Roman dracohes were figures of dragons paint¬
ed in red on their flags, as appears from Ammianus
Marcellinus: but among the Perfians and Parthians
they were like the Roman eagles, figures in full relievo;
fo that the Romans were frequently deceived,, and took
them for real dragons.
The foldier who bore the dragon or ftandard was
called by the Romans draconar'ius; and by the Greeks
fpiY.'vzfnc and fyccMUTtnpyos; for the emperors carried
the cuftom with them to Conftantinople.
DRACONTIC month, the time of one revolution
of the moon from her afeending node, called caput dra-
conis, to her return thither.
DRACONTIUM, dragons: A genus of the po-
lyandria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
firft order. Palm/e. The fpatha is cymbiform, or fhaped
like a boat; the' fpadix covered all over ; there is no
calyx ; there are five petals ; the berries polyfpermous.
There are five fpecies, all natives of the Indies. The
only one which makes any appearance is the pertufum, Dracunculf
with leaves having holes, and a climbing ftalk. This n H
is a native of moft of the Weft India iflands. It hath raj;oni,
trailing ftalks which put out roots at every joint, that
faften to the trunks of trees, walls, or any fupport which
is near them, and thereby rife to the height of 25 or
30 feet. The leaves are placed alternately upon long
footftalks : they are four or five inches long, two and
an half broad; and have feveral oblong holes in each,
which at firft fight appears as if eaten by infects, but
they are natural to the leaves. The flowers are, pro¬
duced at the top of the ftalk, which always fwells to a
much larger fize in that part than in any other:
thefe are covered with an oblong fpatha or hood of
a whitiflr green colour, which opens longitudinally on
one fide, and fliows the piftil, which is clofely cover¬
ed with flowers of a pale yndlow, inclining to white.
This plant is eafily propagated by cuttings ; which if
pkinted in pots filled with poor fandy earth, * and
plunged into a hot-bed, will foon put out roots; but
the plants are fo tender, that they muft be preferved
in a ftove.
DRACUNCULI, in medicine, fmall long worms
which breed in the mufcular parts of the arms and legs,
called Guinea worms. The common way of getting
out thefe worms is by the point of a needle ; and to
prevent their forming there again, the ufual cuftom is
to wafh the parts with wine or vinegar, with alum,
nitre, or common fait, or with a ftrong lixivium of
oak-aflies, and afterwards anointing them with an oint¬
ment of the common kind ufed for fcorbutic eruptions,
with a fmall mixture of quickfilver.
DRACUNCULUS, in botany. See Arum.
DRAFF, a name given in fome places to the wafh
given to hogs, and the grains given to cows.
DRAG, in building. A door is faid to drag when
in opening or (hutting it hangs or grates upon the
floor.
Drag, in fea-language, is a machine confiding of
a (harp, fquare, iron ring, encircled with a net, and
commonly ufed to take the wheel off from the platform
or bottom of the decks.
DRAGOMAN, or Drogman, a term of general
ufe through the Eaft for an interpreter, whole office is
to facilitate commerce between the orientals and occi¬
dentals. Thefe are kept by the ambaffadors of Chri-
ftian nations refiding at the Porte for this purpofe.
The word is fdrmed from the Arabic targeman ov
targiman, of the verb-1dragsm, “ he has interpreted.”
From dragoman the Italians formed dragomano, and,
with a nearer relation- to its Arabic etymology, turn-
. manno; whence the French and our trucheman, as well
as dragoman and drogman.
DRAGON, in aftronomy. See Draco.
Du ago Vs Head and Tail (caput id cauda draconis),
are the nodes of the planets ; or the two points where¬
in the ecliptic is interfered by the orbits of the planets,
and particularly that of. the moon ; making with it
angles of five degrees, and eighteen minutes. One of
thefe points looks northward; the. moon beginning
then to have northward latitude, and the other fouth-
ward, where fire commences foufli. Thus her deviation
from the ecliptic feems (according, to the fancy of
forne) to make a figure like to that of a dragon, who fa
belly is where flic has the greateft latitude ; the inter-
£> R A f 10
^Dragon, feffion reprefenting the head and tail, from which re-
> femblance the denomination arifes.
But note, that thefe points abide not always in one
place, but have a motion of their own in the zodiac,
and retrograde-wife 3 minutes 11 feconds per day ;
completing their circle in 18 years 225 days: fo that
the moon can -be but twice in the ecliptic during her
monthly period, but at all other times fhe will have a
latitude or declination from the ecliptic.
It is about thefe points of interfcftion that all eclip-
fes happen. They are ufually denoted by thefe cha-
radlers ,0, dragon’s head, and dragon’s tail.
Dragon, in zoology. See Draco.
Dragon's Blood, a gummi-refinous fubftance brought
from the Eaft Indies, either in oval drops wrapped up
in flag leaves, or in large mafles compofed of fmaller
tears. It is faid to be obtained from the palmijuncus
draco, the calamus rotang, the dracena draco, the
pterocarpus draco, and feveral other vegetables.
The writers on the materia medica in general give
the preference to the former, though the others are
not unfrequently of equal goodnefs. The line dragon’s
blood of either fort breaks fmooth, free from any vilible
’ impurities, of a dark red colour, which changes upon.be-
ing powdered into an elegant bright crimfon. Several
artificial compofitions, coloured with the true dragon’s
blood, or Brazil wood, are fometimes fold in the room
of this commodity. Some of thefe diflblve like gums
in water ; others crackle in the fire without proving
inflammable ; whilft the genuine fanguis draconis rea¬
dily melts and catches flame, and is not a&ed on by
watery liquors. It totally diffolves in pure fpirit, and
tinges a large quantity of the menitruum of a deep red
colour. It is likewife foluble in exprefled oils, and
gives them a red hue, lefs beautiful than that commu¬
nicated by anchufa. This drug in fubftance has no
fenfible fmell or tafte ; when diffolved, it difeovers
fome degree of warmth and pungency. It is ufually,
but without foundation, looked upon as a gentle
aftringent; and fometimes diredled as fuch in extem¬
poraneous prefeription againft feminal gleets, the fluor
albus, and other fluxes. In thefe cafes, it is fuppofed
to produce the general effefts of refinous bodies, lightly
incraffating the fluids, and fomewhatftrengthening the
folids. But in the prefent praftice it is very little
ufed either externally or internally.
A folution of dragon’s blood in fpirit of wine is ufed
for ftaining marble, to which it gives a red tinge, which
penetrates more or lefs deeply according to the heat of
the marble during the time of application. But as it
fpreads at the fame time that it finks deep, for fine
defigns the marble flioul3 be cold. Mr duTay fays,"
that by adding pitch to this folution the colour may be
rendered deeper.
DRAGON-Fi/h, or Dragonet, in ichthyology. See
■Callionymus.
DRAGON-Fly. See Libellula.
Dragon-Shell, in natural hiftory, a name given by
people curious in fhellsto afpeciesof concamerated pa¬
tella or limpet. This has a top very much bent; and
is of an afh-colour on the outfide, but of an elegant
and bright flefli-colour within. This has been found
"flicking on the back of a tortoife, as the common
limpets do on the fides of rocks ; and fame have been
2 1 D II A
found affixed to large fhells of the pinna marina brought Dragons
from the Eaft Indies at different times. || >J
Dragons, in botany. See Dracontium. Dragoon^l
DRAGONET, or DRAGON-Fi/h, in ichthyology. .j
See Callionymus. -■ -y -vj
DRAGONNE E, in heraldry. A lion dragonnee is
where the upper half refembles a lion, the other half
going off like the hinder part of a dragon. The fame
may be faid of any other beaft as well as a lion.
DRAGOON, in military affairs, a mufqueteer
mounted on horfeback, who fometimes fights or marches
on foot, as occafion requires.
Menage derives the word dragoon from the Latin
draconarius, which in Vegetius is'ufed to fignify foldier.
But it is more probably derived from the German tragen
or dragen, which fignifies to carry; as being infantry
carried on horfeback.
Dragoons are divided into brigades as the cavalry ;
and each regiment into troops ; each troop having a
captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mailer, two fer-
jeants, three corporals, and two drums. Some regi¬
ments have hautboys. They are very ufeful on any expe¬
dition that requires difpatch ; for they can keep pace
with the cavalry, and do the duty of infantry : they
encamp generally on the wings of the army, or at the
paffes leading to the camp ; and fometimes they are
brought to cover the general’s quarters: they march in
the front and rear of the army.
The firft regiment of dragoons raifed in England
was in 1681, and called the regiment of dragoons of
North Britain. In battle or attacks they generally
fight fword in hand after the firil fire. Their arms
are, a fword, firelock, and bayonet. In the French
fervice, when the dragoons march on foot, their offi¬
cers bear the pike and the ferjeants the halbert, neither
of which are ufed in the Engliffi fervice.
DRAGOONING, one of the methods ufed by
Papifts for converting refra&ory heretics, and bring¬
ing them within the pale of the true church.
The following method of dragooning the French
Protefiants, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
under Louis XIV. is taken from a French piece,
tranllated in 1686.
The troopers, foldiers, and dragoons went into
the Proteftants houfes, where they marred and defaced
their houfehold ftuff, broke their looking-glaffes, and
other utenfils and ornaments, let their wine run about
their cellars, and threw about their corn and fpoiled
it. And as to thofe things which they could not de-
ftroy in this manner, fuch as furniture of beds, linen,
wearing apparel, plate, See. they carried them to the
market-place, and fold them to the Jefuits and other
Roman catholics. By thefe means the Proteftants
in Montaubon alone were, in four or five days, ftrip-
ped of above a million of money. But this was not
the worft.
They turned the dining-rooms of gentlemen into
ftables for their horfes : and treated the owners of the
houfes where they quartered with the higheft indigni¬
ty and cruelty, lafliing them about from one to ano¬
ther, day and night, without intermiffion, not fuffering
them to eat or drink ; and when they began to fink
under the fatigue and pains they had undergone, they
laid them on a bed, and when they thought them
fume-
D R A L 103 I BRA
Dragoon- fomewhat recovered, made them rife, and repeated the
fame tortures. When they faw the blood and fweat
'v ~"1IT’ nm down their faces and other parts of their bodies,
they fluiced them with water, and putting over their
heads kettle-drums, turned upfide down, they made
a continual din upon them till thefe unhappy crea¬
tures loft their fenfes. When one party of thefe tor¬
mentors were weary, they were relieved by another,
who praftifed the fame cruelties with frefh vigour.
At NegreplifTe, a town near Montaabon, they
hung up Ifaac Favin, a Proteftant citizen of that
place, by his arm-pits, and tormented him a whole
night, by pinching and tearing off his flelh with pin¬
chers. They made a great fire round a boy of about r 2.
years old, who, with hands and eyes lifted up to heaven,
cried out, “ My God, help me!” And when they
found the youth refolved to die rather than renounce
his.religion, they fnatched him from the fire juft as he
was on the point of being burnt.
jn fe^pral places the foldier* applied red-hot irons
to the hinds and feet of men and breafts of women.
At Nantes they hung up feveral women and maids by
their feet, and others by their arm-pits, and thus ex-
pofed them to public view ftark naked. They bound*
to polls mothers that gave fuck, and let their fuck¬
ing infants lie languilhing in their fight for feveral
days and nights, crying, mourning, and gafping for
life. Some they bound before a great fire, and being
half roafted, let them go; a pumlhment worfe than
death. Amidft a thoufand hideous cries and a thou-
fand blafphemies, they hung up inpen and women by
the hair, and fome by their feet, on hooks in chim-
L nies, and fmoaked them with wifps of wet hay till
they were fuffocated. They tied fome under the
arms with ropes, and plunged them again and again
into wells; they bound others like criminals, put
them to the torture, and with a funnel filled them with
wine till the fumes of it took away their reafon, when
they made them fay, they confented to be catho¬
lics. They ftripped them naked, and after a thou¬
fand indignities, ftuck them with pins and needles
from head to foot. They cut and flafhed them with
knives; and fometimes with red-hot pinchers took
hold of them by the nofe and other parts of the body,
and dragged them about the rooms till they made
them promife to be catholics, or till the cries of thefe
miferable wretches, calling upon God for help, forced
them to let them go. They beat them with ftaves,
Snd thus bruifed, and with broken bones, dragged
them to church, where their forced prefence was taken
for an abjuration. In fome places they tied fathers
and hufbands to their bed-pofts, and before their eyes
ravifhed their wives and daughters with impunity.
They blew up men and women with bellows, till they
burft them. If any to efcape thefe barbarities endea¬
voured to fave themfelves by flight,, they purfuedthem
into the fields and woods, where they ftiot at them
like wild beafts, and prohibited them from departing
the kingdom (a cruelty never pradlifed by Nero or
Dioclefian) upon pain of confifcation of effedls, the
galleys,, the lafli, and perpetual imprifonment; info-
much that the prifons of the fea-port towns were
crammed with men, women, and children, who endea¬
voured to fave themfelves by flight from their dread¬
ful perfecution. With thefe fcenes of defolation and
horror, the popiih clergy feafted their eyes, and made Dragoon--
them only a matter of laughter and fport. , ’“L’-i
Though my heart akes (fays the writer of the piece v
from which we are tranfcribing) whilft I am relating
thefe barbarities, yet for a perpetual memorial of the
infernal cruelty pradlifed by thefe monfters, I beg the
reader’s patience to lay before him two other inftances,
which, if he hath a heart like mine, he will not be able
to read without watering thefe flieets with his tears.
“ The firft is of a young woman, who being
brought before the council, upon refufing to abjure
her religion, was ordered to prifon. There they
ftiaved her head, finged off the hair from other parts
of her body ; and having ftripped her ftark naked, led
her through the ftreets of the city, where many a blow
was given her, and Hones flung at her: then they fet
her up to the neck in a tub full of water, where, after
file had been for a while, they took her out, and put
on her a fhift dipt in wine, which, as it dried and
ftuck to her fore and bruifed body, they fnatched off
again, and then had another ready dipped in wine to
clap on her. This they repeated fix times, thereby
making her body exceeding raw and fore. When all
thefe cruelties could not ftiake her conftancy, they
faftened her by her feet in a kind of gibbet, and let her
hang in that pefture, with her head downward, till Ihe
expired.
“ The other is of a man in whofe houfe were quar*
tered fome of thefe miffionary dragoons. One day,
having drank plentifully of his wine, and broken their
glaffes at every health, they filled the floor with the
fragments, and by often walking over them reduced
them to very fmall pieces. This done, in the infolence
of their mirth, they refolved on a dknee, and told
their Proteftant hoft that he mull be one of their com¬
pany ; but as he would not be of their religion, he
muft dance quite barefoot; and thus barefoot they
drove him about the room, treading on the {harp points
of the broken glaffes. When he was no longer able
to ftand, they laid him on a bed, and, in a {hort time,
ftripped him ftark naked, and rolled him from one
end of the room to the other, till every part of his
body was full of the fragments of glafs. After this
they dragged him to his bed, and having fent for a fur-
geon, obliged him tocut out the pieces of glafs with his
iilftruments, thereby putting him to the moft exquifite
and horrible pains that can poffibly be conceived.
“ Thefe, fellow Proteftants, were the methods
ufed by the moft Chriftian king’s apoftolic dragoons
to convert his heretical fubjefts to the Roman catho¬
lic faith ! Thefe, and many other of the like nature,,
were the torments to which Louis XIV. delivered
them over to bring them to his own church ! and as
popery is unchangeably the fame, thefe are the tor¬
tures prepared for you, if ever that religion fliould be
permitted to become fettled amongft you ; the confi-
deration of which made Luther fay of it, what every
man that knows any thing of Chriftianity muft agree
with him in, ‘ If you had no other reafon to go out
of the Roman church, this alone would fuffice, that
you fee and hear, how, contrary to the law of God,,
they filed innocent blood. This Angle circumftance.
{hall, God willing, ever feparate me from the papacy-.
And if I was now fubjeft to it, and could blame no¬
thing in any of their do&rines j yet for this crime
D R A [ 104. ] D R A
'©j ags, of cruelty, I would fly from her communion, as from
, Drains a ^en 0f Sieves and murderers.”
v_ DRx^GS, in the fea-language, are whatever hangs
over the fliip in the fea, as fliirts, coats, or the like ;
and boats, when towed, or whatever elfe that after
this manner may hinder the (hip’s way when (he fails,
are called drags.
DRAINS, a name given, in the fen countries, to
certain large cuts or ditches of 20, 30, nay fometimes
40 feet wide, carried through the marfliy ground to
ibme river or other place capable of difcharging the wa¬
ter they carry out of the fen-lands.
An effectual method of drawing off the water from
fuch grounds as are hurt by fprings oozing out upon
them (ufually diftinguiihed by the name of,we/ or
/pouting ground, or bogs), has been a defideratum in
agriculture. Mr Anderfon is almoft the only perfon
who hath treated this matter fcientifically, and his ob-
fervations feem to be very rational and well founded.
lEJfays on “ Springs (fays he) are formed in the bowels of the
earth, by water percolating through the upper ftrata
£>. lip.'&c. w^ere t^at ’-3 a porous texture, which continues to
defcend downwards till it meets with a ftratum of clay
that intercepts it in its courfe ; where, being \:olle£ted
in confiderable quantities, it is forced to feek a paffage
through the, porous ftrata of fand, gravel, or rock,
that may be above the clay, following the courfe of
tbefe ftrata till they approach the furface of the earth,
jor are interrupted by any obftacle. which occafions the
water to rife upwards, forming fprings, bogs, and the
other phenomena of this nature ; which being varioufly
diverfified in different circumftances, produce that va¬
riety of appearances in this refpefl; that we often meet
with.
“ This being the cafe, we may naturally conclude,
that an abundant fpring need never be expended in any
country that is covered to a great depth with fand
without any ftratum of clay to force it upwards, as is
the cafe in the fandy deferts of Arabia, and the im-
meafurable plains of Libya : neither are we to expedl
abundant fprings in any foil that conftfts of an uniform
bed of clay from the furface to a great depth ; for it
muft always be in fome porous ftratum that the water
flows in abundance; and it can be made to flow hori¬
zontally in that, only when it is fupported by a ftra¬
tum of clay, or other fubftance that is equally imper¬
meable by water. Hence the rationale of that rule fo
univerfally eftabliflied in digging for wells, that if you
begin with fand or gravel, &c. you need feldom hope
to find water till you come to clay ; and if you begin
with clay, you can hope for none in abundance till
you reach to fand, gravel, or rock.
“ It is neceffary that the farmer ftrould attend to
this procefs of nature with care, as his luccefs in drain¬
ing bogs, and every fpecies of dampr and fpouting -
ground, will in a great meafure depend upon his tho¬
rough knowledge of this,—his acutenefs in perceiving
in every cafe the variations that may be occafioned by
particular circumftances, and his (kill in varying the
plan-of his operations according to thefe. As the va¬
riety of cafes that may occur in this refpedl is u )
great, it would be a very tedious tails to enumerate ti e
whole, ahd defcribe the particular method of treating
* each; I lhall therefore content myfelf with enumera¬
ting a few particular cafes, to Ihow in what manner
103.
the principles above eftabliflied may be applied to Crams,
pra&ice.
“ Let fig. 1. reprefent a perpendicular feftion of Plate
a part of the earth, in v/hich AB is the furface of the tLXV.
ground, beneath which are feveral ftrata of porous fub-
ftances which allow the water to fink through them till
it reaches the line CD, that is fuppofed to reprefent
the upper furface of a folid bed of clay ; above which
lies a ftratum of rock, fand, or gravel. In this cafe,
it is plain, that when the water reaches the bed of
clay, and can fink no farther, it muft be there accu¬
mulated into a body ; and feeking for itfelf a paffage,
it flows along the furface of the clay, among the fand
or gravel, from D towards C ; till at laft it iffues forth,
at the opening A, a fpring of pure water.
“ If the quantity of water that is accumulated be¬
tween D and C is not very confiderable, and the ftra¬
tum of clay approaches near the furface ; in that cafe,
the whole of it will iffue by the opening at A, and the
ground will remain dry both above and below it. But,
if the quantity of water is fo great as to raiff it to a
cohfiderable height in the bed of fand or gravel, and
if that ftratum of fand is not difcontinued before it
reaches the furface of the ground, the water, in this
cafe, would not only iffue at A, but would likewife
ooze out in fmall ftreams thro’ every part of the ground
between A and a ; forming a barren patch of wet fan-
dy or gravelly ground upon the fide of a declivity,
which every attentive obferver muft. have frequently
met with.
“To drain a piece of ground in this fituation is per¬
haps the molt unprofitable tails that a farmer can en¬
gage in ; not only becaufe it is difficult to execute,
but alfo becaufe the foil that is gained is but of very
little value. However, it is lucky that patches of this
kind are feldom of great breadth, although they fome¬
times run along the fide of a declivity in a horizontal
dire&ion for a great length. The only effe&ual me¬
thod of draining this kind of ground, is to open a
ditch as higffi up as the higheft of the fprings at a,
which fnould be of fuch a depth as not only to pene¬
trate through the whole bed of fand or gravel, but al¬
fo to link fo far into the bed of clay below, as to make
a canal therein fufficiently large to contain and carry off
the whole of the water. Such a ditch is reprefented
by the dotted lines aez, but as the expence of ma¬
king a ditch of fuch a depth, as this would fuppofe, and
of keeping it afterwards in repair, is very great, it is
but in very few cafes that this mode of draining would
be advifeable ; and never, unlefs where the declivity
happens to be fo fmall, as that a great furface is loft
for little depth, as would have been the cafe here if
the furface had extended in the diredlion of the dotted
line a d
“ But fuppofing that the ftratum of clay, after ap¬
proaching toward the furface at A, continued to keep
at a little depth below ground; and that the foil which
lay above it was of a fandyr or fpungy nature, fo-as to
allovy the water to penetrate it eafily ; even fuppofing
the quantity of water that flowed from D to C was but
very incqnfiderable, in (lead of rili ng put at the fpring
A, it would flow forward along the furface of the clay
among the porous earth that forms the foil, fo as to keep
it conftantly drenched with water, and of confequence
render it of very little value.
“ Wetnefj
Oran/ /^6r u/,>
jOO/jnnr/aonr/r/; >■ ^
D R A [ i
Drams. “ Wetnefs arifing from this caufe, is ufually of much
greater extent than the former : and, as it admits of
an eafy cure, it ought not to be one moment delayed;
as a ditch of a very moderate depth opened at A, and
carried through a part of the ftratum of clay (as re-
prefented by the dotted lines A if), would intercept
and carry off the whole df the water, and render the
field as dry as could be defired. It is, therefore, of
very great confequence to the farmer, accurately to di-
ftinguilh between thefe two cafes, fo nearly allied to
each other in appearance ; and, as this can be eafieft
done by boring, every one who has much ground of
this kind ought to provide himfelf with a fet of bo¬
ring-irons, which he will likewife find ufe for on other
occafions.
“ I might here enumerate a great variety of cafes
which might be reduced to the fame head with the
foregoing: but as any attentive reader may, after
what has been faid, be able eafiiy to diftinguilh thefe,
I fir all only in general obferve, that every foil of a fqft
and porous texture, that lies upon a bed of hard clay,
whatever its fituation in other refpedts may be, will in
fome meafure be fubje&ed to this difeafe. And if it
is upon a declivity of any confiderable length, the un-
dermoft parts of the field will be much damaged by it,
unlefs ditches are thrown up acrofs the declivity at pro¬
per diftances from one another, to intercept the water
in its defcent.
“ It may not likewife be improper here to obferve,
that in cafes of this nature, unlefs where the foil is of
a very great depth, the malady will always be increa-
fed, by raifing the ridges to a confiderable height; as
will appear evident by examining fig. 2. in which the
line A B reprefents the furface of a field of this na¬
ture, and C D the furface of the bed of clay. Now,
if this field were raifed into high ridges, as at F F F,
fo that the furrows E E E defcended below the fur¬
face of the clay, it is plain, that all the w’ater that
Ihould fink through the middle of the ridge, would run
along the furface of the clay till it came to the fides
of the ridge L L L L L L, which would thus be kept
continually foaked with water. Whereas, if the ground
had been kept level, as in the part of the ^field from G
to H, with open furrows H, at moderate dillances
from each other the water would immediately fink to
the clay, and be carried off by the furrows, fo as to
damage the foil far lefs than when the ridges are high.
If the foil is fo thin as that the plough can always
touch the clay, the ridges ought to be made narrow
and quite flat, as from G to H : but if there is a
little greater depth of foil, then it ought to be raifed
into ridges of a moderate height, as from H to B, fo
as to allow the bottom of the furrow to reach the clay :
but neither is this neceffary where the foil is of any con-
£deruble depth.
“ I have feen fome induflrious farmers, who having
ground in this fituation, have been at the very great
expence of making a covered drain in each furrow.
But, had they rightly underllood the nature of the
difeafe, they never would have thought of applying
fuch a remedy ; as muft appear evident at firft fight to
thofe who examine the figure. The fuccefs was what
might be expedled from fuch a foolifh undertaking.
“ Thefe obfervations, it is hoped, will be fufficient
as to the manner of treating wet, fandy, or porous foils.
Vol.VI. Parti.
05 ] D R A
I now proceed to take notice of fuch as are'of a ftifl
clayey nature, which are often very different in ap¬
pearance, and require a different treatment from thefe.
“ Suppofe that (in fig. 3.) the flratum of fand or
gravel D C fhould be difeontinued, as at E, and that
the fo atum above it fhould be of a coherent clayey na¬
ture. In this cafe, the water that flowed towards E,
being there pent in on every fide, and being accumu¬
lated there iu great quantities, it mull at length force
a paffage for itfelf in fome way ; and prefling ftrongly
upon the upper furface, if any one part is weaker than
the reft, it there would burft forth and form a fpriAg,
(as fuppofe at A). But if the texture of every part of
this ftratum were equally ftrong, the water would
fqueeze thro’ mauyfmall crannies, and-would ooze out
in numberlefs places, as between A and F, fo as to
occafion that kind of wetnefs that is known by the
name of a /pouting clayey foil.
“ The cure, in this cafe, is much more eafiiy ef-
fefted than in any of the former; for if a ditch of a
confiderable fize is opened, as at A, towards the low-
ermoft fide of the fpouting ground, fo deep as to pe¬
netrate through the upper ftratum of clay, and reach
to the gravel, the water will rife up through it at firft
with very great violence, which will gradually decreafe
as the preffure from the water behind is diminifhed ; and
when the whole of the water accumulated in this fub-
terraneous refervoir is run off, there being no longer
any preffure upon the clay above it, the whole foon
becomes as dry as could be defired, and continues fo
ever afterwards, if the ditch is always kept open. This
1 fpeak from experience, I having rendered fome fields
of this kind that were very wet, quite dry by this me¬
thod of treating them.
“ It will hardly be neceflary for me here to put the
farmer upon his guard, to be particularly careful in his
obfervations, that he may diftinguifli between the wet¬
nefs that is produced from this caufe', and that which
proceeds from the caufe before mentioned ; becaufe the
treatment that would cure the one would be of no ufe
at all to the other. The attentive obferver likewife will
readily perceive, that if any field that is wet from this
caufe admits of being ploughed, it will be in equal dan¬
ger of being hurt by being raifed into high ridges, with
the other kind of damp ground before mentioned. For
as the depth of earth above the refervoir would be
fmaller in the deep furrows than any where elfe, there
would, of confequence, be lefs refiftance to the water
in that place, fo that it would arife there iu greater a-
bundance. And if, in this cafe, a farmer Ihould dig
a drain in each furrow, as a confiderable quantity of
water would rife into them, in fome cafes, the ground
might be improved, or even quite drained thereby,
efpecially if they fliould have accidentally reached the
gravel in auy one place ; although at an expence much
greater than was neceflary. 1 take notice of this cir-
cumftance in fome meafure to prevent the prejudice that
fome inattentive obfervers might entertain againft what
was faid before of this method of draining, from their
having accidentally feen fome fields that may have been
bettered by it.
“ Bogs are only a variety of this laft-mentioned
kind of wet ground ; and, therefore, ought in general
to be drained after the fame manner with them. Ciay
is a fubftance that ftrongly refifts the entrance of water
O into
Drains.
D R A [
into it : but when it is long drenched with it, it is, in
■' procefs of time, in fome meafure difTolved thereby ;
lofes its original firmnefs of texture and contiftence ; and
becomes a fort of femi-fluid mafs, which is called a
hog ; and as thefe are fometimes covered with a ftrong
fcurf of a particular kind of grafs, with very matted
roots, which is ftrong enough to bear a fmall weight
without breaking, although it yields very much, it is
in thefe circumltances called a /waggle. But, what¬
ever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably occa-
iioned by water being forced up through a bed of clay
106 ] D R A
of two or three feet deep, as at D, will be equally ef¬
fectual with one that ihould go to the gravel. All u
that is neceffary in this cafe, is to fink pits (P) in the
courfe of the drain,- at a moderate diftance from one
another, which go fo deep as to reach the gravel; for
as the water there meets with no refiftance, it readily
flows out at thefe openings, and is carried off by the
drain without being forced up through the earth ; fa
that the ground is left entirely dry ever after.
“ I have likewife drained feveral fields in this way j
and as I have generally found the appearances pretty
as juft now defcribed, and difiblving or foftening, if much alike, I ihall, for the information of the inexpe
you will, a part thereof. I fay only a part ; becaufe
whatever may be the depth of the bog or fwaggle, it
 1    *.:*.*_ _c j        1
rienced reader, give a fhort account of them.
“ If you attempt to make your pit in one of thefe
generally has a partition of folid clay between it and foft quaggy places where the water is found in great
the refervoir of water under it, from whence it original¬
ly proceeds : for if this were not the cafe, and the
quantity of water were confiderable, it would meet
with no fufficient refiftance from the bog, and would
iffue through it with violence, and carry the whole femi-
fluid mafs along with it. But this would more ine¬
vitably be the cafe, if there was a cruft at the bottom
of the bog, and if that cruft ftiould ever be broken,
cfpecially if the quantity of water under it were very
eoniiderable : and as it is probable, that, in many cafes
of this fort, the water flowly diffolves more and more
of this under-cruft, I make no doubt, but that, in the
abundance, you will meet with very great difficulty i
forming it ; for as the fubftance of which it is compo-
fed is foft, it will always flow into the hole as faft as
you dig it; on which account I would advife, not to
attempt to make the pit in the fwaggle, but as near it
in the folid earth as you conveniently can. However,
if it is pretty firm, and of no great extent, it is fome¬
times practicable to make a pit in the foft bog at the
drieft time of the year. This I have fometimes prac
tifed, which gave me an opportunity of obferving the
nature of thefe bogs more perfectly than I otherwife
would have had. In the trials of this kind that I have
revolution of many ages, a great many eruptions of made, this foft quaggy ground has feldom been above
this kind may have happened, although they may not
have been deemed of importance enough to have the
hiftory of them tranfmitted to pofterity. Of this kind,
although formed of a different fubftance, I confider the
flow of the Solway-mofs in Northumberland to have
been ; which, upon the 16th of November 1771, burft
its former boundaries, and poured forth a prodigious
ftream of femi-fluid matter, which in a ftiort time co¬
vered feveral hundred acres of very fine arable ground.
Nor will any one, who is acquainted with the nature
of mofs,.—who knows its refemblance to clay in its
quality of abforbing and retaining water, and its very
safy diffufibility therein, be furprifed at this ; as, from
all thefe properties, it is much better adapted for form¬
ing an extenfive bog, and therefore in greater dan¬
ger of producing an extenfive devaftation by an erup¬
tion of the water into it, than thofe that
any kind of clay whatever.
If the bog,, or fwampy ground, is upon a declivity)
three or four feet deep, below which I have always
found a ftratum of hard tough clay ufually mixed with
ftones ; and fo firm, that nothing but a mattock or
pick-axe could penetrate it : and as this is compara¬
tively fo much drier than the ground above it, an in-
experienced operator is very apt to imagine that this
'is the bottom that he is in fearch of. In digging thro*
this ftratum, you will frequently meet with fmall
fprings oozing out in all directions; fome of them that
might fill the tube of a fmall quill, and others fo fmall
as to be fcarce perceptible: but without regarding,
thefe, you muft continue to dig on without intermif-
fion till you come to the main body of the refervoir, if
I may fo call it, that is contained in the rock, gravel,
or fand ; which you will generally find from two to
four feet below the bottom of the fwaggle, and which
formed of you will be in no danger of miftaking when you come:
to it: for, if there has been no opening made before that
in the field, as foon as you break the cruft immediately
the ditch ought to be carried acrofs the field about the above the gravel or rock, the water burfts forth like a
place where the lowed fprings arife. But if the fur-
face of the ground is level or nearly fo, as between A
and B, and the fprings break out in feveral places,
qqqqqq, fo as to form foft quagmires interfperfed
through the whole of the field, it will be of little con-
fequence in what part the drain is opened ; for if it is
dug up fa deep as to allow the water to rife in it with
freedom, it will iffue through that opening, and the field
will be left perfectly dry.
M But as it may frequently happen that the ftra¬
tum of gravel fhould be at a confiderable depth beneath
the furface of the earth, and as it may be fometimes
even below the level of the place into which the drain
muft be emptied, it- might fometimes be extremely dif-
torrent, and on fome occafions rifes like a jet d'eau, to
a confiderable height above the bottom of the ditch p
and continues to flow off with great impetuofity fofr
fome time, till the pent-up water being drained off, the ,
violent boiling up begins to fubfide, and the ftrength
of the current to abate ; and, in a ftiort time, it flows
gently out like any ordinary fpring ;—allowing it to
remain in this ftate, the quaggy earth begins to fub¬
fide, and gradually becomes firmer and firmer every day;
fo that, in the fpace of a few months, thofe bogs
which were formerly fo foft as hardly to fupport the
weight of a fmall dog, become fo firm, that oxen
and horfes may tread upon them without any danger
of finking, at the very wetteft feafon of the year. L
flcult to make a ditch fo deep as to reach the bed of have had a field of this nature, that, by having only
Sand or gravel. But it is lucky for us that this is
abfolutdy neceffary in the prefent cafe j as a drain
one fuch pit as I have now defcribed opened in it,
was entirely drained to the diftance of above a hundreds
yards.
D R A [ i
IS Drains, yards around it in every direftion. But as it is pof-
Able that the ftratura in which the water runs may be
in fume places interrupted, it will be in general expe¬
dient to make feverai of thefe pits, if the field is of
great extent; always carrying the drain forward thro’
the lowermotl part of the field, or as near the quag as
Iy6u conveniently can ; and finking a pit wherever you
may judge it will be moll necelfary. But if the lira-
turn of gravel is not interrupted, there will be no vio¬
lent burft of water at opening any of thefe after the
firll, as 1 have frequently experienced. To keep thefe
wells from clofing up after they are made, it is always
expedient to fill them up with fmall ftones immediately
after they are made, which ought to rife to the height
of the bottom of the drain.
“ I have often imagined that the expence of digging
thefe pits might be faved by boring a hole through
this folid ftratum of clay with a large wimble made
on purpofe ; but as I never experienced this, I can¬
not fay whether or not it would anfwer the defired end
exactly.
“ If the whole field that is to be drained confifts of
one extenfive bog, it will require a long time before the
whole work can be entirely finilhed, as it will be im-
poflible to open a drain through it till one part of it
is firll drained and becomes folid ground. In a fitua-
tion of this kind, the undertaker, after having opened
a drain to convey the water from the lowell part of the
bog, mull approach as near to the fwampy ground as
be can, and there make his firll pit; which will drain
off the water from the neareft parts of the bog. When
this has continued open for fome time, and that part of
the bog is become fo folid as to admit of being work¬
ed, let him continue the ditch as far forward thro’ it as
the fituatioti it is in will admit of, and there fink ano¬
ther pit; and proceed gradually forward in the fame
manner; making crofs cuts where neceffary, till the
whole be finilhed.
“ In this manner may any bog or track of fpout-
ing ground of this nature he rendered dry at a very
jnconfiderable expence ; and as there can be no other
method of draining ground of this fort effedlually, I
recommend the ftudy of it to the attention of every di¬
ligent fanner who may have occafion for it. Let him
firtl be extremely cautious in examining all the circum-
ftances of his particular fields, that he may be certain
which of the claffes above enumerated it may be rank¬
ed with; and, when he is perfeftly fure of that, he
may proceed without fear, being morally certain of
fuccefs.
“ There is, however, one kind of damp ground not
yet particularly fpecified, that I have purpofely omit¬
ted taking notice of till this time, as I have never had
any opportunity of examining particularly into the na¬
ture of it, nor of afcertaining. by experience what is
the moll proper method of treating it.— The foil I have
now particularly in my eye confills of a deep ttrongclay
that does not vary its nature even on the furface, but
in as far as manures may have rendered it more friable
and tender: the colour ufually inclines to a reddilh call,
and, for the moll part, it is fituated upon the fide of
fome declivity. This bed of clay reaches to a great
depth, without any variation, and is intermixed with
a confiderable quantity of fmall round ftones. Many foils
®f the fort now defcribed, are apt to be continually
07 ] 15 R A
moift and full of water during ,the winter feafon } hut l t
when the dry weather of fummer fets in, the moifture -
is diminilhed, and the furface becomes hard, and it is
rent into many large gaps which allow free admifikm
to the fun and air, fo as to fcorch up almoll every plant
that is fowed upon it: and as thefe foils are ufuaily i;i
themfelves naturally fertile when drained, it were to be
wilhed that fome method could be difcovered that would •
be lefs expenfive than what is ufually pradlifed with re¬
gard to fome foils of this kind in Effex ; where they
make covered drains of two and a half feet deep, run¬
ning diagonally through the whole field, at the diilaftcC
of 20 feet from each other.”
Concerning the making of thefe drains we have the
following directions in the Georgical Effays, by T. B,
Bayley, Efq; of Hope near Manchelter.—“ Firft
make the main drains down thp dope or fall of the
field. When the land is very wet, or has not much fall,
there (hould, in general, be two of thefe to a fiatute
acre; for the fhorter the narrow drains are, the lefs
liable they will be to accidents. The width of the
trench for the main drains {hould he 30 inches at top,
but the width at the bottom muff be regulated by the
nature and fize of the materials intended to be ufed.
If the drain is to be made of bricks 10 inches long,
3 inches thick, and 4 inches in breadth, then the bot¬
tom of the drain mull be 12 inches; but if the com¬
mon fale bricks are ufed, then the bottom muft be pro-
portionably contracted. In both cafes there muff be
an interftice of one inch between the bottom brick and
the fides of the trench, and the vacuity muff be filled
up with flraw, rufhes, or loofe mould. For the pur¬
pofe of making thefe drains, I order my bricks to be
moulded 10 inches long, 4 broad, and 3 thick; which
dimenfions always make the heft drain.
“ The method I purfue in conftru&ing my main
drains is as follows.—When the ground is foft and
fpongy, the bottom of the drain is laid with bricks
placed acrofs. On thefe, on each fide, two bricks are
laid flat, one upon the other, forming a drain fix inches
high and four broad ; which is covered with brick*
laid flat. When the bottom of the trench is found to
be a firm and folid body, as clay or marie, the bottom
of the diain does not then require being laid with
bricks. In that cafe the fides arc formed by placing
one brick edgewife, inftead of two laid flat.
“ This latter method is much cheaper, and in fuch
land equally durable with the other. When Hones are
ufed initead of bricks, the bottom of the drain {hould
be about eight inches in width. And here it will be
proper to remark, that, in all cafes, the bottom of the
main drains mull be funk four inches below the level of
the narrow ones, even at the point where the latter fall
into them.
“ The main drains {hould be kept open till the nar¬
row ones are begun from them, after which they may
be finifhed ; but before the earth is returned upon the
Hones or bricks, it will be advifeable to throw in ftraw,
ruflies, or bruih-wood, to increafe the freedom of the
drain.
“ The fmall narrow drains {hould be cut at the di-
ftance of 16 or 18 feet from each other ; and {hould
fall into the main drain at very acute angles, to pre¬
vent any ftoppage. At the point where they fall in,
and eight or ten inches above it, they {hould be made
O 2 firm
Drake.
Plate
CLXV.
D R A r 108 ] D R A
firm with brick or ftone. Thefe drains fhould be j 8
inches wide at top, and [6 at bottom.”—Fig. 5. re-
prefents a field with drains laid out according to Mr
Bayley’s method. The black.lines reprefent the main
drains, and the doited lines reprefent the narrow drains
communicating with the former from all parts of the
field.
DRAKE, in ornithology, the male of the duck
kind. See Anas.
Drake (Sir Francis), the renowned Englifli admi¬
ral, was the fon of Edmund Drake a bailor, and born
near Taviftock in Devonfliire, in the year 1545. He
was brought up at the expence and under the care of
Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinfman; and, at the
age of 18, was purfer of a fhip trading to Bifcay. At
20, he made a voyage to Guinea; and, at 22, had the
honour to be made captain of the Judith. In that ca¬
pacity he was in the harbour of St John de Ulloa, in
the gulph of Mexico, where he behaved moft gallantly
in the glorious aftions under Sir John Hawkins, and
returned with him to England with great reputation,
though not worth a groat. Upon this he projected
a defign againft the Spaniards in the Weft Indies;
which he no fooner publiflied, than he had volunteers
enough ready to accompany him. In 1570, he made
his firft expedition with two (hips ; and the next year
with one only, in which he returned fafe, if not with
fuch advantages as he expefted. He made another
expedition in 1572, wherein he did the Spaniards
fome mifchief, and gained confiderable booties. In
thefe expeditions he was much affifted by a nation of
Indians, who then were, and have been ever fince,. en¬
gaged in perpetual wars with the Spaniards. The
prince of thefe people was named Pedro; to whom
Drake prefented a fine cutlafs from his fide, which, he
faw the Indian greatly admired.. Pedro, in. return,
gave him four large wedges of gold which Drake
threw into the common ftock, faying. That he thought
it but juft that fuch as bore the charge of fo uncertain
a voyage on his credit, fhould fhare the utmoft advan¬
tage that voyage produced. Then, embarking his men
with all the wealth he had obtained, which was very
confiderable, he bore away for England, where he am
rived in Auguft 1573-
His fuccefsin this expedition, joined to his honour¬
able behaviour towards his owners, gained him a high-
reputation ; and the ufe he made of his riches, a ftill
greater. For, fitting out three fteut frigates at his
own expence, he failed with them to Ireland; where,
under Walter earl of Effex, the father of the famous
unfortunate earl) he ferved as a volunteer, and did many
glorious aftions. After the death of his noble patron,
he returned into England; where Sir Chriftopher Hat¬
ton introduced him to her majefty, and procured him
countenance and protection at court. By this means
he acquired a capacity of undertaking that grand ex¬
pedition which will render his name immortal. The
firft thing he propofed was a voyage into the South
Seas through the Straits of Magellan; which was what
hitherto no Ehgliihman had ever attempted. The pro¬
ject was well received at court: the queen furnilhed
him with means ; and his own fame quickly drew to¬
gether a fufficient force. The fleet with which he
failed on this extraordinary undertaking, confifted only
of five veffels, fmall when compared with modern (hips,
and no mbre than 164 able men. He failed on the 13th Drake,
of December 1577; on the 25th fell in with the coaft
of Barbary, and on the 29th with cape Verd. On the
13th of March he paffed the equinoftial, made the.
coaft of Brazil on the 5th of April, and entered the
River de la Plata, where he loft the company of two
of his (hips; but meeting them again, and taking out
their provifions, he turned them adrift. On the 29th
of May he entered the port of St Julian’s, where he
continued two months for the fake of laying in provi¬
fions : on the 20th of Auguft he entered the Straits of
Magellan, and on the 25th of September palled them,
having then only his own (hip. On. the zjtliof No¬
vember he came to Madia >, which he had appointed
for a place of rendezvous in cafe his (Ivips feparated >
but captain Winter, his vice admiral, having repafled
the Straits, was returned to England., Thence he con¬
tinued his voyage along the coafts of Chili and Peru,
taking all opportunities of feiztng Spaniih (hips, and
attacking them on.lhore, till his men were fated with
plunder ; and then, coafting America to the height of
48 degrees, he endeavoured to find a paffage that way
back into our feas, but could not. However, he landr
ed, and called the country New Albion, taking poflef-
fion of it in the name and for. the ufe of queen Eliza¬
beth; and, having careened his (hip, fet fail from thence,
on the 29th of September 1579, for the Moluccas.
He is fuppofed to have chofen this paffage round,
partly to avoid being attacked by the Spaniards at a
difadvantage, and partly from the latenefs of the fea-
fon,.whence dangerous ftorms and hurricanes were ap¬
prehended. On the 13th of Odlober he fell in with
certain illands inhabited by the moft barbarous people
he had met with in all his voyage : on the 4th.of No¬
vember he had fight of the Moluccas;.and, coming to
Ternate, was extremely well received by tire king
thereof who appears, from the jnoft authentic relation*
of this voyage, to have been a wife and polite prince*
On the 10th of December he made Celebes; where his
(hip unfortunately ran upon a rock, the 9th of January
following; from which, beyond all expectation, and in
a manner miraculoufly, they got off, and continued
their courfe. On the 16th of March he arrived at Java
Major ; and from thence he intended to have diredted
his courfe to Malacca; but found himfelf obliged ta
alter his purpofe, and to think of returning home. On
the 25th of March 1580, he put this defign in execu¬
tion; and on the 15th of June he doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, having then on board 57 men, and but
three cades of water. On the »2th of July he paljed
the line, reached the coaft of Guinea on the 16th, and
there watered. On the nth of September he made
the ifland of Tercera-; and on the 3d of November
entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage round
the world was performed in two years and about ten
months. Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to
Deptford, went on board his (hip; where, after dinnerj
(he conferred on him the order of knighthood, and.de-
clared her abfolute approbation of all he had done. She
likewife gave diredtions for the prefervation of his (hip,
that it might remain a monument of his own and his
country’s glory. This celebrated (hip, which had been
contemplated many years at Deptford, at length de¬
caying, it was broke up, and a chair, made out of the
planks, was prefented to the univerfity of Oxford*, up-
D R A f I©9
on which the famous Abraham Cowley made the fol¬
lowing verfes:
“ To this great Ihip, which round the world has run,
« And match’d in race the chariot of the fun;
“ This Pythagorean ftiip (for it may claim,
« Without preemption, fo defervM a name,
«' By knowledge once, and transformation now)
« In her new (hape this facred port allow.
“ Drake and his (hip could not have wifh’d, from fate,
“ An happi-r flation, er more hleh’d eftater
“ For, k>! a feat of en Uefs reft is given,
“ To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven.
Works, Vol. II.
BRA
In the year 1585, he failed with a fleet to the Weft
Indies ; and took the cities of St Jago, St Domingo,
Carthagena, and St Auguftin. In 1587,. he went to
Lilbon with a fleet of 30 fail;, and having intelligence
of a great fleet affembled- in the bay of Cadiz, which
was to have made part of the .armada, he with great
courage entered that port,, and burnt there upwards of Acuities, before thefe two laft expeditions, had given
10,000 tons of {hipping : which he afterwards merrily   *•- ^ ~ —J c—“ e ^ ^ 1
called burning the king of Spain's beard. In 1588, when
the armada from Spain was approaching our coafts,
Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral under
“ If for any peace you hope,
“ In all points reflore the pope.”
The queen’s extempore return:
Ad Grtecas, bqne rex,fent mandnta ialcndat.
“ Worthy king, know, this your will
“ At Latter-Lamina.-, we’ll fulfil.
In the year 1^89, Sir Francis Drake commanded as
admiral the fleet fern to reftore Don Antonio king of
Portugal, the command of the land-forces being gi¬
ven to Sir John Norris: but they were hardly got to
fea, before the commanders differed, and fo the attempt
proved abortive.- The war with Spain continuing, a
more effectual expedition was undertaken by Sir John
Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, againft their fettle-
ments in the Weft Indies, than had hitherto been made
during the whole courfe of it.: but the commanders
here again not agreeing about the plan, this alfo did
not turn out fo fuccefsfully as was expe&ed. All dif-
way to the fltill and fortune of Sir Francis Drake;
which probably was the reafon why he did not bear
thefe difappointments fo well as he otherwifc would
have done. A ft-rong fenfe of them is fuppofed to
Charles lord Howard of Effingham, high admiral of have thrown him into a melancholy, which occafioned
England, where fortune favoured him as remarkably
as ever: for he made prize of a very large galleon,
commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was repu-
a bloody flux ; and of this he died on -board his own
ffiip, near the town of Nombre de Dios in the Weft In¬
dies, on the 28th of January 1595-6. His death was
ted tlie projector of this invafion. This affair happened lamented by the whole nation, and particularly by his
in the following manner: On the 22d of July, Sir countrymen; who had great reafon to love him • from
Francis obferving a great Spanifli {hip floating at a di- the circumftances of his private life, as well as toefteem
ftance from both fleets, Cent his pinnace to fummon
the commander to yield. Valdez replied, with much
him in his public character. He was elected burgefs
for the town of Boffiney, alias Tintagal, in the county
Spanifh folemnity, that they were 450 ftrong; that he of Cornwall, in the 27th parliament of queen Eliza-
’ ' r 'c 1'1— "—J u 1”’" beth ; and for Plymouth in Devonfhire, in the 35th of
the fame reign. This town had very particular obli¬
gations to him: for, in the year 1587, he undertook
to bring water into it, -through.the want-of which, till
then, it had been grievoufly diftreffed; and he perform¬
ed it by conducing thither a ftfeam from fprings at
eight miles diftance, that is to fay, in a ftraight line-:
for in the manner he brought , it, the courfe of it runs
upwards of 20 miles.
DRAKENBORCH: (Arnold), profeffor of elo¬
quence and hiftory at Utrecht, madehimfelf known by
feveral works, and particularly by his Notes on -Titus
Livius and Silius Italicus; his fine. editions - of. which
are highly efteemecD
DRAMA, a poem containing fome certain aft ion, ■
and reprefenting a true piftuFe.of human life, for the
delight and improvement of mankind.
The principal fpecies of .the drama are two, come¬
dy and tragedy. Some others there are of lefs note,
as paftoral, fatire, tragi-comedy, opera, See. See the
article Poetry.
DRAMATIC, an epithet given to pieces written
for the llage. See Poetry.
DRANK, among farmers, a term ufed to denote
wild oats, which never fail, to infeft worn-out lands ; fq
that, when ploughed lands run tothefe weeds and
thiftles, the farmer knows it is high time to fallow
them, on- dfe to fow them with hay-feed, and make
pafture of them.
DRAPERY, in fculpture and painting, fignifies the '
reprefentation of the clothing of human figures, and
alfo hangings, tapeftry, curtains, and moil other things '
that-
himfelf was Don Pedro, and flood much upon his ho¬
nour; and thereupon , propounded feveral conditions,
.upon which he was willing to yield. But the vice-ad¬
miral replied. That he had. no leifure to parley: but
if he thought fit inftantly to yield, he might; if not,
he fhould foon find that Drake was no coward. Pe¬
dro, hearing the name of Drake, immediately yielded,
and with 46 of his attendants came on board Drake’s
{hip. This Don. Pedro remained about two years Sir
Francis Drake’s, prifoner in England; and, when lie
was releafed, paid him for his own and; his-captains li¬
berties, a ranfom. of 35001. Drake’s foldiers were well
recompenfed with the plunder of this {hip ; for they
found in it 55,000. ducats of gold, which was divided
among them.
A. little before this formidable Spaniftr armament
put to fea, the ambaflador of his Catholic, majefty had
the confidence to propound to queen- Elizabeth, in La¬
tin verfe, the terms-upon which (he might hope for
peace ; .which, with aix Engliih tranflation by Dr Ful¬
ler, we wilEinfert in. this place, becaufe Drake’s expe¬
dition to the Weft Indies makes a part of this meffage.
The verfes are thefe;
rTe 4cto Mrpvrgas hello defenderr Belgits :
{fTote Dracus eripuit nunc rejlituantur oportet;
Spuas pater ever tit jubtuU tenders .cellm ;
Rdigio Papa fat rejlituatur ad unguent.
'4 Thefe rn you are our commands,
Send no help to th’ Netherkudu:
Of the treafure took by Drake,
“ Rellitution you mud make:
“ And thi.fe abbeys In.iidianew,
“ Which your father, overthrew:
D R A t tio ] D R A
Draftic. tltat are not carnations or landicape?. See Pain ting,
Crayon, Drawing, and Miniaturje.
p raw back. DRASTIC, in pliyfic, an epithet bellowed on fuch
- r medicines as are of prefent efficacy, and potent in ope¬
ration ; and is commonly applied to emetics and ca¬
thartics.
DRAVE, a large navigable river, which, taking
its rile in the archbifhopric of Saltzburg, in Germany,
runs fouth-eaft through Stiria ; and Continuing its
courfe, divides Hungary from Sclavonia, and fall into
the Danube at Effeck.
DRAUGHT, in medicine. See Potion.
Draught, in trade, called alfo doff or douch. is
a fmall allowance on weighable goods, made by the
Iting to the importer, or by the feller to the buyer,
that the wight may hold out when the goods are
weighed again. .
The king allows I lb draught for goods weighing
no lefs than I Cwt- 2 tb for goods weighing between
i and 2 Cwt. 3 lb for goods weighing between 2 and
3 Cwt. 41b from 3 to 10 Cwt. 7 ft from to to 18 Cwt.
•9 tb from 18 tt) 30 or upwards
Draught is alfo ufed fometimes for a bill of ex¬
change, and commonly for an order for the payment
•of any fum of money due, &c. Then the perfon
who gives the order is faid to draw upon the other.
Draught, or, as it is pronounced, Draft, in archi-
tedhire, the figure of an intended building deferibed on
paper; wherein are laid down, by fcale and compafs,
the feveral divifions and partitions of the apartments,
rooms, doors, paffages, conveniencies, &c. in their due
proportion.
It is ufual, and exceedingly convenient, before a
building is begun to be raifed, to have draughts of the
ichnography, or ground-plot of each floor or llory ; as
alfo of the form and fafhion of each front, with the
windows, doors, ornaments, &c. in an orthography, or
upright. Sometimes the feveral fronts, &c. are taken,
and reprefented in the fame draught, to fhow the effeft
«f the whole building : this is called a fccnography, or
perfpcSive.
Draught, the depth of a body of water neceflaiy
to float a ftiip: hence a fhip is faid to draw fo many
feet of water, when fhe is borne up by a column of wa¬
ter of that particular depth. Thus, if it requires a
body of water whofe depth is equal to 12 feet, to float
or buoy up a Ihip on its furfece, flie is faid to draw 12
feet water ; and that this draught may be more readily
known, the feet are marked on the ftem and ftern poll,
regularly from the keel upwards.
DkAVGHT-Hodes, are large hooks of iron, fixed on
the cheeks of a cannon-carriage, two on each fide, one
near the trunnion hole, and the other at the train, di-
Itinguiflied by the name offore and hind dr aught-hooks.
Large guns have draught-hooks near the middle tran-
fom, to which are fixed the chains that ferve to keep
the (hafts of the limbers on a march. The fore and
hind hooks are ufed for drawing a gun backwards or
forwards, by men with ftrong ropes, called draught-
ropes, fixed to thefe hooks.
DRAVGHT-Horfe, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
horfe, deftined for the fervice of a cart or plough.
DRAWBACK, in commerce, certain duties, either
of the cuftoms or of the excife, allowed upon the ex¬
portation of fbme of our own manufactures j or upon
3
certain foreign mcrchandife, that have paid duty on'Drawbsd
importation. v'*^
The oaths of the merchants importing and export¬
ing are required to obtain the drawback on foreign
goods, affirming the truth of the officers certificate on i
the entry, and the due payment of the duties: and
thefe may be made by the agent or hulband of any cor¬
poration or company ; or by the known fervant of any
merchant ufually employed in making his entries, and
paying his cuiloms. In regard to foreign goods entered
outward, if lefs quantity or value be fraudulently (hip¬
ped out than what is expreffed in the exporter’s certi¬
ficate, the goods therein mentioned, or their value, are
forfeited, and no drawback to be allowed for the fame.
Foreign goods exported by certificate in order to ob¬
tain the drawback, not (hipped or exported, or re¬
landed in Great Britain, unlefs in cafe of diftrefs to
fave them from peri (King, are to lofe the benefit of the
drawback, and are forfeited, or their value, with the
veffel, horfes, carriages, &c. employed in the reland¬
ing thereof; and the perfons employed in the reland¬
ing them, or by whole privity they are relanded, or
into whofe hands they (hall knowingly come, are to for¬
feit double the amount of the drawback. Officers of
the cuftoms conniving at or affifting in any fraud re¬
lating to certificate goods, befides other penalties, are
to forfeit their office, and fuffer fix months imprifon-
ment without bail or mainprize; as are alfo mafters,
or perfons belonging to the (hips employed therein.
Bonds given for the exportuftion of certificate-goods to
Ireland muft not be delivered up, nor drawback allow¬
ed for any goods, till a certificate under the hands and
feals of the colle&or or comptroller, &c. of the cu¬
ftoms be produced, teftifying the landing.
Draw-Bridge, a bridge made after the manner of a
fioat, to draw up or let down, as occafions ferve, be¬
fore the gate of a town or caftle. See Bridge.
A draw-bridge may be made after feveral different
ways ; but the moft common are made with plyers, twice
the length of the gate, and a foot in diameter. The
inner fquare is traverfed with a crofs, which ferves for
a countcrpoife; and the chains which hang from the
extremities of the plyers to lift up or let down the
bridge, are of iron or brafs.
In navigable rivers it is fometimes neceffary to make
the middle arch of bridges with two moveable plat¬
forms, to be raifed occafionally, in order to let the
mafts and rigging of (hips pafs through. This kind
of draw-bridge is reprefented in Plate CLXV. where
A B is the width of the middle arch ; A L and B L,
the two piers that fupport the draw-bridge N O, one
of the platforms of which is raifed, and the other let
down, having the beam PQ^_for its plyer. To NO
are fufpended two moveable braces E H, E H ; which
retting on the fupport E, prefs againft the bracket M,
and thereby ftrengthen the draw-bridge. Thefe braces
are conduced to the reft by means of the weight S,
pulling the chain S L F.
DRAw-Net, a kind of net for taking the larger fort
of wildfowl, which ought to be made of the beft fort
of pack-thread, with wide mefhes; they (hould be
about two fathoms deep and fix long, verged on each
fide with a very ftrong cord, and ftretehed at each end
on long poles. It fliould be fpread fmooth and flat
upon the ground} and ftrewed over with grafs, fedge.
D H AWING .
DRA [in l DRA
or the like, to hide it from the fowl; and the fportfman DRAWING, in general, denotes the aftion of pul- Drawing,
is to place himfelf in lome ihelter of grafs, fern, or ling out, or hauling along; thus we read of tooth-draw- > t
feme fuch thing. ing, wire-drawing, See.
DRAWING,
THE art of reprefenting the appearances of obje&s
upon a plain furface, by means of lines, {hades, and
fhadows, formed with certain materials adapted to the
purpofe.
§ i. Of the proper Materials for Drawing, and the Man¬
ner of ufing them.
The firfl thing neceflary for a beginner is to furnifh
himfelf with proper materials, fuch as black-lead pen¬
cils, crayons of black, white, or red chalk, crow-
quill pens, a rule and compaffes, camels-hair pencils,
and Indian ink. He muft accullom himfelf to hold
the pencil farther from the point than one does a pen
in writing; which will give him a better command
of it, and contribute to render the ftrokes more free
and bold. The ufe of the pencil is to draw the firft
/ketches or outlines of the piece, as any ftroke or line
that is amifs may in this be more eafily rubbed out
than in any other thing ; and when he has made the
Iketch as eorreft as he can with the pencil, he may then
draw carefully the heft outline he has got, with his crow-
quill pen and ink (a) ; after which he may difeharge
the pencil-lines, by rubbing the piece gentl^ with the
crumb of ftale bread or India rubber. Having thus
got the outline clear, his next work is to (hade the
piece properly, either by drawing fine llrokes with his
pen where it requires to be (haded, or by wafhing it
with his pencil and the Indian ink. As to his rule and
compaffes, they are never or very rarely to be uftd, except
in meafuring the proportions of figures after he has
drawn them, to prove whether they arc right or not; or
in houfes, fortifications, and other pieces of architedture.
$ 2. Of drawing Lines, Squares, Circles, and other regu¬
lar and irregular Figures.
Havikg got all thefe implements in readinefs,
the firft praftice muft be to draw ftraight and curve
lines, with eafe and freedom, upwards and down¬
wards, fideways to the right or left, or in any di-
redtion whatfoever. He muft alfo learn to draw,,
by command of hand, fquares, circles, ovals, and other*
geometrical figures: for as the alphabet, or a know¬
ledge of the letters, is an introdudVion to grammar;
fo is geometry to drawing. The practice of draw¬
ing thefe Ample figures till he is mafter of them, will
enable him to imitate, with greater eafe and accuracy,
many tilings both in nature and art. And here it
is proper to admonifli him, never to be in a hurry ;
but to make himfelf perfe&ly mafter of one figure be¬
fore he proceeds to another : the advantage, and even
neceffity, of this, will appear as he proceeds. Two ob-
fervations more may be added : i. That he accuftom
himfelf to draw all his figures very large, which is the
only way of acquiring a free bold manner of defigning.
2. That he pradtife drawing till he has gained a tole¬
rable mafter of his pencil, before he attempts to fiiadow
any figure or objedt of any kind whatever.
§ Of Drawing Eyes, Ears, Legs, Arms, Hands,
Feet, &c. -
As to the drawing of eyes and ears, legs and arms,
thfe learner will have very little more to do than to
copy carefully the examples given in Plate CLXVL
and CLXVII. taken from Sebaftian le Clerc’s draw¬
ing book. But the adtions and poftm-es of the hands
are fo many and various, that no certain rules can be
given for drawing them, that will univerfally hold',
good. Yet as the hands and feet are difficult mem¬
bers to draw, it is very neceffary, and well worth while,
to beftow fome time and pains about them, carefully
imitating their various poftures and attions, fo as not
only to avoid all lamenefs and imperfedtion, but alfo to
give them life and fpirit. To arrive at this, great care,
ftudy, and pradtice, are requilite ; particularly in imi¬
tating the beft prints or drawings that can be got of
hands and feet (fome good examples of which are
given in Plate CLXVII.) ; for, as to the mechanical
rules of drawing them by lines and meafures, they are
not only perplexed and difficult, but alfo contrary to
the pradtice of the beft mailers. One general rule,
however, may be given (which is-univerfally to be ob-
ferved in all fubjedts), and that is, Not to finifh per-
fedtly at firft any fingle part, but to {ketch out faintly,
and with light ftrokes of the pencil, the ffiape and pro¬
portion of the whole hand, with the adtion and turn of
it ; and after confidering carefully whether this firlfc
{ketch be perfedt, and altering it wherever it is amifs,
you may then proceed to the bending of the joints, the
knuckles, the veins, and other fmall particulars, which
when the learner has got the whole ffiape and propor¬
tion of the hand or foot, will not only be more eafily.
but alfo more perfedtly defigned.
$ 4. Of Drawing Faces.
The head is ufually divided into four equal parts.
(1.) From the crown of the head to the top of the
forehead. (2.) From the top of the forehead to the-
eye-brows. (3.) From the eye-brows to the bottom
of thenofe. (4.) From thence to the bottom of the.
chin. But this proportion is not conftant ; thofe
features in different men being often very different as.
to length and ftlape. In a well-proportioned face, how¬
ever, they are nearly right. To diredt the learner
therefore in forming a perfedt face, his firft bufinefs fo
to draw an oval, or rather the form of an egg ; in ths
middle
( A) The ink made ufe of for this purpofe muft not be common, but Indian ink; which is much fofter than
the other, and does not run: by mixing it with water, it may be made to any degree of ftrength, and ufed-ia.
3 pen like common ink.
'1:1 2
DRAWING.
middle of which, from the top to the bottom, draw a
perpendicular line. Through the centre or middle of
this line draw,' a diameter line, dire&ly acrofs from one
fide to the other of your oval. On thefe two lines all
the features of your face are to be placed as ’follows :
Divide your perpendicular line into-four equal parts :,
the firft mult be allotted to the hair of the head ; the
fecond is from the top of the forehead to the top of
the nofe between the eye-brows; the third is from
thence to the bottom of the nofe ; and the fourth in¬
cludes the lips and chin. Your diameter line, or the
breadth of the face, is always fuppQfed to be the length
• of five eyes; youmuft therefore-divideit into five equal
parts, and place the eyes upon it'fo es to leave exafclly
the length of one eye betwixt them. This is to be un-
derllood only of a full front face, Plate CLXVI. fig. a;
for if it turn to either fide, then the diftances are to
be leflened on that fide which turns from you, lefs
.or more in proportion to its turning, (fig. b b b.)
The top of the ear is to rife parallel to the eye-brow s,
at the end of the diameter line ; and the bottom of it
mull be equal to the bottom of the nofe. The noftrils
ought not to come out farther than the corner of the
■eye in any face ; and the middle of the mouth muft al¬
ways be placed upon the perpendicular line.
Of Drawing Human Figures.
When the learner is tolerably perfect in drawing
faces, heads, hands, and feet, he may next attempt to
draw the human figure at length. In order to which,
let him firft fketch the head; then draw' a perpendicular
line from the bottom of the head feven times its length
(for the length of the head is about one-eighth part
of the length of the figure).
The beft proportioned figures of the ancients are 7^
heads in height. If, therefore, the figure ftands upright,
asfig. {a, Plate CLXVIII.) draw' a perpendicular line
from the top of the head to the heel, which muft be
divided into two equal parts. The bottom of the belly
is exactly the centre. Divide the lower part into two
equal parts again, the middle of which is the middle
,of the knee. Tor the upper part of the figure, the
method muft he varied. Take off with your com-
paffes the-length of the face (which is three parts in
4 of the length of the head) ; from the throat-pit to
the pit of the ftomach is one face, from thence to the
navel is another, and from thence to the lower rim of
the belly is a third. The line muft be divided into
feven equal parts. Againft the end of the firft divi-
fion, place the breafts; the fecond comes down to the
navel; the third to the privities; the fourth to the
middle of tlie thigh ; the fifth to the lower part of the
linee ; the fixth to the lower part of the calf; and the
feventh to the bottom of the heel, the heel of the bear¬
ing leg being always exattly under the pit of the throat.
B.ut as the e{fence of all drawing confills in making at
firft a good {ketch, the learner muft in this particular
be very careful and accurate; he ought to draw no
„ene part perfect or exaft till he fee whether the whole
draught be good ; and w'hen he has altered that to
his mind, he may then finifli one part after another as
curioufly as he can.
There are Tome who, having a ftatue to'copy, begin
with the head, which they finifh, and then proceed in
tJie fame manner to the ether parts of the body, finifii-
N° 105*
ing as they go: but this method generally fucceeds ill;
for if they make the head in the leaft too big or too
little, the confequence is a difproportion betw'een all
the parts, occalioned by their not having {ketched the
w'hole proportionably at firft. Let the learner remem¬
ber, therefore, in whatever he intends to draw, firft to
{ketch its feveral parts, meafuring the diftances and
proportions between each with his finger or pencil,
without ufing the compaffes; and then judge of them
by the eye, which by degrees will be able to judge of
truth and proportion, and will become his beft and
principal guide. And let him obferve, as a general
rule. Always to begin with the right fide of the piece
he is copying: for by that means he will always have
what he has done before his eyes; and the reft will
follow more naturally, and with greater eafe; whereas
if he begin with the left fide, his hand and arm will
cover what he does firft, and deprive him of the fight
of it; by which means he will not he able to proceed
with fo much eafe, pleafure, or certainty.
As to the order and manner of proceeding in draw¬
ing the human body, he muft firft {ketch the head;
then the {boulders in theexaft breadth; then draw the
trunk of the body, beginning with the arm-pits (lea¬
ving the arms till afterwards), and fo draw down to the
hips on both fides; and be fure he obferve the exaft
breadth of the waift. When he has done this, let him
then draw that leg; which the body ftands upon, and
afterwards the other which ftands loofe; then the arms,
and laft of all the hands.
He muft take notice alfo of the bowings and bend¬
ings that are in the body ; making the part which is
oppofite to that which bends correfpond to it inr bend¬
ing with it. For inftance : If one fide of the body
bend in, the other muft ftand out anfwerable to it; if
the back bend in, the belly muft ftickout; if the knee
bend out, the ham muft fall in ; and fo of any other
joint in the body. Finally, he muft endeavour to form
all the parts of the figure with truth, and in juft pro¬
portion : not one arm or one leg bigger or lefs than
the other; not broad Herculean Ihoulders, with a thin
and {lender waift ; nor raw and bony arms, with thick
and gouty legs: but let there be a kind of harmonious
agreement amongft the members, and a beautiful fym-
metry throughout the whole figure, r
Proportions and Meafures of the Human Body. The
centre or middle part, between tire two extremes of
the head and feet of a new born child, is in the navel,
but that of an adult is in the os pubis ; and the prac¬
tice of dividing the meafures of children into four,
five, or fix parts, whereof the head is one, is made ufe
of by painters and fculptors.
A child of two years old has about five heads in its
w'hole length, but one of four or five years old has near
fix ; about the fifteenth or fixteenth year, feven heads
are the proportion or meafure, and the centre inclines
to the upper part of the pubis. Hence it appears, as
the growth of the body advances, there is a gradual ap¬
proach to the proportion of an adult of near eight
heads in the whole lertgth, of vyhich, as mentioned
above, the head makes oiye.
Agreeable to thefe principles, the following Talffe
is conftru&ed,'exhibiting the proportions of the parts
of a man and of a woman, as they were fixed by the
ancients, and meafuxed by M. Audran from the A-
pollo
Drawing.
riafe
(\LXVIIL
D HAW IZNT a ,
DRAWING.
polio Pythius '(Plate CLXIX.) in the garden of the both legs, the whole height of the former is divided into
Vatican at Rome, and the Venus Aphroditus (Plate 314- parts, being 7 heads 3 parts and 6 minutes; and
CLXX.) belonging to the family of the Medicis. ‘ Sup- that of the latter into 31 parts, being 7 heads and 3
pofing the figures to Hand upright and duly poifed on parts.
”3
Length of the Head and Trunk of the Body.
From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin 4 parts or
the bottom of the chin to the top of the fternum or breaft-bone
the top of the fternum to the pit of the ftomach
the pit of the ftomach to the navel - *
the navel to the pubis - . -
Length of the head and trunk of the body
■ Length of the Lower Extremities.
From the pubis to the fmall of the thigh above the patella or knee-pan
the fmall of the thigh to the joint or middle of the knee
the joint of the knee to the fmall of the leg above the ankle
the top to the bottom of the ankle - — ,
the bottom of the an)tle to the bottom of the heel
Length of the lower extremities - -
Length of the head and trunk, as above
Total length of the figures
Length of the Fore-Arm or Upper Extremities.
From the top of the fhoulder to the elbow - -
the elbow to the hand
the joint of the hand to the root of the middle finger
the root to the tip of the middle finger
Length of the upper extremities
Breadth between the outward angles of the eyes
of the face at the temples
of the upper part of the neck -
over the fhoulders - - - ■
of the body below the arm-pits -
between the nipples
from the bottom of the chin to the -horizontal line of the nipples
of the body at the fmall of the waift
over the loins or os ilium - -
over the haunches or tops of the thigh-bones
of the thigh at the top ...
of the thigh below the middle ' - -
of the thigh above the knee
of the leg below the knee
at the calf of the leg ...
below the calf - ■ -
above the ankle - - -
of the ankle - -
below the ankle - - -
middle of the foot - - / -
at the roots of the toes
of the a^m over the biceps mufcle
of the arm. above the elbow
of the arm below the elbow over the long fupinator
at the wrift
of the hand over the firft joint of the thumb . ’ -
of the hand over the roots of the fingers
Vol.VI. Part I.
Apollo.
Hds. Pts. Min.
V°nus.
Hds. Pts. Min.
1 0 0
018
036
027
0 3 9
6
ioi
3
8
6
Breadth
U4
W
N G.
Breadth over the heads of the fcapulae or fhoulder blades
Length of both arms and hands, each of the Apollos being 3b. 2 p. 11m. ?
and the Venus 3b. ip. 5m. - - 3
Breadth betwixt
are ftretched
Apoflo.
H<ls. Prs. Min.
rixt the tips of the middle fingers of each hand when the arms ? „ .
:d out horizontally - - $ ^
Vrmt.
Hds. Jdis. Min.
i I 4
6 2 10
Side View.
Length from the top of the head to the fhoulder
from the top of the fhoulder to the loins above the hip
from the loins to the lower part of the hip
from the hip to the fide of the knee, oppofite to the top of the patella
from the fide of the knee to the bottom of the heel
Length of the figures
7 3 6 7 3 °
Side View.
1 n
o 6
Thicknefs from the fore to the back part of the fkull - 0 3
from the wfng of the nofe to the tip of the ear - 01
of the upper part of the neck - - 02
from the breafl to the back over the nipples - 10
from the belly to the fmall of the back - - 0 3
from the belly above the navel to the back of the loins - 0 3
from the bottom of the belly to the round of the hip - to
from the fore-part of the thigh to the bottom of the hip - 0 3
of the thigh at the middle - - 0 3
of the thigh above the knee - - 0 2
at the middle of the knee below the patella - 02
of the leg below the knee - - 01
of the leg at the calf - - - 01
of the leg at the ankle - - - o I
of the foot at the thickeft part - - 00
length of the foot - - - 10
from the fore-part of the bend of the foot to the lower and back part 7 q q
of the heel - - j
of the.arm; over the biceps- - - 02
over the elbow - - 01
below the elbow - - 01
at the wrift - - Q I
below the joint of the wriit - 01
of the hand’at the roots of the fingers - - 00
at the roots of the nails - - o. q
The other moft admired antique ftatues differ a little a woman mepfures from the top to the bottom 4p.
from thefe proportions, the Laocoon meafuring jh. 3m.
2:p. 3 m. the Hercules 7hi 3p. 7 m. the Pyramus It is a leading principle, iu which every pcrfon con-
711. 2 p. the Antinous 7I1. 2p the Grecian-fiiepherd- verfant in defigning has agreed, that without a per-
efs 7I1. 3p. 6 m. and the Mirmillo 8h. But all their feft knowledge of the proportions, nothing can be pro-
other proportions are allowed to be harmonious and duced but monftrous and extravagant figures ; and it .'
agreeable to the charaCi ers of the figures they repre- is alfo univerfally admitted, that the ancient Greek and
fent. Roman fculptors -attained (he higheft fuccefs in produ-
The moft- remarkable differences of the fymmetry ting the moft perfect- models*
or proportions of a man and of a woman-to be obfer- The greateft of the modern . artifts who have exa-
ved from the Table are: Firft, the fhoulders of a mined their figures with attention admit, that feveral
man are Broader, meafuring two heads; and the of the ancient fculptors'in - feme, degree have excelled
haunches narrower, meafuring ih. ip. 5 m. whereas nature, they never having found any man fo perfeft in
the fiioulders of a woman meafure only 1 h. 3p. 8m. all his parts as fome of their figures, are. Theirop-
and the haunches meafiire 1 h. 2 p. 3 m. The fternum . portunities indeed were-great •; Greece abounded with
©r breaft bone of a man is longer, meafuring 3p. 8 m. beauties; and Rome being miftrefs of the world, every
and the ftermim of the woman only 3p. 3 m. 0n the • thing that was curious and beautiful was brought to
contrary, the pelvis of a man is lefs, meafuring from it from all parts. Their motives were alfo powerful;
ihe. top to the bottom only 4 p. whereas the pelvis of religion, glory, and intereft. They.conlldered it as a
kind
DRAWING.
kind of religious worfhip to give the figures of their
gods fo much noblenefs and beauty as to be able to
attratt the love and veneration of the people. Their
own glory was alfo concerned, particular honours be¬
ing bellowed on thofe who fucceeded ; and for their
fortune they had no further care to take when they
once arrived at a certain degree of merit.
Attitudes and Attion of the Mufcles. If a ftrong per-
fon is to be reprefented in a vigorous a&ion, fuch as
Hercules, &c. after a fuitable proportion to fuch a figure
and the aftion is defigned, the parts or limbs employ¬
ed in the chiefeft force of the aftion ought to be con-
fidered. If the figure is Handing, the foot mull be
placed in a right line, or perpendicular to the trunk
or bulk of the body, where the centre of gravity may
be placed in (equilibria. This centre is determined
by the heel; or, if the figure is upon tiptoe, then the
ball of the great toe is in the centre. 1'he mufcles of
the leg which fupports the body ought to be fwel-
led, and their tendons drawn more to an extenfion than
thofe of the other leg, which is only placed fo as to
receive the weight of the body towards that way to
which the a£lion inclines it. For example, fuppofe
Hercules with a club linking at any thing before him
towards the left fide : Then let his right leg be placed
fo as to receive the whole weight of the body, and the
left loofely touching the ground with its toes. Here the
external mufcles of the right leg ought to be exprelTed
very llrong; but thofe of the left fcarcely appearing
more than if it were in fome fedentary pofture, except
in the prefent cafe. The foot being extended, the
mufcles which conjpofe the calf of the leg are in action
and appear very ftrong; though it is not meant that a//
the mufcles of the right leg, which fupports the weight
of the body, ought to be exprefled very ftrong or equally
fwelled,but thofe moll tumifiedwhicharechiefly concern¬
ed in the a£tion or pofture that the leg is then in. For
example, if the leg or tibia is extended, then the ex¬
tending mufcles placed on the thigh are moll fwelled:
if it is bended, then the bending mufcles and their
tendons appear rnoft The like may be obferved of the
whole body in general when it is put into vigorous
adtion. The Laocoon in the Vatican garden at Rome
furnilhes an example of thismufcular appearance through
the whole ; but in the Antinous, Apollo, and other
figures of the ancients, in the Vatican and other places,
in poftures where no confiderable adtions are defign¬
ed, we fee their mufcles exprefled but faintly, or fcarce¬
ly appearing.
The clavicles or collar bones, and mufcles in general,
do not appear in women as in men ; nor will any adtion
in which a woman ufes her utmoft ilrength occafion
fuch fwellings or rifings of the mufcles to appear as
they do in men, fince the great quantity of fat placed
under the fkin of women io clothes their mufcles, &c.
as to prevent any fuch appearances.
EJfeds of the Exertion of the Mufcks. The follow¬
ing are the moft obvious effedts of the exertion of fe-
veral of the mufcles ; of thofe, to wit, which chiefly
demand the attention of an artift.
If either of the maftoid mufcles (Plate CLXXI.
I. i.) adt, the head is turned to the contrary fide, and
the mufcle which performs that adtion appears very
plain under the fkin.
If the arms are lifted up, the deltoid mufcles placed
on the fhoulders, which perform that adtion, fwell,
and make the extremities of the fpines of the fhoulder-
blades (Plate CLXXII. 3. 3.), called the tops of the
fhoulders, appear indented or hollow.
The fhoulder-blades following the elevation of the
arms, their bafes (Plate CLXXII. 4. 4.) incline at
that time obliquely' downward.
If the arms are drawn down, put forwards, or pulled
backwards, the fhoulder-blades neceffarily vary their
pofitions accordingly. All thefe particulars are to be
learned by confulting the life only : when being well
acquainted with what then appears in every adtion, the
artift will be able to form an adequate idea how it ought
to be exprefled. Thefe circumftances are little known ;
hence feldom attended to in ddigning.
When the cubit or fore-arm is bended, the biceps
(Plate CLXXI. 5. 5.) has its belly very much raifed,
as appears in the left arm. The like may be obferved
of the triceps (Plate CLXXII. 6. 6.) when the arm is
extended, as obferved in the right arm.
The ftraight mufcles of the abdomen (PlateCLXXI.
7. 7.) appear very ftrong when rifing from a decum¬
bent pofture.
Thofe parts of the great ferratus mufcle (ib. 8. 8.)
which are received in the teeth or beginnings of the
oblique defeending mufcle immediately below, are very
much fwelled when the flioulder on the fame fide is
brought forwards; that ferratus mufcle then being in
adtion in drawing the fcapula forwards.
The long extending mufcles of the trunk (Plate
CLXXI 1. 9. 9.) adt alternately in walking, after this
manner: If the right leg bears the weight of the bo¬
dy, and the left is in tranflation as on tiptoe, the laft
mentioned mufcles of the back on the left fide may be
obferved to be tumified on the other fide about the re¬
gion of the loins, and fo on the other fide.
The trochanters, or outward and uppermoft heads
of the thigh-bones (Plate CI.XXII. 10. io.), vary
in their pofitions in fuch a manner as no precife obfer-
vations can explain their feveral appearances ; but the
ftudy after the life ought to be carefully attended to.
If the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight
of the body reds on that fide, the gluteus or buttock
mufcle (Plate CLXXII. xi. 11.) makes a very differ¬
ent appearance from what offers at another time ; but
if the thigh is drawn backwards, that mufcle appears
ftill more and more tumified.
When the whole leg is drawn upwards forwards, and
at the fame time the foot is inclined inwards, the up¬
per part of the fartorius mufcle (PlateCLXXI. 12.
12.) appears rifing very ftrong ; in other pofitions of
the thigh, that mufcle makes a furrowing appearance in
its whole progrefs.
If a man is upon tiptoe, the extending mufcles of
the leg placed on the fore-part of the thigh (Plate
CLXXI. 13. 13. 13.), and thofe of the foot that
compofe the calf of the leg (Plate CLXXII. 14. 14.),
appear very ilrong, and the long peronseus (Plate
CLXXI. 15.) makes a confiderable indentation or fur¬
rowing at that time in its progrefs on the outfide of
the leg.
Many other remarks might here be offered ; but a
due attention to nature will foon difeover them.
P 2 §6.
DRAWING.
§ 6. 0/ Light and Shade.
After the learner has made himfelf in feme mea-
fure perfect in drawing outlines, his next endeavour
mult be to ihade them properly. It is this which gives
an appearance of fubltance, drape, diftance, and di-
ftindtion, to whatever bodies he endeavours to rfpre-
fent, whether animate or inanimate. The belt rule for
doing this is, to conlider from what point, and in what
direction,, the light falls upon the objedts which he is
delineating, and to let all his lights and drades be pla¬
ced according to that diredtion throughout the whole
work. That part of the objedt muft be lighted; which
hath the light moll diredlly oppofite to it ; if the light
falls fideways on the pidture, he mull make that lide
which is oppofite to it lighted, and that lide which is
farthell from it darkell. If he is drawing the figure
of a man, and the light be placed above the head, then
the top of the head mud'be made lighted, the Ihoul-
ders next lighted, and the lower parts darker by de¬
grees. That part of the objedl, whether in naked
figures, or drapery, or buildings, that dands farthed
out, mud be made the lighted, becaufe it comes neared
to the light ; and the light lofeth fo much of its bright-
nefs, by how mucli any part of the body bends in¬
ward, becaufe thole parts that dick out hinder the ludre
and full brightnefs of the light from driking oh thofe
parts that fall in. Titian ufed to fay, that he knew
no better rule for the diilribution of lights andlhadovvs
than his obfervations drawn from a bunch of grapes.
Sattins and filks, and all other Ihining duffs, have cer¬
tain glancing reflections, exceeding bright where the
light falls dronged. The like is feen in armour, brafs
pots, or any other glittering metal, where you fee a
fudden brightnefs in the middle or centre of the light,
which difeovers the fliining nature of fuch things. Ob*
ferve alfo, that a drong light requires a drong lhade,
a fainter light a fainter lhade ; and that an equal balance
be preferved throughout the piece between the lights
and lhades. Thofe parts which mud appear round
require but one Itroke in lhading, and that fometimes
but very faint; fuch parts as Ihoidd appear deep or hol¬
low, require twm firokes acrofs each other, or fome¬
times three, which is fufficient for the deeped (hade.
Care mud be alfo taken to make the outlines faint and
fmall in fuch parts as receive the light; but where the
lhades fall, the outline mud be drong and bold. The
learner mud begin his diadings from the top, and pro¬
ceed downward, and ufe his utmod endeavours both
by practice and obfervation to learn how to vary the
diadings properly ; for in this confids a great deal of
the beauty and elegance of drawing. Another thing
to be obferved is, that as the human fight is weakened
by didances, fo objedls mud feem more or lefs confu-
fed or clear according to the places they hold in the
piece : Thofe that are very didant,—weak, faint, and
confufed; thofe that are near and on the foremod
ground,—clear; Arong, and accurately finilhed.
§ 1- Of Drapery.
In the art of clothing the figures, or cading the
drapery properly and elegantly upon them, many things
are to be obferved. i. The eye mud never be in doubt
of its objedl; but the fliape and proportion of the part
©r limb, which the drapery is fuppofed to cover,, mud
appear ; at lead fo far as art arid probability wilhper-
mit : and this is fo material a confideration, that many
artifls draw fird the naked figure, and afterwards put
the draperies upon it. 2. The drapery mud not fit
too dole to the parts of the body : but let it feem to
flow round, and as it were to embrace them ; yet fo as
. that the figure may be eafy, and have a free motion.
3. The draperies which cover thofe parts that are ex-
pofed to great light mud not be fo deeply (haded as to
feem to pierce them $ nor (hould thofe members be
croffed by folds that are too llrong, led by the too
great darknefs of their (hades the members look as if
they were broken. 4. The great folds mud be drawn
fird, and then llroked into leffer ones : and great erfre
mud be taken that they do not crofs one another im¬
properly. 5. Folds in general (hould be large, and as
few as poffibld However, they mull be greater or lefs
according to the quantity and quality of the duffs of
which the drapery is fuppofed to be made. The qua¬
lity of the perlons is alfo to be confidered in the drapery.
If they are fnagidrates, their draperies ought to be
large and ample ; if country clowns or (laves, they
ought to be coarfe and fliort; if ladies or nymphs, light
and foft. 6. Suit the garments to the body, and make
them bend with it, according as it dands in or out,
draight or crooked ; or as it bends one way or another;
and the clofer the garment fits to the body, the nar¬
rower and fmaller mull be the folds. 7. Folds well
imagined give much fpirit to any kind of adtion ; be¬
caufe their motion implies a motion in the adling mem¬
ber, which feems to draw them forcibly, and makes
them more or lefs dirring as the adtion is more or lefs
violent. 8. An artful complication of folds in a circu¬
lar manner greatly helps the effedt of fore-flrortenings.
9. All folds confid of two (hades, and no more ; which
you may turn with the garment at pleafure, ihadowing
the inner fide deeper, and the outer more faintly.
10. The (hades in filk and fine linen are very thick and
fmall, requiring little folds and a light fhadowu 11. Qb-
ferve the motion of the air or wind, in order to draw
the loofe apparel all flying one way : and draw that
part of the garment that adheres clofed to the body
before you draw the loofer part that flies off from it ;
led, by drawing the loofe part of the garment fird,
you (hould midake the pofition of the figure, and place
it awry. 12. Rich ornaments, when judicioufly and
fparingly ufed, may fometimes contribute to the beau¬
ty of draperies. But fuch ornaments are far below
the dignity of angels or heavenly figures; the gran¬
deur of whofe draperies ought rather to confiit in the
boldnefs and noblenefs of the folds, than in the quality
of the duff or the glitter of ornaments. 13. Light
and flying draperies are proper only to figures in great
motion, or in the wind : but when in a calm place, and
free from violent adtion, their draperies fhould be large
and flowing; that, by their contrad and the fall of
the folds, they may appear with grace and dignity.
Thus much for drapery ; an example or two of which
are given in Plate CLXV'III. But fee farther the
articles Crayon and Paikting.
$ 8, On the PaJJicns.
The pafliorts, fays M Le Brun, are motions of the
foul, either upon her purfuing what (he judges to he
for her good, or (huftning what (lie thinks hurtful to
her 3
DRAWING.
her ; and commonly, whatever caufes emotion of paf-
fion in the foul, creates alfo fome action in the body.
It is therefore neceflary for a painter to know which
are the different adtions in the body that exprefs
the feveral paffions of the foul, and how to delineate
them.
M. Le Brun has been extremely happy in expreffing
many of the paffions, and the learner cannot ftudy any
thing better than the examples which he has left us of
them. However, as M. De Piles juilly obferves, it is ab-
furd as well as impoffible to pretend to give fuch parti¬
cular demonftrations of them as,to fix their expreffion to
certain -ftrokes, which the painter ffiould be obliged to
make life of as effential and invariable rules. This,
fays he, would be depriving the art of that excellent
variety of expreffion which has no other principle than
diverfity of imagination, the number of which is infi¬
nite. The fame paffion may be finely expreffed feve¬
ral ways, each yielding more or lefs pleafure in pro¬
portion to the painter’s underftanding and the fpecla*.
tor’s difcernment.
Though every part of the face contributes towards
expreffing the fentiments of the heart, yet the eye¬
brow, according to M. Le Brun, is the principal feat
of expreffion, and where the paffions beft make them-
felves known. It is certain, fays he, that the pupil
of the eye, by its fire and motion, very well ffiows the
agitation of the foul, but then it does not exptefs the
kind or nature of fuch an agitation ; whereas the mo¬
tion of the eye-brow differs according as the paffions
change their nature. To exprefs a fimple paffion, the
motion is fimple; to exprefs a mixed pafiion, the mo¬
tion is compound: if the paffion be gentle, the mo¬
tion is gentle ; and if it be violent, the motion is fo
too. We may obfave farther, fays he, that there are
two kinds of elevation in the eye-brows. One, in
which the eye-brows rife up in the middle ; this eleva¬
tion expreffes agreeable fenfations, and it is to be ob-
ferved that then the mouth rifes at the corners-: Ano-_
ther, in which the eye-brows rife up at the .ends, and
fall in the middle ; this, motion denotes bodily pain,
'and then the mouth falls at the corners.^ Imlaughter,
all the parts agree ; for the eye-brows, which fall to¬
ward the middle of the forhead, make the nofe, the
mouth, and the eyes, follow the fame motion. In
weeping, the motions are compooml and contrary; for
the eye-brows fall toward the nofe and. over the eyes,
and the mouth rifes that way. It is to be obferved
alfo, that the mouth is the part of the face which more
particularly expreffes the emotions of the heart: for
when the heart complains, the mouth falls at the cor¬
ners; when it is at eafe, the corners of the mouth are
elevated; and when it has an averfion, the mouth ffioots
forward, and rifes in the middle.
“The head (fays M. De Piles) contributes more to
“ the expreffion of the paffions than all the other parts
“ of the body put together. Thofe feparately can only
“ fhow fome few paffions, but the head expreffes them
“ all. Some, however, are more peculiarly expreffed
“ by it than others: as humility, by hanging it down;
“ arrogance, by lifting it up; languilhment, by inclin-
“ ing it on one fide; and obltinacy, when with a ftiff
“ and refolute air it Hands upright, fixed, and lliff
“ between the two (boulders. The head alfo beft
“ ffiows. our fupplications, threats, mildnefs, pride,
“ love, hatred, joy, and grief. The whole face, and
“ every feature, contributes fomething: efpecially the
“ eyes; which, as Cicero fays, are the windows of the
“ foul. The paffions they more particularly difeover
“ are, pleafure, languiffiing, fcorn, feverity, mildnefs,
“ admiration, and-anger; to which one might add joy
“ and grief, if they did not proceed more particularly
“ from the eye-brows and mouth; but when thofe two
“ paffions fall in alio with the language of the eyes,
“ the harmony will be wonderful. But though the
“ paffions of the foul are moft vilible in the lines and
“ features of the face, they often require the affiftance
“ alfo of the other parts of the body. Without the
“ hands, forinftance. allaftion is weak and imperfedf;
“ their motions, which are ulmoft infinite, create num-
“ berlefs expreffions: it is by them that we dejire, hopey
“ promife, call, fend back ; they are the inftruments of
“ threatening, prayer, horror, and praifej by them we
“ approve, condemn, refufe, admit, fear, ajk; exprefs
“ our joy and grief, our doubts, regrets, pain, and ad-
“ miration. % In a word, it may be faid, as they are-
“ the language of the dumb, that they contribute
“ not a' little to fpeak a language common to all na-
“ tions, which is the language of painting. But to
“ fay how thefe parts muft be difpofed for expreffing
“ the various pa(jfions, is impoffible, nor can any exaft
“ rules be given for k, both becaufe the talk would
y be, infinite, and becaufe every one muft be guided in
“ this by his own genius and the particular turn of his
“ own (Indies.” See the article Passions, and the
Plate there referred to.
$ 9, Of drawing Flowers, Fruits, Birds, Beajls, See.
Th e learner may proceed now to make fome at¬
tempts at drawing flowers, fruits, birds, beafts, and",
the like ; not only as it will be a more plealing em¬
ployment, but as it is an eafier talk, than the draw¬
ing of hands and feet, and other parts of the human
body, which require not only more care, but greater
cxaiftnefs and nicer judgment.. Very few rules or in-
(Vru&ions are requifite upon this head ; the beft thing
the learner can do is, to furniffi himfelf with good
prints or drawings by way of examples, and with great
care and exa&nefs to copy them. If it is the figure
of a bead, begin with the forehead, and draw the:
nofe, the upper and under jaw, and ftop at the throat.
Then go to the top of the head, and form the ears,
neck, back, and continue the line till you have given
the full (hape of the buttock. Then form the breaft^
and mark out the legs and feet, and all the fmaller parts.
And, laft of all, finiffi it with the proper (hadows.
It is not amifs, by way of ornament, to give a. final!
(ketch of landfldp ; and let it be fuitable and natural
to the place or country of the bead; you draw. Much,
the fame may be faid with regard to birds. Of thefe,,
a« well as beads and other objects, the learner will
find many examples among the plates given in this>
work.
§10. Of drawing Landfcapes, Buildings, &c:
Of all the parts of drawing, this is the moft ufeful
and neceffary, as it is what every man may have oc-
cafion for at one time or another. To be able, on the-
fpot, to take the (ketch of a fine building, or 3 beau--
tiful profpecV; of any curious production of art, or-
4. un?-
117
DRAWING.
uncommon appearance in nature; is not only a very de¬
sirable accomplifhment, but a very agreeableamufement.
Rocks, mountains, fields, woods, rivers, cataracts,
cities, towns, caftles, houfes, fortifications, ruins, or
whatfoever elfe may prefent itfelf to view on our jour¬
neys or travels in our own or foreign countries, may
be thus brought home, and preferved for our future
ufe either in bufinefs or converfation. On this part,
therefore, more than ordinary pains ftiould be beftow-
ed.
All drawing confifts in nicely meafuring the diftan-
ces of each part of the piece by the eye. In order to
facilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind,
that the piece he copies is divided into fquares. For
example : Suppofe or imagine a perpendicular and a
horizontal line crofling each other in the centre of the
pifture you are drawing from ; then fuppofe alfo two
fuch lines crofling your own copy. Obferve in the
original, what parts of the defign thofe lines interfedf,
and let them fall on the fame parts of the fuppofed
lines in the copy: We fay, the fuppofedlines; becaufe
though engravers, and others who copy with great
exadlnefs, divide both the copy and original into many
fquares, as below : yet this is a method not to be re¬
commended, as it will be apt to deceive the learner,
who will fancy himfelf a tolerable proficient, till he
comes to draw after nature, where thefe helps are not
to be had, when he will find himfelf miferably defec¬
tive and utterly at a lofs.
If he is to draw a landfcape from nature, let him
take his ftatiori on a rifing ground, where he will have
a large horizon ; and mark his tablet into three divi-
fions, downwards from the top to the bottom; and
divide in his own mind the landfcape he is to take, in¬
to three divifions alfo. Then let him turn his face di-
redlly oppofite to the midft of the horizon, keeping
his body fixed, and draw what is diredtly before his
eyes upon the middle divifion of the tablet; then'turn
his head, but not his body, to the left hand, and de¬
lineate wdiat he views there, joining it properly to
what he had done before ; and, laftly, do the fame by
what is to be feen upon his right hand, laying down
every thing exactly both with refpeCt to diftance and
proportion. One example is given on plate CLXVIII.
The beft artifis of late, in drawing their landfcapes,
make them (hoot away one part lower than another.
Thofe who make their landfcapes mount up higher and
higher, as if they flood at the bottom of a hill to take
the profpedt, commit a great error: the beft way is to
get upon a rifing ground, make the neareft obje&s in
the piece the higheft, and thofe that are farther off to
flioot away lower and lower till they come almoft level
with the line of the horizon, leffening every thing pro-
portionably to its diftance, and obferving alfo to make
the obje&s fainter and lefs diftindt the farther they are
removed from the eye. He muft make all his lights
and fhades fall one way, and let every thing have its
proper motion: as trees fhaken by the wind, the fmall
boughs bending more, and the large ones lefs: water
agitated by the wind, and dafliing againft (hips or
boats ; or falling from a precipice upon rocks and
ftones, and fpirting up again into the air, and fprink-
ling all about: clouds alfo in the air, now gathered
with the winds; now violently condenfed into hail,
rain, and the like : Always remembering, that what¬
ever motions are caufed by the wind muft be made all
to move the fame way, becaufe the wind can blow but
one way at once.
Finally, it muft be obferved, that in order to attain
any confiderable proficiency in drawing, a knowledge of
Perspective is abfojutely neceffary; fee that article.
D R A
Dray, DRAY, a kind of cart ufed by brewers for carry-
Drayton. ing barrels of beer or ale; alfo a fledge drawn without
wheels.
Dray, among fportfmen, denotes fquirrel nefts built
in the tops of trees.
DRAYTON (Michael), an eminent Englifli poet,
born of an ancient family in Warwickihire in 1563.
His propenfity to poetry was extremely ftrong, even
from his infancy ; and we find the moft of his principal
poems publiflied, and himfclf highly diftinguifhed as a
poet, by the time he was about 30 years of age.— It
appears from his poem of Mofes’s Birth and Miracles,
that he was a fpeclator at Dover of the famous Spanifli
armada, and it is not improbable that he was engaged
in fome military employent there. It is certain, that
not only for his merit as a writer, but his valuable qua¬
lities as a man, he was held in high eftimation, and
ftrongly,patronized by feveral perfonages of confe-
quence ; particularly by Sir Henry Goodere, Sir Wal¬
ter Afton, and the Countefs of Bedford; to the firft
of whom he owns himfelf indebted for great part of
his education, and by the fecond he was for many years
fupported.
D R E
His poems are very numerous; and fo elegant, that pira
his manner has been copied by many modern writers Dre
of eminence fince. Among thefe the moft celebrated ——
one is the Poly-Albion, a chorographical defcription of
England, with its commodities, antiquities, and cu-
riofities, in metre of 12 fyllables; which he dedicated
to Prince Henry, by whoie encouragement it was writ¬
ten : and whatever may be thought of the poetry, his
defcriptions are allowed to be exacft. He was ityled
poet laureat in his time: which, as Ben Johnfon was
then in that office, is to be underftood in a loofe fenfe
of approbation as an excellent poet; and was beftowed
on others as well as Drayton, without being confined
ftridlly to the office known by that appellation. He
died in 1631 ; and was buried in Weftminfter-abbey
among the poets, where his butt is to be feen, with an
epitaph penned by Ben Johnfon.
DREAMS, are all thofe thoughts which people
feel palling through their minds, and thofe imaginary
tranfaftions in which they often fancy themfelves en¬
gaged, when in the date of fleep.
Scarce any part of nature is lefs open to our obfer-
vation than the human mind in this ftate. The
dreamer
D R E [ n
dreamer himfelf cannot well obferve the manner in
which dreams arife or difappear to him. When he
awakes, he cannot recoil eft the circumftances of his
dreams with fufficient accuracy. Were we to watch
over him with the moll vigilant attention, we could not
perceive with certainty what emotions are excited in
his mind, or what thoughts pafs through it, during
his deep. But though we could afcertain thefe phe¬
nomena, many other difficulties would ftill remain.
What parts of a human being are aftive, what dor¬
mant, when he dreams ? Why does not he always dream
while afleep ? Or why dreams he at all ? Do any cir¬
cumftances in our conftitution, fituation, and peculiar
eharafter, determine the nature of our dreams?
We may lay before our readers fuch fafts as have
been afcertained concerning dreaming, and the moft
plaufible conjeftures that have been offered to explain
thofe particulars, about which we can only conjefture,
or have at leaft hitherto obtained nothing more certain
than conjefture.
1. In dreaming, we are not confcious of being afleep.
This is well known from a thoufand circumftances.
When awake, we often recolleft our dreams ; arid we
remember on fuch occaftons, that while thofe dreams
were paffing through our minds, it never occurred to
us that we were Teparated by fleep from the aftive
world. We are often obferved’ to aft and talk in
dreaming as if we were buiily engaged in the intercourfe
of focial life.
2. In dreaming, we do not confrder ourfelves as
witneffing or bearing a part in a fiftitious feene : we
feem not to be in a iimilar fituation with the aftors in
a dramatic performance, or the fpeftators before whom
they exhibit, but engaged in the bufinefs of real life.
All the varieties of thought that pafs through our
minds when awake may alfo occur in dreams; all the
images which imagination prefents in the former ftate,
(he is alfo able to call up in the latter; all the fame
emotions may be excited, and we are often aftuated by
equal violence of paffion ; none of the tranfaftions in
which we are capable of engaging while awake is im-
poffible in dreams: in fliort, our range of aftion and
ebfervation is equally wide in the one ftate as in the
other; and while dreaming, we are not fenfible of any
diftinftion between our dreams and the events and
tranfaftions in which we are aftually concerned in our
intercourfe with the world.
3. It is faid, that all men are not liable to dream.
Dr Beattie, in a very pleafing effuy on this fubjeft,
relates, that he knew a gentleman who never dreamed
except when his health was in a difordered ftate : and
Locke mentions fomewhere, that a certain perfon of
his acquaintance was a ftranger to dreaming till the
26th year of his age ; and then began to dream in
confequence of having a fever." Thefe iuftances, how¬
ever, are too few, and we have not been able to ob¬
tain more ; and, befidesj it does not appear that thofe
perfons had always attended, with the care a philo-
fopher making an experiment, to the circumftances of
their deep. They might dream, but not recolleft their
dreams on awaking ; and they might both dream and
recolleft'their dreams immediately upon awaking, yet
afterwards fuffer the remembrance of them to flip out
of the- memory. We do not advance this therefore as
9 ] B R E
a certain faft concerning dreaming; vve are rather in¬
clined to think it a miftake.
But though it appears to be by no means certain
that any of the human race are through the whole of
life abfolute ftrangers to dreaming; yet it is welb
known that all men are not equally liable to dream.
The fame perfon dreams more or lefs at different times;
and as one perfon may be more expofed than another
to thofe circumftances which promote this exercife of
fancy, one perfon may therefore dream more than ano¬
ther. The fame diverfity will naturally take place in
this as in other accidents to which mankind are in ge¬
neral liable.
4. Though in dreams imagination appears to be free
from all reftraint, and indulges in the moft wanton
freaks; yet it is generally agreed, .that the imaginary
tranfaftions of the dreamer bear always fome relation"
to his particular charafter in the world, his habits of
aftion, and the circumftances of his life. The lover,
we are told, dreams of hjs miftrefs; the mifer of his
money ; the philofopher renews his refearches in fleep
often with the fame pain and fatigue as when awake;
and even the merchant, at times, returns to balance
his books, and compute the profits of an adventure,
when (lumbering on his pillow. And not only do the
more general circumftances of a perfon’s life influence
his dreams; his paffions and habits are nearly the fame
when afleep as when awake. A perfon whofe habits
of life are virtuous, does not in his dreams plunge into
a feries of crimes; nor aie the vicious reformed when
they pafs into this imaginary world. The choleric
man finds himfelf offended by (light provocations
as well in his dreams as in his ordinary intercourfe
with the world, and a mild temper continues pacific
in fleep,
5. The charafter of a perfon?s dreams is influenced,
by his circumftances when awake in a ftill more unac¬
countable manner. Certain dreams ufually arife in the
mind after a perfon has been in certain fituations. Dr
Beattie relates, that he once, after riding 30 miles in
a high wind, paffed a part of the fucceeding night in
dreams beyond defeription terrible. The ftate of a
perfon’s health, and the manner in which the vital
functions are carried on, have a confiderable influ-*
ence in determining" the charafter of dreams. Af¬
ter too fuH a meal, or after eating of an unufual
fort of food,, a perfon has*always dreams of a certain
nature.
6. In dreaming, the mind for the moft part carries
on no intercourfe through the fenfes with furrounding
objefts. Touch a perfon gently who is afleep, he feels
not the impreffion. You may awake him by a fmart
blow; but when the ftroke is not fuffieicntly violent
to awake him, he remains infenfible of it. We fpeak
foftly. befide a perfon afleep without fearing that lie
overhear us. His eye-lids are (hut; and even though
light fiiould fall upon the eye-ball, yet ftill his powers
of vifion are not awakened to aftive exertion, unlefs
the light be fo ftrong as to roufe him from fleep. Htj
is infenfible. both to fweet and to difagreeable fmells. It
is not eafy to try whether his organs of tafte retain
their aftivity, without awakening him-; yet from ana-
logy it may be prefumed that thefe too are iuaftive,
With reipeft to the eucunailauccs here enumerated,.
6. it--
D R E
it Is indifferent whether a perfon be dreaming or buried
' in deep deep'.
Yet there is one remarkable fact concerning dream¬
ing which may feem to contradift what has been here
afferted. In dreams, we are liable not only to fpeak
aloud in confequence of the fuggeftions of imagination,
but even to get up, and walk about and engage in little
cnterprifes, without awaking. Now, as we are in this
inftance fo aftive, it feerhs that we cannot be then in-
fenhble of the prefence of furrounding objefts. The
fleep-walker is really fenfible in a certain degree of the
F 120 ]
D R E
inconfiftent with the general analogy of nature, that Dreams.!
dreams flioukl have a refpeft to futurity. We have no '—v—r
reafon to regard the dreams which are related in the
Holy Scriptures to have been prophetic of future
events, as not infpired by heaven, or to laugh at the
idea of a prophetic dream as abfurd or ridiculous.
Yet it would be too much to allow to dreams all
that importance which has been afcribed to them by
the priefthood among heathen nations, or by the vul¬
gar among ourfelves. We know how eafrly ignorance
impofes on itfelf, and what arts impofture adopts to im-
prefence of the objefts around him ; but he does not pofe upon others. We cannot trace any certain con-
attend to them with all their circumftances, nor do
they excite in him the fame emotions as if he
neftion between our dreams and thofe events to which
the fimplicity of the vulgar pretends that they refer.
wake. He feels no terror on the brink of a precipice;' And we cannot, therefore, if difpofed to coniine our
and in confequence of being free from fear, he is alfo
without danger in fuch a fituation unlefs fuddenly a-
waked. This is one of the moft inexplicable pheno¬
mena of dreaming.
There is alfo another fa£t not quite confonant with
belief to certain or probable truths, join with the vul¬
gar in believing them really referable to futurity.
9. It appears that the brutes are alfo capable of
dreaming. The dog is often obferved to ftart fudden-
ly up in his deep, in a manner which cannot be ac¬
what has been above advanced. It is faid, that in deep counted for any other way than by fuppofing that
a perfon will continue to hear the noife of a cataradl
in the neighbourhood, or regular ftrokes with a ham¬
mer, or any fimilar found fufficiently loud, and con¬
tinued uninterruptedly from before the time of his fall¬
ing alleep. We know not whether he awakes on the
fudden ceffation of the noife. This faft is afferted on
he is roufed by fome impulfe received in a dream.
The fame thing is obfervable of others of the inferior
animals. That they fhould dream, is not an idea incon¬
fiftent with what we know of their economy and man¬
ners in general. We may, therefore, confider it as a
pretty certain truth, that many, if not all, of the low-
fufficient evidence : it is curious. Even when awake, er fpecies are liable to dream as well as human beings.
if very deeply intent on any piece of ftudy, or clofely It appears, then, that in dreaming we are not con-
occupied in bufinefs, the found of a clock ftriking in fcious of being afleep : that to a perfon dreaming, his
the neighbourhood, or the beating of a drum, will e-
fcape us unnoticed : and it is therefore the more fur-
prifrng that we ftiould thus continue fenfible to founds
when afleep.
7. Not only do a perfon’s general chara&er, habits
of life, and ftate of health, influence his dreams ; but
thofe concerns in which he has been moft deeply inte-
refted during the preceding day, and the views which
have arifen moft frequently to his imagination, very
often afford the fubjefts of his dreams. When I look
forward with anxious expectation towards any future
event, I am likely to dream either of the difappoint-
dreams feem realities : that though it be uncertain
whether mankind are all liable to dreams, yet it is well
known that they are not all equally liable to dream s
that the nature of a perfon’s dreams depends in fome
meafure on his habits of aftion, and on the circum¬
ftances of his life : that the ftate of the health too, and
the manner in which the vital functions are-carried on,
have a powerful influence in determining the character
of a perfon’s dreams : that in fleep and in dreaming,
the fenfes are either abfolutely inactive, or nearly fo :
that fuch concerns as we have been very deeply inte-
refted in during the preceding day, are very likely to
ment or the gratification of my wiftres. Have I been return upon our minds in dreams in the hours of reft:
engaged through the day, either in bufinefs or amufe- that dreams may be rendered prophetic of future events;
merits which I have found exceedingly agreeable, or and therefore, wherever we have fuch evidence, of their
1 way in which I have been extremely unhappy ?
either my happinefs or my mifery is likely to be renew¬
ed in my dreams.
8. -Though dreams have been regarded among almoft
having been prophetic as we would accept ..on any
other occafton, we cannot reafonably rejedt the fadi on
account of its abfurdity ; but that they do not appear
to have been aftually fucla, in thofe initances in which
all nations through the world, at leaft in fome periods the fuperftition of nations, ignorant of true religion, has
of their hiftory, as prophetic of future events ; yet it
does not appear that this popular opinion has been e~
ftabliftied on good grounds. Chriftianity, indeed,
reprefented them as referring to futurity, nor in thofe
inftances in which they are viewed in the fame light
by the vulgar among ourfelves: and, laftly, that dream-
teaches us to believe, that the Supreme Being may, ing is not a phenomenon peculiar to human nature,
and adlually does, operate on our minds, and influence but common to mankind with the brutes,
at times the determinations of our will, without making We know of no other fafts that have been fully af-
us fenfible of the reftraint to which we are thus fubjec- certained concerning dreaming. But we are by no
ted. And, in the fame manner, no doubt, the fug- means fufficiently acquainted with this important phe-
geftions which aiife to us in dreams may be produced, romenon in the hiftory of mind. We cannot tell by
The imaginary tranfactions in which we are then en¬
gaged, .may be fuch as are actually to occupy us i
life ; the ftrange and feemingly incoherent appearances
which are then prefented to the mind’s eye, may al-
what laws of our conftitution we are thus liable to be
fo frequently engaged in imaginary tranfadtions, nor
what are the particular means by which the delufion
.ccomplifhed. The delufion is indeed remarkably
lude to fome events which are to befall ourfelves or ftrong. ‘ One will fometimes have a book prefented to
others. It is, therefore, by no means impofiible, or him in a dream, and fancy that he-reads, and actually
NJ 103. enter
D R E [ 121 ] D R E
enter Into the nature of the imaginary compofition be¬
fore him, and even remember, after he awakes, what
he knows, that he only fancied himfelf reading (a).
Can this be delufion ? If delufion, how or for what
purpofes is it produced ? The mind, it would appear,
does not, in fleep, become inaftive like the body ; or
at leaft is not always inaftive while we are afleep.
When we do not dream, the mind muft either be in¬
active, or the connection between the mind and the
body muft be confidered as in fome manner fufpended:
and when we dream, the mind, though it probably
aCts in concert with the body, yet does not aCt in the
fame manner as when we are awake. It feems to be
clouded or bewildered, in confequence of being depri¬
ved for a time of the fervice of the fenfes. Imagina¬
tion becomes more aCtive and more capricious : and
all the other powers, efpecially judgment and memory,
become difordered and irregular in their operation.
Various theories have been propofed to explain what
appears here moft inexplicable. The ingenious Mr
Baxter, in his Treatife on the Immateriality of the Hu¬
man Soul, endeavours to prove that dreams are pro¬
duced by the agency of fome fpiritual beings, who ei¬
ther aituife or employ themfelves ferioufly in engaging
mankind in all thofe imaginary tranfaCtions with which
they are employed in dreaming. This theory, how¬
ever, is far from being.plaufible. It leads us entirely
beyond the limits of our knowledge. It requires us
to believe without evidence. It is unfupported by any
analogy. It creates difficulties ftill more inexplicable
than thofe which it has been propofed to remove. Till
it appear that our dreams cannot poffibly be produced
without the interference of other fpiritual agents, pof-
feffing fuch influence over our minds as to deceive us
with fancied joys, and involve us in imaginary afflic¬
tions, we cannot reafonably refer them to fuch a caufe.
Befides, from the faCts which have been ftated as well
known concerning dreams, it appears that their nature
depends both on the ftate of the human body and on
that of the mind. But were they owing to the agen¬
cy of other fpiritual beings, how could they be influ¬
enced by the ftate of the body ? Thofe muft be a cu¬
rious fet of fpiritual beings who depend in fuch a man¬
ner on the ftate of our corporeal frame. Better not
to allow them exiftence at all, than to place them in
fuch a dependance.
Wolfius, and after him M. Formey, have fuppofed,
that dreams never arife in the mind, except in confe¬
quence of fome of the organs of fenfation having been
previoufly excited. Either the ear or the eye, or the or¬
gans of touching, tailing, or fmelling, communicate
information, fomehow, in a tacit, fecret manner; and
thus partly roufe its faculties from the lethargy in
which they are buried in fleep, and engage them in a
feries of confufed and imperfect exertions. But
what pafles in dreams is fo very different from all that
we do when awake, that it is impoffible for the
dreamer himfelf to diftinguilh, whether his powers of
■fenfation perform any part on the occafion. It is not
neceffary that imagination be always excited by fen-
ffation. Fancy, even when we are awake, often wan-
Vol. VI. Part I.
ders from the prefent feene. Abfence of mind is
dent to the ftudious: the poet and the mathemat
many times forget where they are. We cannot d
ver from any thing that a perfon in dreaming difplays
to the obfervation of others, that his organs of fenfa¬
tion take a part in the imaginary tranfadlions in which
he is employed. In thofe inftances, indeed, in which
perfons afleep are faid to hear founds; the founds
which they hear are faid alfo to influence, in fome
manner, the nature of their dreams. But fuch in¬
ftances are lingular. Since then it appeal's that the
perfon who dreams is himfelf incapable of diftinguilh-
ing either during his dreams, or by recolledlion when
awake, whether any new impreffions are communicated
to him in that ftate by his organs of fenfation; that
even by watching over him, and comparing our obfer-
vations of his circumftances and emotions, in his
dreams, with what he recolledls of them after awak¬
ing, we cannot, except in one or two Angular inftances,
afeertain this fa£l; and that the mind is not incapable
of adling while the organs of fenfation are at reft,
and on many occaflons refufes to liften to the infor¬
mation which they convey ; we may, without heftta-
tion, conclude, that the theory of Wolflus and For¬
mey has been too haftily and incautioufly advanced.
Other phyflologifts tell us, that the mind, when we
dream, is in a ftate of delirium. Sleep, they fay, is at¬
tended with what is called a collapfe of the brain ;
during which either the whole or a part of the nerves
of which it conftfts, are in a ftate in which they can¬
not carry on the ufual intercourfe between the mind
and the organs of fenfation. When the whole of the
brain is in this ftate, we become entirely unconfcious
of exiftence, and the mind Auks into inadftivity : when
only a part of the brain is collapfed, as they term it,
we are then neither afleep nor awake, but in a fort of
delirium between the two. This theory, like the laft
mentioned, fuppofes the mind incapable of a&ing
without the help of fenfation : it fuppofes that we
know the nature of a ftate of which we cannot afeer¬
tain the phenomena; it alfo contradifts a known fa<ft,
in reprefenting dreams as confufed images of things
around us, not fanciful combinations of things not ex-
ifting together in nature or in human life. We muft
treat it likewife, therefore, as a bafelefs fabric.
In the laft edition of this work, a theory fomewhat
different from any of the foregoing was advanced on
this fubjeft. It was obferved, that the nervous fluid,
which is allowed to be fecreted from the blood by the
brain, appears to be likewife abforbed from the blood
by the extremities of the nerves. It was farther ad¬
vanced, that as this fluid was to be confldered as the
principle of fer.flbility; therefore, in all cafes in which
a fufficient fupply of it was not abforbed from the
blood by the extremities of the nerves, the parts of the
body to which thofe nerves belonged, muft be, in fome
degree, deprived of fenfation. From thefe pofttions
it was inferred, that as long as impreffions of external
objedls continue to communicate a certain motion
from the fentient extremities of the nerves to the
brain,—fo long we continue awake; and that, when
there
( a ) The writer of this article has been told by a refpe&able old gentleman of his acquaintance, Ance dead,
■Ahat he had frequently dreams of this nature. The fad may therefore be conftdered as unqueftionable.
D R E
there is a deficiency of this vital fluid in the extremi¬
ties of the nerves, or when from any other caufe it
ceafes to communicate to the brain the peculiar motion
alluded to, we muft naturally fall qfleep, and become
infenfible of our exiftence. It followed of confequence,
that, in deep, the nervous fluid between the extreme
parts of the nerves and the brain muft either be at reft,
or be deficient, or be prevented by fome means from
palling into the brain : and it was concluded, that
whenever irregular motions of this fluid were occafion-
td by any internal caufe, dreaming was produced.—In
this manner it appeared that we might be deceived
with regard to the operation of any of the fenfes; —
fo as to fancy that we faw objefts not aftually before
tis,—to hear imaginary founds, — to tafte,—to feel, and
to fmell in imagination. The inftances of vifions
which will fometimes arife, and as it were fwim be¬
fore us when awake, though our eyes be Ihut, tinnitus
curium, which is often a fymptom in nervous difeafes,
and the ftrange feelings in the cafe of the amputated
limb, were produced in proof of this theory, and
applied fo as to confirm it.
We are ftill of opinion, that this theory is more
plaufible, and goes farther towards explaining the na¬
ture of dreaming, and the manner in which r/razm.r are pro¬
duced, than any other with which we are acquainted.
But it muft be confeffed, upon a review, that even in it
there is too much fuppofition. The nature of the ner¬
vous fluid is but imperfedlly known, and even its ex¬
iftence not very fully afeertained. The nature of the
connexion by which the foul and body are united,
feems to be almoft beyond our comprehenfion. And
till we can apply experiment and obfervation in a bet¬
ter manner to this branch of phyfiology, it muft un-
ftoubtedly remain unknown. To fomething myfterious
in the nature of that connexion, the delufion produ¬
ced in dreams is in all probability owing.
Amid this uncertainty with refpeft to the manner
in which our powers of mind and body perform their
funftions in dreaming; it is pleafing to find that we
can, .however, apply to ufeful purpofes the imperfedl
knowledge which we have been able to acquire con¬
cerning this feries of phenomena. Our dreams are
affefted by the ftate of our health, by the manner in
which we have pafi'ed the preceding day, by our ge¬
neral habits of life, by the hopes which we moft fond¬
ly indulge, and the fears which prevail moft over our
fortitude when we are awake. From recolle&ing our
dreams, therefore, we may learn to correct many im¬
proprieties in our conduct; to refrain from bodily ex-
ercifes, or from meats and drinks that have unfavour¬
able effefts on our conftitution ; to refift, in due time,
evil habits that are Healing upon us; and to guard
againft hopes and fears which detach us from our pro¬
per concerns, and unfit us for the duties of life. In-
llead of thinking what our dreams may forebode, we
may with much better reafon refledt by what they
have been occafioned, and look back to thofe circum-
ftances in our paft life to which they are owing. The
fleep of innocence and health is found and refrefliing;
their dreams delightful and pleafing. A diftemper-
ed body, and a polluted or perturbed mind, are haunt¬
ed in fleep with frightful, impure, and unpleafing
dreams^
DUE
Some very beautiful fables have been written both
by ancients and moderns in the form of dreams. The
Somnium Scipionis is one of the fineft of Cicero’s com-
pofitions. He who (hall carefully perufe this piece
withMacrobius’s commentary upon it, will acquire from
them confiderable knowledge of ancient philofophy.
In the periodical publications, which have diffufed fo
much elegant and ufeful knowledge through Britain,
the Tatlers, Spectators, Guardians, &c. we find a
number of excellent dreams. Addifon excelled in this
way of writing. The public are now lefs partial
to this fpecies of compofition than they formerly
were.
Dr Beattie, in his valuable eflay on the fubjeft of
dreaming, quotes a very fine one from the Tatler, and
gives it due praife.
The reader who is difpofed to fpeculate farther on
this fubjeCt, may dbnfult Beattie’s Efiays, Hartley on
Man, and the principal writers on phyfiology.
DRELINCOURT (Charles), minifter of the re¬
formed church at Paris, was born at Sedan in 1595,
where his father enjoyed a confiderable poft. He had
all the qualifications that compofe a refpedlable clergy¬
man ; and though he defended the Proteftant caufe a-
gainft the Romifh religion, was much efteemed even
among the Catholics. He is beft known in England
by his Confolations againft the Fears of Death, which
work was tranflated, and is often printed. He mar¬
ried the daughter of a rich merchant at Paris, by whom
he had 16 children. His third fon, profeffor of phyfic
at Leyden, was phyfician to the Prince and Princefs of
Orange before their acceflion to the crown of England.
Bayle has given him a high chara&er. Mr Drelincourt
died in 1660.
DRENCH, among farriers, a phyfical potion for
horfes. The ingredients for this purpofe are to be
beat coarfely, and either mingled with a deco&ion or
with wine. Then let all infufe about a quarter of an
hour, and give it to the horfe with a horn after he has
been tied up two hours to the rack.
DREPANE, the ancient name of Corcyra, from*
the curvity of its figure, refembling a fickle.
Drepane, Drepanum, (anc. geog.), a town of Bi-
thynia, fituated between the Sinus Aftacenus and the
Bofphorus Thracius; called Helenopolis by Conitantine,,
in honour of his mother Nicephorus Calliftus.
DREPANUM (anc. geog.), the promontory Rhiunv
in 'Achaia ; fo called becaufe bent in the manner of a
fickle.—Another Drepanum on the Arabic Gulf, on
the fide of Egypt. A third on the north fide of Crete,
fituated between Cydonia and the Sinus Amphimallus..
A fourth on the weft1fide of Cyprus. A fifth, a pro¬
montory of Cyrenaica, on the Mediterranean.
Drepanum, or Drepana, -orum, a town and port
on the weft fide of Sicily, and to the weft of mount
Eryx : Drepanitani the people. Now Trepano, a city
and port-town on the weftmoft point of Sicily. E.Long.
12. 8. Lat. 38. o.
DRESDEN, the capital city of the ele&orate of
Saxony in Germany. It is feated on the river Elbe,
which divides it into two parts. One part is called Old
Drefden, and the other the New Town, in the German:
language New Stadt. They are joined together by a
Rone bridge, fupported by 19 piers, and 630 paces in.
lengths
[ 122 ]
Drelln-
court
Drefden
D R E [ i
BrefJen, length. As this bridge was too narrow for. the crowds
Drcffing. Gf pe0ple that were continually paffing and repaffing,
v King Auguftus, in 1730, caufed two walks for foot-
paffengers to be built, one on eacli fide, in a very won¬
derful manner; the one for thofe that go into the city,
and the other for thofe that return back, Thefe are
bordered with iron pallifadoes of curious workmanfhip.
Drefden is furrounded by ftrong and handfome fortifi¬
cations; and contains, according to the lateft accounts,
110,000 inhabitants.
All the buildings of this city are conflrucled with
fquare free ftane, and are almoft all of the fame height.
They have ftone from the neighbourhood of Pirna,
about ten miles from this city, which is readily brought
down the Elbe. In general the houfes are high and
ftrong ; the ftreets wide, ftraight, well paved, clean,
and well illuminated in the night; and there are large
fquares, difpofed in fuch a manner, that Drefden may
pafs for one of the handfomeft cities in the world. The
elector’s palace is a magnificent ftru&ure, and abounds
in many valuable curiofities both of nature and art.
The colleftion of pictures is reckoned one of the fineft
that exifts, and is valued at 500,0001.
Above 700 men are here conftantly employed in
the porcelain manufacture, the annual expence of which
is eflimated at no more than 80,coo crowns ; and the
manufacture yields to the king 200,000 crowns yearly,
befides the magnificent prefepts which he occalionally
makes, and the large quantity referred for the ufe of
his houfehold.
The other moft confiderable article of trade is filver,
©f which the mines near Fridburg produce every 15
days near the value of 20,000 dollars. The metal is
brought into the city in ingots, where it is immediately
coined and delivered to the proprietors.
The court of Drefden is one of the moft remarkable
in Europe for fplendor and profufion. Six thoufand
five hundred ducats are yearly allowed for comfits and
fimilar articles, which is near twice as much as the
king of Pruffia allows for the whole expence of his
table. The revenues of the eleftor are eftimated at
about 1,576,000!.; which arife from the taxes on
lands, and a capitation of fix dollars on all males as
foon as they commence an apprentiedhip or begin to
work. People of a higher rank are taxed according to
their clafs, and are liable to be called Co account if they
affume not an exterior appearance correfpondent to the
extent of their fortune. Every foreigner pays capitation
after refiding fix months in the country. The Jews
are taxed at 50, their wives at 30, and their children
at 20 dollars. There is alfo an excife on all eatables
and liquors; and 10 per cent, is levied out of the in¬
comes of the people.
Though this city lies in a low fituation, yet it hath
agreeable profpefts. It is fupplied with a prodigious
quantity of provifions, not only out of the neighbour¬
hood, 'but from Bohemia, which are brought every
market-day, which is once a-week, E. Long. 13. 34.
NJLat. 51. 12.
DRESSING of Hemp and Flax. See Flax-
Dre/Jing.
Dressing of Meatst the preparing them for food by
means of culinary fire.
The defign of dreffing is to loofen the compages or
2; ] D R E
texture of the flefh, and difpofe it for difiblution and Dreffing'
digeftion in the ftomach. Flefh not being a proper 11
food without dreffing, is alleged as an argument that Dl evet't
man was not intended by nature for a carnivorous ani- ''
mal.
The ufual operations are roafting, boiling, and Hew¬
ing.—In roafting, it is obferved, meat will bear a much
greater and longer heat than either in boiling or Hew¬
ing ; and in boiling, greater and longer than in Hew¬
ing. The reafon is, that roaHing being performed in
the open air, as the parts begin externally to warm,
they extend and dilate, and* fo gradually let out part,
of the rarefied included air, by which means the inter¬
nal fuccuffions, on which the diffolution depends, are
much weakened and abated. Boiling being performed
in water, the preffure is greater, and confequently the
fuccuffions to lift up the weight are proportionably
Hrong ; by wdiich means the coftion is hailtned: and
even in this way there are great differences; for the
greater the weight of water, the fooner is the bulinefs
done.
In Hewing, though the heat be infinitely ffiort of
what is employed in the other ways, the operation is
much more quick, becaufe performed in a clofe veffel,
and full; by which means the fuccuffions are oftener
repeated, and more Hrongly reverberated. Hence the
force of Papin’s digeHor; and hence an illuHration of
the operation of digeHion.
Boiling, Dr Cheyne obferves, draws more of the
rank firong juices from meat, and leaves it lefs nutri¬
tive, more diluted, lighter, and eafier of digeHion ;
roaHing, on the other hand, leaves it fuller of the
flrong nutritive juices, harder to digeH, and needing
more dilution. Strong, grown, and adult animal food,
therefore, ffiould be boiled; and the younger and ten¬
derer roaited.
Dressing, in furgery, the treatment of a wound
or any difordered part. The apparatus of dreffing con-
fiHs of doffils, tents, plafiers, compreffes, bandages,
bands, ligatures, and firings. See Surgery.
DREXELIUS (Jeremiah), a Jefuit celebrated for
his piety and writings, was born at Aulburg, and be¬
came preacher in ordinary to the ele&or of Bavaria.
He wrote feveral pious and practical pieces, which
have been printed together in two volumes folio; and
died in 1638.
DREVET (Peter) the Younger, an eminent French
engraver, was a member of the royal academy pf paint¬
ing and fculpture; and died at Paris in 1739, at 42
years of age. His portraits are neat and elegant; but
laboured to the lafi degree. He particularly excels in
reprefenting lace, filk, fur, velvet, and other ornamen¬
tal parts of drefs.— His father was excellent in the
fame art; and had inftru&ed, but was furpaffed by the
fon. The younger Drevet did not confine himfelf
to portraits. We have feveral hifiorical prints by
him, which in point of neatnefs and exquiiite work-
manlhip are fcarcely to be equalled. His mofi efieem-
ed and belt biftorical print is. very valuable ; but the
firfi impreffions of it are rarely to be met with : it is,
The Prefentation of Chrift in the Temple; a very
large plate, lengthwife, from Louis de Bologna. The
following deferve alfo to be particularized. The
Meeting of Abraham’s Servant with Rebecca at the
Qj Well {
Drevtx
II
Drill.
D 11 I [ 124 ] D R I
Well; a large upright plate, from An. Coypel: and
Abraham, with his Son Ifaac on the Altar, the fame,
from the fame, dated 1707; the firft impreffions of
which are before the work upon the right thigh of Ifaac
was altered, the curved lines from the button almoft
down to the knee being in thofe impreffions arched
downwards, but in pofterior ones arched upwards.
Among his portraits, the two following are juftly
held in the higheft eftimation : M. Boffuet Bifhop of
Meaux ; a whole-length figure Handing, a middling
fized upright plate, from Rigaud: and Samuel Bernard;
a whole-length figure fitting in a chair, a large upright
plate. The fir ft impreffions of the laft are, before the
words Confdlkr d’Etct were inferted upon the plate.
DREUX, a town in the Tfle of France, remark¬
able for its antiquities ; and for the battle which was
fought in December 1562 between the Papifts and
the Proteftants, wherein the former gained the vic¬
tory. Some think it took its name from the priefts of
Gaul, called the Druids, in the times of Paganifm. It
confifts of two parifhes, St Stephen’s and Notre Dame,
called the great church, which is pretty well built. It
is feated on the river Blaife, at the foot of a mountain,
oh which is a ruined caftle. E. Long. 1. 27. N. Lat.
48. 44.
DRIEPER, or Dnieper, a river of Ruffia, which
rifes'in the foreft of Volkonfki, near the fource of the
Volga, about 100 miles from Smolenflco. ItpaffesbySmo-
lenfko and Mohilef, feparates the Ukraine from Pofand,
flows by Kiof, and falls into the Black Sea between
Otzakof and Kinbuin. By the acquifition of the pro¬
vince of Mohilef, its whole 'courfe is now included
within the Ruffian territories. It begins to be navi¬
gable at a little diftance above Smolenfko, though
in fome feafons of the year it is fo (hallow near the
town, that the goods_ muft be tranfported upon rafts
and fmall flat-bottomed boats.
DRIFT, in navigation, the angle which the line of
a (hip’s motion makes with the neareft meridian, when
{he drives with her fide to the wind and waves, and is
not governed by the power of the helm: it alfo im¬
plies the diftance which the fthp drives on that line.
A {hip’s way is only called drift in a ftorm; and
then when it" blows fo vehemently as to prevent her
from carrying any fail, or at leaft reftrains her to fuch
a portion of fail as may be neceffary to keep her fuffi-
ciently inclined to one fide, that Ihe may not be dif-
mafted by her violent labouring produced by the turbu¬
lence of the fea.
Drift, in mining, a paffage cut out under the earth
betwixt {haft and {haft, or turn and turn; or a paffage
or way-wrought under the earth to the end of a meer
of ground, or part of a meer.
DRiFT-Sail, a fail ufed under water, veered out right
a-head by Iheets, as other fails are. It ferves to keep
the {hip’s head right upon the fea in a llorm, and to
hinder her driving too faff in a current.
DRILL, in mechanics, a fmall inftrument for ma¬
king fuch holes as punches will not conveniently ferve
for. Drills are of various fizes, and are chiefly ufed by
fmiths and turners.
Drill, or Drill-Box, a name given to an inftrument
for fowing land in the new method of horfe-hoeing
hr.fbandry. See Agriculture.
D.'UJ.L-Sowing, a .method of fowing grain or feed
of any kind-, fo that it may all be at a proper depth in
the earth, which is neceffary to its producing healthful
and vigorous plants. For this purpofe a variety of
drill-ploughs have been invented and recommended; but
from the expence attending the purchafe, and the ex¬
treme complication of their ilru&ure, there is not an
inftrument of that kind, as yet difeovered, that is likely
to be brought into general ufe. This method, how¬
ever, is greatly recommended in the Georgical Effays,
where we have the following obfervations and experi¬
ments.—“ Grain fown by the hand, and covered by
the harrows, is placed at unequal depths; the feeds
confequently fprout at different times, and produce an
Unequal crop. When barley is fown late, and a drought
fucceeds, the grain that was buried in the moifture of
the earth foon appears, while fuch as was left near the
furface lies baking in the heat of the fun, and does
not vegetate till plentiful rains have moiftened the foil.
Hence an inequality of the crop, an accident to which,
barley is particularly liable. The fame obfervation,
but in a more ftriking manner, may be made upon the
fowing of turnips. It frequently happens that the
hufbandman is obliged to fow his feed in very dry
weather, in hopes that rain will foon follow; and either
rolls or covers it With a buftr-harrow. We wili fup-
pofe, that, contrary to his expectations, the dry wea¬
ther- continues. The feed, being near the furface,
cannot fprout without rain. The hufbandman is mor¬
tified at his difappointment, but is foon fatisfied and
made eafy by a perfect acquiefcence in what he thinks
is the will of Providence. The fcourge that he feels
muft not be placed to the difpenfation of Providence,
but has its fource in the ignorance of the man him-
felf. Had he judicioufty buried the feed in the moilt
part of the foil with the drill plough, or harrowed
well with the common harrow, his feed would have
vegetated in due feafon, and bountifully repaid him-
for his toil.
“ In the year 1769, a 15 acre clofe was prepared
for turnips. The land was in fine condition as to light-
nefs, and had been well manured. , On the 24th of
June, 14 acres were fown with turnip feed broad-caft,
and harrowed in with a bufti-harrow. The remaining
acre was fowed the fame day with the drill-plough, al¬
lowing 14 inches between the rows, and the (hares be¬
ing fet near two inches deep. At the time of fowing,
the land was extremely dry, and the drought continued’
from the time of fowing to the jth of July: fo that-
the broad caft did not make its appearance till about-
the 8th of that month, at which time the drill turnips,
were in rough leaf, having appeared upon the furface-
the fixth day. after fowing.
“ In the drieft feafons, at the depth of two inches-
or lefs, we are fure of finding a fufficiency of moifture
to make the feed germinate. When that is once ac-
complifhed, a fmall degree of moifture will carry on*
the work of vegetation, and bring the tender plants-
forward to the furface. When extreme dry weather
obliges the broad-caft farmer to fow late, he has no -
opportunity of- fowing a feeond time if . the fly fhould
get into the field. The drill fecures him in fome de--
gree againft that misfortune, by giving him a full
command over the feafons.
“ The excellence of the drill-plough is not confined
to turnip-feed; it is an ufeful inftrument for fowing all
kinds
D R I [ 125 1 D R T
Drill kinds of grain. By burying the feeds at an equal depth,
•J it fecures an equal crop in all circumftances of the wea-
r‘n then But this is not the only coniideration to the
”’,"v "1 cultivator. It faves near one half of his feed, which is
an objedl of importance to the tillage farmer.
‘‘ In the fpring of the year 1769, an acre of barley
was fowed in equidiftant rows with the drill-plough, in
a field which was fown with the fame grain and upon
the fame day broad-caft.—The broad-caft took three
bulhels per acre ; the drill required only fix pecks.
The drills were eight inches afunder, and the feed was
lodged about two inches within the foil. The drill acre
was finifhed within the hour, and the moil diftinguiihing
eye could not difcover a liiigle grain upon the furface.
“ In the courfe of growing, the drill barley feemed
greener and bore a broader leaf than the broad-caft.
When the ears were formed throughout the field, the
ear of the drill barley was plainly diftinguilhed to be
' near half an inch longer than the broad-caft, and the
grains feemed fuller and better fed.
“ Drill-fowing, however, though it may be recom-
mended.as a moft rational and judicious pradice, has
many difficulties to overcome, and perhaps will never be
brought into general ufe. A proper inftrument is
wanting that would come cheap to the farmer, and
' have the requifites of ftrength and fimplicity to recom¬
mend it. The prefent inftruments cannot by any means
be put into the hands of common fervants. Should
we ever be fo happy as to fee this obje&ion removed,
it is probable that all kinds of grain will be cultivated
> in drills. Corn growing in that manner has a freer
enjoyment of air, and the farmer has an opportunity
of hand-hoeing and weeding without injury to the
growing crop. ibis is an objeft of the utmoft confe-
quence in the cultivation of beans and winter corn.
“ The belt inftrument for drilling of grain is the
invention of the ingenious Mr Craick, and made by
Mr Crichton coach-maker in Edinburgh. It works
with four coulters, and the price is 1 2I. With it, one
man, a horfe, and a boy, can eafily fow four acres a-day.”
DRILLING is popularly ufed for exercifing fol-
diers. The word is derived from the French dr tile,
which fignifies a raw foldier.
DRIMYS, in botany: A genus changed by Mur¬
ray, in the 14th edit, of Syji. Veget. to Wintera ;
which fee.
DRINK, a part of our ordinary food in a liquid
form. See Food.
The general ufe of drink is, to fupply fluid ; facili¬
tate folution; in cpnfequence of that, to expede the eva¬
cuation of the ftomach, and promote the progrefs of
the aliment through the inteftines: for, by the con-
tradlion of the longitudinal fibres of the ftomach, the
pylorus is drawn up, and nothing but fluid can pafs;
which, by its bulk, makes a hurried progrefs through
the inteftines, and fo determines a greater excretion by
ftool, as lefs then can be abforbed by the ladeals.
Hence a large quantity of common water has been
found purgative ; - and, cateris paribus, that aliment
which is accompanied with the largeft proportion of
drink, makes the largeft evacuation by ftool. Here a
queftion has arifen, about wbeie the feculent part of
the aliment is firft remarkably colle&ed. It is com¬
monly thought to be in the great guts : but undoubt¬
edly it often begins in the lower part of the ileum,
efpecially when the drink is in fmall proportion, and Drink,
when the progrefs of the aliment is flow; for when the
contents of the guts are very fluid, they are quickly
puflied on, and reach the great guts before they de-
pofit any feculency. Another erteft of drink is, to
facilitate the mixture of the lymph, refluent from every
part of the fyftem, with the chyle. In the blood-vef-
fels, where all muft be kept fluid in order to proper
mixture, drink increafes the fluidity, and gives tenfion,
by its bulk, without concomitant acrimony or too much
elafticity, and fo ftrength and ofcillatory motion: hence
drink contributes to fenguification, as fometimes food
gives too denfe a nutriment to be afted upon by the
folids ; and hence alfo we can fee how drink promotes
the fecretions. Thefe are the effedts of drink in gene¬
ral ; but what has been faid muft be taken with fome
limitations; for the more liquid the food, it is fooner eva¬
cuated, and lefs nouriftiment is extract’d. Hence drink
is, in fome degree, oppofed to nourilhment; and fo,
ceteris paribus, thpfe who ufe leaft drink are moll
nouri ftied.
All the effedls of drink above mentioned are produ¬
ced by Ample water ; and it may be faid, that other
liquors are fit for drink in proportion to the water they
contain. Water, when ufed as drink, is often im¬
pregnated with vegetable and farinaceous fubftances;
but, as drinks, thefe impregnations are of little confe-
quence : they add, indeed, a little nourifnment; but
this is not to be regarded in a healthy ftate. borne-
times we impregnate w'ater with the jiuclus acido-dul-
ces \ and then,, indeed, it acquires other qualities, of
confiderable ufe in the animal economy. All drinks,
however, may be reduced to two heads: firft, pure
w'ater, or where the additional fubftance gives no ad¬
ditional virtue; fecondly, the ferment ate. Of the firft
we have already fpoken; and the latter have not only the
qualities of the firft, but alfo qualities peculiar to them-
felves.
Fermented liquors are more or lefs poignant to the
tafte, and better calculated to quench tbirft. Thirft-
may be owing to various caufes: firft, to defedl of
fluid in the fyftem, which occafions a fcanty fecretion in
the mouth, fauces, and ftomach; the drynefs of the-
mouth and fauces will alfo in this cafe be increafed, by
their continual expofureto the perpetual flux and reflux
of the evaporating air. Secondly, thirft depends on a
large proportion of folid vifcid food: thirdly, on an
alkalefcent aliment, efpecially if it has attained any¬
thing of the putrefa&ive taint : fourthly, on the heat-
of the fyftem ; but this feems- to operate in tjie fame
manner as the firft caufe, giving afenfe of drynefs from
its dilfipation of the fluids. The fermented liquors are
peculiarly adapted for obviating all thefe caufes; fti-
mulating the mouth, fauces, and ftomach, to throw'
out the faliva and gaftric liquor by their poignancy :
by their acelcency they are fined to deftroy alkalefcent
acrimony, to quench thirft from that caufe: by their
fluidity they dilute vifcid food; though here, indeed,,
they anfwer no better than common water. In two
ways they promote the evacuation by ftool, and pro¬
grefs through the inteftines : firft, by their fluidity and-
bulk ; fecondly, by their acefcency, which, uniting
with the bile, forms the peculiar ftimulus formerly men°
tioned. Carried into the blood-veflels, in fo far as •
they retain any of the faline nature, they ftimulate the*
excre-:-
D R I r 126 1 D R O
Brink excretoriee, and promote urine and ftveet; correfting
r. Jl. thus alkalefcency, not only by mixture, but diffipation
r fl^lng' of the degenerated fluids.
Many phyficians, in treating of fermented liquors,
, have only mentioned thefe qualities, rejecting their nu¬
tritious virtue, which certainly ought to be taken in ;
though by expediting the evacuation by (tool they make
lefs of the nutritious parts of the aliment to be taken
up, and by ftimulating the excretories make thefe nu¬
tritious parts to be for a fhorter time in the fyftem.
All thefe and many more efFefts arife from fermented
liquors. Their acefcency fometimes promotes the dif-
eafe of acefcency, by increafing that of vegetables, aft-
ing as a ferment, and fo producing flatulency, purging,
cholera, &c. : fo that, with vegetable aliment, as little
drink is neceflary, the moft innocent is pure water ; and
it is only with animal food that fermented liquors are
neceffary. In warmer climates, ferment at a would feem
neceflary to obviate alkalefcency and heat. But it
fhould be confidered, that though fermented liquors
contain an acid, yet they alfo contain alcohol; which,
though it adds ftimulus to the ftomach, yet is extreme¬
ly hurtful in the warmer climates, and wherever alka¬
lefcency prevails in the fyftem. Nature, in thefe cli¬
mates, has given Inen an appetite for water impregnated
with acid fruits, e.^. (herbet; but the ufe of this needs
caution, as in thefe countries they are apt to fhun ani¬
mal food, ufing too much of the vegetable, and often
thus caufing dangerous refrigerations, choleras, diar¬
rhoeas, &c.
Of varieties of fermented liquors. We ftiall only men¬
tion here the chief heads on which thefe varieties de¬
pend. Firft, they are owing to the quality of the fubje£t,
as more or lefs vifcid ; and to its capacity alfo of un¬
dergoing an adtive fermentation, although perhaps
the more vifcid be more nutritious. Hence the differ¬
ence between ales and wines ; by the firft meaning fer¬
mented liquors from farinacea, by the fecond from the
•fruits of plants. It depends, fecondly, on the acerbity,
acidity, nature, and maturation, of the fruit. Thirdly,
the variety depends on the conduct of the fermentation.
In general, fermentation is progrefiive, being at firft
adtive and rapid, detaching the fixed air or gas fyl-
•vejlre, at the fame time acquiring more acid than be¬
fore. Thefe qualities of flatulency and acidity remain
for fome time; but as the fermentation goes on, the
liquor becomes more perfedt, no air is detached, and
alcohol is produced j fo that fermented liquors differ
according to the progrefs of the fermentation, and have
different effedts on the fyftem. When fermentation is
Hopped before it comes to maturity, though naturally
it proceeds in this way, yet by addition of new fer¬
ment it may again be renewed with a turbid inteftine
motion.
DRIVERS, among fportfmen, a machine for dri¬
ving pheafant-powts, confifting of good ftrong ozier
wands, fuch as the balket-makers ufe ; thefe are to be
fet in a handle, and twifted or bound with fmall oziers
in two or three places. With this inftrument the fportf-
man drives whole eyes of young powts into his nets.
See the next article.
DRIVING, among fportfmen, a method of taking
pheafant-powts. It is thus : The fportfman finds out
the haunts of thefe birds; and having fixed his nets
there, he calls upon them together by a pheafant-call,
imitating the voice of the dam ; after this he makes a Driving
noife with his driver, which will make them run a little II
way forward in a clufter; and this he is to repeat till Promore*
he has made fure of them, which an expert fportfman
never fails to do, by driving them into hrs nets.
Driving, in metallurgy, is faid of filver, when, in
the operation of refining, the lead being burnt away,
the remaining copper rifes upon its furface in red fiery
bubbles.
Driving, in the fea-language, is faid of a fliip, when
an anchor being let fall will not hold her fall, nor pre¬
vent her failing away with the wind or tide. The beft
help in this cafe is to let fall more anchors, or to veer
out more cable; for the more cable Ihe has out, the
fafer fhe rides. When a (hip is a-hull or a-try, they
fay file drives to leeward.
DROGHEDA, by the Englifh called Tredah, a
town of Ireland, in the province of Leinfterand county
of Lowth, and fituated on a bay of the fame name, in
W. Long. 6. 17. N. Lat. 53. 45. It was formerly
very remarkable for its fituation and ftrength. In con-
fequence of this it was much diftinguiihed by the old
Englilh monarchs. Edward II. granted it a market
and fair; and to thefe were added other great privi¬
leges in fucceeding ages, particularly the right of coin¬
age. It was bravely defended againft the rebels in
1641. After the ceffation of arms it was taken by the
duke of Ormond and the earl of Inchiqifin ; but was
retaken by Cromwell in 1649. At this time it fuffered
fo much, that for a long time after it remained almoft
in ruins. The buildings were exceedingly (battered j
and the town being taken by ftorm, not only the gar-
rifon, but the inhabitants, men, women, and children,
were moftly put to the fword. By degrees, however,
it recovered, and is at prefent a large and populous
place. It is a town and county } and as fuch fends two
reprefentatives to parliament. It has a great lhare of
inland trade, and an advantageous commerce with Eng¬
land : and though the port is but indifferent, and nar¬
row at its entrance, with a bar over which fhips of bur¬
den cannot pafs but at high water, yet a great deal of
bufinefs is done ; fo that, from a low and declining port,
it is now become rich and thriving.
Drogheda is perhaps one of the ftrongeft inftances
that can be mentioned of the ineftimable benefit of a
river in any degree navigable : for though the Boyne
is not capable of carrying veffels bigger than barges,
or pretty large boats, yet the conveniency that this af¬
fords of conveying coals by water-carriage through a
great extent of country, introduced a correfpondence
between this place and Whitehaveirin Cumberland, to
which, the revival of its commerce has been in a great
meafure owing.
DROIT WITCH, a town of Worcefterlhire in
England, noted for excellent white fait made from the
fait fprings in its neighbourhood. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. W. Long. 2. 16. N. Lat. 52.
20.
DROMEDARY. See Camelus.
DROMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Down. It is a very ancient town, and the feat of a
biftiopric. The fee was founded by St Colman in the/'
6th century, It was refounded by King James I. who,
by his charters (now preferved in the Rolls-office), grant¬
ed it very great and uncommon privileges. Among
5 other
D R O [ 127 ] D R O
other marks of royal favour, he diflirtguiihes the bi-
ftiops of this fee by the ftyle of “ A. B. by Divine
Providence bi/hop of Dromorewhereas all other
bilhops in Ireland, except thofe of Meath and Kildare,
are ftyled, “ by Divine Permiffion.” This fee, al¬
though the lead in its extent, is fo complete and per-
fedf in its endowment and jurifdiftion, that it need not
envy the greateft and moft opulent.
DRONE, a kind of large bees which make their
appearance in hives about the month of May, but never
work nor prepare any honey ; and are at laft all killed
by the reft. Under the article Bee, n° 20 ct feq. we
have given an account of the experiments of Mefirs
JDebraw and Schirach concerning thefe animals : but
fmce that article was printed, a Treatife upon Bees
and their Management has appeared by Mr Bonner
near Berwick on Tweed, who has made the manage¬
ment of bees his ftudy for a great number of years,
and who diffents from the opinions of the above men¬
tioned gentlemen for the following reafons, which we
Ihall give in his owm words. Having mentioned the
opinions of Mr Debraw concerning the little drones
mentioned in the article above mentioned, he proceeds
thus:
“ 1. Can it be thought that the prying eyes’of mul¬
titudes in many generations Ihould have efcaped feeing
thofe little drones (they being, according to his ac¬
count, vaftly numerous) thruft their pofterior parts in¬
to the cells ? Yet none ever faw them do it except
himfelf; while many have feen the queen do it, though
but a fingle bee.
“ 2. It is well known the queen is very long behind
the wings, wife nature having made her fo, in order
that Ihe might thruft her pofterior part into the cells,
and yet her wings fcarcely touch them, nor receive
the leaft injury. If thefe imaginary little drones had
to thruft their pofterior parts into the cells in the fame
manner as the queen, certainly their wings would have
been made in the fame manner Ihort, and their pofte¬
rior parts long and taper,, which is not the cafe.
Whereas-were a bee of any kind (the queen excepted}
to thruft its hinder part into a common cell, its wings'
©r coats would come over its head, and be antic like,
and injure both them and its body. Befides, I fcarcely
think they could get into the common cells that way
at any rate for want of room.
“ 3. Mr Debraw grants, that without a queen or
eggs bees will not begin to work, as well knowing
they cannot propagate their fpecies without her; and
yet he fays, thofe bees which wanted little drones be¬
gan to work, and the queen laid eggs, and all went
forward, till they were not impregnated, and then they
gave over work, and deferted the hive. Certainly thofe
fagacious creatures would have been- as fenfible that
they wanted drones at the very firft, when they were
put into the hive, and that they could not. do without
them, as they are fenlible when they want a queen, and
that it is needlefs to begin work without her;. and it
might be added, that two different kinds of drones in-
one hive does not appear to be probable, or ferve any
end.
“ But I Ihall narrate fome of my own experiments on
that head, which will put it, I hope, beyond difpute :
On September ift, I had a hive breeding faft ; I took
out all her bees (among which were only four large
drones, which I killed), and I put them in a hive that Crone,
had nothing in her but empty combs : I waited ten —v—""
• days, when, by looking between the combs, I faw her
have new-fealed up maggots in her cells. I then took v
all her bees out, and Ihook them into a tub full of wa¬
ter, and recovered them gradually; and when recover¬
ing, I preffed every one of them, in order to fee if I
could find any of thofe little drones, but could not
find one; but all and every one of them had flings :
they were in number 3000. After which I fearched
the hive I took them out of, and cut out all her combs
that had eggs in them, and found they had new laid
eggs, four days old eggs, and maggots in them. I
then recovered the queen and all the bees, and put in
the fame hive again, which had not an egg in her now,
and waited other twenty days, and faw her in fine days
working very well; a fure indication Ihe was breeding
again. I then turned her up, and cut out one of her
brood-combs, and faw in it new laid eggs, four days
old eggs, and maggots, and fome young almoft fit for
emerging out of their cells.
“ The veiy fame day I made a further experiment:
I had a hive which I faw had fome brood-combs in her,
but Ihe had not had a large drone for four weeks before
in her: Ihe had not above 500 bees in her, which fa¬
voured me, becaufe few in number. I took the hive
into a clofe place in my houfe, in order that not a
fingle bee Ihould efcape me : I then took all her bees-
out of her, and immerfed.them in water; and when re¬
covering, I preffed every one of them, and each bee
had a fling, as in the former experiment.
“ I think the above experiments may fatisfy any
judicious perfoa, that there is no fuch thing in being
as little drones, unlefs in Mr Debraw’s brain. And
if Mr Debraw, who can find 57 in a fmall fwarm of
bees, wiH fend me the odd feven, I will fend him one
of my beft hives for them, and he will fcarcely think
he is ill paid. I add, I never faw a hive in fpring,
however few bees in her, but fhe bred fome if Ihe had
a queen, though to be fure few in proportion to her
bees.
“ By this time the reader will be very ready, no
doubt, to alk me the ufe of the drones. I beg to be
excufed on that head, as I have not the leaft idea of
their ufe in a hive ; they do not fecundate the queen,
for fhe can lay and breed too though fhe never fee
them. Their heat does not appear to me to be necef-
fary for hatching the young, as they are moftly hatch¬
ed before any are bred in a hive:, and when drones are
in the hive, the weather is fo warm, and fo many com¬
mon bees in it, that they appear to have rather too
much heat, by their lying out of the hives often.
“ I have many times had good hives with few or no
drones in them all the year: and Keys is quite wrong
when he fays a top fwarm will not do without drones
in- her; for I am pofitive to the contrary, as in the
fummer 1785 I took off four fwarms of mine own in
one day with, not a fingle drone in any of them, and
they all throve well, and bred drones in themfelves about
four weeks after.
“ Although I cannot fay what ufe the drones are
of to a hive (unlefs it be to help away with a great'
deal of her honey, which they are very good' at), yet.
the beft hives have them fooneft in the year, they ge¬
nerally appearing in fuch about the latter end of May,,
an<i:
D R O [12
Pn R2, and the bees put a period to their lives about Lammas,
Pi 0^9, at which time I give them all the affiftance ^ can. The
" v way they kill them is thus : They pull and bite them
with their' teeth, and fting them alfo. I have feen
great havoc made of them in one day, as appeared by
their lying dead before the door of the hive. But their
moft effeiSual way of killing them is their banilhing
them from the honey-combs ; upon which the drones
betake themfelves to the under edges of the hives in
great numbers, and to the board the hive Hands on ;
and fometimes, though rare, I have even feen them
come to the outfide of the hive, and clufter there about
the bulk of a man’s hand. When they are banilhed
thus, they are very dull and lifelefs : and I have lifted
up a hive from the hoard, and there they would have
been fitting clofe on it, with fcarcely three or four
common bees among them ; and I have trod to death
40 or more at a time.
“ We may now take a view of the difadvantages at-
. tending the old, and alfo Mr Debraw’s principles on
bees, were they true ; and next fee how a hive of bees
may be preferved from coming to ruin, according to
my fentiments bn them.
“ 1. The old principles on bees fay, that without a
• queen or royal cell be in a hive, it will come to ruin.
“ 2. Mr Debraw’s principles fay, that without little
-drones be in a hive it will come to ruin.
“ 3. I fay, if a hive have only new laid eggs in her
(which may be eafily got the greateft part of the year,
in cafe (he have none of her own) and common bees,
Ihe will find herfelf a queen, and fo thrive.
“ According to the old principles, it is eafily feen
that in cafe a hive lofe her queen when there is no
royal cell in her, and no queen can be got to put to
her (neither of which can be expeftedbut in June and
July), Ihe is entirely ruined.
“ According to the Frenchman’s fcheme, there muft
be drones in a hive at all times of the year to fecun¬
date the eggs, otherwife the hive is ufelefs. Suppofing
Lis fentiments to be true (which however can by no
means be admitted, feeing there is no fuch thing as
little drones), how perplexed would the owner be to
know when there were little drones in his hives! When
he wanted to make an artificial fwarm, he might bring
off a queen and common bees with her: but how fhould
he come to know whether there were any, or a fuffi-
cient quantity, of. little drones among them, as they
cannot be diftinguifhed from the commons but by im-
merfion and preffure, which would be intolerably
troublefeme, and next to killing the bees, and not at
all prafticable ? All that could be done would be to
hope the beft, that there were little drones in her at
any time of the year.
“ I fay, if a queen die in a hive, and that hive have
fome new-laid eggs in her, or fome put to her, in cafe
{he have none of her own, {he will nourifh up fome of
thefe eggs to be a queen to herfelf: and alfo by taking
Out a queen and fome commons out of a hive (without
a fingle drone, large or fmall), and putting them in an
empty hive, will make a fwarm, and the old hive will
breed herfelf a queen again if {he have eggs in her.”
DaoNE-Fly, a two-winged infeft, extremely like the
common drone-bee, whence alfo the name.
DROPS, in metereology, fmall fpherical bodies
which the particles of fluids fpontaneoufly form them-
N° 104.
8 ] d r o
felves into when let fall from any height. This fphe- Drops i
rical figure, the Newtonian philofophers demonftrate || ' l
to be the effeft of corpufcular attraftion ; for confi- Drowning. 1'
dering that the attractive force of one fingle particle  
of a fluid is equally exerted to an equal diftance, it
muft follow that other fluid particles are on every fide
drawn to it, and will therefore take their places at an
equal diftance from it, and confequently form a round
fuperficies. See the articles Attraction, Fluid,
and Ra’in.
Drops, in medicine, a liquid remedy, the dofe of
which is eftimated by a certain number of drops.
Englifh Drops, Gut to: Anglican*, a name given to a
chemical preparation efteemed of great virtue againft
vapours and lethargic affe&ions, and purchafed at
5000I. by king Charles II. from the inventor Dr God¬
dard. The medicine appeared to be only a fpirit drawn
by the retort from raw filk, and afterwards rectified
with oil of cinnamon, or any other efiential oil; and
was in reality no better than the common fal volatile
oleofum, or any of the volatile fpirits impregnated
with ah eflential oil, except that^it was lefs difagree-
able than any of them to the tafte.
DROPSY, in medicine, an unnatural colle&ion of
water in any part of the body. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
DROPWORT, in botany. See Filipendula.
Water DpoptroRr, in botany. See Oenanthes.
DROSERA, ros solis, or Sun-Dew, in botany:
A genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the . til
pentandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 14th order, Gruinales. The calvx
is quinquefid, the petals five; the capfule unilocular,
and quinquevalved at top ; the feeds very numerous.
There are three fpecies, which grow naturally in bog¬
gy places in many parts of the kingdom. They feem
to receive the name oifun-dew from a very ftrikingeir-
cumftance in their appearance. The leaves, which
are circular, are fringed wit!! hairs fupporting fmall
drops or globules of a pellucid liquor like dew, which
continue even in the hotteft part of the day and in the
fulleft expofure to the fun. The whole planuis acrid,
and fufficiently cauftic to erode the lkin: but fome la¬
dies know how to mix the juice with milk, fo as-to
make it an innocent and fafe application to remove
freckles and fun-burn. The juice that exfudes from
it unmixed, will deftroy warts and corns. The plant
hath the fame efteft upon milk that the common but-
terwort hath ; and like that too is fuppofed to occa- if
lion the rot in ftieep.
DROWNING, .fignifies the extin&ion of life by a
total immerfion in water.
In fome refpefts, there feems to be a great fimila-
rity between the death occafioned by immerfion in wa¬
ter, and that by ftrangulation. fuffocation by fixed *
air, apoplexies, epilepfies, hidden faintings, violent
fhocks of elettricity, or even violent falls and bruifes.
Phyficians, however, are not agreed with regard to the
nature of the injury done to the animal fyftem in any or
all of thefe accidents. Ir is ind .ed certain, that in all
the cafes above mentioned, particularly in drowning,
there is very often fuch afufpenfion of the vital powers
as to us hath the appearance of a total extinftion of
them; while yet they may be again fet in motion,
and the perfdn reftored .to life, after a much longer
1 fub-
D R O
•owning- fuSmerfion than hath been generally thought capable
of producing abfohite death. It were to be wiihed,
however, that as it is now univerfally allowed that
drowning is only a fufpenfion of the a&ion of the vi¬
tal powers, phyficians could as unanimoufly determine
the means by which thefe powers are fufpended ; be-
caufe on a knowledge of thefe means, the methods to
be ufed for recovering drowned perfons mull certainly
depend.
Dr de Haen, who hath written a treatife on this
fubjedt, afcribes this diverfity of opinion among the
phyiicians toiiheir being fo ready to draw generalcon-
clufions from a few experiments. Some, having never
found water in the lungs, have thought that it never
was there ; and others, from its prefence, have drawn
a contrary conclufion. Some have afcribed the death
which happens in cafes of drowning, to that fpecies
of apoplexy which arifes from a great fulnefs of the
ftomach. But this opinion our author rejects, becaufe
in 13 dogs which he had drowned and afterwards dif¬
fered, no figns of fuch a fulnefs appeared. Another
reafon is drawn from the want of the common marks
of apoplexy on the diffedlion of the brain, and from
[ 1
D R O
immediate eflfedl this has upon the other vital motions
of the animal, at lead, this privation of breathing, ap-  
pears to be the firft caufe of the heart’s motion cea-
i'mg. It is mod probable, therefore, Mr Hunter ob-
ferves, that the redoration of breathing is all that is
neceffary to redore the heart’s motion ; for if a fuf-
ficiency of life dill remains to produce that effer, wc
may fuppofe every part equally ready to move the very
indant in which the attion of the heart takes place,
their a&ions depending fo much upon it. What make*
it very probable, that the principal effe& depends up¬
on throwing air into the lungs, is, that children in
the birth, when too much time has been fpent after
the lofs of that life which is peculiar to the fetus, lofc
altogether the difpofition for the new life. In fuch
cafes there is a total fufpenfion of the a&ions of life ;
the child remains to all appearance dead; and would
die, if air was not thrown into its lungs, and the fird
principle of aftion by that means redored. To put
this in a clearer light, Mr Hunter gives the refult of
fome experiments made on a dog in 1755 A Pair of
double bellows were provided, which were fo condruc-
ted, that by one a&ion air was thrown into the lungs,
the actual prefence of water in the lungs. He is of and by the other the air was fucked out which
opinion, that the death of drowned perfons happi
in confequence of water getting into the lungs, and
Hopping the blood in the arteries. He then dif-
culfes the quedion how far the blowing of air into the
lungs is ufeful in recovering drowned people. If their
death is to be afcribed to the water entering the lungs,
this pra&ice, he obferves, mud he hurtful, as it will
increafe the prdfure on the blood-veffels, or may even
force the water into them ; which, on the authority
of Lewis’s experiments, he alleges is poffible. But, in
fpite of this reafoning, he afferts, that from experience
it has been found ufeful. He allows, that the prac¬
tice of fufpending drowned people by the feet mud be
hurtful, by determining the blood too much to the
head ; but he obferves, that remedies in fome refpe&s
hurtful may be ufed when the advantages derived from
them preponderate ; and is of opinion, that the prac¬
tice above mentioned may be ufeful by agitating the
vifcera againd each other, and thus renewing their mo¬
tions. Cutting the larynx in order to admit air more
freely to the lungs, he reckons to be of little or no ufe;
but- acknowledges, however, that it may fometimes
prove beneficial on account of the irritation occafioned
by the operation.
Dr Cullen, in his Letter to Lord Cathcart concern¬
ing the recovery of perfons drowned and feemingly
dead, tells us, that “ From the diffeClion of drowned
men, and other animals, it is known, that very often
the water does not enter into the cavity of the lungs,
nor even into the domach, in any quantity to do hurt
to the fydem; and, in general, it is known, that, in
mod cafes, no hurt is done to the organization of the
vital parts. It is therefore probable, that the death
which enfues, or feems to enfue, in drowned perfons,
is owing to the doppage of refpiration, and to the
ceafing, in confequence, of the circulation of the blood,
whereby the body lofes its heat, and, with that, the
aftivity of the vital principle.”
In the Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXV1. Mr Hunter gives
the following theory. The lofs of motion in drown- w    q  
ing, feems to arife from the lofs of icfpiration: and the throws out more air from die lun^s, and
Vei.,VL Part I. R
had been thrown in by the former, without mixing
them together. The muzzle of thefe bellows was fix¬
ed into the trachea of a dog, and by working them
he was kept perfeAly alive. While this artificial
breathing was going on, the dernum was taken off,
fo that the heart and lungs were expofed to view. The
heart then continued to aA as before, only the fre¬
quency of its aAion was greatly increafed. Mr Hun¬
ter then dopped the motion of the bellows; and ob-
ferved that the contraAion of the heart became gra¬
dually weaker and lefs frequent, till it left off moving
altogether; but by renewing the operation, the mo¬
tion of the heart alfo revived, and foon became as drong
and frequent as before. This procefs was repeated
upon the fame dog ten times; fometimes dopping
for five, eight, or ten minutes. Mr Hunter obferved,
that every time he left off working the bellows, the
heart became extremely turgid with blood, and the
blood in the left fide became as dark as that in "the
right, which was not the cafe when the bellows were
working. Theie fituations of the animal, he obferves,
feem to be exaAly fimilar to drowning.
Dr Edmund Goodwyn, in a treatife lately publilhed
on this fubjeA, has endeavoured to afeertain the effeAs
of fubmerfioji upon living animals in a more accurate
manner than had hitherto been done. His fird care
was to determine the fymptoms which took place be¬
fore death ; and to obi'erve thefe, he procure^ a large
glafs bell in which the animals were to be immerfed.
Having inverted, and filled this with water, he put in¬
to it leveral cats, dogs, rabbits, and fmaller animals,
confining them among the water till they were appa¬
rently dead. In theie experiments he obferved, that
immediately after fubmerfion the pulfe became weak
and frequent ; there was an apparent anxiety about
the bread, and druggling to relieve it. In thefe drug¬
gies the animal role to the top of the water, throwing
out a quantity of air from the lungs. After this the
anxiety increafes, the pulfe becomes weaker, and the
druggies more violent; he rifes again to the furface,
tnrnws mit mnt*f» air In***™ ^ryA ^ cffbttS
D R O [ i;
Drowning, to infpire, a quantity of water commonly pafles into
the mouth. The ftcin about the face and lips then
becomes blue, the pulfe ceafes, the fphinfters are re¬
laxed, and the animal falls down without fenfe or mo¬
tion. On diffe&ing the bodies of drowned animals, our
author met with the following appearances : I. The
external furfaee of the brain was darker, but the veffels
of it were not more turgid than ufual, nor was there
any appearance of extravasation. 2; The pulmonary
arteries and veins were filled with black blood, and the
lungs themfelves cofttained feme frothy liquid. 3. Not-
withftanding thefe fymptoms, the right auricle and
ventricle were Hill contra&ing and dilating ; the left
finus venofus and aijricle moving feebly, but the left
ventricle at reft. 4. The right and left auricles of the
heart, the right ventricle, and the left finus venofus,
were filled with black blood; but the laft ventricle only
half'filled with the fame, and a quantity of the fame
black blood was alfo contained .in the fmaller branches
of the arteries proceeding from the left ventricle.
This inveftigation was followed by a moft careful and
ingenious inquiry concerning the caufes of the fymp¬
toms already related. To find out whether or not the
entrance of water into the lungs was the caufe, or whe¬
ther rvater really entered the lungs in thefe cafes or
not, he drowned feveral animals among ink; and by
infpefting their bodies, found, that though water really
did enter, it was in fuch fmall quantity that it could
not buTuppofed capable of producing fuch violent ef-
fefts. To afeertain this, however, more exa&ly than
could be done by the ink, he drowned other animals in
quickfilver; which, by reafon of its not being mifcible
■with the animal fluids, could be more accurately col-
k&ed. By thefe it appeared that no more than five
drachms of the fluid in which a cat was immerfed en¬
tered her lungs in the time of drowning ; and to de¬
termine whether or not this could be the occafion of
the animal’s death, he made the following experiment:
Having confined a cat in an ere<ft pofture, he made a
fmall opening in the trachea, by cutting one of the
cartilaginous rings; and through this opening he in¬
troduced two ounces of water into the lungs. The
only confequences were a difficulty of breathing and
weak pulfe; but thefe foon abated, and it lived feveral
hours afterwards without any apparent inconvenience.
On ftrangling it he found two ounces and a half of
water in the lungs. On repeating the experiment with
other fluids, he found the difficulty of breathing and
alteration in the pulfe foraewhat greater but in thefe
inftances alfo they abated in a few hours; and when
the animals were ftrangled, the lungs were found to
Contain four ounces of fluid.
From, all thefe experiments Dr Goodwyn. draws the
following conclufions ; 1. “A fmall quantity of fluid
ufually pafles into the lungs in drowning. 2. This
water enters the lungs during the efforts to infpire t
and mixing with the pulmonary mucus, occafious the
frothy appearance mentioned by authors. 3. The
whole of this fkiid in the lungs is not fufficient to pro¬
duce the changes that take place in drowning. And
hence it follows, that the water produces all the changes
that take place in drowning indireftly, by excludkwr
the atmofpheric air from the lungs.” This naturally
leads to an inveftigation of the ufes of refpiration, and
the effects of tire air upon the blood and lungs in that
10 1 D R O
action, which our author traces with great accuracy D-ownlrg. !j]
and very convincing experiments. He begins with I
attempting to determine the quantity of air drawn in
at each infpiration, with the proportional quantity left
after expiration. The experiments' by which he en¬
deavoured to afeertain thefe quantities feem to be more
uncertain than the others, as indeed there are not data
fufficient for them. From fuch as he had an oppor¬
tunity of making, however, the following concluilons . ; 1
were deduced: 1. “ The lungs contain 109 cubic
inchds of air after a complete expiration; and this
■quantity receives an additional quantity of 14 cubic
inches during each infpiration. . 2. The dilatation
of the lungs after expiration is to their dilatation
after infpiration as 109 to 123. 3. The blood circu¬
lates through the pulmonary veffels in all the degrees
of natural refpiration. 4. The circulation through them,
after expiration, is fufficiently free to keep up the health
of the fyftem.”
The laft part of our author’s inquiry, viz., concern¬
ing the chemical changes produced in the air by refpi¬
ration, and the effefts of the .air upon the blood itfelf,
falls naturally to be confidered under the article Re¬
spiration : fo that here we fhall only obferve in ge¬
neral, that his experiments evidently Ihow that the
difeafe produced by drowning arifes entirely from the
exclufion of the atmofpheric air or its dephlogifticated
part; for which reafon he recommends inflating the
lungs with that kind of air in preference to any
other.
From thefe different views of this matter, phyficiana
have differed confiderably in their account of the me¬
thods to be followed in attempting the recovery of
drowned perfons. De Haen recommends agitation of
all kinds ; every kind of ftimulus applied to the mouth,
nofe, and redlum; bleeding; heat, both by warm cloths
and warm water; blowing air into the trachea ; ftiixm-
lants, fuch as blifters, warm afhes, &c. applied to the
head, ankles, thighs, pit of the ftomach, and other
parts.
Doftor Cullen’s obfervations on this fubjedt are as
follow.—“ With refpedt to the particular means to be
employed for the recovery of drowned perfons, it is to
be obferved, in the firft place. That fuch as were re¬
commended and praftifed, upon a fuppofition that the
fuffocation was occafioned by the quantity of water
taken into the body, and therefore to be evacuated a*
gain, were very unhappily advifed. The hanging up
of perfons by the heels, or fetting them upon the crown
of the head, or rolling the body upon a calk, were ge¬
nerally praclifed, upon a fuppofition altogether falfe ;
or upon the fuppofition of a cafe which, if real, is ap¬
prehended to be irrecoverable. At the fame time,
thefe practices were always attended with the danger
of hurtling fome veffels in the brain or lungs, and of
rendering thereby fome cafes incurable that were not
fb from the drowning alone. AH fuch practices,
therefore, are now very properly difapproved of and
forbid.
“ In thofe cafes in which the body has not been long,
in the water, and in which therefore the natural heat
is not entirely extinguifhed, nor the irritability of the.
moving fibres very greatly impaired, it is poffible that
a good deal of agitation of the body may be the only
means neceffary to reftore the adtioa of the vital or-
D R O t i
fiD owning, gans; but in other cafes, where the heat and irritabx-
llty have ceafed to a greater degree, it is to me very-
doubtful, if much agitation can be fafe, and if any de¬
gree of it can be uTeful, till the heat and irritability
are in fome meafure reftored. In all cafes, any violent
concuflion cannot be fafe, and, I believe, is never ne-
■cdiary. It may be proper here to obferve aifo, that
in tranfporting the body from the place where it is
taken out of the water, to the place where it may be
neceflary for applying the proper means of its recove¬
ry, all poftures expofing to any improper compreflion,
as that of the body’s being carried over a man’s (houl-
der, are to be avoided. The body is to be kept
ftretched out, with the head and upper parts a little
raifed ; and care is to be taken to avoid the neck’s be¬
ing bent much forward. In this manner, laid’ upon
one fide, and upon Come ftraw in a cart, it may be
moil properly conveyed ; and the agitation which a
pretty bi ilk motion of the cart may occafion, will, in
molt cafes, do no harm.
- “ From the account I have given above of the caufes,
or of the appearances, of death, in drowned perfons, it
is evident, that the firit ftep to be taken for their re¬
covery is to reftore the heat of the body, which is ab-
folutely neceffary to the activity of the moving fibres.
For this purpofe, the body, as foon as pofiible, is to be
I ftripped of its wet clothes, to be well dried, and to be
wrapped up in dry, and (if pofiible) warm, coverings:
and it is to be wilhed, in all cafes, as foon. as the re¬
port of a perfon-’s being drowned is heard, that blan¬
kets Ihould be immediately carried to the water-fide ;
fo that, as foon as the body is got out of the water, the
change of covering juft now mentioned may be inftant-
ly made ; or, if the body has been naked when drown¬
ed, that it may be immediately dried, and defended
againft the cold of the air. Belides covering the body
with blankets, it will be further of advantage, if it can
be done without lofe of time, to cover the drowned
body with a warm ftiirt or waiftcoat immediately taken
from a living perfon.
“ When, at the time of a perfon’s being drowned, it
happens that the fun Ihines out very hot, I think there
can be no better means of recovering the heat, than by
expofing the naked body, in every part, to the heat of
the fun ; while, at the fame time, all other means ne-
$efiary or ufeful for the recovery of life are alfo em¬
ployed.
“ When the heat of the fun cannot be employed, the
body Ihould be immediately tran{ported to the neareft
houfe that can be got convenient for the purpofe: the
fitted will be one that has a tolerably large chamber,
in which a fire is ready, or can be made ; and if pof-
fible, the houfe Ihould afford another chamber, in which
alfo a fire can be provided.
“ When the drowned body is brought into fuch
houfe, and care is at the fame time taken that no more
people are admitted than are abfolutely neceffary to
the fervice of the drowned perfon, every endeavour
muft be immediately employed for recovering the heat
of the body, and that by different meafures, as circum-
mances (hall diredt.
“ If, in the neighbourhood of the place, there be
any brewery, diftillery, dyery, or fabric which gives
an opportunity of immediately obtaining a quantity of
ji ] D R O
warm water and a convenient veffel, ther'c is nothing Drewning-;
more proper than immerfing the body in a warm bath. *y~wj
Even where a fufScient quantity of warm water can¬
not be had at once* the bath may be ftill pradtifed, if
the accident has happened in or very near a town or
village, when a great many fires may be at once em¬
ployed in heating fmall quantities of water { for ia
this way the necefiary quantity may be foon obtained.
To encourage this practice, it is to be obferved, that
one part of boiling water is more than fufficient to
give the neceflary heat to two parts of fpring or lea
water, as it is not proper to apply the bath at firft ve¬
ry warm, nor even of the ordinary heat of the human
body, but fomewhat under it; and, by the addition of
warm water, to bring it gradually to a heat very little
above it.
“ If the drowned body be of no great bulk, it
may be conveniently warmed by a perfon’s lying
down in bed with it, and taking it near to their naked
body, changing the politicn of it frequently, and at
the fame time chaffing and rubbing with warm cloths
the parts which are not immediately applied to their
warm body.
“ If none of thefe meafures can be conveniently prac-
tifed, the body is to be laid upon a bed before a mo¬
derate fire, and frequently turned, to expofe the dif¬
ferent parts of it; and thus, by the heat of the fire
gradually applied, and by rubbing the body well with
coarfe towels, or other cloths well warmed, pains are
to be taken for reftoiing its heat. This will be pro¬
moted by warm cloths applied and frequently renewed
under the kams and arm-pits j and by hot bricks, or
bottles of warm water, laid to the feet.
“ In the practice of rubbing, it has been propofed to
moiften the cloths applied with camphorated fpirits, or
other fuch ftimulating fubftances: but I think this
muft prove an impediment to the rubbing; and I would
not recommend any pradlice of this kind, except, per¬
haps, the application of the vinous fpirit of fal ammor-
niac to the wrifts and ankles only.
“ For recovering the heat of the body, it has been
propofed to cover it all over with warm grains, allies,
land, or lalt; and where thefe, fufficiently warm, are
ready at hand, they may be employed ; but it is very
feldom they can be obtained, and the application might
often interfere with other meafures that may be necef¬
fary. All therefore that I can propofe, with refpeft
to the ufe of thefe, is to obferve, Unit bags of warm
and dry fait may be amongft the moft convenient ap¬
plications to the feet and hands of drowned perfons;
and the quantity necefiary for this purpofe may be got
pretty quickly by heating the fait in a frying-pan over
a common fire.
“ While thefe meafures are taking for recovering the
heat, means are at the fame time to be employed for
reftering the a&ion of the moving fibres. It is well
known, that the inteftines are the parts of the body
which, both from their internal fituation and peculiar
conftitution, retain the longeft their irritability; and
therefore, that, in drowned perfons, ftimulants applied
may have more effedt upon the inteftines than upon
other parts. The adtion, therefore, of the inteftines
is to be fupported or renewed: as foon as polfible ; as
the reftoring and fupporting the adtion of i'uch a con-
K 2 fiderabk
D R O l 132 ] D R O
Browning, fide table portion of moving fibres as thofe of the in-
 teftines, muft contribute greatly to reftore the adivity
of the whole fyftem.
“ For exciting the aftion of the inteftines, the moft
proper mean is, the application of their ordinary ftimu-
lus| of dilatation ; and this is moft effectually applied,
by forcing a quantity of the air into them by the fun¬
dament. Even the throwing in cold air has been found
' ufeful: but it will certainly be better if heated air can
be employed; and further, if that air can be impreg¬
nated with fomething which, by its acrimony alfo, may
be powerful in ftimulating the inteftines.
“ From all thefe confiderations, the fmoke of burning
tobacco has been moft commonly applied, and has up¬
on many occafions proved very effectual. This will be
moft properly thrown in by a particular apparatus,
which, for other purpofes as well as this, fhould be in
the hands of every furgeon ; or at leaft fhould, at the
public expence, be at hand in every part of the coun¬
try where drownings are likely to happen. With re¬
gard to the ufe of it, I have to obferve, that till
tire tobacco is kindled in a confiderable quantity, a
great deal of cold air is blown through the box and
tube ; and as that, as hinted above, is not fo proper,
care fhould be taken to have the tobacco very well
kindled, and to blow through it very gently, till the
heated fmoke only paffes through. If, upon certain
occafions, the apparatus referred to fhould not be at
hand, the meafure however may be executed by a com¬
mon tobacco pipe, in the following manner : A com¬
mon glyfter-pipe that has a bag mounted upon it, is
to be introduced into the fundament, and the mouth of
the bag is to be applied round the fmall end of a to¬
bacco-pipe. In the bowl of this, tobacco is to be
kindled ; and, either by a playing card made into a
tube and applied round the mouth of the bowl, or by
applying upon this the bowl of another pipe that is
empty, and blowing through it, the fmoke may be thus
forced into the inteftines, and, in a little time, in a conr
fiderable quantity.
“ If none of thefe means for throwing in the fmoke
can be employed, it may be ufeful to injeft warm wa¬
ter to the quantity of three or four Englifh pints.
This may be done by a common glyfter-bag and pipe,
but better by a large fyringe ; and it may be ufeful to
diffolve in the water fome common fait, in the propor¬
tion of half an ounce to an Englifh pint; and alfo, to
add to it fome wine or brandy.
“ While thefe meafures for recovering the heat of
the body and the a&ivity of the moving fibres are em¬
ployed, and efpecially after they have been employed
for fome time, pains are to be taken to complete and
finifh the bufinefs, by reftoiing the aftion of the lungs
and heart.
“ On this fubjeft, I am obliged to my learned and
ingenious colleague Dr Monro, who has made fome
experiments for afcertaining the beft manner of in¬
flating the lungs of drowned perfons. By thefe expe¬
riments he finds it may be more conveniently done by
blowing into one of the noftrils, than by blowing into
the mouth. For blowing into the noftril, it is necef-
fary to be provided with a wooden pipe, fitted at one
extremity for filling the noftril, and at the other for
being blown into by a perfon’s mouth, or for receiving
the pipe of a pair of bellows, to be employed for the
fame purpofe. Doftor Monro finds, that a perfon of Drowmns;
ordinary ftrength can blow into fuch a pipe, with a v-—
fufficient force to inflate the lungs to a confiderable
degree ; and thinks the warm air from the lungs of a
living perfon will be moft conveniently employed at
firft ; but when it is not foon effeftual in reftoring the
refpiration of the drowned perfon, and that a longer
continuance of the inflation is neceffary, it may be
proper to employ a pair of bellows, large enough at
once to contain the quantity of air neceffary to inflate
the lungs to a due degree.
“Whether the blowing-in is done by a perfon's
mouth, or by bellows, Dr Monro obferves, that the
air is ready to pafs by the gullet into the ftomach; but
that this may be prevented, by prefling the lower part
of the larynx backwards upon the gullet. To perfons
of a little knowledge in anatomy, it is to be obftrved,
that the preffure Ihould be only upon the cricoid car¬
tilage, by which the gullet may be itraitened, while the
paffage through the larynx is not interrupted.
“ When, by blowing thus into the noftril, it can be
perceived, by the raifmg of the cheft or belly, that tha
lungs are filled-with air, the blowing in (hould ceafe ;
and by prefling the breaft and belly, the air received
into the lungs fhould be again expelled; then the blow¬
ing and expul lion fhould be again repeated ; and thus
the praftice is to be continued, fb as to imitate, as
exaftly as pofiible, the alternate motions, of natural,
refpiration.
“ It is hardly neceffary to obferve, that when the
blowing into the noftril is praftifed, the other noftril
and the mouth ftiould be accurately clofed.
“ If it Ihould happen that in this praftice the air
does not feem to pafs readily into the lungs, Doftor
Monro informs me it is very practicable to introduce
direftly into, the glottis and trachea a crooked tube*
fuch. as the catheter ufed for a male adult. For this
he offers the following directions: The furgeon fhould
place himfelf on the right fide of the patient; and, inf
troducing the forefinger of his left hand at the right
corner of the patient’s mouth, he Ihould pufh the point
of it behind the epiglottis; and ufing this as a directory,
he may enter the catheter, which he holds in his right
hand, at the left corner of the patient’s mouth, till the
end of it is paffed beyond the point of his forefinger ;
and it is then to be let fall, rather than puffed into
the glottis; and through this tube, by a proper fyringe
applied to it, air may be with certainty blown into the
lungs. I obferve, that fome fuch meafure had been
propofed by Monf. le Cat in France; but I have not
learned that it has ever been put in praftice, and I am
afraid it may be attended with feveral difficulties, and
muft be left to the diferetion of furgeons, who may be
properly provided and inftrufted for this purpofe.
“ For throwing air with more certainty into the
lungs, it has been propofed to open the windpipe in
the fame manner as is done in the operation which the
furgeons call bronchotomy, and by this opening to blow
into the lungs; and when the blowing into the noftril
does not feem to fucceed, and a Ikilful operator is at
hand, I allow that the meafure may.be tried; , but I caa
hardly fuppofe, that it will be of any advantage when
the blowing in by the noftril has entirely failed.
“ It is to be hoped, that by blowing into the lungs
one way or other, even a quantity of water which had
been,
D R O [ i
raiftrowninj. been taken1 into the lungs may be again waflied out;
* v—~ and the fame feems to be the only effectual means of
vvafhing out that frothy matter whjch is found to fill
the lungs of drowned perfons, and which proves, if I
miftake not, the moil common caufe of their mortal
fuffocation. This practice, therefore, is to be imme¬
diately entered upon, and very affiduoufly continued
for an hour or two together.
“ I have now mentioned the meafures chiefly to be
purfued and depended upon for the recovery of drown¬
ed perfons; but mult ftjll mention fome others that
may prove confiderable helps to it.
“ One of thefe is, the opening the jugular veins to
relieve the congeftion, which almoft conftantly occurs
in the veins of the head, and is probably a frequent
caufe of the death of drowned perfons. For relieving
this congeflion, the drawing fome blood from the ju¬
gulars, very early, may certainly be of fervice ; and it
will be particularly indicated by the livid and purple
colour of the face. It may even be repeated, accord¬
ing to the effect it feems to have in taking off that fuf-
fulion * but when the drowned perfon is in fome mea-
fure recovered, and fome motion of the blood is re-
ftored, it will be proper to be very cautious in making
this evacuation, and at leail to take care not to pufh it
fo far as to weaken too much the recovering, but ftill
weak, powers of life.
- “ Another meafure for recovering the a£liv!ty of the
vital principle, is the application of certain flimulants
to the more fenfible parts of the body, fuch as holding
tfie quick-lime fpirit of fal ammoniac to the nofe, or
putting a little of it upon a rag into the noftrils. It
has been ufual to pour fome liquids into the mouth j
but it is dangerous to pour in any quantity of liquid,
till it appear that the power of fwallowing is in fome
meafure reflored.
“ When a furgeon is at hand, and is provided with
proper apparatus, a crooked pipe may be introduced
into the gulletand by this a gill or two of warm wine
may be poured down into the flomach, and, probably
with advantage. But when no fuch apparatus is at
hand, or furgeon to employ it, and the power of {'wal¬
lowing is ftill doubtful, the trial of pouring liquids in¬
to the mouth fhould be made by a fmall quantity of
warm water alone ; and when, from fuch trial, the
power of fwallowing fhall appear to be recovered, it
r:< ly then be allowable to favour the further recovery
of the perfon, by pouring in fome wine or brandy.—
In fhort, till fome marks of the recovery of fwallow¬
ing and refpiration appear, it will not be fafe to ap¬
ply any ilimulants to the mouth; excepting that of a
few drops of fome acrid fubftance to the tongue, and
which are not of bulk enough to Hide back upon the
glottis : I can think of no ftimulant more convenient¬
ly and fafely to be applied to the mouth and noftrils,
than a moderate quantity of tobacco-fmoke blown into
them.
“ Though I do not imagine that drowned perfons
are ever hurt by the quantity of water taken into their
ftomach, yet, as a ftimulus applied to the ftomach,
and particularly as the a£tion of vomiting proves a
ftimulus to the whole fyftem, I can have no objection
to the French pra&ice of throwing in an emetic as
foon as any fwallowing is reftored. For this pur-
pofe, I would fuccdSvely throw in. fome tea-fpoonfuls
33 1 » r o
of the ipecacuanha wine; and when it does not in-Drowning!
terfere with other neceflary meafures, the fauces may -v——'
be gently irritated by an oiled feather thrall into
them.
“ With regard to the ftimulants, I mull conclude
with obferving, That when a body has lain but for a
fhort time in the water, and that therefore its heat
and irritability are but little impaired, the application
of ftimulants alone has been often found effectual for
the recovery but, on the contrary, when the body
has lain long in the water, and the heat of it is very
much extinguifhed, the application of any other ftimu¬
lants than that of tobacco-fmoke to the inteftines can
be of very little fervice; and the application of others,
ought never to interfere with the meafures for recover¬
ing heat and the motion of refpiration.
“ With refpedt to the whole of thefe praftices, I
expeft, from the, principles upon which they are in
general recommended, it will be underftood, that they
are not to be foon difcontinued, though- their effetls do
not immediately appear. It is obvious, that, in many
cafes, it maj be long before the heat of the body, and
the adlivity of the vital principle, can be reftored, al¬
though, in a longer time, it may very poffibly be ac-
complifiled. In faift, it has often happened, that tho*
means employed for one hour have not fucceeded,
the fame continued for two or more hours, have at
length had the wifhed for eft'efts. It fhould therefore
be a conftant rule, in this bufinefs, that the proper
means fhould be employed for feveral hours together ;
unlefs it happen, that, while no fymptoms of returning,
life appear, the fymptoms of death fhall, at the fame¬
time, go on. conftantly increaling.
“ In. the whole of the above I have kept in view
chiefly the cafe of drowned perfons: but it will be ob¬
vious, that many of the meafures propofed will be e-
qually proper and applicable in other cafes of fuffoca-
tion ; as thofe from ftrangling, the damps of mines,
the fumes of charcoal, &c. ;■ and a little attention to
the difference «of circumftances will lead to the meafures
moil proper to be employed.”
Mr Hunter, in the before-mentioned paper, differs-
pretty confiderably from De Haen and Dr Cullen. He
obferves, that when affiftance is foon called in‘after
immerfion, blowing air into the lungs will in fome
cafes effect a recovery;. but when any confiderable
time has been loft, he advifes ftimulant medicines,
fuch as the vapour of volatile alkali, to be mixed with
the air ; which may eafily be done, by holding fpirits
of hartfhorn in a cup under the receiver of the bellows.
And, as applications of this kind to the olfactory nerves
tend greatly to roufe the living principle, and put the
mufcles of refpiration into action, it may probably,,
therefore, be moft proper to have air impregnated in
that mannei thrown in by the nofe. I’o prevent the
ftomach and inteftines from being too much diftended.
by the airfo mje&ed, the larynx isdire&ed to be gent¬
ly preffed againft the oefophagus and fpine.
While this bufinefs is going on, an affniant fhould
prepare bed-cloaths, carefully brought to a proper de¬
gree of heat. Heat our author conliders as congenial,
with the living principle; increafing the neceflity of ac¬
tion, it increafes adtion ; cold, on the other hand, lef-
fens the neceffity, and of courfe the a&ion is dimi¬
nished : to a due degree of heat, .therefore, the living
principle,.
D R O E 13+ ] D R O
Jpi'ovrnlng, principle^ he thinks, owes its vigour. From expen-
u—^ ments, he fays, it appears to be a law ia animal bo¬
dies, that the degree of heat (hould bear a proportion
■to the quantity of life ; as life is weakened, this pro¬
portion requires great accuracy, while greater powers
of life allow it greater latitudes.
After thefe and feveral other obfervations on the
fame fubjeft, our author proceeds to more particular
directions for the management of drowned people.
If bed-cloaths are put over the perfon, fo as fcarce
to touch him, fteams of volatile alkali, or of warm
balfams, may be thrown in, fo as to come in contact
with many parts of the body. And it might probably
be advantageous, Mr Hunter obferves, to have Iteams
of the fame kind conveyed into the ftomach. This, we
are told, may be done by a hollow bougie and a fy-
ringe ; but the operation Ihould be very fpeedily per¬
formed, as the inllrument, by continuing long in the
rrouth, might produce ficknefs, which our author fays
he would always wilh to avoid.
Some of the warm Simulating fubftances, fuch as
juice of horfe-radilh, peppermint water, and fpirits
of hartlhorn, are directed to be thrown into the- ito-
mach in a fluid Hate, as alfo to be injedted by the anus.
Motion poffibly may be of fervice ; it may at lead be
tried : but as it hath lefs efleft than any other of the
ufually prefcribed itimuli, it is direded to be the lad
part of the procefs.
The fame care in the operator, in regulating the
proportion of every one of thefe means, is here direded,
as was formerly given for the application of heat.
For every one of them, our author obferves, may pof¬
fibly have the fame property of dedroying entirely the
feeble adion which they have excited, if adminiltered
in too great a quantity : indead, therefore, of increa-
fing and haftening the operations on the fird ligns of
returning life being obierved, as is ufually done, he
defires they may be leffened ; and advifes their increafe
to be afterwards proportioned, as nearly as poflible, to
the quantity of powers as they arife.
When the heart begins to move, the application of
air to the lungs diould be leffened, that, when the
mufcles of refpiration begin to ad, a good deal may be
left for them to do.
Mr Hunter abfolutely forbids blood-letting in all
fuch cafes; for, as it not only weakens the animal
principle, but leffens life itfelf, it mud confequently,
he obferves, leflen both the powers and difpofitions to
adion. For the fame reafon, he is againd introducing
any thing into the domach that might produce fick¬
nefs or vomiting; and, on the fame principle, he fays,
vve fhould avoid throwing tobacco fumes, or any other
fuch articles, up by the anus, as might tend to an eva¬
cuation that way.
The following is a defeription of indruments recom¬
mended for fuch operations by our author.
Flrjl, A pair of bellows, fo contrived, with two fe-
parate cavities, that, by opening them when applied
to the nodrils or mouth of a patient, one cavity will
be filled with common air, and the other with air fuck¬
ed out from the lungs, and by (hutting them again,
the common air will be thrown into the lungs, and that
fucked out of the lungs difeharged into the room. The
pipe of thefe {hould be flexible ; in length a foot, or a
foot and an half; and, at lead, three eighths of an inch
in width. By this the artificial breathing may be con- Diwmng,
tinned, while the other operations, the application of
the ilimuli to the domach excepted, are going on,
which could not be conveniently done if the muzzle
of the bellows were introduced into the nofe. The end
next the nofe thould be double, and applied to both
nodrils. Secondly, A fyringe, with a hollow bougie,
or flexible catheter, of fufficient length to go into the
domach, and convey any dimulating matter into it,
without affecting the lungs. Thirdly, A pair of fmall
bellows, fuch as are commonly ufed in throwing fumes
of tobacco up by the anus.
Notwithftanding the, differences in theory, however,
between the phyficians above mentioned, it is certain,
that within theie few years great numbers of drowned
people have been redored. to life by a proper ufe of the
remedies we have enumerated, and focieties for the re¬
covery of drowned perfons have been indituted in dif¬
ferent places. The lird fociety of this kind was indi¬
tuted in Holland, where, from the great abundance of
canals and inland feas, the inhabitants are particular¬
ly expofed to accidents by water. In a very few years
150 perfons were faved from death by this fociety ; and
many of thefe had continued upwards of an hour with¬
out any figns of life, after they had been taken out of
the water. The fociety was indituted at Amderdam
in 1767 : and, by an advertifement, informed the in¬
habitants of the United Provinces of the methods pro¬
per to- be ufed on fuch occafions; offering rewards at
the fame time to thofe who (hould, with or without
fuccefs, ufe tlrofe methods for recovering perfons
drowned and feemingly dead. The laudable and hu¬
mane example of the Hutch was followed in the year
1768 by the magidrates of health in Milan and Venice;
afterwards by the magidrates of Hamburg in the year
1771, by thofe of Paris in the year 1772, and by the
magidrates of London in 1774.
The following directions are given for the recovery
of drowned perions by the fociety at London.
I. As foon as the patient is taken out of the water,
the wet cloaths, if the perfon is not naked at the time
of the accident, {hould be taken oft' with all poffible
expedition on the fpot (unlefs fome convenient houfe
be very near), and a great-coat or two, or fome blan¬
kets if convenient, {hould be wrapped sound the body.
II. The patient is to be thus carefully conveyed in
the arms of three or four men, or on a bier, to rfie
neared public or other noufe, where a good fire, if in
the winter feafon, and a warm bed, can be made ready
for its reception. As the body is conveying to this
place, great attention is to be paid to the pofition of
the head ; it mud be kept fupported in a natural and
eafy podure, and not fuffered to hang down.
ill. In cold or moid weather, the patient is to be
laid on a matrafs or bed before the fire, but not too
near, or in a moderately heated room: in warm and
fultry weather, on a bed only. The body is then to
be wrapped as expeditioufly as poffible with a blanket,
and thoroughly dried with warm coarfe cloths or flan¬
nels.
IV. In fummer or fultry weather too much air can¬
not be admitted. For this reafon it will be neceffary
to fet open the windows and doors, as cool refrefliing
air is of the greateft importance in the procefs of refuf-
citation.
V. Not
D R O [ 135 1 D R U
itDrownlnpr. V. Not more than fix perfons are to be prefent to
iii——y.— apply the proper means; a greater number will be ufe-
lefs, and may retard, or totally prevent, the reftoration
of life, by rendering the air of the apartment unwhole-
fome. It will be neceflary, therefore, to requeit the
1 abfence of thofe who attend merely from motives of
ouriotity.
VI. It will be proper for one of the afiiftants, with
I a pair of bellows of the common fize, applying the pipe
a little way up one noftnl, to blow with fome force,
in order to introduce air into the lungs; at the fame
time the other noftril and the mouth are to be clofed by
another affiftant, whilfta third perfon gently prefles the
chell with his hands, after the.lungs are obferved to be
inflated. By purfuing this procefs, the noxious and
flagnant vapours will be expelled, and natural breath¬
ing imitated. If the pipe of the bellows be too large,
the air mav be blown in at the -mouth, the nollrils at
the fame time being clofed, fo that it may not efcapc
that way : but the lungs are more eafily filled, and na¬
tural breathing better imitated, by blowing up the
noftriL
VII. Let the body be gently rubbed with common
fait, or with flannels, fprinkled with fpirits, as rum or
geneva (a). A warming-pan heated (the body being
I . furrounded with flannel) may be lightly moved up and
down the back. Fomentations of hot brandy are to
be applied to the pit of the tlomacli, loins, &c. and
often renewed. Bottles filled witb hot, water, heated
tiles covered with flannel, or hot bricks, may be effi-
cacioufly applied to the foies of the feet, palms of the
hands, and other parts of the body. The temples
may be rubbed with fpirits of hart {horn, and the no-
ftrils now and then tickled with a feather; and foulf,
or eau de luce, fhould be occafionally applied.
VIII. Tobacco fumes (hould be thrown up the fun¬
dament ; if a fumigator be not at hand, the fomnion
pipe may anfwer the purpofe. The operation {hould
I ' be frequently performed, as it is- of importance ; for
the good effects of this procefs have been experienced
^in a variety of inftances of fufpended animation. But
mould the application of tobacco-fmoke in this way
not be immediately convenient, or other impediments
arife, clyfters of this herb, or other acrid infufions with
I fait, &c. may be thrown up with advantage.
IX. When thefe means have been employed a con-
fiderable time without {uccefs, and any brewhoufe or
warm bath can be readily obtained, the body Ihould
be carefully conveyed to fuch a place, and remain in the
bath, or furrounded with warm grains, for three or
four hours.
If a child has been drowned, its body {hould be
wiped perfectly dry, and immediately placed in bed be¬
tween two healthy perfons. The falutary effects of
the natural vital warmth, conveyed in this manner, have
been proved in a variety of fuccefsful cafes.
X. While the various methods of treatment are em¬
ployed, the body is to be well lhaken every ten mi¬
nutes, in order to render the procefs of animation more
certainly fuccefsful; and children, in particular, are
to be much agitated, by taking hold of their legs aud
arms frequently and for a continuance of time. In va* Drowning,
rious inftances agitation has forwarded the recovery of Drl||,js
boys who have been drowned, and continued for a con- ■
fiderable time apparently dead.
XI. If there be any figns of returning life, fuch as
fighing, gafping, or convulfive motions, a fpoonful of
any warm liquid may be adminiftered ; and if the adl
of fwallowing is returned, then a cordial of warm
brandy or wine may be given in {mail quantities and
frequently repeated.
Xl I. Electricity may be tried by the judicious and
{kilful, as its application neither prevents nor retards
the various modes of recovery already recommended ;
but, on the other hand, will moft probably tend to
render the other means employed more certainly and
more expeditioufly efficacious. This ftirnulus bids fair
to prove an important auxiliary in cafes of fufpended
animations ; and therefore deferves the ferious regard
and attention of the Faculty.
The methods which have been fully deferibed, are
to be employed with vigour for three hours or upwards,
although no favourable circumftances {hould arife ; for
it is a vulgar and dahgerous opinion to fuppofe that
perfons are irrecoverable, becaufe life does'not foot*
make its appearance ; an opinion that has coufigned
to the grave an immenfe number of the feemiugly dead,
who might have been reftored to life,by refolution and
perfev»rance.
Bleeding is never to be employed in fuch cafes, un-
lefs by the dire&ion of one of the medical affiftants, or
fome other gentleman of the faculty who has paid at¬
tention to the refufeitating art.
DRUG, a general term for goods of the druggilt
and grocery kinds, efpeciaily thofe ufed in medicine
and dyeing. See Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and
Dyeing.
DRUGGET, in commerce, a fluff fometimes all
wool, and fometimes half wool half thread, fometimes
corded, but ufually plain. Thofe that have the woof
of wool/ and the warp of thread, are called threaded
druggets ; and thofe wrought with the {buttle on a lo«ra
of four marches, as the ferges of Moui, Beauvois, and
other like fluffs corded, are called corded druggets. As
to the plain, theyarewrought on a loom of two marches,
with the {buttle, in the fame manner as cloth, camblets,
and other like fluffs not corded.
DRUIDiE, or Droium (anc. gcog ), a very an¬
cient town, the principal place of the Druides or Drui¬
ds: in Gaul, as they are called (Casfar, Cicero). Now
Dreux in the Orleannois. Here they met every year
in a confecrated grove, according to Csefar. The town
was alfo called Durocafes. W. Long. i. 21. Lat. 48.
45-
DRUIDS, Druides, or Druid/e, the priefts or
minifters of religion among the ancient Celtae or Gauls,
Britons, and Germans. ^
Some authors derive the word from the Hebrew
D'wm derujjim, or druffim, which they Iran (late con-
templalcres. Picard, Celtopasd. lib. ii. p. 58. believes
the druids to have been thus called from Druis, or
Drfius, their leader, the fourth or fifth king of the
Gauls,
(a) Dr Fothergill of Bath, in a letter to the Regifter; advifes as a potent and a&ive ftimulus the patent
muhard moiftened with fpirits.
B R U [ 136 ] D R U
D:u:d^. Gauls, and father of Saron or Naumes. Pliny, Sal- hands and arms with bracelets: they wore their hair Druids.
maiius, Vigenere, &c. derive the name from Jfur, oak; very (hort, and their beards remarkably long. . *>jt'
on account of their inhabiting, or at leaft frequenting, The druids had one chief, or arch-druid, in every
and teaching in forefts ; or perhaps becaufe, as Pliny nation, who atled as high-prieft, or pontiffx maximus.
fays, they never facriticed but under the oak. But it He had abfolute authority over the reft; and command-
ds hard to imagine how the druids fhould come to fpeak ed, decreed, punifhed, &c, at pleafure. At his death
Greek. Menage derives the word from the old Bri- he was fucceeded by the moft confiderable among his
tifh dr us, “daemon, magician.” Borel, from the Sax- furvivors; and, if there were feveral pretenders, the
on dry, “ magician or rather from the old Britilh matter was ended by an ele&ion, or elfe put to the de-
dru, or derw, “ oak,” whence he takes to be cifton of arms.
derived ; which is the moft probable fuppofition. Go- The druids, we have obferved, were in the highelt
rop. Becanus, lib. i takes druis to be an old Celtic and efteem. They preftded at facriftces, and other cere-
German word, formed from troivis or truiois, “ a doc- monies ; and had the diredtion of every thing relating
tor of the truth and the faithwhich etymology to religion. The Britilh and Gaulilh youth flocked
x Voffius acquiefces in. to them in crowds, to be inltrudrd by them. The
General ac- The druids were the firft and moft diftinguilhed or- children of the nobility, Mela tells us, they retired
druids? C 6 ^er amon£ the Gauls and Britons ; they were chofen with into caves, or the moft defolate parts of forefts,
out of the beft families; and the honours of their and kept them there fometimes for twenty years un¬
birth, joined with thofe of their funftion, procured der their difcipline. Befide the immortality and me-
them the higheft veneration among the people. They tempfychoiis, they were here inftruCted in the motion
were verfed in aftrology, geometry, natural philofophy, of the heavens, and the courfe of the liars ; the mag-
politics, and geography; they were the interpreters of re- nitude of the heavens and the earth ; the nature of
ligion, and the judges of all affairs indifferently. Who- things; the power and wifdom of the gods, &c. They
ever refufed obedience to them was declared impious preferved the memory and actions of great men in their
and accurfed. We know but little as to their pecu- verfes, which they never allowed to be wrote down,
liar dodlrines ; only that they believed the immortality but made their pupils get them by heart. In their
cf the foul; and, as is generally alfo fuppofed, the common courfe of learning, they are faid to have
metempfychoiis ; though a late author makes it appear taught them twenty-four thoufand fuch verfes. By
highly probable they did not believe this laft, at leaft this means their doctrines appeared more myfterious by
not in the fenfe of the Pythagoreans. being unknown to all but themfelves ; and having no
The chief fettlement of the druids in Britain was books to recur to, they were the more careful to iix
in the ifle of Anglefey, the ancient Mona, which they them in their memory.
might choofe for this purpofe, as'it is well ftored w ith They worihipped the Supreme Being under the
fpacious groves of their favourite oak. They were di- name of Efus, or He/us, and the fymbol of the oak ;
vided into feveral claffes or branches, viz. the vacerri, and had no other temple than a wood or a grove, where
bardi, cubages, femnsthii or femnothei, and faronida The all their religious rites were performed. Nor was any
‘vacerri are held to have been the priefts ; the bardi, the perfon admitted to enter that facred recefs, unlei's he
poets; the cubages, the augurs; and the faronida, the carried with him a chain, in token of his abfolute
civil judges and inftrudlors of youth. As to the^m- dependence on the Deity. Indeed, their whole reli-
nothei, who are faid to have been immediately devoted gion originally coniilted in acknowledging, that tht:
to the fervice of religion, it is probable they were the Supreme Being, who made his abode in thefe facred
fame with the ‘vacerri. Strabo, however, (lib. iv. p. 197.) groves, governed the univerfe ; and that every crea-
and Picard after him in his Geltopsedia, do not com- ture ought to obey his laws, and pay him divine ho-
prehend all thefe different orders under the denomina- mage.
tion of druids, as fpecies under their genus, or parts They conffdered the oak as the emblem, or rather
under the-whole ; but make them quite different con- the !pccldiar rd’utemx* ^ Abrnghty; and accord*
ditions or orders. Strabo, in effeft, only diftinguifhes ingly chaplets of it were worn both by the druids
three kinds; bardi, votes, and druids. The bardi were and people in their religious ceremonies, the altars
the poets; the votes, (apparently the fame with were ttrewed with its leaves and encircled with its
the vacerri), were the priefts and naturalifts; and the branches. The fruit of it, efpecially the mifletoe,
druids, befide the ftudy of nature, applied themfelves was thought to contain a divine virtue, and to be the
likewiCe to morality. peculiar gift of heaven. It w'as therefore fought for
Diogenes Laertius affures us, in his Prologue, that on the fixth day of the moon with the greateft earneft-
the druids were the fame among the ancient Britons nefs and anxiety; and when found was hailed with
with the fophi or philofophers- among the Greeks ; fuch raptures of joy, as almoft exceeds imagination
the magi among the Perfians; the gymnofophifts among to conceive. As loon as the druids were informed of
the Indians ; and the Chaldeans among the Affy- this fortunate difeovery, they prepared every thing
rians. ready for the facrifice under the oak, to which they
Their garments were remarkably long; and, when fattened two white bulls by the horns ; then the arch-
employed in religious ceremonies, they always wore a druid, attended by a prodigious number of people,
white furplice. They generally carried a wand in their afeended the tree, dreffed in white; and with a cOnfe-
hands ; and wore a kind of ornament enchafed in gold crated golden knife, or pruning hook, cropped the
about their necks, called the druid’’s egg. Their necks milletoe, which he received in his iagum or robe, amidft
were likewife decorated with gold chains, and their the rapturous exclamations of the people. Having fe-
N° 104. cured
D R U [ 137 ] D R U
i?5?uids. cured this facred plant, he defcended the tree ;• the
bulls were facrificed; and the Deity invoked to blefs
his own gift, and render it efficacious in thofe diftem-
pers in which it ffiould be adminiftered.
The confecrated groves, in which they performed
their religious rites, were fenced round with ftones, to
prevent any perfon’s entering between the trees, ex¬
cept through the paffages left open for that purpofe,
_ and which were guarded by fome inferior druids,1 to
prevent any ftranger from intruding into their myfte-
ries. Thefe groves were of different forms ; fome
quite circular, others oblong, and more or lefs ca¬
pacious as the votaries in the diftridts to which they
belonged were more or lefs numerous. The area in
the centre of the grove was encompaffed with feveral
rows of large oaks fet very clofe together. Within
this large circle were feveral fmaller ones furrounded
with large ftones; and near the centre of thefe fmaller
circles, were ftones of a prodigious fize and conve¬
nient height, on which the vi&ims were flain and of¬
fered. Each of thefe being a kind of altar, was fur-
rounded with another row of ftones, the ufe of which
cannot now be known, unlefs they were intended as
cinctures to keep the people at a convenient diftance
from the officiating prieft.
Suetonius, in his life of Claudius, affures us the
druids facrificed men ; and Mercury is faid to be the
god to whom they offered thefe victims. Diod. Sicu¬
lus, lib. vi. obferves it was only upon extraordinary
occafions they made fuch offerings; as, to confult
what meafures to take, to learn what fhould befal
them. See. by the fall of the viftim, the tearing of his
members, and the manner of his blood gufhing out.
Auguftus condemned, the cuftom, and Tiberius and
Claudius punilhed and abolifhed it.
We learn from Caefar, that the druids were the
judges and .arbiters of all differences and difputes, both
public and private : they took cognizance of murders,
inheritances, boundaries, and limits; and decreed re¬
wards and punifhments. Such as difobeyed their de-
cifions they excommunicated, which was their prin¬
cipal punifhment; the criminal being-hereby excluded
from all public affemblies, and avoided by all the world;
fo that nobody durft fpeak to him for fear of being*
polluted. Strabo obferves, they had fometimes intereft
and authority enough to flop armies upon the point of
4 engaging, and accommodate their differences.
Their O’M- ^ ^een difputed, whether the druids were
nions and themfelves the inventors of their opinions and fyftems
■philofophy, of religion and philofophy, or received them from
jived ^ ^ ot^ers’ Some have imagined, that the colony of Pho-
1 e ' cians which left Greece and built Marfeilles in Gaul
about the 57th Olympiad, imported the firff principles
of learning and philofophy, and communicated them
to the Gauls and other nations in the weft of Europe.
It appears, indeed, that this famous colony contribu¬
ted not a little to the improvement of that part of
Gaul where it fettled, and to the civilization of its in¬
habitants. “ The Greek colony of Marfeilles (fays
Juftin) civilized the Gauls, and taught them to live
under laws; to build cities and inclofe them with walls;
to raife corn ; to cultivate the vine and olive ; and, in
a word, made fo great a change both in the face of the
country and the manners of its inhabitants, that Gaul
feemed to be tranflated into Greece, rather than a few
Vol. VI. Part, I.
Greeks tranfplanted into Gaul.” But though we may Druids,
allow that the druids of Gaul and Britain borrowed •> “
fome hints and embellifhments of their philofophy from
this Greek colony, and perhaps from other quarters,
we have reafon to believe that the fubftance of it was
their own. Others have fuggefted, that the druids
derived their philofophy from Pythagoras, who pub-
lilhed his dodlrinesat Crotona in Italy; where he lived
in the higheft reputation for his virtue, wifdom, and
learning, above 20 years. This conjedlure is very
much confirmed by this remarkable expreffion of Am-
mianus Marcellinus, “ That the druids were formed
into fraternities, as the authority of Pythagoras de¬
creed.” It hath been alfo obferved, that the philofo¬
phy of the druids bore a much greater refemblance to
that of Pythagoras than to that of any of the other
fages of antiquity. But it feems probable, that Am-
mianus meant no more by the above expreffion than to
illuftrate the nature of the druidical fraternities, by
comparing them to thofe of the Pythagoreans, which
were well known to the Romans; and the refemblance
between the Pythagorean and druidical philofophy ■
may perhaps be bell accounted for by fuppofing, that
Pythagoras learned and adopted fome of the opinions
of the druids, as well as imparted to them fome of his
difeoveries. It is well known, that this- philofopher,
animated by the mod ardent love of knowledge, tra¬
velled into many countries in purfuit of it, and got
himfelf admitted into every fociety that was famous for
its learning. It is therefore highly probable in itfelf,
as well as diredlly afferted by feveral authors, that Py¬
thagoras heard the druids of Gaul, and was initiated
into their philofophy. 3
From the concurring teftimonies of feveral au- More par-
thors, it appears that phyiiology, or natural philo-t‘cu*ar“c'
fophy, was the favourite ftudy of the druids of Gaul leaning of
and Britain. Cicero tells us, that he was perfonally the druids,
acquainted with one of the Gaulilh druids, Divitia-
cus the iEduan, a man of quality in his country,
who profeffed to have a thorough knowledge of the
laws of nature, or that feience which the Greeks ^
call phyfics or phy/wlogy. According to Diodorus Phyfics, or
Siculus, Strabo, Casfar, Mela, Ammianus Marcel-naturalpfii-
Hhus, and others, they entered into many difqui-
fitions and deputations in their fchools, concerning
the form and magnitude of the univerfe in general, and
of this earth in particular, and even concerning the
moft fublime and hidden fecrets of nature. On thefe
and the like fubjedls they formed a variety of fyftems
and hypothefes; which they delivered to their difciples
in verfe, that they might the more eafily retain them
in their memories, fince they were not allowed to com¬
mit them to writing. Strabo hath preferred one of
the phyfiological opinions of the druids concerning the
univerfe; viz., that it was never to be entirely deftroyed
or annihilated; but was to undergo a fucceffion of great
changesand revolutions, which were tobe producedfome-
times by the power and predominancy of water, and
fometimes by that of fire. This opinion, he intimates,
was not peculiar to them, but was entertained alfo by
the philofophers of other nations ; and Cicero fpeaks
of it as a truth univerfally acknowledged and undeni¬
able. “ It is impoffible for us (fays he) to attain a
glory that is eternal, or even of very long duration, on
account of thofe deluges and conflagrations of the
S earth
D R U E 138 1 D R U
Druids, earth which muft neceffarily happen at certain periods.”
l| * This opinion, which was entertained by the moft an¬
cient philofophers of many different and very diftant
nations, was probably neither the refult of rational in¬
quiry in all thefe nations, nor communicated from one
of them to others ; but defcended to them all from
their common anceftors of the family of Noah by tra¬
dition, but corrupted and mifunderftood through length
of time. The agreement of the druids with the phi¬
lofophers of fo many other nations in this opinion
about the alternate diffolution and renovation of the
world, gives us reafon to believe, that they agreed with
them alfo in their opinion of its origin from two df-
ftindt principles } the one intelligent and omnipotent,
which was God; the other inanimate and inactive,
which was matter. We are told by Caefar, that they
had many difquifitions about the power of God ; and,
no doubt, amongft other particulars, about his crea¬
ting power. But whether they believed with fome
that matter was eternal, or with others that it was
created ; and in what manner they endeavoured to ac¬
count for the difpofition of it into the prefent form of
the univerfe, we are entirely ignorant, though they cer¬
tainly 'had their fpeculations on thefe fubje&s. We
are only informed, that they did not exprefs their fen-
timents on thefe and the like heads in a plain and na¬
tural, but in a dark, figurative, and enigmatical man¬
ner. This might incline us to fufpeft, that Pythago¬
ras had borrowed from them his doftriue about num¬
bers, to whofe myftical energy he afcribes the forma¬
tion of all things; for nothing can be more dark and
enigmatical than that doctrine. The druids difputed
Jikewife about the magnitude and form of the world in
general, and of the earth in particular, of which things
they pretended to have a perfect knowledge. We
know not what their opinions were about the dimen-
fions of the univerfe or of the earth, but we have fe-
veral reafo-ns to make us imagine that they believed
both to be of a fpherical form. This is vifibly the
ihape and form of the fun, moon, and ftars, the moft
confpicuous parts of the univerfe ; from whence it was
natural and eafy to infer, that this was the form of the
world and of the earth. Accordingly this feems to
have been the opinion of the philofophers of all nations;
and the circle was the favourite figure of the druids, as
appears from the form both of their houfes and places
of worfhip. BefideS thefe general fpeculations about
the origin, diflblution, magnitude, and form of the
world and of the earth, the druids engaged in particu¬
lar inquiries into the natures and properties of the dif¬
ferent kinds of fubftances. But all their difcoveries in
this moft ufeful and extenfive branch of natural philo-
5 fophy, whatever they were, are entirely loft.
Agronomy, Aftronomy alfo appears to have been one of the
chief ftudies of the druids of Gaul and Britain.
“ The druids (fays Csefar) have many difquifitions
concerning the heavenly bodies and their motions, in
which they inftruct their difciples.” Mela, fpeaking
of the fame philofophers, obferves, “ That they
profefs to have great knowledge of the motions of
the heavens and of the ftars.” • Some knowledge of
t this fcience indeed was not only neceflary for meafu-
ring time in general, marking the duration of the dif¬
ferent feafons, regulating the operations of the huf-
bandman, directing the courfe of the mariner, and for
many other ptirpofes in civil life ; but it was efpecially Druid*,
neceffary for fixing the times and regular returns of l——y—-J
their religious folemnities, of which the druids had
the foie direction. Some of thefe folemnities were
monthly, and others annual. It was therefore neceffa¬
ry for them to know, with fome tolerable degree of
exa&nefs, the number pf days in which the fun and
moon performed their revolutions, that thefe folemni¬
ties might be obferved at their proper feafons. This
was the more neceffary, as fome of thefe folemnities
were attended by perfons from different and very di¬
ftant countries, who were all to meet at one place on
one day; who muft have had fome rule to difcover the
annual return of that day. g
The moft perceptible divifion of time by the two Their me-
great luminaries is into day and rfight; the former oc-thod of. ;
cafioned by the prefence of the fun above the horizon, ^™putl::s
the latter by his abfence, which is in fome meafure fup-
plied by the moon and ftars. The druids computed
their time by nights, and not by da vs ; a cuftom which
they had received from their melt remote anceftors by*
tradition, and in which they were confirmed by their
meafuring their time very much by the moon, the mi-
ftrefs and queen of night. As the changes in the a-
fped of that luminary are moft confpicuous, they enga¬
ged the attention of the moft ancient aftronomers of
all countries, and particularly of the druids, who regu¬
lated all their great folemnities, both facred and civil,
by the age and afpeft of the moon. “ When no un-
expedted accident prevents it, they affemble upon fta-
ted days, either at the time of the new or full moon;
for they believe thefe to be the moft aufpicious times
for tranfa&ing all affairs of importance.” Their moft
auguft ceremony of cutting the mifletoe from the oak
by the archdruid, was always performed on the fixth
day of the moon. Nay, they even regulated their mi¬
litary operations very much by this luminary, and a-
voided, as much as poffible, to engage in battle while
the moon was on the wane. As the attention of the
druids W'as fo much fixed on this planet, it could not
be very long before they difeovered that (he paffed
through all her various afpedts in about thirty days ;
and by degrees, and more accurate obfervations, they
would find, that the real time of her performing an
entire revolution was very nearly 294- days. This fur¬
nished them with the divifion of their time into months,
or revolutions of the moon ; of which we know with
certainty they were poffeffed. But this period, though
of great ufe, was evidently too ftiort for many pur-
pofes, and particularly for meafuring the feafons; which
they could not fail to perceive depended on the influ¬
ences of the fun. By continued obfervation they dif-.
covered, that about 12 revolutions of the moon inclu¬
ded all the variety of feafons, which begun again, and
revolved every 12 months. This fuggefted to them
that larger divifion of tiirfe called a year, confifting of
12 lunations, or 354 days, which was the moft ancient
meafure of the year in almoft all nations. That this was-
for fome time at leaft the form of the druidical year,,
is both probable in itfelf, and from the following ex-
preflion. of Pliny : “ That they begun both their
months and years, not from the change, but from the
fixth day of the moon.” This is even a demonftration
that their years confifted t>f a certain number of lunar
revolutions, as they always commenced on the fame day
4. Qf-‘ • \
D R U
• DruMs. of the moon. But as this year of 12 lunar months
falls 11 days and nearly one-fourth of a day fhort of a
real revolution of the fun, this error would foon be per¬
ceived, and call for reformation ; though we are not
informed of the particular manner in which it was rec¬
tified. Various arguments might be colledled to make
it very probable that the Britons were acquainted with
a year exadl enough for every purpofe of life, when
they were firft invaded by the Romans; but it will be
fufficient to mention one, which is taken from the time
and circumftances of that invafion. The learned Dr
Halley hath demonftrated that Casfar arrived in Britain,
in his firft year’s expedition, on the 26th day of Au-
guft : and Csefar himfelf informs us, that at his arrival
the harveft was finilhed, except in one field, ’which by
I fome means or other was more backward than the reft
of the country. This is a proof that the Britilh huf-
bandmen knew and ufed the moft proper feafons for
ploughing, fowing, and reaping. The druids, as we
are told by Pliny, had alfo a cycle or period of 30 years,
which they called an age, and which commenced like-
wife on the fixth day of the moon ; but that author
hath not acquainted us on what principles this cycle
was formed, nor to what purpofes it was applied. We
can hardly fuppofe that this was the cycle of the fun,
which confifts of 28 years, and regulates the dominical
letters. It is more probable, that while the druids
made ufe of the year of 12 lunar months, and had not
invented a method of adjufting it to the real revolution
of the fun, they obferved that the beginning of this
year had pafled through all the feafons, and returned
to the point from whence it fet out, in a courfe of a-
bout 33 years ; which they might therefore call an
age. Others may perhaps be of opinion, that this 30
years cycle of the druids is the fame with the great year
of the Pythagoreans, or a revolution of Saturn. Some
have imagined that the druids were alfo acquainted
with the cycle of jq years, which is commonly called
the cycle of the moon. But the evidence of this de¬
pends entirely on the truth of that fuppofition, that
the Hyperborean ifland, which is defcribed by Diodo¬
rus Siculus, was Britain, or fome of the Britilh ifles.
Among many other furprifing things, that author fays,
concerning this Hyperborean ifland, “ That its inhabi¬
tants believed that Apollo defcended into their ifland
at the end of every 19 years ; in which period of time
the fun and moon, having performed their various revo¬
lutions, return to the fame point, and begin to repeat
the fame revolutions. This is called by the Greeks
7 the great year, or the cycle of Meton.”
1 ^eir! We are. told both by Csefar and Mela, that the
1 of theftars. druids ftudied the ftars as well as the fun and moon ;
and that they profefied to know, and taught their
difciples, many things concerning the motions of thefe
heavenly bodies. From thefe teftimonies we may con¬
clude that the druids were acquainted with the pla¬
nets, diftinguiflied them from the fixed ftars, and care¬
fully obferved their motions and revolutions. If this
difeovery was the refult of their own obfervations, it
would be gradual, and it would be a long time before
they found out all the planets. They might perhaps
have received fome affiftance and information from Py¬
thagoras, or from fome other quarter. But.whether
this .difeovery of the planets was their own, or com-
fnunicated to them by others, it is highly probable that
D R U
they were acquainted with the precife number of thefe Dn
wandering ftars; Dio Caffius fays, that the cuftom of
giving the name of one of the planets to each of the
feven days of the week was an invention of the Egyp¬
tians, and from them was gradually communicated to
all the other nations of the world ; and that in his
time this cuftom was fo firmly eftabliflied, not only
among the Romans, but among all the reft of man¬
kind, that in every country it appeared to be a native
inftitution. The knowledge of the planets, and per¬
haps the cuftom of giving their names to the days of
the week, was brought out of Egypt into Italy by
Pythagoras, more than 500 years before the beginning of
the Chriftian era ; and from thence it could not be very
long before it reached Gaul and Britain. But though
we have little or no reafon to doubt that the druids
knew .the number and obferved the motion of the pla¬
nets, yet it may be queftioned whether they had dif-
covered the times in which they performed their feveral
revolutions. Some of thefe ftars, as Jupiter and Sa¬
turn, take fo great a number of years in revolving,
thatrit required a very extraordinary degree of patience
and attention to difeover the precife periods of their
revolutions. If we could be certain that the ifland in
which the ancients imagined Saturn lay afleep, was
one of the Britifh ifles, as Plutarch intimates it was,
we might be inclined to think that the Britifti druids
were not ignorant of the length of the period in which
the planet Saturn performs a revolution. For that fame
author, in another treatife, tells us, That the inha¬
bitants of that ifland kept every thirtieth year a folemn
feftival in honour of Saturn, when his ftar entered into
the fign of Taurus.”
If we could depend upon the above teftimony of
Plutarch, we fhould have one pofitive proof that the
druids of the Britilh ifles were acquainted with the con-
ftellations, and even with the figns of the zodiac ; and
that they meafured the revolutions of the fun and pla¬
nets, by obferving the length of time between their
departure from and return to one of thefe figns. But
we have no direft evidence of this remaining in hiftory.
The druids of Gaul and Britain, as well as the an¬
cient philqfophers of other countries, had a general
plan or fyftem of the univerfe, and of the difpofition
and arrangement of its various parts, in which they
inftru&ed their difciples. This is both probable in it-
felf, and is plainly intimated by feveral authors of the
greateft authority. But we cannot be certain whether
this druidical fyftem of the world was of their own
invention, or was borrowed from others. If it was
borrowed, it was moft probably from the Pythagoreans,
to whom they were the neareft neighbours, and with
whom they had the greateft intercourfe.
It hath been imagined, that the druids had inftnfc
ments of fome kind or other, which anfwered the
fame purpofes with our telefcopes, in making obferva¬
tions on the heavenly bodies. The only foundation
of this very improbable conjecture is an expreffion of
Diodorus Siculus, in his defeription of the famous Hy¬
perborean ifland. They fay further, that the moon
is feen from that fland, as if file was but at a little
diftance from the earth, and haying hills or moun¬
tains like ours on her furface. But no fuch inference
can be reafonably drawn from this expreflion, which in
reality merits littl- more regard than what Strabo re-
S 2 ’ ports
1 139 1
D R U [ Ho ] D R U
Druids, ports was laid of fome of the inhabitants of Spain :
“ That they heard the hiding noife of the fun every
evening when he fell into the weilern ocean.”
The application of the druids to the ftudy of philo-
fophy and aftronomy amounts almoft to a demonftra-
tion that they applied alfo to the ftudy of arithmetic
and geometry. For fome knowledge of both thefe
fciences is indifpenfably neceffary to the phyfiologift
and aftronomer, as well as of great and daily ufe in the
8 common affairs of life.
Arithmetic If we were certain that Abaris, the famous Hy¬
perborean philofopher, the friend and fcholar of Pytha¬
goras, was really a Britilh druid, as fome have ima¬
gined, we ftiould be able to produce diredt hiftorical
evidence of their arithmetic knowledge. For 1am-
blicus, in the life of Pythagoras, fays, “ that he taught
Abaris to find out all truth by the fcience of arithme¬
tic.” It may be thought improbable that the druids
had made any confiderable progrefs in arithmetic, as
this may feem to be impofiible by the mere ftrength
of memory without the Sfliftance of figures and of
written rules. But it is very difficult to ascertain
what may be done by memory alone, when it hath
been long exercifed in this way. We have had an
* See Box- example in our own age, of a perfon * who could per-
ToN (Jede form fome of the moft tedious and difficult operations
dtab). jn arithmetic by the mere ftrength of his memory.
The want of written rules could be no great difad-
vantage to the druids, as the precepts of this, as well
as of the other fciences, were couched in verfe, which
would be eafily got by heart and long remembered.
Though the druids were unacquainted with the Ara¬
bic charadters which are now in ufe, we have no rea-
fon to fuppofe that they were deftitute of marks or
charadters of fome other kind, which, in fome mea-
fure, anfwered the fame purpofes, both in making and
\ recording their calculations. In particular, we have
reafon to think, that they made ufe of the letters of
the Greek alphabet for both thefe purpofes. This
feems to be plainly intimated by Cftefar in the follow¬
ing expreffion concerning the druids of Gaul: “ In
almoft all other public tranfaftions, and private ac¬
counts or computations, they make ufe of the Greek
letters.” This is further confirmed by what the fame
author fays of the Helvetii; a people of the fame ori¬
gin, language, and manners, with the Gauls and Bri¬
tons. “ Tables were found in the camp of the Hel¬
vetii written in Greek letters, containing an account of
all the men capable of bearing arms, who had left their
native country, and alfo feparate accounts of the boys,
old men, and women.” There is hiftorical evidence
of the druids being alfo well acquainted with geome¬
try. “ When any difputes arife (fa^s Csefar) about
their inheritances, or any controverfies about the li¬
mits of their fields, they are entirely referred to the
decifion of their druids.” But befides the knowledge
of menfuration Which this implies, both Csefar and
Mela plainly intimate that the druids were converfant
in the mott fublime fpeculations of geometry j “ in
meafuring the magnitude of the earth, and even of
9 the world.”
Skill in me- There are ftill many monuments remaining in
thanks. Britain and the adjacent illes, which cannot fo rea-
fonably be afcribed to any as to the ancient Britons,
and which give us caufe to think, that they had made
great progrefs in this ufeful part of learning, and could Druids. 1
apply the mechanical powers fo as to produce very
aftonifhing effe&s. As thefe monuments appear to
have been defigned for religious purpofes, we may be
certain that they were erefted under the diredlion of -
the druids. How many obelifks or pillars, of one
rough unpolifhed ftone each, are ftill to be feen in
Britain and its ifles ? Some of thefe pillars are both
very thick and lofty, erefted on the fummits of bar-
rows and of mountains ; and fome of them (as at Stone¬
henge) have ponderous blocks of ftone raifed aloft,
and refting on the tops of the upright pillars. We can
hardly fuppofe that it was poflible to cut thefe prodi¬
gious maffes of ftone (fome of them above forty tons
in weight) without wedges, or to raife them out of
the quarry without levers. But it certainly required
ftill greater knowledge of the mechanical powers, and
of the method of applying them, to tranfport thofe
huge ftones from the quarry to the places of their i
deftination ; to ereft the perpendicular pillars, and to
elevate the impofts to the tops of thefe pillars. If
that prodigious ftone in the parifti of Conftantine,
Cornwal, was really removed by art from its original
place, and fixed where it now Hands (as one of our
moft learned and diligent antiquaries thinks it was f ), j Dr Bor* ]
it is a demonftration, that the druids could perform Us's Antiq< • j
the moft aftonifhing feats by their fkill in mechanics. Cornwal,
That the Britifh druids were acquainted'with the f*-|
principles and ufe of the balancej we have good reafon
to believe, not only from the great antiquity of that
difcovery in other parts of the world, but alfo from
fome druidical monuments which are ftill remaining
in this ifland. Thefe monuments are called Lagan
Jlones, or rocking ftones; and each of them confifts of
one prodigious block of ftone, refting upon an upright.
ftone or rock, and fo equally balanced, that a very
fmall force, fometimes even a child, can move it up and
down, though hardly any force is fufficient to remove
it from its ftation. Some of thefe ftones may have
fallen into this pofition by accident, but others of
them evidently appear to have been placed in it by
art. That the ancient Britons underftood the con-
ftitution and ufe of wheels, the great number of their
war-chariots and other wheel-carriages is a fuffici¬
ent proof; and that they knew how to combine them
together and with the other mechanical powers, fo as
to form machines capable of raifing and tranfporting
very heavy weights, we have good reafon to believe.
In a word, if the Britifh druids were wholly ignorant
of the principles and ufe of any of the mechanical
powers, it was moft probably of the ferew, though even
of this we cannot be certain. 10
In Germany and in the northern nations of Europe Medicine#
the healing art was chiefly committed to the old wo¬
men of every ftate ; but in Gaul and Britain it was in-
trufted to the druids, who were the phyficians as well
as the priefts of thefe countries. Pliny fays exprefsly,
“ That Tiberius Csefar deftroyed the druids of the
Gauls, who were the poets and phyficians of that na¬
tion;” and he might have added of the Britons. The
people of Gaul and Britain were probably induced to
devolve the care of their health on the druids, and to
apply to thefe priefts for the cure of their difeafes,
not only by the high efteem they had of their wifdom
and learning, but alfo by the opinion which they en¬
tertained;,
l&ni'Jj.
ii
Botaay.
D R U
tertained, that a very intimate connexion fubfifted be¬
tween the arts of healing and the rites of religion, and
that the former were molt effedtual when they were ac¬
companied by the latter. It appears indeed to have
been the prevailing opinion of all the nations of an¬
tiquity, that all internal difeafes proceeded immediate¬
ly from the anger of the gods; and that the only way
of obtaining relief from thefe difeafes was by applying
to their priefts to appeafe their anger by religious rites
and facrifices. This was evidently the opinion and
practice of the Gauls and Britons, who in fome dan¬
gerous cafes facrificed one man as the molt effectu.al
means of curing another. “ They are much addfdted
(fays Caefar) to fuperftition ; and for this caufe, thofe
who are afflifted with a dangerous difeafe facrifice a
man, or promife that they will facrifice one, for their
recovery. For this purpofe they make ufe of the mi-
niilry of the druids ; becaufe they have declared, that
the anger of the immortal gods cannot be appeafed, fo
as to fpare the life of one man but by the life of an¬
other.” This way of thinking gave rife alfo to that
great number of magical rites and incantations with
which the medical practices of the druids, and indeed
of all the phyficians of antiquity, were attended. “ No
body doubts (fays Pliny ) that magic derived its origin
from medicine, and that by its flattering but delufive
promifes, it came to be elteemed the molt fublime and
facred part of the art of healing.”
That the druids made great ufe of herbs for medi¬
cinal purpofes, we have fufficient evidence. They not
only had a molt fuperltitious veneration for the mille-
toe of the oak, on a religious account, but they alfo
entertained a very high opinion of its medical virtues,
and elteemed it a kind of panacea or remedy for all
difeafes. “ They call it (fays Pliny) by a name which
in their language fignifies Alheal, becaufe they have an
opinion that it cureth all difeafes.” They believed it
to be in particular a fpecific Ugainlt barrennefs, and a
fovereign antidote againlt the fatal effects of poifons
of all kinds. ' It was elteemed alfo an excellent emol¬
lient and difcutient for foftening and difcuffing hard
tumors; good for drying up fcrbphulous fores ; for
curing ulcers and wounds ; and (provided it was not
fuffered to touch the earth after it was cut) it was
thought to be a very efficacious medicine in the epi-
lepfy or falling-ficknefs. It hath been thought ufeful
in this lall calamitous difeafe by fome modern phyfi¬
cians. The pompous ceremonies with which the mifle-
toe was gathered by the druids have been already de-
fcribed. The felago, a kind of hedge hylfop refem-
feling favin, was another plant much admired by the
druids of Gaul and Britain for its- fuppofed medicinal
virtues, particularly in all difeafes of the eyes. But its
efficacy, according to them, depended very much upon
its being gathered exaftly in the following manner :
The perfon who gathered it was to be clothed in a
white robe, to have his feet bare, and walked in pure
water; to offer a facrifice of bread and wine before he
proceeded fo cut it; which he was to do with his right
hand covered with the Ikirt of his garment, and with
a hook of fome more precious metal than iron. When
it was cut, it was to be received into, and kept in a new
and very clean cloth. When it was gathered exactly
according to this whimfical ritual, they affirmed that
it was not only an excellent medicine, but alfo a
D R U
powerful charm and prefervative from misfortunes and Druids,
unhappy accidents of all kinds. They entertained a
high opinion alfo of the herb Samolus or marlhwort,
for its fanative qualities; and gave many diredtions for
the gathering it, no lefs fanciful than thofe above men¬
tioned. The perfon who was to perform that office
was to do it falling, and with his left hand; he was on no
account to look behind him, nor to turn his face from ,
the herbs he was gathering. It would be tedious to
relate the extravagant notions they entertained of the
many virtues of the vervain, and to recount the ri¬
diculous mummeries which they pradlifed in gathering
and preparing it, both for the purpofes of divination
and phyfic. Thefe things may be feen in Pliri. Hilt.
Nat. 1. 25. c. 9. from whence we have received all thefe
anecdotes of the botany of the druids. It is eafy to
fee that his information was very imperfedt ; and that,
like many of the other Greek and Roman writers, he
defignedly reprefents the philofophers of Gaul and
Britain in an unfavourable light. The herb which
was called Britannica by the-ancients, which fome think
was the great water-dock, and others the cochlearea
or fcurvy-grafs, was probably much ufed in this illand
for medical purpofes; as it derived its name from
hence, and was from hence exported to Rome and
other parts. Though thefe few imperfedt hints are all
that we can now eolledt of the botany of the Britilh
druids, yet we have fome reafon to think that they
were not contemptible botanills. Their circumllances
were peculiarly favourable for the acquifition of this
kind of knowledge. For as they fpent moll of their
time in the receffes of mountains, groves, and woods,,
the fpontaneous vegetable produdtions of the earth'
conllantly prefented themfelves to their view, and com t- •
ed their attention.
The opinions which, it is faid, the druids of Gaul
and Britain entertained of their anguinum or ferpents
egg, both as a charm and as a medicine, are romantic
and extravagant in a very high degree. This extra¬
ordinary egg was formed, as they pretended, by a great
number of ferpents interwoven and twined together;
and when it was formed, it was raifed up in the air
by the hilling of thefe ferpents, and was to be catch-
ed in a clean white cloth, before it fell to the ground.
The perfon who catched it w^as obliged to mount a
fwift horfe, and to ride away at full fpeed to efcape
from the ferpents, who purfued him with great rage,
until they were Hopped by fome river. The way of
making trial of the genuinenefs of this egg was no lefs
extraordinary. It was to be enchafed in gold, and
thrown into a river, and if it was genuine it would
fwim againll the llream. “ I have feen (fays Pliny)
that egg ; it is about the bignefs of a moderate apple,
its Ihell is a cartilaginous incrullation, full of little ca¬
vities, fuch as are on the legs of the polypus; it is
the infignia, or badge of dillinftion of the druids.” The
virtues which they afcribed to this egg were many
and wonderful. It was particularly efficacious to ren¬
der thofe who carried it about with them fuperior to
their adverfaries in all difputes, and to procure them
the favour and friendfhip of great men. Some have
thought that this whole affair of the ferpents egg was
a mere fraud, contrived by the druids, to excite the
admiration and pick the pockets of credulous people,
who purchafed thefe wonder-working eggs from them
at
[ I4I 1
DRV [ 142 ] D R U
Druids, at a High price. Others have imagined that this ftory
0f the anguinum (of which there is an ancient monu¬
ment in the cathedral at Paris) was an emblematical
reprefentation of the doftrine of the druids concern¬
ing the creation of the world. The ferpents, fay they,
reprefent the Divine Wifdom forming the univerfe,
and the egg is the emblem of the world formed by that
Wifdom.- It may be added, that the virtue afcribed
to the anguinum, of giving thofe who poffeffed it a
fuperiority over others, and endearing them to great
men, may perhaps be intended to reprefent the natu¬
ral effefls of learning and philofophy. But in fo
doubtful a matter every one is at full liberty to form
it what judgment he thinks proper.
Rhetoric. As the influence and authority of the druids in their
country depended very much upon the reputation of
their fuperior wifdom and learning, they wifely ap¬
plied to the ftudy of thofe fciences which moft direct¬
ly contributed to the fupport and advancement of that
reputation. In this number, befides thofe already
mentioned. We may juftly reckon rhetoric, which was
diligently ftudied and taught by the druids of Gaul
and Britain; who to the charms of their eloquence
were indebted for much of the admiration and authority
which they enjoyed. They had indeed many calls and
opportunities to difplay their eloquence, and to difco-
ver its great power and efficacy; as, when they were
teaching their pupils in their fchools, when they dif-
courfed in public to the people on religious and moral
fubjefts, when they pleaded caufes in the courts of
juftice, and when they harangued in the great coun¬
cils of the nation, and at the heads of armies ready to
engage in battle ; fometimes with a view to inflame
their courage, and at other times with a defign to
allay their fury, and difpofe them to make peace.
Though this laft was certainly a very difficult talk a-
mong fierce and warlike nations, yet fuch was the au¬
thority and eloquence of the druids that they frequent¬
ly fucceeded in it. “ They pay a great regard (fays
Diodorus Siculus) to their exhortations, not only in
the affairs of peace, but even of war, and thefe are
refpe&ed both by their friends and enemies. They
fometimes ftep in between two hoftile armies, who are
Handing with their fwords drawn and their fpears ex¬
tended, ready to engage ; and by their eloquence, as
by an rtrefiftible enchantment, they prevent the effu-
fion of blood, and prevail upon them to {heath their
fwords. Sb great are the charms of eloquence and
the power of wifdom, even among the mofl. fierce bar¬
barians.” The Britilh kings and chieftains, who were
educated by the druids, were famous for their elo¬
quence. This is evident from the many noble fpeeches
which are afcribed to them by the Greek and Roman
writers. For though thefe fpeeches may not be ge-
. nuine, yet they are a proof that it was a well-known
faft that thefe princes were accuftomed to make ha¬
rangues on thefe and the like occafions. This we are
exprefsly told by Tacitus. “ The Britilh chieftains,
before a battle, fly from rank to rank, and addrefs
their men with animating fpeeches, tending to inflame
their courage, increafe their hopes, and difpel their
fears.” Thefe harangues were called, in the ancient
language of Britain, Brofnichiy Kah, which is literally
tranllated by 'Yacitus lncitarntrita Belli, “ incentives to
war.” The genuine pofterity of the ancient Britons
long retained their tafte for eloquence, and their high Druids. '
efteem for thofe who excelled in that art. “ Orators l——V-—"*
(fays Mr Martin) were in high efteem, both in thefe
illands (the iEbude) and the continent, until within
thefe forty years. They fat always among the nobles
or chiefs of families in the ftreah or circle. Their
houfes and little villages were fanctuaries, as well as
churches, and they took place before dodlors of phy-
fic. The orators, after the druids were extinft, were
brought in to preferve the genealogy of families, and
to repeat the fame at every fuccemon of a chief; and
upon the occafion of marriages and births, they made
epithalamiums and panegyrics, which the poet or bard
pronounced. The orators, by the force of their elo¬
quence, had a powerful afcendant over the greateft
men in their time. For if any orator did but alk the
habit, arms, horfe, or any other thing belonging to
the greateft man in thefe illands, it was readily grant¬
ed him ; fometimes out of refpeft, and fometimes for
fear of being exclaimed againft by a fatyr, which in
thofe days was reckoned a great dilhonour.” 13
If the Britilh druids, confidering the times in which Magic and
they lived, had made no contemptible proficiency in li‘vinatIon’.
feveral parts of real and ufeful learning ; it cannot be
denied that they were alfo great pretenders to fupe¬
rior knowledge in certain vain fallacious fciences, by
which they excited the admiration, and took advan¬
tage of the ignorance and credulity of mankind. Thefe
were the fciences (if they'may be fo called) of magic
and divination; by which they pretended to work a
kind of miracles, and exhibit aftonilhing appearances
in nature ; to penetrate into the counfels of heaven ;
to foretel future events, and to difcover the fuccefs 01*
mifcarriage of public or private undertakings. Their
own countrymen not only believed that the druids of
Gaul and Britain were poffefled of thefe powers, but
they were celebrated on this account by the philo-
fophers of Greece and Rome. “ In Britain (fays
Pliny) the magic arts are cultivated with fuch aftonilh¬
ing fuccefs, and fo many ceremonies at this da/, that
the Britons feem to be capable of inftru&ing even the
Perfians themfelves in thefe arts. They pretend to
difcover the defigns and purpofes of the gods. The
Eubates or Vates in particular, inveftigate and difplay
the moft fublime fecrets of nature; and, by aufpices
and facrifices, they foretel future events.” They were
fo famous for the fuppofed veracity of their predic¬
tions, that they were not only confulted on all impor¬
tant occafions by their own princes and great men,
but eyen fometimes by the Roman emperors. Nor is
it very difficult to account for all this. The druids
finding that the reputation of their magical and pro¬
phetical powers contributed not a little to <he ad*
vancement of their wealth and influence, they endea¬
voured, no doubt, to ftrengthen and eftablilh it by all
their art and cunning. Their knowledge of natural
philofophy and mechanics enabled them to execute
fuch works, and to exhibit fuch appearances, or to
make the world believe that they did exhibit them, as
were fafficient to gain them the character of great
magicians. The truth is, that nothing is more eafy
than to acquire this chara&er in a dark age, and a-
mong an unenlightened people. When the minds of
men are haunted with dreams of charms and*«chant-
ments, they are apt to fancy that the moft common oc¬
currences
D R U [ 143 3 D R U
'Druids, currences in nature are the effe&s of magical arts. The
-—v 1 following ftrange ftory, which we meet with in Plu¬
tarch’s Treatife. of the Ceffation of Oracles, was pro¬
bably occafionetl by fomething of this kind. “ There
are many iflands which lie fcattered about the ifle of
Britain, after the manner of our Sporades. They are
generally unpeopled, and fome of them are called the
JJlands ef the Heroes. One Demetrius was fent by the
empetor (perhaps Claudius) to difcover thofe parts.
He arrived at one of thefe iflands (fuppofed by fome
.to be Anglefey, but more probably one of iEbudse)
next adjoining to the ifle of Britain before mentioned,
which was inhabited by a few Britons, who were e-
fteemed facred and inviolable by their countrymen.
Immediately after his arrival the air grew black and
troubled, and ftrange apparitions were feen; the winds
rofe to a tempeft, and fiery fpouts and whirlwinds ap¬
peared dancing towards the earth.” This was pro¬
bably no more than a ftorm of wind, accompanied
with rain and lightning; a thing neither unnatural
nor uncommon.: but Demetrius and his companions
having heard that the Britifli druids, by whom this
ifle was chiefly inhabited, were great magicians, they
imagined that it was raifed by them; and fancied that
they faw matly ftrange unnatural fights. The druids
did not think proper to undeceive them ; for when
they enquired at them about the caufe of this ftorm,
they told them it was occafion^d by the death of one
of thofe invifible beings'or genii who frequented their
ifle. A wonderful and artful tale, very well calcula¬
ted to encreafe the fuperftitious terrors of Demetrius
and his crew ; and to determine them to abandon this
enchanted ifle, with a refolution never to return.
Stonehenge, and feveral other works of the druids,
were believed to have been executed by the arts of ma¬
gic and enchantment, for many ages after the deftruc-
I tion of their whole order: nor is it improbable that
they perfuaded the vulgar in their own times to enter¬
tain the fame opinion of thefe works, by concealing
from them the real arts by which they were perform¬
ed. The natural and acquired fagacity of the druids,
their long experience, and great concern in the con-
duft of affairs, enabled thtm to form very probable
conjeftures about the events of enterprifes. Thefe
conjeftures they pronounced as oracles, when they were
confulted ; and they pretended to derive them from the
infpe&ion of the entrails of vi&ims, the obfervation
of the flight and feeding of certain birds, ^nd many
other mummeries. By thefe, and the like arts, they
obtained and preferved the reputation of prophetic
forefight among an ignorant and credulous people.
But thefe* pretenfions of the druids to magic and
divination, which contributed fo much to the ad¬
vancement of their fame and fortune in their own
times, have brought very heavy reproaches upon their
memory, and have made fome learned moderns declare
that they ought to be expunged out of the catalogue
of philofophers, and efteempd no better than mere
cheats and jugglers. This cenfure is evidently too
fevere, and might have been pronounced wdth equal
juftice upon aH the ancient philofophers of Egypt, Af-
fyria, Perfia, Greece, and Rome; w'ho were great
pretenders to magic and divination, as w-ell as our
druids. “ I know of no nation in the world (fays Ci¬
cero) either. fo polite and learned,, or fo favage and
barbarous, as not to believe that future events are pre- Drum,
fignified to us, and may by fome men be difcovered
and foretold.” The only conclufion therefore that can
be fairly drawn, from the fuccefsful pretenfions of the
Britifti druids to the arts of magic and divination, is
this—That they had more knowledge than their coun¬
trymen and cotemporaries; but had not fo much vir¬
tue to refill the temptation of impofing upon their ig¬
norance, to their own advantage.
DRUM, is a martial mufical inftrument in form of a
cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends
with vellum, which is ftretched or flackened at pleafure
by the means of fmall cords or Aiding knots. It is beat
upon with flicks. Drums are fometimes made of brafs, •
but moft commonly they are of wood.—The drum is by
Le Clerc faid to have been an oriental invention, and
to have been brought by the Arabians, or perhaps
rather the Moors, into Spain.
Kettle Drums, are two forts of large bafons of cop¬
per or brafs, rounded in the bottom, and covered with
vellum or goat Ikin, which is kept fall by a circle of
iron round the body of the drum, with a number of
fcrews to fcrew up and down. They are much ufed
among the horfe ; as alfo in operas, oratorios, con¬
certs, &c.
Drum, m Drummer, he that beats the drum; of
whom each company of foot has one, and fometimes
turn. Every regiment has a drum-major, who has the
command over the other drums. They are diftin-
guifhed from the foldiers by cloaths of a different fa-
fhion : their poll, when a battalion is drawn up, is
on the flanks, and on a march it is betwixt the di-
vifions.
Drum of the Ear, the fame with the tympanum. See
Anatomy, n° 141.
DRUMMOND (William), a polite writer, born in
Scotland in J585, was the fon of Sir John Drummond,,
who for ten or twelve years was ufher and afterwards
knight of the black rod to James VI. His family
became firft diftinguilhed by the marriage of Robert III.
whofe queen was filler to William Drummond of Car—
nock their anceftor ; as appears by the patents of that
king and James I. the one calling him “ our brother,”'
the other “ our uncle.”
Drummond was educated at Edinburgh, where he
took the degree of A. M. In 1606 he was fent by
h!s father to ftudy civil law at Bburges ip France : but
having no tafte for the profeffion of a lawyer, he re¬
turned to Scotland, and retired to his agreeable feat
at Hawthornden; where he applied himfelf with great-
aifiduity to clalfical learning and poetry, and obliged-
the world with feveral fine produftions. Here he
wrote his Cyprefs Grove, a piece of excellent profe,
after a dangerous fit of ficknefs; and about the fame
time, his Flowers of Sion, in verfe. But an accident be-
fel him, which obliged him to quit his retirement; and
that was the death of an amiable lady to whom he was
juft going to be married. This affeifted him fo deeply,
that, he went to Paris and Rome, between which two
places he refided eight years. He travelled alfo thro’
Germany, France, and Italy : where he vifited univer-
fities; converfed with learned men; and made a choice
cclledlion of the ancient Greek, and of the modern
Spanifti, French, and Italian books. He then re¬
turned to his native country ; and fome time thereafter-
married5
D R U
f Cttrfory
fame of the
JPoets, 8 VO.
1789.
D R U [ 144
married Margaret Logan, a grand-daugKter of Sir Ro¬
bert Logan. Upon the appearance of a civil war, he
retired again ; and in this retirement is fuppofed to
have written his hiftory of the Five James’s, fucceffive-
Jy kings of Scotland, which was not publifired till after
Jris death. Having been grafted as it were on the
royal family of Scotland, and upheld by them, he was
Readily attached to Charles I.; but does not appear
ever to have armed for him. As he had always been
r laborious ftudent, and had applied himfelf equally to
.hiftory and politics as to claffical learning, his fervices
were better rendered by occafional publications, in
which he feveral times diftinguifhed himfelf. In a
piece called Irene, he harangues the king, nobility,
and clergy, about their mutual miftakes, fears, and jea-
loufies ; and lays before them the confequences of a civil
war, from indifputable arguments and the hiftories of
paft times. The great Marquis of Montrofe wrote a
letter to him, dehring him to print this Irene, as the
belt means to quiet the minds of a diftrafted people :
he likewife fent him a protection dated Auguft 1645,
immediately after the battle of Kilfyth, with a letter,
in which he commends Mr Drummond’s learning and
loyalty. Mr Drummond wrote other things alfo with
the fame view of promoting peace and union, of calm¬
ing the difturbed minds of the people, of reafoningthe
better fort into moderation, and checking the growing
evils which would be the confequence of their obftina-
cy. But his efforts were fruitlefs; and his attachment
to the king and his caufe were fo ftrong, that when he
heard of the fentence being executed on him-, he was
overwhelmed .with grief, and lifted his head no more.
He died in the year 1649, leaving behind him feveral
children : the eldeft of whom, William, was knighted
by Charles II. He had a great intimacy and corre-
fpondence with the two famous Englifh poets, Michael
Drayton and Ben Johnfon ; the latter of whom, at the
age of 45, travelled from London on foot, to vifithim
at Hawthornden. An edition of his works, with his
life prefixed, was printed in folio at Edinburgh, 1711.
Among all the writers, at the beginning of the laft
century, who flourifhed after the death of Shakefpeare,
an ingenious critic -j- obferves, there is not one whom
a general reader of the Englifh poetry of that age will
regard with fo much and fo deferved attentidn as Wil¬
liam Drufnmond. In a furvey of his poetry, two con-
.fiderations muff be had, viz. the nation of which he
was, and the time when, he wrote. Yet will thefe be
found not offered to extenuate faults, but to increafe
admiration. His thoughts are often, nay generally,
bold and highly poetical: he follows nature, and his
verfes are delicately harmonious. As his poems are
not eafily^met with, and have perhaps by many readers
never been heard of, a few extrafts may be excufed.
On the death of Henry prince of Wales in 1612,
Drummond wrote an elegy intitled Tears on the Death
of Moeliades; a name which that prince had ufed in all
his challenges of martial fport, as the anagram of Miles
a Deo. In this poem are lines, according to Denham’s
terms, as ftrong, as deep, as gentle, and as full, as
any of his or Waller’s. The poet laments the fate of
the prince, that he died not in fome glorious caufe'of
war: “ again!! the Turk (he fays) thou hadft ended
thy life and the Chriftian war together
N° X04. 6
Or, as brave Bourbon, thou hadft made old Rome, ,
Queen of the world, thy triumph and thy tombe. v—
Of the lamentation of the river Forth:
And as fhe rufh’d her Cyclades among-.
She feem’d to plain that Heaven had done her wrong.
Further:
Tagus did court his love with golden ftreams,
Rhine with her towns, fair Seine with all ihe claims:
But ah, poor lovers! death did them betray;
And, unfufpe&ed, made their hopes his prey.
And'concludes:
The virgins to thy tomb will garlands bear
Of flow’rs, and with each flow’r let fall a tear.
Moeliades fweet courtly nymphs deplore.
From Thule to Hydafpes’ pearly fhore.
Perhaps there are no lines of Pope of which the eafy
flow may, be more juftly admired than of thofe in hit:
third paftoral:
Not bubbling fountains to the thirfty fwain,
Not balmy fleep to. lab’rers faint with pain,
N»t fhow’rs to larks, or fun-fliine to the bee,
Are half fa charming as thy fight to me.
When King James I. after his acceffion to the Eng-
lifh throne, returned to Scotland in 1617, his arrival
was celebrated by every effort of poetical congratula¬
tion. Upon this occafion Drummond compofed a pa¬
negyric intitled The Wandering Mufes, or the River
Forth feafling; in which are found four lines appa¬
rently imitated by Pope in the above paffage, and
which do not in point of harmony fall much fliort of
that imitation. He fays,
To virgins, flow’rs; to fun-burnt earth, the rain;
To mariners, fair winds amidft the main;
Cool fliades, to pilgrims \vhom hot glances burn ;
Are not fo pleafing as thy bleft return.
Of thefe two poems of Drummond, it is obfervable,
that the firfl was written in 1612, the laft in 1617.
The earlieft .piece of Waller is that to the king on his
navy in 1625. The piece in which Sir John Denham’s
greateft force lies, Cooper’s Hill, was not written till
1640. The harmony of Drummond, therefore, at a
time when thofe who are ufually called the firft intro¬
ducers of a fmooth and polifhed verfification had not
yet begun to write, is an honour to him that fhould _
never be forgotten. Nor is his excellence half enough
praifed or acknowledged.
Drummond and Petrarch had this in common, that
each lamented, firft the cruelty, and then the lofs of
his miftrefs; fo that their fonnets are alike naturally
divided into two parts, thofe before and thofe after
their feveral miftreffes deaths. It may juftly be doubt¬
ed, that among all the fonneteers in the Englifh lan¬
guage any one is to be preferred to Drummond. He
has fhown in fome of thefe compofttions nearly the fpi-
rit of Petrarch himfelf. Of each period one is here
inferted ; the firft, before the death of his miffrefs:
Ah me, and am I now the man, whofe mufe
In happier times was wont to laugh at love,
In thofe who fuffered that blind boy abufii
The noble gifts were giv’n them from above!
What metamorphofe ftrange is this I prove?
Myfelf 1 fcarce now find myfelf to be;
And think no fable Circe’s tyrannie,
And ah the tales are told of changed Jove.
D R U [ Hi ] D R U
©mid?, Virtue hath taught, with her f hilofophy,
Drunken- My mind unto a better courfe to move;
* nefs. Reafon may chide her full, and oft reprove
L-.. y AffedHon’s pow’r; but what is that to me,
Who ever think, and never think on aught
But that bright cherubim which thralls my thought!
From Part II. after her death, (Sonnet I.)
*- Of mortal glory, O foon dark’ned ray!
O winged joys of man, more fwift than wind!
O fond defires which in our fancies ftray!
O traiterous hopes which do our judgments blind!
Lo, in a flalh that light is gone away,
Which dazzle did each eye, delight each mind ;
And with that fun from whence it came combin’d,
Now makes more radiant heav’n’s eternal day.
Let Beauty now bedew her cheeks with tears;
Let widow’d Mufic only roar and groan;
Poor Virtue, get thee wings and mount the fpheres,
For dwelling-place on earth for thee is none:
Death hath thy temple raz’d, Love’s empire foil’d.
The world of honour, worth, and fweetnefs fpoil’d.
The feventh fonnet of the-firft part has much refem-
blance to Sir Henry Wotton’s elegant little poem on
the Queen of Bohemia, “ Ye meaner beauties,” &c.
Among Drummond’s Flowers of Sion, the poem which
begins “ Amidft the azure clear—of Jordan’s facred
ftreams,” eminently diftinguiihes him, whether he be
confidered as a philofopher or a poet.
DRUNKENNESS, a well known diforder in the
brain, occafioned by drinking too freely of fpirituous
liquors. Drunkennefs appears in different fhapes in
different conftitutions : fome it makes gay, fome ful-
len, and fome furious. The mifchief of drunkennefs
confifU in the following bad effe&s: 1 ^ It betrays moft
conftitutions either into extravagancies of anger, or
fins of lewdnefs. 2. It difqualifies men for the duties
of their ftation, both by the temporary diforder of
their faculties, and at length by a conftant incapacity
and ftupefa&ion. 3. It is attended with expences,
which can often be ill fpared. 4. It is fure to occafion
Taneafinefs to the family of the drunkard. 5. It fhortens
life. To thefe confequences of drunkennefs muft be add¬
ed the peculiar danger and mifchief of the example.
“Drunkennefs(MrPaley obferves)is a focial feftivevice.
The drinker collects his circle ; the circle naturally
fpreads; of thofe who are drawn within it, many become
the corrupters and centres offetsandcircles of their own;
every one countenancing, and perhaps emulating the
reft, till a whole neighbourhood be infected from the
contagion of a fingle example. With this obfervation
upon the fpreadihg quality of drunkennefs, may be
connefted a remark which belongs to the feveral evil
effedts above recited. The confequences of a vice,
like the fymptoms of a difeafe, though they be all e-
numerated in the defcription, feldom all meet in the
fame fubjeft. In the inftance under confideration,
the age and temperature of one drunkard may have
little to fear from inflammations of luft or anger; the
fortune of a fecond may not be injured by the expence;
a third may have no family to be difquieted by his ir¬
regularities ; and a fourth may poffefs a conftitution
fortified againft the poifon of ftrong liquors. But if,
as we always ought to do, we comprehend within the
confequences of our conduct'the mifchief and tenden¬
cy of the example, the above circumftances, however
fortunate for the individual, will be found to vary the
guilt of his intemperance lefe, probably, than he fup-
Vol. VI. Part. L
pefes. Although the wafte of time and money may be
of fmall importance to you, it may be of the utmoft to
fome one or other whom your fociety corrupts. Re¬
peated, or long continued excefles, which hurt not
your health, may be fatal to your companion. Al¬
though you have neither wife nor child, nor parent, to
lament your abfence from home, or expeft your re¬
turn to it with terror ; other families, whofe hulbands
and fathers have been invited to {hare in your ebriety,
or encouraged to imitate it, may juftly lay their mi-
fery or ruin at your door. This will hold good, whe¬
ther the perfon feduced be feduced immediately by
you, or the vice be propagated from you to him,
through feveral intermediate examples ”
The ancient Lacedemonians ufed to make their Haves
frequently drunk, to give their children an averfion and
horror for the fame. The Indians hold drunkennefs
a fpecies of madnefs ; and in their language, the fame
term (ramgam), that fignifies “ drunkard,” fignifiesal-
fo a “ phrenetick.”
Drunkennefs is repeatedly forbidden by St Paul :
“ Be not drunk with wine, wherein is excefs.” “ Let
us walk honeftly as In the day, not in rioting and
drunkennefs.” “ Be not deceived: neither fornica¬
tors, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners,
{hall inherit the kingdom of God.” Eph. v. 18. Rom.
xiii. 13. 1. Cor. vi. 9, 10. The fame apoftle likewife
condemns drnnkennefs, as peculiarly inconfiftent with
the Chriftian profeffion: “ They that be drunken, are
drunken in the night ; but let us, who are of the day,
be fober.” 1. Theff. v. 7, 8.
Drunkennefs, by our laws, is looked upon as
an aggravation rather than an excufe for any cri¬
minal behaviour. A drunkard, fays Sir Edward
Coke, who is voluntarius damon, hath no privilege
thereby; but what hurt or ill foever he doth, his
drunkennefs doth aggravate it: nam omne crimen elrie-
tas, et incendit, et deter git. It hath been obferved that
the real ufe of ftrong liquors, and the abufe of them
by drinking to excefs, depend much upon the tempe¬
rature of the climate in which we live. The fame in¬
dulgence which may be neceflary to make the blood
move in Norway, would make an Italian mad. A
German therefore, fays the prelident Montefquieu,
drinks through cuftom founded upon conftitutional ne-
ceffity 5 a Spaniard drinks through choice, or out of
the mere wantonnefs of luxury ; and drunkennefs, he
adds, ought to be more feverely puniflied where it
makes men mifchievous and mad, as in Spain and
Italy, than where it only renders them ftupid and
heavy, as in Germany and more northern countries.
And accordingly, in the warmer climate of Greece, a
law of Pittacus enafted, “ that he who committed
a crime when drunk, Ihould receive a double puniih-
ment;” one for the crime itfelf, and the other for
the ebriety which prompted him to commit it. The Ro¬
man law indeed made great allowances for this vice: per
vinum delapjis capiialispana remittitur. But the law of Eng¬
land, conlidering how eafy i t is to counterfeit this excufe,
and how weak an excufe it is (though real), will not fuf-
fer any man thus to privilege one crime by another.
For the offence of drunkennefs a man may be pu-
nifhed in the ecclefiaftical court, as well as by juftices
of peace by ftatute. And by 4 Jac. I. c. 5. and
21 Jac. I. c. 7. if any perfon ftiall be convidled of
T drunkennefs
D R U [ 146 1 D R U
Drurlccn- drunkennefs by tbe view of a juftlce, oath of one wit-
, nr^' nefs, 6cc. he fnall forfeit 5 a. for the firit offence, to
'v be levied by diftrefs and fale of hia goods; and for
want of a diitrefs, flwll fit in the ftocks iix hours: and,
for the fecond offence, he.is to be bound with twofure-
ties in 1 ol. each, to be of good behaviour, or to be
committed. And he wlvo is guilty of any crime thro’
his own voluntary drunkennefs, fhall be punifhed for
it as if he had been fober. It has been held that drun¬
kennefs is a fufficient caufe to remove a magiftrata:
and the profecution for this offence by the ftatute of
4 J'ac. I. c. 5. was to be, and ttill may be, before ju-
ffices of peace in their fefiions by way of indictment,
&c. Equity will not relieve againft a bond, 8cc. given
by a man when drunk, unlefs the drunkennefs is oc-
cafioned through the management or contrivance of
him to whom the bond is given.
The appetite for intoxicating liquors appears to be
almoff always acquired. One proof of which is, that
it is apt to return only at particular times and places;
as after dinner, in the evening, on the market day, at
the market town, in fuch a company, at fuch a tavern.
And this may be the reafon, that if a habit of drunk¬
ennefs be ever overcome, it is upon fome change of
place, fituation, company, or profeflion. A man funk
deep in a habit of drunkennefs, will upon fuch occa-
fions as thefe, when he finds himfelf loofenedfrom the
affuciations which held him faff, fometimes make a
plunge, and get out. In a matter of fuch great im¬
portance, it is well worth while, where it is tolerably
convenient, to change our habitation aqd fociety, for
the fake of the experiment.
Habits of drunkennefs commonly take their rife
either from a fondnefs for and conneftion with feme
company, or fome companion, already addi&ed to
this practice; which affords an almoft irrefiffible
invitation to take a fhare in the indulgencies which
thofe about us are enjoying with fo much apparent
reiilh and delight; or from want of regular employ¬
ment, which is fure to let in many fuperfluous cra¬
vings and enftoms, and often this amongil the reft;
Or, laftly, from grief or fatigue, both which ftrongly
folicit that relief which inebriating liquors adminifter
for the prefent, and furnifh a fpecious excufe for com¬
plying with the inclination. But the habit, when
, once fet in, is continued by different motives from thofe
to which it owes its origin. Perfons addicted to ex-
ceffive drinking fuffer, in the intervals of fobricty, and
near the return of their accuftomed indulgence, afaint-
nefs and oppreffion about thepraecordia which it exceeds
the ordinary patience of human nature to endure. This
is ufually relieved for a fhort time by a repetition of the
fame excefs : and to this relief, as to the removal of
every long continued pain, they who have once expe¬
rienced it are urged almoft beyond the power of refin¬
ance. This is not all; as the liquor lofes its ftimulus, the
dofe muft be increafed, to reach the fame pitch of eleva¬
tion or eafe; whichincreafeproportionably accelerates the
progrefs of all the maladies that drunkennefs brings on.
Whoever refleCts, therefore, upon the violence of the
craving in advanced ftages of the habit, and the fatal
termination to which the gratification of it leads,
will, the moment he perceives the leaft tendency in
.himfelf of a growing inclination to intemperance, col-
left his refolution to this point; or (what perhaps he
will find his bell- fecurity) arm himfelf with fome per- Brupa,
emptory rule, as tothe times and quantity of his in- Drufet-
dulgencies. '
DRUPA, or Druppa, in botany, a fpecics ofpe-
ricarpium or fced-veffel, which is fueeulent or pulpy,
has no valve or external opening like the capfule and
pod, and contains within its fubftance a ftone or nut.
The cherry, plum, peach, apricot, and all other ftone-
fruit are of this kind.
The term, which is of great antiquity, is fynoni-
moils to Tournefort’s fruclus mollis officulo, “ foft fruit
with a ftone;” and to theprunus of other botanifts.
The ftone or nut, which in this fpecies of fruit is
furrounded by the foft pulpy fleftx, is a kind of ligneous- (
or woody cup, which contains a fingle kernel or feed.
This definition, however, will not apply to every
feed-veffel denominated drupa in the Genera Plantarvm.
The almond is a drupa, fo is the feed-veffel of the elm-
tree and the genus rwnphia, though far from being
pulpy or fucculent; the firft and third are of a fubftance
like leather, the fecond like parchment. The fame may
be faid of the walnut, piilachia-nxit, guettarda, quif-
qual'ts, jack-in-a-box, and fome others.
Again, the feeds of the elm, fchrebera, Jlagellariay
and the mango-tree, are not contained in a ftone. The-
feed-veffel of burr-reed is- dry, fhaped like a top, and
contains two angular ftones.
This fpecies of fruit, or more properly feed-veffel,
is commonly roundifh, and when feated below the ca¬
lyx or receptacle of the flower, is furnilhed, like the
apple, at the end oppoiite to the foot-ftalk, with a
final! umbilicus or cavity, which is produced by the
fwelling of the fruit before the falling off of the flower-
cup.
DRUSES, or Druzes, a remarkable nation in Pa-
Itftine, inhabiting the environs of Mount Lebanon, of
whofe origin and hiftory we have the following detail
by M. Volney.
Twenty-three years after the death of Mahomet, the
difputes between Ali his fon-in-law and Moaouia go¬
vernor of Syria, oecafioned the firft fchiim in the em¬
pire of the Arabs; and the tw© lefts fubfift tothisday:.
but, in reality, this difference related only to power ;
and the Mahometans, however divided in opinion re-
fpefting the rightful fiicceffor of the prophet, were
agreed with refpeft to their dogmas. It was not un¬
til the following century that the perufal of Greek
books introduced among the Arabs a fpirit of difeuf-
fion and controverfy, to which till then they were ut¬
ter ftrangers. The confequence was, as might be ex-
pefted, by reafoning on matters not fufceptible of de-
raonftration, and guided by the abftraft principles of
an unintelligible logic, they divided into a multitude
of fefts and opinions. At this period, too, the civil
power loft its authority ; and religion, which from that
derives the means of preferving its Unity, fhared the
fame fate, and the Mahometans now experienced what
had before befallen the Chriftians. The nations which
had received the religion of Mahomet, mixed with it
their former abfurd notions; and the errors which had
anciently prevailed over Afia again made their appear¬
ance, though altered in their forms. The metempfy-
chofis, the doftrine of a good and evil principle, and
the renovation after fix thoufand years, as it had been
taught by Zoroafter, were again revived among the
Mahometans.
D R TJ [ 147 J D R U
Brnfefc Mahometans. In this political and religious confu-
v' fion, every enthufiaft became an apoftle, and every
apoflle the head of a fedf. No lefs than fixty of thefe
were reckoned, ranarkable for the numbers of their
followers, all differing in fome points of faith, and all
difavowing herefy and error. Such was the ftate of
thefe countries when at the commencement of the 11 th
century Egypt became the theatre of one of the moll
extravagant fcenes of enthufiafm and abfurdity ever re¬
corded in hiftory. The following account is extracted
from the eaflern writers.
In the year of the Hejira 386 (A. D. 996), the third
caliph of the race of the Fatmites, called Hakem-Vamr-
tllnh, fucceeded to the throne of Egypt at the age of 11
years. He was one of the moil extraordinary princes of
whom hiftory has preferved the memory. He caufed the
firft caliphs, the companions of Mahomet, to be curfed
in the mofques, and afterwards revoked the anathema :
He compelled the Jews and Chriftians to abjure their
religion, and then permitted them to refume it. He
prohibited the making flippers for women, to prevent
them from coming out of their boufes. He burnt
one half of the city of Cairo for his diverfion, while
his foldiers pillaged the other. Not contented with
thefe extravagant aftions, he forbade the pilgrimage
to Mecca, falling, and the five prayers ; and at length
earned his madnefs fo far as to defire to pafs for God
himfelf. He ordered a regifter of thofe who acknow¬
ledged him to be fo, and the number amounted to
fixteen thoufand. This impious pretenfion was fup-
ported by a falfe prophet, who came from Perfia into
Egypt; which impoftor, named Mohammad-ben-Ifmael,
taught that it was not neceffary to fall or pray, to
pradlife eircumcifion, to make the pilgrimage to Mec¬
ca, or obferve fefttvals; that the prohibition of pork
and wine was abfurd ; and that marriage between
brothers and fillers, fathers and children, was lawful.
To ingratiate himftlf with Hakem, he maintained that
this caliph was God himfelf incarnate ; and inftead of
his name Hakem-h’amr-tllah, which fignifies governing by
the order of God, he called him Hakem-b’amr-eh, govern¬
ing by his own order. Unluckily for the prophet, his
new god had not the power to protedl him from the
fury of his enemies, who flew him in a tumult almoil
in the arms of the caliph, who was himfelf maf-
facred foon after on mount Mokattam, where he, as
he faid, had held converfation with angels.
The death of thefe two chiefs did not flop the pro-
grefs of their opinions : a difciple of Mohammad-ben-
ifmael, named Harn-zM-ben-Ahmud, propagated them
with an indefatigable zeal in Egypt, in Paleftine, and
■along the coaft of Syria, as far as Sidon and Bergtus.
His profelytes being perfecuted by the fe£t in power,
they took refuge in the mountains of Lebanon, where
they were better able to defend themfelves ; at leaft
it is certain, that, Ihortly after this era, we find them
eftablilhed there, and forming an independent fociety.
The difference of their opinions difpofes them to be
enemies; but the urgent intereft of their common fafe-
ty forces them to allow mutual toleration, and they
have always appeared united, and have jointly oppofed,
at different times, the Cruiaders, the fultans of Alep¬
po, the Mamlouks, and the Ottomans. The conquell
of Syria by the latter,mwrde ho change in their fitua-
tion. Selim I. on his return from Egypt, meditating
no lefs than the conqueft of Europe, difdained to vrafte TVnfs*.
his time before the rocks of Lebanon. Soliman II. ‘    
his fucceffor, inceffantly engaged in important wars,
either with the knights of Rhodes, the I’eriians, the
kingdom of Yemen, the Hungarians, the Germans, or
the emperor Charles V. had no time to think of the
Druzes. Emboldened by this inattention, and not
content with their independence, they frequently de-
feended from their mountains to pillage the Turks.
The pachas in vain attempted to repel their inroads f
theirtroops were invariably routed or repulfed. And
it was not till the year 1588 that Amurath III. weari¬
ed with the complaints made to him, refolved, at all
events, to reduce thefe rebels, and had the good for¬
tune to fucceed. His general Ibrahim Pacha march*
ed from Cairo, and attacked the Druzes and Maro-
nites with fo much addrefs and vigour as to force
them into their ftrong holds, the mountains. Diffen-
fion took place among their chiefs, of which he avail¬
ed himfelf to exa£t a contribution of upwards of one
million of piafters, and to impofe a tribute which has
continued to the prefeut time.
It appears that this expedition was the epocha of a
confiderable change in the conftitution of the Druzes.
Till then they had lived in a fort of anarchy, under
the command of different fbaiks or lords. The na¬
tion was iikewife divided into two factions, fuch as
is to be found in all the Arab tribes, and which are
diftinguilhed into the party Kaili and the party Ya-
fnani. To fimplify the adminiftration, Ibrahim per¬
mitted them only one chief who ftxould be refponfible
for the tribute, and execute the office of civil magi-
ftrate ; and this governor, from the nature of his fitua-
tion, acquiring great authority, became almoft the king
of the republic; but as he was always chofen from
among the Druzes, a confequence followed which the
Turks had not forefeen, and which was nearly fatal
to their power. For the chief thus chofen, "having
at his difpofal the whole ftrength of the nation, was
able to give it unanimity and energy, and it naturally
turned againll the Turks; fince the Druzes, by be¬
coming their fubje&s, had not ceafed to be their ene¬
mies. They took care, however, that their attacks
Ihould be indirect, fo as to fave appearances, and only
engaged in fecret hoftilities, more dangerous, perhaps,
than open war.
About this time, that is, the beginning of the 17th
century, the power of the Druzes attained its greateft
height; which it owed to the talents and ambition of
the celebrated Faker-el-din, commonly called Fakardin.
No fooner was this prince advanced to be the chief of
that people than he turned his whole attention to
humblothe Ottoman power, and aggrandize himfelf
at its expence. In this enterprize he difplayed an ad-
-drefs ftldom feen among the Turks. He firll gained
the confidence of the Porte, by every demonftration
of loyalty and fidelity ; and as the Arabs at that
time infefted the plain of Balbek and the countries of
Sour and Acre, he made warmpon them, freed the in¬
habitants from their depredations, and thus rendered
them ddirous of living under his government.
The city of Bairout was lituated advantageoufly
for his deiigns, as it opened a communication with
foreign countries, and,‘ among others, with the Vene¬
tians, the natural enemies of the Turks. Faker-el-din
T 2 availed
D R U [ 148 1 D R U
availed himfelf of the mifconduft of the Aga, expel¬
led him, feized on the city, and even had the art to
make a merit of this aft of hoftility with the Divan,
by paying a more confiderable tribute. He proceeded
in the fame manner at Saide Balbek and Sour; and
at length, about the year 1613, favv himfelf ma¬
iler of all the country as far as Adjaloun and Safad.
The pachas of Tripoli and Damafcus could not fee
thefe encroachments with indifference ; fom'etimes they
oppofed him with open force, though ineffeftually, and
fometimes endeavoured to ruin him at the Porte by fe-
cret infinuations ; but the Emir, who maintained there
his fpies and defenders, defeated every attempt.
At length, however, the Divan began to be alarmed
at the progrefs of the Druzes, and made preparations
for an expedition capable of crulhingthem. Whether
from policy or fear. Faker-el-din did not think pro¬
per to wait this ftorm. He had formed conneftions
in Italy, on which he built great hopes, and deter¬
mined to go in perfon to folicit the fuccours they had
promifed him ; perfuaded that his prefence would en-
creafe the zeal of his friends, while his abfence might
appeafe the refentment of his enemies. He therefore
embarked at Bairout; and after refigning the admi-
niftration to his fon Ali, repaired to the court of the
Medici at Florence. The arrival of an Oriental
prince in Italy did not fail to attraft the public atten¬
tion. Enquiry was made into his nation, and the ori¬
gin of the Druzes became popular topics of refearch.
Their hiftory and religion were found to be fo little
known as to leave it a matter of doubt whether they
fhould be claffed with the Mahometans or Chriftians.
The Crufades were called to mind; and it was foon
fuggefted, that a people who had taken refuge in the
mountains, and were enemies to the natives, could be
no other than the offspring of the Crufaders.
This idle conceit was too favourable to Faker-el-din
for him to endeavour to difprove it: he was artful
enough, on the contrary, to pretend he was related
to the houfe of Lorraine; and the miffionaries and
merchants, who promifed themfelves a new opening
for converfion and commerce, encouraged his pre-
tenfions. When an opinion is in vogue, every one
difcovers new proofs of its certainty. The learn¬
ed in etymology, ftruck with the refemblance of the
names, infilled, that Druzes and Dreux mull be the
fame word; and on this foundation formed the fy-
ftem of a pretended colony of French Crufaders, who,
under the conduft of a Comte de Dreux, had formed
a fettlement in Lebanon. This hypothefis, however,
was completely overthrown by the remark, that the
name of the Druzes is to be found in the itinerary of
Benjamin of Tudela, who travelled before the time of
the Crufades. Indeed the futility of it ought to have
been fufficiently apparent at firfl, from the Angle con-
fideration, that had they been defcended from any na¬
tion of the Franks, they mull have retained at leafl
the traces of feme European language; for a people,
retired into a feparate dillrift, and living diftinft from
the natives of the Country, do not lofe their language.
That of the Druzes, however, is very pure Arabic,
without a fingle word of European origin. The
real derivation of the name of this people has been
long in our pofieffion without our knowing it. It
originates from the founder of the feft of Mohammad-
ben-Ifmael, who was furnamed El-Dorxi, and not
El-Darari, as it is ufually printed: the confufion
of thefe two words, fo different in our writing, arifes
from the figure of the two Arabic letters r and x,
which have only this difference, that the z has a point
over it, frequently omitted or effaced in the manu-
feripts.
After a flay of nine years in Italy, Faker-el-din re¬
turned to refume the government of his country.
During his abfence, his fon Ali had repulfed the
Turks, appealed difeontents, and maintained affairs
in tolerable good order. Nothing remained for the
Emir, but to employ the knowledge he could not but
have acquired, in perfefting the internal adminiilra-
tion of government, and promoting the welfare of the
nation ; but inftead of the ufeful and valuable arts,
he wholly abandoned himfelf to the frivolous and ex-
penfive, fot which he had imbibed a paffion while in
Italy. He built numerous villas; conllrufted baths,
and planted gardens; he even prefumed, without refpeft
to the prejudices of his country, to employ the orna¬
ments of painting and fculpture, notwithllanding thefe
are prohibited by the Koran.
The confequences of this conduft foon maniftft-
_ed themfelves: the Druzes, who paid the fame tri¬
bute as in time of war, became diffatisfied. The
Yamani faftion were roufed; the people murmured
at the expences of the prince ; and the luxury he
difplayed renewed the jealoufy of the pachas. They
attempted to levy greater tribute: hoftilities again
commenced, and Faker-el-din repulfed the forces of
the pachas; who took occafion, from this reiiltance,
to render him fufpefted by the fultan himfelf. Amu-
rath III. incenfed that one of his fubjefts Ihould dare
to enter into a competition with him, refolved on
his deftruftion ; and the pacha of Damafcus received
orders to march, with all his forces, againll Bair¬
out, the ufual refidence of Faker-el-din ; while 40
galleys invefted it by fea, and cut off’ all communica¬
tion.
The Emir, who depended on his good fortune and
fuccours from Italy, determined at firft to brave the
ftorm. His fon Ali, who commanded at Safad, was
ordered to oppofe the progrefs of the Turkilh army 4
and in faft he bravely refilled them, notwithftanding
the great difparity of his forces: but after two en¬
gagements, in which he had the advantage, being,
Haiti in a third attack, the face of affairs were greatly
changed, and every thing went to ruin. Faker-el-din,
terrified at the lofs of his troops, afflifted at the death
of his fon, and enfeebled by age and a voluptuous life,
loft both courage and prefence of mind. He no
longer faw any refource but in a peace, which he fent
his fecond fon to folicit of the Turkilh admiral,
whom he attempted to feduce by prefents; but the
admiral, detaining both the prefenta and envoy, de¬
clared he would have the prince himfelf. Faker-el-din,
intimidated, took to flight, and was purfued by the
Turks, now mailers of the country. He took refuge
on the lleep eminence of Niha, where they befieged
him ineffectually for a whole year, when they left him
at liberty: but Ihortly after, the companions of his
adverfity, wearied., wkh their, fufferings, betrayed and :
t delivered
D R U L 149 ] D R U
Drufes. delivered him up to the Turks. Faker-el-din, though Acre, difquieted the Porte by his progreis and pre-
—v  in the hands of his enemies, conceived hopes of par- tenfions: to oppofe him, the Divan had juft united
don, and fuffered himfelf to be carried to Conftan- the pachalics of Damafcus, Saide, and Tripoli, in the
tinople; where Amurath, pleafed to behold at his feet hands of Ofman and his children ; and it was evident,
a prince fo celebrated, at firft treated him with that that an open war was not very remote. Manfour,
benevolence which arifes from the pride of fuperiori- who dreaded the Turks too much to refill them, made
ty; but foon returning to his former jealoufies, yield- ufe of the policy ufual on fuch occalions, pretending
ed to the inftigations of his courtiers, and, in one of a zeal for their fervice, while he fecretiy favoured
his violent fits of paffion, ordered him to be ftrangled, their enemy. This was a fufficient motive for Sad to
about the year 1631. purfue meafures direftly oppofite. He fupp urted the
After the death of Faker-el-din, the pofteritf-*of Turks againft the fadlion of Manfour, and manoeuver-
that prince ftill continued in poffeffion of the govern- ed vvith fo much good fortune or addrefs as to depolc
ment, though at the pleafure, and as vaflals, of the that'emir in 1770, and place Youfef in his govern-
Turks. This family failing in the male line at the ment.
beginning of the prelent century, the authority de- In the following year Ali Bey declared war and at-
volved, by the eledtion of the fhaiks, on the houfe of tacked Damafcus. Youfef, called on by the Turks,
Shelah, in which it ftill continues. The only emir of took part in the quarrel, but without being able to
that houfe, whofe name deferves to be preferved, is draw the Druzes from their mountains to enter into
the emir Melhem, who reigned from 1740 to 1759 ; in the army of the Ottomans. Befides their natural re-
which interval he retrieved the lofl’es of the Druzes, pugnance, at all times, to make war out of their coun-
and reftored them to that confequence which they try, they were on this occafion too much divided at
had loft by the defeat of Faker-el-din. Towards the home to quit their habitations, and they had reafon to
end of his life, about the year 1754, Melhem, wearied congratulate themfelves on the event. The battle of Da-
with the cares of government, abdicated his authori- mafcus enfued ; and the Turks, as we have already feen,
ty, to live in religious retirement, after the manner of were completely routed. The pacha of Saide efcaping
the Okkals ; but the troubles that fucceeded occa- from this defeat, and not thinking himfelf in fafety in
fioned him once more to refume the reins of govern- that town, fought an afylum even in the houfe of the
ment, which he held till 1759, when he died, univer- emir Youfef. The moment was unfavourable ; but the
fally regretted. face of affairs foon changed by the flight of Mohammad
He left three fons, minors : the eldeft of whom Bey. The emir, concluding that Ali Bey was dead,
ought, according to the cuftom of the country, to and not imagining that Daher was powerful enough
have fucceeded him ; but being only 11 years of age, fingly to maintain the quarrel, declared openly againft
the authority devolved on his uncle Manfour, agree- him. Saide was threatened with a fiege, and he de-
able to a law very general in Afia, which wills the tached 1500 men of his fa&ion to its defence ; while
people to be governed by a fovereign who has arrived himfelf in perfon, prevailing on the Druzes and Ma-
at years of maturity. The young prince was but ronites to follow him, made an incurfion with 25,000
little fitted to maintain his pretenfions; but a Maro- peafants into the valley of Bekaa ; and in the abfence
rate, named Sad-el-Kouri, to whom Melhem had en- of the Motoualis, who had joined the army of Daher,
trufted his education, took this upon himfelf. Afpi- laid the whole country wafte with fire and fword from
ring to fee his pupil a powerful prince, that he might Balbek to Tyre.
himfelf become a powerful vifir, he made every exer- While the Druzes, proud of this exploit, were
tion to advance his fortune. He firft retired with marching in diforder towards the latter city, 500 Mo-
him to Djebail, in the Kefraouan, where the emir toualis, informed of what had happened, flew from
Youfef poffeffed large domains, and there undertook Acre inflamed with rage and defpair, and fell with fuch
to conciliate the Maronites, by embracing every op- ' impetuofity on their army as to give them a complete
portunity to ferve both individuals and the nation, overthrow. Such was the furprife and confufion of
The great revenues of his pupil, and the moderation the Druzes, that, imagining themfelves attacked by
of his expenditure, amply furniflied him with the Daher himfelf and betrayed by their companions, they
means. The farm of the Kefraouan was divided be- turned their fwords on each other as they fled. The
tween feveral (haiks, with whom the Porte was not fteep declivities of Djezin, and the pine-woods wdiich
very well fatisfied. Sad treated for the whole with were in the route of the fugitives, were ilrewed with
the pacha of Tripoli, and got himfelf appointed foie dead, but few of wdiom periihed by the hands of the
receiver. The Motoualis of the valley of Balbek had Motoualis.
for fome years before made feveral encroachments The emir Youfef, afhamed of this defeat, efcaped
on Lebanon, and the Maronites began to be alarmed to Dair-el-Kamar, and (hortly after attempted to take
at the near approach of thefe intolerant Mahometans, revenge ; but being again defeated in the plain between
Sad purchafed of the pacha of Damafcus a per- Saide and Sour (Tyre), he w'as conftrained to refign
iniflion to make war upon them ; and in 1763 drove to his uncle Manfour the ring, which among the Dru-
them out of the country.. The Druzes were at that zes is the fymbol of command. In 1773 he was re¬
time divided into two fadtions : Sad united his intereft ftcred by a new revolution 5 but he could not fupport
with thofe who oppofed Manfour, and fecretiy pre- his power but at the expence of a civil w’ar. In order,.
pared the plot which was to raife the nephew on the therefore, to prevent Bairout falling into the hands of
ruin of the uncle. the adverfe fa&ion, he requelted the affiftance of the
At "this period the Arab Daher, who had made Turks, and demanded of the pacha of Damafcus a
kimrfelf mailer of Galilee, and fixed his relidence at man of fufficient abilities to defend that city. The
choice--
D P. U [ ico ] D R U
choice fell on an adventurer ; who, from his fubfequent
fortune, merits to be made known.
This man, named Ahmad, is a native of Bofnia,
and fpeaks the Sclavonian as his mother tongue, as the
Raguian captains, with whom he converfes in preference
to thofe of every other nation, aflert. it is faid, that
flying from his country at the age of 16, to efcape the
confluences of an attempt to violate his filler-in-law,
he repaired to Conftantinople, where, deilitute of the
means of procuring a fubiillence, he fold himfelf to the
flave-merchants to be conveyed to Egypt; and, on his
arrival at Cairo, was purchafed by AH Bey, who placed
him among his Mamlouks.
Ahmad was not long in diftinguilhing himfelf by his
courage and addrefs. His patron employed him on
feveral occafions in dangerous coups dc main, fuch as the
affaffination of fuch beys and cachefs as he fufpe&ed;
of which commififions he acquitted hirafelf fo well as to
acquire the name of Djez-zar, which iignifies Cut-throat,
With this claim to his friendfliip, he enjoyed the fa¬
vour of Ali until it was dillurbed by an accident.
This jealous Bey having proferibed one of his bene-
fa&ors called Saleh Bey, commanded Djezzar to cut
off his head. Either from humanity or fome fecret
fnendlhip for the devoted vidtim, Djezzar hefitated,
and even remonllrated again!! the order. But learning
the next day that Mohammed Bey had executed the
commiffion, and that Ali had fpoken of Him not very
favourably, he thought himfelf a loft man, and, to
avoid the fate of Saleh Bey, efcaped unobferved, and
reached Conftantinople. He there folicited employ¬
ments fuitable to his former rank ; but meeting, as is
ufual in capitals, with a great number of rivals, he pur¬
ified another plan, and went to feek his fortune in
Syria as a private foldier. Chance conduced him
among the Druzes, where he was hofpitably entertain¬
ed, even in the houfe of the kiaya of the emir Youfef.
From thence he repaired to Damafcus, where he foon
obtained the title of Aga, with a command of five pair
of colours, that is to fay, of 50 men; and he was
thus fituated when fortune deitined him to the govern¬
ment of Bairout.
Djezzar was no fooner eftablilhed there than he took
poffeflion of it for the Turks. Youfef was confound¬
ed at this proceeding. He demanded juftice at Da¬
mafcus ; but finding his complaints treated with con¬
tempt, entered into a treaty with Daher, and conclu¬
ded an offenfive and defenlive alliance with him at Ras-
el-aen, near t® Sour. No fooner w'as Daher united
with the Druzes than he laid fiege to Bairout by land,
whilft two Ruffian frigates, whofe fervice was purcha¬
fed by 600 purfes, cannonaded it by fea. Djezzar was
compelled to fubmit to force, and, after a vigorous re-
fiftance, gave up the city and furrendered himfelf pri-
foner. Shaik Daher, charmed with his courage, and
flattered with the preference he had given him in the
furrehder, condutted him to Acre, and fhowed him
every mark of kindnefs. He even ventured to truft
him with a fmall expedition into Paleftine; but Djez-
zar, on approaching Jemfalem, went over to the Turks
and returned to Damafcus.
The war of Mohammed Bey breaking out, Djezzar
offered his fervice to the captain Pacha, and gained his
confidence. He accompanied him to the fiege of Acre;
and that admiral having deftroyed Daher, and finding
no perfon more proper than Djezzar to accomplilh the
defigns of the Porte in that country, named him pacha
of Saide.
Being now, in confequence of this revolution, fu-
perior loi'd to the esair Youfef, Djezzar is mindful of
injuries in proportion as he has reafen to accufe him¬
felf of ingratitude. By a conduit truly Turkilh, feign¬
ing alternately gratitude and refentment, he is alter¬
nately on terms of difpute and reconciliation with him,,
continually exading money as the price of peace, or
as indemnity for war. His artifices have fucceeded f@
well, that within the fpace of five years he has extort¬
ed from the emir four millions of French money (above
L. 160,000), a fum the more aftonilhing, as the farm
of the country of the Druzes did not then amount to
100,000 livres (L.4000).
In 1784 he made war-on him, depofed him, and
beftowed the government on the emir of the country
of Hafbeya, named IfmaeL Youfef, having once more
purchafed his favour, returned towards the end of the
fame year to Dair-el-Kamar, and even courted hi- con¬
fidence fo far as to wait on him at Acre, from whence
nobody expeded him to return ; but Djezzar is too
cunning to .filed blood while there are any hopes of
getting money : be releafed the prince, and fent him
back with every mark of friendfhip. Since that pe¬
riod the Porte has named him pacha of Damafcus,
while he alfo retained the fovereignty of the pachalic of
Acre, and pf the country of the Druzes.
As to the religion of the Druzes : What has been
already faid of the opinions of Moharnmed-ben-Ifinael
may be regarded as the fubftance of it. They pradife
neither circumcifion, nor prayers, nor falling ; they
obferve neither fellivals nor prohibitions. They drink
wine, eat pork, and allow marriage between brothers
and fifters, though not between fathers and children.
From this we may conclude, with reafon, that the
Druzes have no religion ; yet one clafs of them mull
be excepted, whofe religious cuftoms are very peculiar.
Thofe who cotnpofe it are to the reft of the nation
what the initiated were to the profane; they affume
the name of Okkals, which means fpiritualifts, and be¬
llow on the vulgar the epithet of Djahel or ignorant ;
they have various degrees of initiation, the highell or¬
ders of which require celibacy. Thefe are diltinguilh-
able by the white turban they affed to wear, as a fym-
bol of their purity ; and fo proud are they of this ifip-
pofed purity, that they think themfelves fullied by even
touching a profane perfon. If you eat out of their
plate, or drink out of their cup, they break them ;
and hence the cuftom, fo general in this country, of
ufing vafes with a fort of cock, which may be drank
out of without touching them with the lips. All their
pradices are enveloped in myfteries: their oratories al¬
ways Hand alone, and are conftantly fituated on emi¬
nences : in thefe they hold their fecret affemblies, to
which women are admitted. It is pretended they per*
form ceremonies there in prefence of a fmall llatue re-
fembling an ox or a calf; whence fome have pretended
to prove that they are defeended from the Samaritans.
But befides that the fad is not well afeertained, the
worlhip of the ox may be deduced from other fources.
They have one or two books which they conceal
with
d r y i i:
With the greateft care : but chance has deceived their
jealoufy; for in a civil war which happened 9 or xo
years ago, the emir Youfef, who is Djahd or ig¬
norant, found one among the pillage of one of their
oratories. M. Volney was affured, by perfons who had
read it, that it contains only a myftic jargon, the ob-
feurity of which doubtlefs renders it valuable to adepts.
Hakem Bamr-ellah is there fpoken of, by whom they
mean God incarnated in the perfon of the caliph. It
like wife treats of another life, of a place of puniOx-
ment, and a place of happinefs where the Okkals ihall
of <*>urfe be molt diftinguiflxed. Several degrees of
perfection are mentioned, to which they arrive by fuc-
ceflive trials. In other refpe&s, thefe fectaries have
all the infolence and all the fears of fuperltition : they
are not communicative, becaufe they are weak •, but it
is probable that, were they powerful, they would be
promulgators and intolerant.
The reft of the Druzes, ftrangers to this fpirit, are
wholly indifferent about religious matters. The Chri-
ftians who live in their country pretend that feveral of
them believe in the metempfyehofis; that others wor-
fhip the fun, moon, and liars : all which is poffible;
for, as among the Anfaria, every one, left to his own
fancy, follows the opinion that-pleafes him moll; and
thefe opinions are thofe which psefent themfelves moft
naturally to unenlightened minds. When among the
Turks, they affect the exterior of Mahometans, fre¬
quent the mofques, and perform their ablutions and
prayers. Among the Maronites, they accompany them
to church, and, like them, make ufe of holy water.
Many of them, importuned by the miffionaries, fuffer
themfelves to be baptized; and if folicited by the
Turks, receive circumcifion, and conclude by dying
neither Chrillians nor Mahometans ; but they are not
fo indifferent in matters of. civil policy.
The Druzes may be divided into two claffes: the com¬
mon people ; and the people of eminence and property,
diftinguilhed by the title of lhaiks and emirs, ordefeead-
ants of princes. The greater part are cultivators, either
as farmers or proprietors; every njan lives on his inheri¬
tance, improving his mulberry-trees and vineyards : in
fome diftridls they grow tobacco, cotton, and feme grain,
but the quantity of thefe is inconfiderable. It appears
that at firft all the lands were, as formerly in Europe,
in the hands of a fmaJI number of families. * But to
render them productive, the great proprietors were for¬
ced to fell part of them, and let leafes ; which lubdivi-
fion is become the chief fource of the power of the
Hate, by multiplying the number of perfons interefted
in the public weal: there ftill exifts, however, fome
traces of the original inequality, which even at this
day produces pernicious effe£ls. The great property
poffeffed by fome families gives them too much influ¬
ence in all the meafures of the nation ; and their pri¬
vate interefts have too great weight in every public
tranfaftion. Their hiftory, for fome years back, af¬
fords fufficient proofs of this ; fince all the civil or fo¬
reign wars in which they have been engaged have ori¬
ginated in the ambition and perfonal views of fome of
the principal families, fuch aa the Lefbeks, the Djam-
belats, the Ifmaels of Solyma, &e. The Ihaiks of
thefe houfes, who alone poffefs one-tenth part of the
country, procured creatures by their money, and at
laft involved all the Druzes in their diffenfrons. It
5
i I D 11 U
muft be owned, however, that poffibly tQ'this conflitl
between contending parties the whole nation owes the
good fortune of never having been enflaved by its chief.
This chief, called Hakem or governor, alfo Emir
or prince, is a fort of king or general, who unites in
his own perfon the civil and military powers. His
dignity is fometimes tranfmitted from father to fon*
fometiines from one brother to another ; and the fuc-
ceflion is determined rather by force than any certain
laws. Females can in no cafe pretend to this inheri¬
tance. They are already excluded from fucceflion in
civil affairs, and confequently can ftill kfs expedl it
in political: in general, the Aftatic governments are
too turbulent, and their adminiftration renders milita¬
ry talents too neceffary, to admit of the fovereignty of
women. Among the Druzes, the male line of any fa¬
mily being extinguiftied, the government devolves to
him who is in poffeflion of the greateft number of fuf-
frages and refources. But the hr ft ftep is to obtain
the approbation of the Turks, of whom he becomes
the vaffal and tributary. It even happens, that, not
unfrequently to affert their fupremacy, they name the
Haken, contrary to the wifhes of the nation, as in the
cafe of Ifraael Halbeya, raifed to that dignity by
Djezzar ; but this couftraint lafts no longer than it is
maintained by that violence which gave it birth. The
office of the governor is to watch over the good order
of the ftate, and to prevent the Emirs, Shaiks, and
villages, from making war on each other: in cafe of
difobedience, lie may employ force. He is alfo at
the head of the civil power, and names the Cadis,
only always referving to himfelf the power of life and
death. He collects the tribute, from which he an¬
nually pays to the pacha a ftated fum. This tribute
varies in proportion as the nation renders itfelf more
or lefs formidable: at the beginning of this cen¬
tury, it amounted to 160 purfes, L. 8330 ; but Mel-
hem forced the Turks to reduce it to 60. In ryS'q,,
Emir Youlef paid 80 and promifed 90. This tribute,,
which is called Miri, is impoied on the mulberry-trees,
vineyards, cotton, and grain. All fown land pays in
proportion to its extent; every foot of mulberries i&
taxed at three medins, or three fols nine deniers (not
quite two-pence). A hundred feet of vineyard pays
a piafter or 40 medins; and frelh meafurements are
often made to prefevve a juft proportion; The fhaiks
and emirs have no exemption in this refpedt; and it may
be truly faid they contribute to the public ftock in
proportion to their fortune. The collection is made
almoft without expence. Each man pays his contin¬
gent at Dair-el-Kamer, if he pleafes, or to the collec¬
tors of the prince, who make a circuit round the coun¬
try after the crop of filks. The furplus of this tribute
is for the prince ; fo that it is his intereftto reduce the
demands of the Turks, asrit would be likewife to aug¬
ment the import : but this meafure requires the fanftion
of the (haiks, who have the privilege of oppofing it.
Their confent is neceffary, likewife, for peace and war.
In thefe cafes, the emir muft convoke general affem-
blies, and lay before them the ftate of his affairs. There
every ffiaik, and every peafant who has any reputation
for courage or underftanding, is intitled to give his
fuffrage; fo that this government may be confidered as
a well-proportioned mixture of monarchy, ariftocracy,
and democracy. Every thing depends on circumftan-
CCSJt
!
D R U t IJ2 1 D R U
IDrufes. ces : if the governor be a man of ability, he is abfolute;
—-V"-"1 if weak, a cypher. This proceeds from the want of
fixed laws ; a want common to all Afia, and the radi¬
cal caufe of all the diforders in the governments of the
Afiatic nations.
Neither the chief nor the individual emirs maintain
troops; they have only perfons attached to the domeftic
fervice of their houfes, and a Few black flaves. When the
nation makes war, every man, whether fhaik or peafant,
able to bear arms, is called upon to march. He takes
with him a little bag of flour, a muflcet, fome bullets,
a fmall quantity of powder, made in his village, and re¬
pairs to the rendezvous appointed by the governor. If
it be a civil war, as fometimes happens, the fervants,
the farmers, and their friends, take up arms for their pa¬
tron, or the chief of their family, and repair to his
ftandard. In fuch cafes, the parties irritated frequent¬
ly feem on the point of proceeding to the laft extremi¬
ties ; but they feldom have recourfe to a£ts of violence,
or attempt the death of each other ; mediators always
interpofe, and the quarrel is appeafed the more readily
as each patron is obliged to provide his followers with
provifions and ammunition. This fyftem, which produ¬
ces happy effe&sin civil troubles, is attended with great
inconvenience in foreign wars, as fufficiently appeared
in that of 1784. Djezzar, who knew that the whole
army lived at the expence of the emir Youfef, aimed at
nothing but delay, and the Druzes, who were not dif-
pleafed at being fed for doing nothing, prolonged the
operations; but the emir, wearied of paying, conclu-
■ded a treaty, the terms of which were not a little rigo¬
rous for him, and eventually for the whole nation, fince
nothing is more certain than that the interefts of a
prince and his fubjefts are always infeparable.
“ The ceremonies to which I have been a witnefs on
thefe occafions (fays M. Volney),bear a ftriking refem-
blance to the cuftoms of ancient times. When the emir
and the fhaiks had determined on war at Daer-el-Kamar,
cryers in the evening afcended the fummits of the moun¬
tain ; and there began to cry with a loud voice: ‘ To war,
•to war; take your guns, take your piftols: noble fhaiks,
mount your horfes; arm yourfelves with the lance and
fabre ; rendezvous to morrow at Dair-el-Kamar. Zeal
of God! zeal of combats !’ This fummons, heard
from the neighbouring villages, was repeated there;
and as the whole country is nothing but a chain of
lofty mountains and deep valleys,'the proclamation paf-
fed in a few hours to the frontiers. Thefe voices, from
the ftillnefs of the night, the long refounding echoes,
and the nature of the fubjeft, had fomething awful and
terrible in their effedt. Three days after 15000 armed
men rendezvouzed at Dair-el-Kamar, and operations
might have been immediately commenced.
“ We may eafily imagine that troops of this kind no
way refemble our European foldiers ; they have neither
uniforms, nor difcipline, nor order. They are a crowd
of peafants with fhort coats, naked legs, and mufkets
in their hands; differing from the Turks and Mam-
louks in that they are all foot; the fliaiks and emirs
alone having horfes, which are of little ufe from the
rugged nature of the country. War there can only
be a war of polls. The Druzes never rifle them-
felves in the plain; and with reafon: for they would
be unable to Hand the fhock of cavalry, having no
bayonets to their mpfkets. Their whole art confifts in
climbing rocks, creeping among the bulhes and blocks
N° J04.
of Hone; from whence their fire is the more dangerous, Dnifes.
as they are covered, fire at their eafe, and by hunting  
and military fports have acquired the habit of hitting
a mark with great dexterity. They are accuftomed
to fudden inroads, attacks by night, ambufeades, and
all thofe coups de main which require to fall fuddenly
on', and come to clofe fight with the enemy. Ardent
in improving their fuccefs, eafily difpirited, and prbmpt
to refume their courage; daring even to temerity, and
fometimes ferocious, they poflefs above all' two quali¬
ties eflential to the excellency of any troops ; they
ftridfly obey their leaders, ?nd are endowed with a
temperance and vigour of health at this day unknown
to moll civilized nations. In the campaign of 1784,
they pafled three months in the open air without tents,
or any other covering than a fheep-fkin ; yet were
there not more deaths or maladies than if they had re¬
mained in their houfes. 'f'heir provifions confifted, as
at other times, of fmall loaves baked on the afhes or
on a brick, raw onions, cheefe, olives, fruits, and a
little wine. The table of the chiefs was almoft as fru¬
gal; and we may affirm, that they fubfifted 100 days,
on what the fame number of Englifhmen or French¬
men would not have lived ten. They have no know¬
ledge of the fcience of fortification, the management
of artillery or encampments, nor, in a word, any thing
which conftitutes the art of war. But had they among
them a few perfor.s verfed in military fcience, they
would readily acquire its principles, and become a for¬
midable foldiery. This would be the more eafily ef-
fe&ed, as their mulberry plantations and vineyards do
not occupy them all the year, and they could afford
much time for military exercifes.”
By the latt eftimates, according to M. Volney’s
information, the number of men able to bear arms
was 40,000, which fuppofes a total population of
120,000: no addition is. to be made to this cal¬
culation, fince there are no Druzes in the cities or
on the coaft. As the whole country contains only
11 o fquare leagues, there refults for every league
1090 perfons ; which is equal to the population of our
richeft provinces. To render this more remarkable,
it mull be obferved that the foil is not fertile, that a
great many eminences remain uncultivated, that they
do not grow corn enough to fupport themfelves three
months in the year, that they have no manufaftures,
and that all their exportations are confined to filks and
cottons, the balance of which exceeds very little the
importation of corn from the Hauran, the oils of Pale-
ftine, and the rice and coffee they procure from Bairout.
Whence arifes then fuch a number of inhabitants with¬
in fo fmall a fpace ? “ I can difeover no other caufe (fays
our author), than that ray of liberty which glimmers in
this country. Unlike the Turks, every man lives in a
perfeft fecurity of his life and property. The peafant is
not richer than in other countries ; but he is free. ‘ He
fears not,’ as I have often heard them fay, ‘ that the
Aga, the Kaimmakam, or the Pacha, flrould fend their
Djendis to pillage his houfe, carry off his family, or
give him the baltinado.’ Such oppreffions are un¬
known amo: : thefe mountains. Security, therefore,
has been the original caufe of population, from that in¬
herent deli, which all men have to multiply themfelves
wherever LOeyffind an eafy fubfiflence. The frugality of
the nation which is content with little, has been a fecon-
dary, and not .efs'powerful reafon; and a third is the
emigration
D R U [ 153 ] D R U
Dimes, emigration of a number of Chriftian families, who
"—'v—- daily ck-fert the Turkilh provinces to fettle in Mount
Lebanon, where they are received with open arms by
the Maronites from iimilarity of religion, and by the
Druzes from principles of toleration, and a conviftion
how much it is the interdl of every country to multiply
the number of its cultivators, confumers, and allies,
« rphe comparifon which the Druzes often have an
opportunity of making between their fituation and
that of other fubje&s of the Turkifh. government, has
given them an advantageous opinion of their fuperio-
rity, which, by a natural effect, has an influence on
their perfonal chara&er. Exempt from the violence
and infults of defpotifm, they corifider themfelves as
more perfeft than their neighbours, becaufe they have
the good fortune not to be equally debafed. Hence
they acquire a character more elevated, energetic^and
active ; in ftiort, a genuine republican fpirit. They
are confidered throughout the Levant as reftlefs, en-
terprifing, hardy, and brave even to temerity. Only
300 of them have been feen to enter Damafcus in open
day, and fpread around them terror and carnage.
No people are more nice than they with refped to the
point of honour: Any offence of that kind, or open
infult, is inftantly punilhed by blows of the kandjur
or the mufket; while among the inhabitants of the
towns, it only excites injurious retorts. This delicacy
has occafioned in their manners and difcourfe a re-
ferve, or, if you will, a politenefs, which one is a-
llonifhtd to difcover among peafants. It is carried e-
ven to diffimulation and falfehood, efpecially among
the chiefs, whofe greater interetts demand greater at¬
tentions. Circumfpe&ion is neceflary to all, from the
formidable confequences of that retaliation of which
I have fpoken. Thefe cuftoms may appear barbarous
to us ; but they have the merit of fupplying the deti-
ciency of regular juftice, which is neceffarily tedious
and uncertain in thefe diforderly and alrnoft. anarchi¬
cal governments.
“ The Druzes have another point of honour, that of
* * hofpitality. Whoever prefents himfelf at their door
in the quality of a fuppliant or paflenger, is fure of be¬
ing entertained with lodging and food in the moft
generous and unaffected manner. M. Volney often faw
the loweft peafants give the laft morfel of bread they
had in their houfes to the hungry traveller ; and when
it -was obferved to them that they wanted prudence,
their anfwer was, ‘ God is liberal and great, and all
men are brethren.’ There are, therefore, no inns in
their country any more than in* the reft of Turkey.
When they have once contracted w ith their gueft the
facred engagement of bread and fait, no fubfequent
event can make them violate it. Various inftances of
this are related, which do honour to their character.
A t5W years ago, an aga of the janiffaries having
been engaged in a rebellion, fled from Damafcus and
retired among the Druzes. The pacha was informed
of this, and demanded him of the emir, threatening to
make war on him in cafe of refufal. The emir demand¬
ed him of the {haik Talhouk, who had received him;
but the indignant (haik replied, ‘ When youhaveknown
the Druzes deliver up their guelts? Tell the emir,
that as long as Talhouk fhall preferve his beard, not
a bait of the head of his fuppliant fhali fall !’ The
«mir threatened him with force; Talhouk armed his
Vol. VI. Part. I.
family. The emir, dreading a revolt, adopted a me- Druze*.
thod praClifed as juridical in that country. He de-
dared to the fhaik, that he would cut down 50 mul¬
berry-trees a-day until he flrould give up the aga. He
proceeded as far as a thoufand, and Talhouk ftill re¬
mained inflexible. At'length the other fhaiks, en¬
raged, took up the quarrel; and the commotion was
about to become general, when the aga, reproaching
himfelf with being the caufe of fo much mifchief, madfc
his efcape without the knowledge even of Talhouk.
“ The Druzes have alfo the prejudices of the Be¬
douins refpeCIing birth ; like them, they pay great
refpeCt to the antiquity of families ; but this produces
no effential inconveniences. The nobility of the emirs
and fhaiks does not exempt them from paying tribute
in proportion to their revenues. It confers on them
no prerogatives, either in the attainment of landed
property or public employments. In this country,
no more than in all Turkey, are they acquainted wuth
game-laws, or glebes, or feigniorial or eccldiaftical
tithes, franc fiefs or alienation fines; every thing is
held in freehold : Every man, after paying his miri
and his rent, is mailer of his property. In fhort, by
a particular privilege, the Druzes pay no fine for
their fucceflion ; noj^xloes the emir, like the fultan,
arrogate to himfelf original and univerfal property ;
there exifts, neverthelefs, in the law of inheritance,
an imperfection which produces difagceeable effeCts.
Fathers have, as in the Roman law, the power of
preferring fuch of their children as they think pro¬
per : hence it has happened in feveral families of the
fhaiks, that the whole property has centered in the
fame perfon, who has perverted it to the purpofe of
intriguing and caballing, while his relations remain,
as they well exprefs it, princes of olives andcheeft; that
is to fay, poor as peafants.
“ In confequence of their prejudices, the Druzes do
not choofe to make alliances out of their own families.
They invariably prefer their relation, though poor, to
a rich ftranger ; and poor peafants have been known
to refufc their daughters to merchants of Saide and
Bairout, who pofleffed from twelve to fifteen thoufand
piaftres. They obferve alfo, to a certain degree, the
cuilom of the Hebrews, which dire&ed that a brother
fhould efpoufe his brother’s widowj but this is not
peculiar to them, for they retain that as well as feve¬
ral other cuftoms of that ancient people, in common
with other inhabitants of Syria and all the Arab
tribes.
“ In fhort, the proper and diftindive character of
the Druzes is a fort of republican fpirit, which gives
them more energy than any other fubjeCts of the
Turkifli government, and an indifference for religion,
which forms a ftriking contrail with the zeal of the
Mahometans and Chriftians. In other refpeCts, their
private life, their cuftoms and; prejudices, are the
fame with other orientals. They jnay marry feveral
wives, and repudiate them when they choofe ; but,
except by the emir and a few men of eminence, that
is rarely praClifed. Occupied with their rural labours*
they experience neither artificial wants, nor thofe in¬
ordinate paffions which are produced by the idienefs
of the inhabitants of cities and towns. The veil, worn
by their women, is of itfelf a prefervative againft thofe
defire^ which*are the sccafion- of fo many evils in fo¬
ld ciety.
D R U [ 154 1 D R U
Pruzcs, ciety. No man knows the face of any other woman than
Drufius. his wife, his mother, his fifter, and fiilers-in-law. E-
very man lives in the bofom of his own family, and
goes little abroad. The women, thofe even of the
fiiaiks, make the bread, roaft the coffee, wafh the li¬
nen, cook the vi&uals, and perform all domeftic of¬
fices. The men cultivate their lands and vineyards,
and dig canals for watering them. In the evening
they fometimes affemble in the court, the area, or houfe
©f the chief of the village or family. There, feated
in a circle, with legs croffed, pipes in their mouths,
and poniards at their belts, they difcourfe of their va¬
rious labours, the fcarcity or plenty of their harvefts,
peace or war, the conduft of the emir, or the amount
of the taxes ; they relate paft tranfa&ions, difeufs
prefent interefts, and form conjectures on the future.
Their children, tired with play, cpme frequently to
liften ; and a ftranger is furprifed td hear them, at ten
or twelve years old, recounting^ with a ferious air,
why Djezzar declared war agaitifl the emir Youfef,
how many purfes it cofl that prince, what augmenta¬
tion there will be of the miri, how many mufkets there
were in the camp, and who had the heft mare. This
is their only education. They are neither taught to
read the pfalms as among the Maronites,. nor the koran
like the Mahometans; hardly do the fhaiks know how
to write a letter. But if their mind be dettitute of
ufeful or agreeable information, at leaft it is not pre¬
occupied by falfe and hurtful ideas; and, without
doubt, fuch natural ignorance is well worth all our ar¬
tificial folly. This advantage refults from it, that their
underftandings being nearly on a level, the inequality
of conditions is lefs perceptible. For, in fad, we do
not perceive among the Druzes that great diflance
which, in moft other focieties, degrades the inferior,
without contributing to the advantage of the great.
All, whether fhaiks or peafants, treat each other with
that rational familiarity, which is equally remote from
rudenefs and fervility. The grand emir himfelf is
not a different man from the refl: he is a good coun¬
try gentleman, who does not difdain admitting to his
table the meanefl farmer. In a word, their manners
are thofe of ancient times, and of that ruftic life which
marks the origin of every nation ; and prove that the
people among whom they are ftill found are as yet only
in the infancy of the focial ftate.”
BRUSIUS (John), a Proteflant writer of great
learning, born at Oudenarde in Flanders in 1555. He
was ddigned for the ftudy of divinity; but his father
feeing outlawed, and deprived of his eftate, they both
retired to England, where the fon became profeffor of
:th« oriental languages at Oxford: but upon the paci¬
fication of Ghent, they returned ta their own country,
where Drufnis was alfo appointed profeffor of the o-
fiental languages. From thence he removed to Frief-
land, where he was admitted Hebrew profeffor in the
univerfity of Franeker the functions of which he dif-
eharged with great honour till his death in 1616. His
works fhow him to have been well fkilled in Hebrew j
and the States General employed him in 1600 to write
notes on the moft difficult paffages in the Old Tefta-
ment, with a peufton of 400 florins a-year: but being
frequently diflurbed in this undertaking, it was no*-
publiffied till after his death. He held a vaft corre-
fpondeuce with the learned; for befides letters in He¬
brew, Greek, and other languages, there were found Diyads
2300 Latin letters among his papers. He had a fon H |
John, who died in England at 21, and was a prodigy Pf^fn‘.
for his early acquifition of learning ; he wrote Notes
on the Proverbs of Solomon, with many letters and
verfes in Hebrew.
DRYADS, in the heathen theology, a fort of dei¬
ties, or nymphs, which the ancients thought inhabited
groves and woods. They differed from the Hamadry-
ades; thefe latter being attached to fome particular
tree, with which they were born, and with which they
died ; whereas the Dryades were goddeffes of trees and
woods in general. See Hamadryades.
DRYAS, in botany : A genus of the polygynia
order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 35th order,
Senticofa. The calyx is oftofid ; the petals eight; the
feeds long and hairy with a train.
DRYDEN (John), one of the moft eminent Eng-
lifh poets of the 17th century, defeended of a genteel
family in Huntingdonffiire, was born in that county
at Oldwincle 1631, and educated at Weftminfter fchool
under Dr Bufhby. From thence he was removed to
Cambridge in 1650, being eledted fcholar of Trinity-
college, of which he appears, by his Epithalamia Can-
tabrigienf. 410, 1662, to have been afterwards a fellow.
Yet in his earlier days he gave no extraordinary indica¬
tion of genius; for even the year before he quitted the
univerfity, he wrote a poem on the death of Lord Ha-
ftings, which was fey no means a prefage of that ama¬
zing perfedfion in poetical powers which he afterwards
poffeffed.
On the death of Oliver Cromwell he wrote fome he¬
roic ftanzas to his memory ; but on the Reiteration,
being defirous of ingratiating himfelf with the new
court, he wrote firft a poem intitled Ajlr&a Re dux, and
afterwards a panegyric to the king on his coronation.
In 1662, he addrefi'ed a poem to the lord chancellor
Hyde, prefented on New Year’s day; and in the fame
year a fatire on the Dutch. In 1668 appeared his
Annus Miralilis, which was an hiftorical poem in cele¬
bration of the duke of York’s vidtory over the Dutch,
Thefe pieces at length obtained him the favour of the
crown ; and Sir William Davenant dying the fame
year, Mr Dryden was appointed to fucceed him as
poet laureat. About this time alfo his inclination to
write for the ftage feems firft to have ffiown itfelf. For
befides his concern with Sir William Davenant in the
alteration of Shakefpeare’s Tempeft, in 1669 he pro¬
duced his Wild Gallants, a comedy. This met with
very indifferent fuccefs; yet the author, not being dif-
couraged by its failure, foon publiflied his Indian Em¬
peror. This finding a more favourable reception, en¬
couraged him to proceed; and that with fuch rapidity,
that in the ke^ to the Duke of Buckingham’s Rehear-
fal he is recorded to have engaged himfelf by contradk
for the writing of four plays per year; and, indeed, in
the years 1679 and 1680 he appears to have fulfilled
that contract. To this unhappy neceffity that our au¬
thor lay under, are to be attributed all thofe irregula¬
rities, thofe bembaftic flights, and fometimes even pue-
ri1 exuberances, for which he has been fo feverely cri-
eicifed; and which, in the unavoidable hurry in which
he wrote, it was impoffible he fttould find time either
for lopping away or corredting.
Xa
DRY [ i
In i(?75, the Earl of Rocheftsr, whofe envious and
malevolent difpofition would not permit him to fee
growing merit meet with its due reward, and was
therefore fincerely chagrined at the very juft applaufe
with which Mr Dryden’s dramatic pieces had been re¬
ceived, "was determined if pofiible to fliake his inte-
reft at court; and fucceeded fo far as to recommend
Mr Crowne, an author by no means of equal merit,
and at that time of an obfeure reputation, to write a
mafic for the court, which certainly belonged to Mr
Dryden’s office as poet laureat.—Nor was this the only
attack, nor indeed the molt potent one, that Mr Dry¬
den’s juftly acquired fame drew on him. For, fome
years before, the Duke of Buckingham, a man of not
much better charafter than Lord Rochefter, had moft
feverely ridiculed feveral of our author’s plays in his
admired piece called the Rebearful. But though the
intrinllc wit which runs through that performance can¬
not even to this hour fail of exciting our laughter, yet
at the fame time it'ought not to be the ftandard on
which we fhould fix Mr Dryden’s poetical reputation,
if we confider, that the pieces there ridiculed are not
any of thofe looked on as the chef d’xuvres of this au¬
thor; that the very paffages burlefqued are frequently,
in their original places, much lefs ridiculous than when
thus detached, like a rotten limb, from the body of
the work; and expofed to view with additional diftor-
tioas, and divefted of that connexion with the other
parts, which, while preferved, gave it not only fym-
metry but beauty ; and laftly, that the various inimi¬
table beauties, which the critic has funk in oblivion,
are infinitely more numerous than the deformities which
he has thus induftrioufly brought forth to our more im¬
mediate infpeftion.
Mr Dryden, however, did not fuffer thefe attacks
to pafs with impunity; for in 1679 there came out
an Effay on Satire, faid to be written jointly by that
gentleman and the Earl of Mulgrave, containing fome
very fevere reflections on the Earl of Rochefter and the
Duchefs of Portfmouth, who, it is not improbable,
might be a joint inftrument in the above-mentioned
affront fhown to Mr Dryden ^ and in 1681 he publifhed
his Abfalom and Achitophel, in which the well-known
charafter of Zimri, drawn for the Duke of Bucking¬
ham, is certainly fevere enough to repay all the ridi¬
cule thrown on him by that nobleman in the character
of Bays.—The refentment ftiown by the different peers
was very different. Lord Rochefter, who was a coward
as well as a man of the moft depraved morals, bafely
hired three ryffians to cudgel Dryden in a coffeehoufe:
but the Duke of Buckingham, as we are told, in a more
open manner, took the talk upon himfelf: and at the
fame time prefented him with a purfe containing no very
trifling fum of money ; telling him, that he gave him
the beating as a punilhment for his impudence, but be¬
llowed that gold on him as a reward for his wit.
In 1680 was publifhed a tranllation of Ovid’s Epiftles
in Englilh verfe by feveral hands, two of which, to¬
gether with the preface, were by Mr Dryden; and in
1682 came out his Religio Laid, deiigned as a defence
of revealed religion, againft Deifts, Papifts, &c. Soon
after the acceffion of King James II. our author chan¬
ged his religion for that of the church of Rome, and
wrote two pieces in vindication of the Romifh tenets;
viz. A Defence of the Papers written by the late King,
55 1 DRY
found in his ftrong box ; and the celebrated poem, af¬
terwards anfwered by Lord Halifax, intitled The Hind
and the Panther.—By this extraordinary ftep he not
only engaged himfelf in controverfy, and incurred
much cenfure and ridicule from his cotemporary wits;
but on the completion of the Revolution, being, on
account of his newly-chofen religion, difqualified from
bearing any office under the government, he was ftrip-
ped of the laurel, which, to his ftill greater mortifica¬
tion, was bellowed on Richard Flecknoe, a man to
whom he had a moft fettled averfion. This circum-
ftance occafioned his writing the very fevere poem call¬
ed Mac Flecknoe.
Mr Dryden’s circumftances had never been affluent;
but now being deprived of this little fupport, he found
himfelf reduced to the neceffity of writing for mere
bread. We confequently find him from this period
engaged in works of labour as well as genius, viz. in
tranllating the works of others ; and to this neceffity
perhaps our nation Hands indebted for fome of the belt
tranllations extant. In the year he loft the laurel, he
publilhed the life of St Francis Xavier from the French.
In 1693 came 0llt a tranflation of Juvenal and Per-
fius; in the firft of which he had a confiderable hand,
and of the latter the entire execution. In 1695 was
publiihed hisprofe verfion of Frefnoy’s Art of Painting;
and the year 1697 gave the world that tranflation of
Virgil’s works entire, which ftill does, and perhaps ever
will. Hand foremoft among the attempts made on that
author. The petite pieces of this eminent writer, fuch
as prologues, epilogues, epitaphs, elegies, fongs, See.
are too numerous to fpecify here, and too muclTdifper-
fed to direcl the reader to. The greateft part of them,
however, are to be fountain a collection of mifcellanies
in 6 vols 12mo. His laft work is what is called his
Fables, which confifts of many of the moft interefting
ftories in Homer, Ovid, Boccace, and Chaucer, tranL
lated or modernized in the moft elegant and poetical
manner ; together with fome original pieces, among
which is that amazing ode on St Cecilia’s day, which,
though written in the very decline of the author’s life,
and at a period when old age and diftrefs confpired as
it were to damp his poetic ardor and clip the wings of
fancy, yet poffefs fo much of both, as would be fuffi-
cient to have rendered him immortal had he never writ¬
ten a fingle line befides.
Dryden married the lady Elizabeth Howard, fifter
to the Earl of Berkftiire, who furvived him eight years;
though for the laft four of them Ihe was a lunatic, ha¬
ving been deprived of her fenfes by a nervous fever.- 
By this lady he had three fons; Charles, John, and
Henry. Of the eldeft of thefe there is a circumftance
related by Charles Wilfon, Efq; in his Life of Con¬
greve, which feems fo well attelled, and is itfelf of fo
very extraordinary a nature, that we cannot avoid gi¬
ving it a place here. —Dryden, with all his underftand-
ing, was weak enough to be fond of judicial aftrology,
and ufed to calculate the nativity of his children.
When his lady was in labour with his fon Charles, he
being told it was decent to withdraw, laid his watch
on the table, begging one of the ladies then prefent,
in a moft folemn manner, to take exadt notice of the
very minute that the child was born ; which fhe did,
and acquainted him with it. About a week after, when
his lady was pretty well recovered, Mr Dryden took
U z occa-
DRY [ 156 ] DRY
I5r>den. occafion to tell her that he had been calculating the third time, it was fuppofed he was taken with the Dryden.
cramp, becaufe he called out for help, though too late.
child's nativity ; and obferved, with grief, that he ’
born in an evil hour: for Jupiter, Venus, and the Sun,
were all under the earth, and the lord of his afcendant
affli&ed with a hateful fquare of Mars and Saturn. “ If
he lives to arrive at the 8th year,” fays he, “ he will go
near to die a violent death on his very birth-day; but
if he flrould efcape, as I fee but fmall hopes, he will
In the 23d year be under the very fame evil diredtion ;
and if he fliould efcape that alfo, the 33d or 34th year
is, I fear” Here he was interrupted by the immo¬
derate grief of his lady, who could no longer hear ca¬
lamity prophefied to befal her fon. The time at laft
came, and Augull was the inaufpicious month in which
y oung Dryden was to enter into the eighth year of his
age. The court being in progrefs, and Mr Dryden at
leifure, he was invited to the country-feat of the Earl
of Berkfhire his brother-in-law, to keep the long va¬
cation with him in Charleton in Wilts ; his lady was
invited to her uncle Mordaunt’s to pafs the remainder
of the hummer. When they came to divide the chil¬
dren, lady Elizabeth wduld have him take John, and
fuffer her to take Charles: but Mr Dryden was too
Thus the father’s calculation proved but too prophe¬
tical.
At laft, after a long life, haraffed with the moft la¬
borious of all fatigues, viz. that of the mind, and con¬
tinually tnade anxious by diftrefs and difficulty, our
author departed this life on the firlt of May 1701.—
The day after Mr Dryden’s death, the dean, of Wett-
minfter fent word to Mr Dryden’s widow, that he
would make a prefent of the ground and all other
abbey-fees for the funeral: the Lord Halifax likewife
fent to the lady Elizabeth, and to Mr Charles Dryden,
offering to defrayBthe expences of our poet’s funeral,
and afterwards to beftow 5001. on a monument in the
abbey ^ which generous olfer was accepted. Accord¬
ingly, on Sunday following, the company being aflem-
bled, the corpfe was put into a velvet hearfe, attended
by 18 mourning coaches. When they were juft ready
to move, Lord Jefferys, fon of Lord Chancellor Jef-
ferys, a name dedicated to infamy, with fome of his-
rakilh companions, riding by, allied whofe funeral it
; and being told it was Mr Dryden’s, he protefted
abfolute, and they parted in anger; he took Charles he flrould not be buried in that private manner; that
with him, and (he was obliged to be content with John.
When the fatal day came, the anxiety of the lady’s fpi-
vits occafioned fuch an effervefcence of blood, as threw
her into fo violent a fever, that her life was defpaired
of, till a letter came from Mr Dryden, reproving her
for her womanilh credulity, and affuring her that her
child was well; which recovered her fpirits, and in fix
weeks after ffie received an ecclairciflement of the whole
affair. Mr Dryden, either through fear of being rec¬
koned fuperftitious, or thinking it a fcience beneath his
ftudy, was extremely cautious of letting any one know
that he was a dealer in aftrology ; therefore could not
excufe his abfence, on his fon’s anniverfary, from a ge¬
neral hunting-match which Lord Berkffiire had made,
to which all the adjacent gentlemen were invited.
When he went out, he took care to fet the boy a double
exercife in the Latin tongue, which he taught his chil¬
dren himfelf, with a ftrift charge not to ftir out of the
hejwould himfelf, with the lady Elizabeth’s leave, have
the honour of the interment, and would beftow 1000I.
on a monument in the abbey for him. This put a ftop
to their proceffion ; and the Lord Jefferys, with feve-.
ral of the gentlemen who had alighted from their
coaches, went up ftairs to the lady, who was fick in
bed. His lordffiip repeated the purport of what he
had faid below ; but the lady Elizabeth refufing her
confent, he fell on his knees, vowing never to rife till
his requeft was granted. The lady under a hidden fur-.
prife fainted away ; and Lord Jefferys, pretending to
have obtained her confent, ordered the body to be car¬
ried to Mr Ruffed’s an undertaker in Cheapfide, and to
be left there till further orders. In the mean time the
abbey was lighted up, the ground opened, the choir
attending, and the biffiop waiting fome hours to- no,
purpofe for the corpfe. The next day Mr Charles Dry¬
den waited on the Lord Halifax and the biffiop; and
room till his return; well knowing the talk he had fet endeavoured to excufe his mother, by relating the
him would take up longer time. Charles was perform- truth.. Three days after, the undertaker, having recei-
ing his duty in obedience to his father; but, as ill fate ved no orders, waited on the Lord Jefferys ; who pre-
would have it, the ftag made towards the houfe ; and. tended that it was a drunken frolic, that he remember-.
the noife alarming the fervants, they hailed out to fee ed nothing of the matter, and he might do what he
the fport. One of them took young Dryden by the pjeafed with the body. Upon this the undertaker
hand, and led him out to fee it alfo; when, juft as they- waited upon the lady Elizabeth, wffio defired a day’s,
came to the gate, the ftag being at bay with the dogs,, refpite, which was granted. Mr Charles Dryden im-
made a bold puffi, and leaped over the court-wall, mediately wrote to the Lord Jefferys, who returned for
which was very low and very old ; and the dogs fol- anfwer, that he knew nothing of. the matter, and would
lowing, threw down a part of the wall 10 yards in be troubled no more about it. Mr Dryden hereupon
length, under, which Charles Dryden lay buried. He applied again to Lord Halifax and the Biffiop of Ro-
was immediately dug out; and after.fix weeks languiffi-. chefter, who abfolutely refufed to do any thing in the
jng in a dangerous way, he recovered. So far Dryden’s affair.
predi&ion was fulfilled. In the 23d year of his age. In this diftrefs, Dr Garth, who had been Mr Dry-
Charles fell from the top of an old tower belonging to den’s intimate friend, fentfor the corpfe to the college
the Vatican at Rome, occafiorted by a fwimming in his of pftyficians, and propofed a fubfcription; which fuc-
head with which he was feized, the heat of the day ceeding, about three weeks after Mr Dryden’s deceafe,
being exceffive. He again recovered,, but was ever af- Dr Garth pronounced a .fine Latin oration over the
ter in a languiffiing fickly ftate. In the 33d year of his body, which was conveyed from the college, attended •
age, being returned to England, he was unhappily by a numerous train of coaches to Weftminfter-abbey,
drowned at Windfor. He had with another gentle- but in very great diforder. At laft the corpfe arrived
anan fwam twice over the. Thames ; but returning a. at the abbey, which was all unlighted. No organ play-.
ed.
DRY [1571 DUB
Dry den. ed, no anthem furtg; only two of the fmging boys extenfive reading, a tenacious memory,' and a ready
preceding the corpfe, who fting an ode of Horace, communication: gentle in the corre&ion of the wri- u ‘n*
with each a fmall candle in their hand. When the fu- tings of others, and patient under the reprehenfion of
neral was over, Mr Charles Dryden fent a challenge to his own deficiencies: eafy ©f accefs himfelf, but flow
Lord Jefferys; who refufing to anfwer it, he fent fe- and diffident in his advances to others; and of all men
veral others, and went often hinifelf: but’could neither the moil modeil and the moil eafy to be difcountenanced
get a letter delivered, nor admittance to fpetfk to him:
which fo incenfed him, that finding his Lordihip refu-
fed to anfwer him like a gentleman, he refolved to-
watch an opportunity, and brave him to fight, though
with all the rules of honour; which his Lordihip hear¬
ing, quitted the town, and Mr Charles never had an
opportunity to meet him, though he fought it to his
death with the utmoff application.
Mr Dryden had no monument eredled to him for
fe veral years; to which Mr Pope alludes in his epitaph
intended for Mr Rowe, in this line,
Beneath a ru le ai d namelefs ftone he lies.
In a note upon which we are informed that the tomb
of Mr Dryden w'as eredlejl upon this hint by Sheffield
duke of Buckingham, to which was oj-iginally intended
this epitaph:
This Shield rais’d..—The facred dull below
Mras, Dryden once ; the reft, who does not know ?
Which was fince changed into the plain infcription
now upon it, viz.
J. DRYDEN,
Natus Aug, 9. 1631.
Mortuus Mad t. i/oi.
' 'Johannes Sheffield, dux iBuckfnghamunfu fecit.
Mr Dryden’s character has been very differently
drawn by different hands, fome of which have exalted
it to the higheft degree of commendation, and others
debafed it by the fevereil cenfure.-—The latter, how¬
ever, we mu ft charge to that ftrong fpirit of party
which prevailed during great part of Dryden’s time,
and ought therefore t© be taken with great allowances.
Were we indeed to form a judgment of the author
from fome of his dramatic writings, we fhould perhaps
he apt to conclude him a man of the moft licentious
morals ; many of his comedies containing a great fhare
of loofenefs, qven extending to obfcenity: But if we
confider, that, as the poet tells us,
Thofe who live to pleafe, muft pleafe to live ;
if we then look back to the fcandalous licence of the
age he lived in, the indigence w'hich at times he un¬
derwent, and the neceffity he confequently lay under
of complying with the public tafte however depraved;
we fhall furely not refufe our pardon to the compelled
writer, nor our credit to thofe of his cotemporaries
. who were intimately acquainted with him, and who
have aflured us there was nothing remarkably vicious
in his perfonal charadter.
From fome parts of his hiftory he appears unfteady,
and to have too readily temporized with the feveral re«
volutions in church and ftate. This however might in
fome meafure have been owing to-that natural timi¬
dity and diffidence in his difpofition, which almofl all
the writers feem to agree in his poflefling. Congreve,
whofe authority cannot be fufpeded, has given us fueh
an account of him, as makes him appear no lefs amiable
in his private charader as a man, than he was illuftri-
ous in his public one as a poet. In the former light,
according to that gentleman, he was humane, com-
i’affionate,' forgiving, and fincerely friendly :. of- an
Z
in his approaches either to his fuperiors or his equals.
As to his writings, he is perhaps the happieft in the
harmony of his numbers, of any poet who ever lived
either before or fince his time, not even Mr Pope him¬
felf excepted. His imagination is ever warm, his images
noble, his defcriptions beautiful, and his fentiments
juft and becoming. In his profe he is poetical without
bombaft, concife without pedantry, and clear without
prolixity. His dramatic have, perhaps, the leaft me¬
rit of all his writings. Yet there are many of them
v'hich are truly excellent; though he himftlf tells us
that he never wrote any thing in that way to pleafe
himfelf but his All for Love. This laft, indeed, and
his Spanijh Friar, may be reckoned two of the befl
plays o'Ur language has been honoured with.
DRYPIS, in botany: A genus of the trigynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 22d order,
Caryophyllei. The calyx is quinquedentated; the pe¬
tals five ; the opening at the capfule as if cut round
horizontally, monofpermousJ
DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, the fecond
city in his majefty’s dominions, and efteemed the fifth
for magnitude in Europe, is fituated in the province
of Leinfter, in the county of Dublin, at the bottom of
a large bay. The river Liffey, which here difem-
bogues itfelf into the ocean, divides the town into
nearly two equal parts. Formerly the city of Dublin
was confined to the fouth fide of the river: it was a place
of great antiquity. Ptolemy, who flouriftied in the
reign of Antoninus Pius, about the year 140, fays, it
was anciently called Afchclei. In 155, Alpinus, whofe
daughter Auliana was drowned in the Liffey, changed
the name from Afchcled to Auliana. It was afterwards
named Dublana, and Ptolemy calls it Eblana. Dublanet,
whence comes Dublinum and Dublin, is evidently de¬
rived from Dub-kana, “ the place of the black haihour
or lake,” or rather “ the lake of the fea,” the bay of
Dublin being frequently fo called* This city has had
a variety of names. The Irifti call it Drom-choll-coil,
“ the brow of a hazle wood;” and in 181, Eogan king
Munfter being on a royal tour, paid a viiit to this •
place, which was then called Alha Cliath-Dubb-Line,
“ the paffage of the ford of hurdles over the black
pool:” the harbour ofDublih was likewife known by the
name of I.ean-Cliatb, axLeam-Cliatk, from Lean oxLeam,.
“a harbour;” and from Cliath or Cliabb, which literally
fignifies “ a hurdle or any thing made of wicker-work
it alfo fignified certain wires formed with hurdles, and
placed in rivers and bays by the ancient Irifti-for the
purpofe of taking fifh: whence any river or bay where¬
in thefe wires were fixed had the name of Cliath or
Cliabb annexed to it, to fignify the eftablifliment of a
fifhery. Dublin, therefore, being originally built on
or near one of thefe harbours, was anciently called'
Baly fean-Cliath, that is, the town on the fiftiing liar- ■
hour. It is defcribed at the prefent day in the Iriih
language by the appellations of Atb-CIiath, “ the ford •
of hurdles,” and Baily-ath-CHath, “ the town of-the
DUB r 158 ] DUB
Ford of hurdles,” the inhabitants having formerly had
acqefs to the river by hurdles laid on the low marfliy
grounds adjoining the water : and this name was alfo
extended to the north fide of the river, from a tempo¬
rary bridge of hurdles thrown over the Anna Liffey, a
corruption of Auin Louiffia, or “ the fwift river,” fo
termed from the rapidity of the mountain floods. This-
fide was enlarged by Mac Turkill the Daniflr prince,
who, notwithftanding, fixed his habitation on the
fouth fide, and abandoned the northern town} which,
from the original country of the invaders, was called
JZaJhnantoivriy fince corrupted to Qxmanlown. King
Edgar, in the preface to his charter dated 964, men¬
tions Ireland with its moft noble city [nobiTi[Jima clviuu)
of Dublin. By the Fingallians it is called Divelin, and
by the Welch Dinas-Dulin, or the city of Dmin.
In 448, Alpin Mac Eachard, king of Dublin and
all his lubjedls, were converted to Chriftianity by St
Patrick,
In the year 498, the Oilmen or Danes having en¬
tered the Liffey with a fleet of 60 fail, made themlelves
mafters of Dublin and the adjacent country, and foon
after environed the city with walls. About 1170
Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Lernfter, having
quarrelled with the other princes of the kingdom, a
confederacy was formed’ againlt him by Roderick
O’Conor, monarch of Ireland. Dermot applied to
Henry' II. king of England, who fent over a number
of Englilh adventurers, by whofe affiftance he was re-
inftated in his dominions; and in the year 1171, the
defcendants of the Danes ftill continuing to hold pof-
feffion of Dublin, it w'asbefiegedand takeij by a power¬
ful party of the Englilh under Raymond le Grofs.
Mac Turkill the Danilh king efcapedto his Ihipping:
he returned, however, foon after with a ftrong fleet to
recover the city, but was killed in the attempt, and in
him ended the race of eafterling princes in Ireland.
In 1172, Henry II. landed at Waterford, and ob¬
tained from Richard earl of Strongbow (who married
the daughter of Dermot Mac Murrough, and by com¬
pact was his fucceffor) afurrender of the city of Dub¬
lin, where he built a pavilion of wicker work near
St Andrew’s church, then fituated where Calllemarket
lately Hood, and there entertained feveral Irith princes,
who -voluntarily fubmitted to him, on condition of be-
ing governed by the fame law's as the people of Eng¬
land. Henry alfo held a parliament here. In 1173
he granted his firft charter to Dublin, and by divers
privileges encouraged a colony from Briftol to fettle
here.
In 1210, upwards of 20 Irilh princes fwore alle¬
giance to king John at Dublin ; engaging to dlablifti
the Engliflr laws and cuftoms in the kingdom; and in
the fame year courts of judicature were inftituted. In
1216, magna charta was granted to the Irifli by Hen¬
ry III. an entry of which was made in the red book of
the exchequer at Dublin. In 1217, the city was
granted to the citizens in fee farm at 200 marks per
annum; and in 1227 the above monarch ordained that
the charter granted by king John fliould be kept in¬
violably. In 1404, the ftatutes of Kilkenny and Dub¬
lin were confirmed in a parliament held at this city
under the earl of Ormond. The charter of the city of
Dublin was renewed in 1609 by James I,
The civil government of the city was anciently un¬
der the management of a provoft and bailiffs; in 1308, Dublin.
John de Decer was appointed the firft provoft, and 'r~m
Richard de St Olave and John Stakebold bailiffs. In
1409, the title of the chief magiftrate was changed to
that of mayor, when Thomas Cufack was appointed
to the office, Richard Bove and Thomas Shortall be¬
ing bailiffs : the office of bailiffs was changed to ffie-
riffs in 1547. In 1660, Charles II. gave a collar of
SS. and a company of foot guards to the mayor;
and in 1665, this monarch conferred the title of lord
mayor on the chief magiftrate, to whom he alfo
granted 500I. per annum in lieu of the foot company.
Sir Daniel Bellingham was the firft lord mayor of
Dublin ; Charles Lovet and John Quelfh were iheriffs
the fame year. In 1672, Arthur earl of Effex intro¬
duced new rules for the better government of the city;
and in 1683 the Tholfel was built, for the purpofe of
the magiftrates meeting to hold their courts, affem-
blies, &c.
In the 10th century, after the fortifications of Dub¬
lin were repaired by the Oftmen, the walls of the city,,
including thofe of the caftle, did not occupy more than
an Irilh mile; they extended from Winetavern-gate to
Audeon’s-arcb, and were continued from thence to
where Newgate formerly flood ; and from a plan pub-
liflied by John Speed in 1610, it appears that they
were continued toOrmond’s-gate, or, as it has been fince
called, Wormwood-gate, from thence to the Old-bridge,
and along the banks of the river to a very large portal
called Newman's tower, nearly in the prefent file of the
fouth entrance of Effex-bridge ; and from Newman’s
tower in an angular dire&ion to Dame’s-gate, at the
weft-end of Dame-ftreet. From the gate at the fouth-
weft angle of the caftle the wall ran to Nicholas-gate,
and was continued from thence to Newgate. The
principal ftreets without the walls were, on the weft,
New-row, Francis-ftreet, Thomas-ftreet, and James’s-
ftreet; on the fouth were Patrick-ftreet, Bride-ftreet,
and Ship-ftreet; and on the eaft Dame-ftreet, George’s-
lane, and Stephen-ftreet. That fpace of ground now
occupied by Crane-lane, Temple-bar, Fleet-ftreet, La-
zar’s-hill, or, as it is now called fouth Townfend-Jlreet,
Crampton, Alton’s, George’s, and Sir John Roger-
fon’s quays, &c. was then overflowed by the Liffey.
. On the north fide of the river there were only Church-
ftreet, Mary’s-lane, Hammond-lane, and Pill-lane, then
built but on one fide as far as Mary’s-abbey, which
terminated the extent of that part of the town to the
eaftward; Grange-Gorman, Stoney-batter, now called
Manor-Jlreet, and Glaffmanogue, were then villages at
fome diftance from the city; and at the latter the ffie-
rifi’s have held their courts in times of the plague, as
being remote from the ftage of infe&ion. In 1664,
the inhabitants being numbered amounted to 2565
men and 2986 women, proteftants; and 1202 men
and 1406 women, Roman catholics, making in the
whole 8159.
By comparing this account of the ancient ftate and
boundaries of the metropolis with the following de-
feription of its prefent extent, population, and mag¬
nificence, an idea will be readily formed of the ama¬
zing increafe and improvement it hath experienced
within the prefent century.
Dublin is feated in view of the fea on the eaft,
and a fine country which fweUs into gently rifing emi¬
nences
DUB r 159 1 DUB
Dublin, cences on the north and weft, while it towers boldly
U—-y— Up in lofty mountains that bound the horizon on the
fouth. The city itfelf cannot be feen to full advan¬
tage on entering the harbour: but the approach to it
from thence exhibits a fine profpeft of the country for
improvement and cultivation, interfperfed with nume¬
rous villas, that have a moft agreeable effect to enliven
this delightful fcene, which, beginning at the water’s
edge, is continued all over the coaft to the northward
of the bay as far a* the eye can reach, and is finely
contrafted by a diftant view of the Wicklow moun¬
tains to the fouth, where the conical hills, called the
Sugar-loaves, contribute not a little, by the Angularity
of their appearance, to embelliih the landfcape, fo ex-
tenfive and pi&urefque as not to be equalled by any
natural feenery in Europe, but the entrance of the
bay of Naples, to which it bears a very ftriking refem-
blance.
The form of Dublin is nearly a fquare, a figure that
includes the largeft area proportioned to its circum¬
ference. From the royal hofpital at Kilmainham, at
the vveftem extremity of the town, to the eaft end of
Townfend-ftreet, the length is two miles and an half,
and its greateft breadth is computed to be of the fame
extent: hence the city is about 10 miles in circum¬
ference. Its increafe within the laft twenty years has
been amazing : it now contains about 22,000 houfes,
whofe inhabitants are eftimated at 156,000.
Dublin, with refpedt to its ftreets, bears a near re-
femblance to London. Some of the old ftreets were
formerly narrow: but this defedl is now in a great
meafure remedied by an aft of parliament, palled in
1774, for opening the public avenues, taking down
fign-pofts, palifades, pent-houfes, &c. new paving the
ftreets, and flagging the foot paffages : and, in 1 785,
another aft palfed for the better paving, cleanfing,
and lighting the city ; in confequence of which an ad¬
ditional number of globes with double burners were
put up at the diftance of 36 feet from each other-
Thefe neceflary improvements contribute exceedingly
to the beauty and convenience of the metropolis: the
new ftreets are wide and commodious, the houfes lofty,
uniform, and elegant; nor are feveral of the old ftreets
totally deficient in thefe refpefts : Sackville-ftreet, or
the Mall, which, though built upwards of 40 years
ago, has been included in the number of our new ftreets
by all the late geographers (a felf-evident proof that
thefe writers had not even feen the city), is a noble
avenue, with a gravel walk in the centre, enclofed by
a wall of about three feet high ; this walk is 36' feet
and a half broad, and the diftanee between it and the
palifades fronting the houfes, on either fide, is 42 feet
and a half: when the new cuftom-houfe is completed,
this ftreet will be then a moft; dcfirable fituation for
whokfale merchants, not only on account, of its proxi¬
mity to that building, but its great depth in the rere.
j Some years ago, it was efteemed one of the fineft pub¬
lic avenues in Europe : many of the new ftreets, how¬
ever, in this city are now much fuperior to it in the
magnificence and uniformity of the houfes. Among
thefe, on the north fide of the river, in the fame quar¬
ter with Sackville-ftreet, are Gardiner’s-row, north
Great George’s-ftreet, Cranby-row, Cavendilh-row,
and Palace-row: the laft; three form a fuperb fquare,
having the garden of the lying-ift-hofpital in the
centre : the old wall that encompafled the garden has
been lately taken down; there is now a full view of
this delightful fpot furrounded with iron palifades, and
upward of joo globes with double burners difpofed at
equal diftances, which, added to the globes from the
furrounding houfes, have a moft. brilliant effect.
This fquare, which, for its fize, is not perhaps to be
equalled, has lately received the name of Rutland-
fquare, in compliment to his grace the prefent duke of
Rutland, who contributed munificently towards the
improvements in the enclofure of the new garden, and
the erefting an elegant edifice for a ball and fupper
rooms, now nearly iiniihed, lituated to the call of the
hofpital.
Among the new ftreets and buildings on the foutk
fide of the river, thofe wherein perfons of diftinftion
refide, lie chiefly to the eaftward of the college and
Stephen’s-green ; which laft, though it does not rank
with the new buildings, poffeffes much grandeur and
elegance, being one of the largeft fquares in Europe 1
it is an Englifti mile in circumference, furrounded by a
gravel walk planted on each fide with trees > within
this walk is a fmooth level meadow, having in the
centre an equeftrian ftatue of the late king : there are
feveral fine edifices, though almoft all differing in the
ftile of their architefture; this variety, however, is
efteemed by many rather a beauty thau a defeft : but,
befides the other ftreets and buildings in this quarter,
there is a new fquare which will be nearly as extenfive
as Stephen’s-green, called Merion-fquare; it was laid
out fome years ago, by the late lord Fitzwilliam ; the
buildings are now confiderably advanced, and great
encouragement has been given by the prefent noble
proprietor: the houfes on the north fide, which is quite
finiftied, are uniform and lofty ; moft of them, being
carried up with hewn ftone to the firft ftory, gives
the whole an air of ftrength, beauty, and magnificence.
At the fouth weft angle of Stephen’s-green, a nevr
ftreet has been alfo opened, called Hare ourt ftreet, in
which are feveral elegant ftruclures that merit notice,,
particularly the town refidence of the right honourable,
lord Earlsford.
The principal entrance to the walks of Stephen’s-
green is on the weft fide oppofite the end of York-
ftreet (which may he properly claffed among the new
ftreets), as all the old houfes have been pulled down,
and modern buildings ere&ed in their room. Thofe
parts of the city inhabited by merchants and traders
begin to wear a new face ; and amongft this number
the new buildings of Dame-ftreet on the fouth fide,
exhibit an extenfive, uniform, and beautiful range of
houfes all of an equal height: the fnop doors and win¬
dows are formed by arches, exa&ly fimilar in their
conftruftion and ornaments, which are fimply elegant:
when the other fide of this ftreet lhall be rebuilt, it
may be juftly pronounced one of the firft trading ftreets
in Europe; and Parliament-ftreet, which was built
fome years ago, is now nearly equal to any trading
ftreet in London.
The river Liffey, being banked in through the
whole length of the town, exhibits fpacious and beau¬
tiful quays, where veffels below the bridge load and
unload before the merchants doors and warehoufes
it is navigable as far as Effex-bridge. This bridge was
firft built in 1681, and took its name from the unfor-
5 tnuate
BUB [ 160 ] BUB
JJaMin. tuhate earl of Effex, then viceroy of Ireland, It was
’'v_ " ' taken down in 1753, and rebuilt in an elegant form,
after the model of Weftminfter bridge, but .much bet¬
ter proportioned, and on a more fecure foundation.
It has five arches, the buttreffes between which fupport
femicircular niches that project from the parapet;
there are balluitrades between thefe niches, and con¬
tinued to the ends of the bridge, which is commodi-
oufly flagged for foot paffages; the whole conftrudted
with hewn ftone in a very tine tafie. There are four
bridges befidcs this over the river; three of which
have nothing to recommend them, further than the
antiquity of the Old-Bridge, which was eredted in
this city at a very early period, when it had the name
of Dublin-Bridge; it was rebuilt in 14.28, fince which
time it received its prefent title. Bloody-bridge,
built in 1671, was originally conflrudled with wood,
and derives it prefent harfli appellation from an at¬
tempt to break it down, wherein four perfons were
killed. Ormond-bridge was built in 1684, during the
•Ormond adminiftration. Arran-bridge, now called
Queen’s-bridge, was erected in the fame year ; but, be¬
ing deftroyed by the floods in 1763, was rebuilt of
hewn ftone, and finifhed in 1768. It confifts of three
arches, with flagged foot paflages, ftone balluftrades
-and ornamental decorations, in a handfome light ftyle,
admired by every amateur of the arts.
This city has 2 cathedrals, 18 parifh churches,
2 chapels of eafe, 15 Roman-catholic chapels, 6 meet-
ing-houfes for prefbyterians, 1 for anabaptifts, 4 for
methodifts, 2 for quakers, a church for French Calvi-
mifts, a Daniih and a Dutch church, and a Jewifh fy-
•nagogue.
Chrift-church, or the Holy Trinity, built in 1038
by Donat bifhop of Dublin, to whom Sitricus the
■fon of Amlave king of the Oftmen of Dublin granted
the fite for that purpofe, (lands on the fummit of the
riling ground at the head of Wirietavern-ftreet. It is
a venerable Gothic pile ; and its prefent appearance
-evinces its antiquity. St Patrick’s cathedral, firft
built by archbifliop Comyn in 1190, and decorated
by archbifhop Minot in 1370, with a fteeple on which
-a lofty fpire was eredted in 1750, is alfo a fine Gothic
ftrudlure : it (lands on the eaft fide of Parrick-ilreet;
the monuments here are more numerous than in
Chrift-church j and the fteeple is the higheft in the
city.
St Werburgh’s church was originally built in a
very early age. In 1301, when a great part of the
city was confumed by an accidental fire, this church
fuffered in the conflagration : it was burnt a fecond
time in 1754, and repaired in its prefent beautiful
form in 1759. The front and fteeple are admired for
their elegance, lightnefs, and fymmetry : the fpire is a
fine odlagon fupported by eight pillars; and a gilt ball
terminates the whole, being 160 feet from the ground.
Catharine’s church firft built in 1105, and re-edified
in its prefent form in 1769, is fituated on the fouth
fide of Thomas’s-ftreet. St Thomas’s church is the
lateft foundation of the kind in this city, having been
begun in the year 1758, and finiftied and cunfe-
crated in 1762. It is fituated on the weft fide of
Marlborough - ftreet, oppofite Gloucefter-ftreet, to
which it forms an elegant termination. The other
churches in this city are ; on the north fide of the ri-
.N0 104.
ver, Mary’s, Michan’s, and Paul’s ; on the fouth fids, Dublin.
James’s, Luke’s, Kevin’s, Peter’s, Bride’s, Nicholas  
within, Audeon’s, Michael’s, Mark’s, Anne’s, John’s,
and Andrew’s ; this lad is called alfo the Round church,
from its form being exactly circular : mod, if not all
the others were built in an early age : many, however,
have been fince re-edified, and aflumed a more modern
form : fome of thefe are not totally devoid of elegance, '
particularly Anne’s. St John’s in Fifliamble-llreet
was rebuilt in ,1773, and has now a handfome front of
hewn ftone decorated with columns fupporting a pedi¬
ment. Befides thefe churches, Dublin is adorned with '
feveral other public buildings; the mod remarkable of
which are the following: The caftlc, the refidence of
the chief governor, built in 1213 by Henry de Lon-
dres, was formerly moated and flanked with towers;
but the ditch has been long firice filled up, and the old
buildings rafed, the chapel and wardrobe tower ex¬
cepted, which dill remain : Birmingham tower was
rebuilt in 1777, and is now called/fizrawr/rower. The
caltle at prefent confifts of two courts, the principal
of which is an oblong fquare formed by four ranges of
building: within a few years, in the middle of the
fouth range, a handfome edifice called Bedford tower
has been erefted ; the front is decorated with a fmall
arcade of three arches, over which is a colonade fup¬
porting a pediment, from whence rifes an odlagon
(leeple crowned with a fmall cupola and gilt ball in a
light pleafing ftyle. This tower, which fronts the en¬
trance to the viceroy’s apartments, is connected with
the buildings on each fide by two fine gates; over
that on the right hand is a ftatue of Fortitude ; and
over the left gate, which is the grand portal to the upper
court, is the llatue of Juftice. In the lower court are
the treafury and other offices, with military (lores, an
arfenal and armory for 40,000 men, and a’’barrack in
which a captain’s detachment of infantry are ftationed.
Between this barrack and the arfenal is the caftle gar¬
den ; oppofite to which, at the rere of the lord Lien-
tenat’s apartments, is a range of bujlding called the
Garden-front, eredted about the year 1740, finiflied in
mountain ftone, ornamented by femicolumn of the
Ionic order, and the windows embelliflied with cornices
and architraves, in a fine tafte. The ball-room is now-
titled St Patrick’s Hall. The viceroy’s body guard
confifts of a captain, two fubalterns, and fixty private
men, with a fubaltern’s guard of horfe. The parlia¬
ment houfe, a moil fuperb ftrudture, is fituated on the
north fide of coftege-green : it was begun in 1729,
finiflied in 10 years, and cod 40,000 k it is built with
Portland (lone, and the front formed by a grand por¬
tico of Ionic columns in the moft.finiffied ftyle of ar-
chitedtural elegance: the internal parts (whichhave been
lately much improved, under the aufpices of the pre¬
fent fpeaker the right honourable John Forfter) cor-
refpond with its outward magnificence; and the man¬
ner in which the infide is lighted is univerfally ad¬
mired. The houfe of commons is an odtagon, co¬
vered with a dome fupported by columns of the Ionic
order, that rife from an amphitheatrical gallery bal-
luftraded with iron fcroll-work : this room is .admi¬
rably well adapted to its purpofe. The houfe of lords
is an oblong room, fpacious and lofty, and ornamented
in a fuperb manner: it is alfo judicioufly adapted for
the reception of the auguft aflerribly which meet
there 2
DUB [
"I Dublin, there : among other decorations are two pieces of ta-
1 1 ' * peftry, reprefenting the battle of the Boyne and fiege
of Derry, allowed to have much merit. By order of
both houfes of parliament, a grand new front has been
lately erefted on the eaft fide of this magnificent pile ;
and preparations are making to front the north and
weft fides in a fimilar manner, from a defign of Mr
Gandon’s: thus infulated, the whole will form a fuit
I of fenatorial apartments matchlefs in elegance and con¬
venience.
The College founded by queen Elizabeth in 1591
is fituated at the eaft end of College-green^ It is a
moft beautiful ftru&ure, confifting of two fpacious
fquares, the firft of which contains the refectory, the
old hall and chapel, and the new theatre for leftures
and examinations ; the front of this laft building is
finely decorated with Corinthian columns fupporting
a pediment; and over the front of .the old hall, on
the eaft fide of this fquare, a handfome fteeple rifes
crowned with a cupola. In the other fquare, which
confifts partly of brick buildings for the ftudents,
there is a fuperb library, extending through its whole
length on the fouth fide : behind this fquare there is a
fine park. The weft fide of the firft fquare, which is
built with Portland Hone, forms the grand front, up¬
ward of 300 feet in length, ornamented with Corin¬
thian pillars and other decorations in a very fine tafte.
At a fmall diftance to the fouth fide of this front is an
elegant edifice in which the provoft refides. The
printing-office is a neat handfome ftru6ture on the
north fide of the park ; and oppofite to it is the ana¬
tomy houfe, in which are to be feen the celebrated
wax models of the human figure, executed at Paris
by M. Douane, purchafed by the right honourable the
earl of Shelburne, and prefented to this univerfity.
The college of Dublin is an univerfity in itielf, con¬
fifting of a provoft, vice-provoft, 7 fenior and 15 junior
fellows, and 17 fcholars of the houfe ; the number of
ftudents is generally about 400 : it has alfo profeflbrs
in divinity, common and civil law, phyfic, Greek,
modern languages^ mathematics, oriental tongues,
hiftory and oratory, modern hiftory, natural philofo-
phy, anatomy and furgery, chemiftry, and botany.
His royal highnefs the duke of Gloucefter is chan¬
cellor, and his grace the lord primate of Ireland vice-
chancellor : the vifitors are the chancellor (or, in his
abfence, the vice-chancellor) and the archbifhop of
Dublin.
The Royal Exchange, fituated on Cork-hill, was
begun in 1769, and opened for bufmefs in 1779 ; the
expence, amounting to L. 40,000, being defrayed by
lottery fchemes, conducted by the merchants of Dublin
with an integrity that did them honour. The build¬
ing is nearly a fquare, having three fronts of Portland
ftone in the Corinthian order, and crowned in the
midft with a fine dome, which is fupported on the in-
fide by 12 Compofite fluted pillars that form a circular
walk in the centre of the ambulatory : above thefe pil¬
lars are 12 circular windows, and the cieling of the
dome, which is ornamented with ftucco, in the Mofaic
ftyle, has alfo a large window in the middle that illu¬
mines moft of the building. Oppofite the north en¬
trance. in the circular walk, is a ftatue of his prefent
majefty George HI. in a Roman military habit} it ie
Vot.VI. Parti.
161 ] DUB
executed in bronze by Van Noft, and elevated on a Dutfin.
white marble pedeftal: in a niche on the ftair-cafe lead-  
ing to the coffee-room is a white marble ftatue of the
late Dr Charles Lucas, executed by Smyth. The north
front, which commands a fine view of Parliament-ftreet
and Effex-bridge, is embellifhed by a range of fix columns
and their correfpondent pilafters, fupporting a grand
pediment with a baluftra^e on each fide: a flight of
ftone fteps leads from the ftreet to the entrance, which
is by three fine iron-railed gates: the weft front varies
but little from the north, except in the want of a pe¬
diment, and having only three fteps afcending to the
entrance, the ground on that fide being nearly on a
level; this front is oppofite the eaft end of CalUe-ftreet
near the principal entrance to the Cattle.
The Hofpital for Lying-in-Women, founded byDi*
Bartholomew Moffe, and opened in 1757, (lands on
the north fide of Great Britain ftreet. The building
is extremely light and elegant; a beautiful fteeple rifes
in the centre, and the wings are formed by femicircu-
lar colonnades on each fide. Adjoining the eaft co¬
lonnade is the Rotunda, where balls and affemblies are
held, and concerts performed, for the benefit of the
charity : clofe to it are now creating the grand fuit of
apartments before mentioned. The garden at the rere
of the hofpital is laid out in a good tafte.
The Blue-coat Hofpital was founded on the weft fide
of Qiieen-ftreet by Charles II. in 1670, for educating
the children of reduced freemen of the city : but the
original building being greatly decayed, was taken
down, and the new Blue-coat Hofpital, fituated in Ox-
mantovvn-green, was begun in 1773. The front is
enriched by four Ionic columns, fupporting a pedi¬
ment in the centre, over which the fteeple rifes, em-
bellifhed with Corinthian and Compofite columns in an
admired tafte. Conne&ed with the iront by circular
walls ornamented with balluftrades and niches, are the
fchool on one fide and the church on the other: thefe
form two well proportioned wings ; they are of a fi¬
milar conftruftion ; and each is crowned with a fmall
fteeple or turret, correfponding with the reft in uniform
harmony and beauty.
The Barracks, the foundation of which was laid in
1704, are efteemed the largeft and moft commodious
in Europe. They confift of four fquares, fituated at
the weft end of the town, on the north fide of the
river. The royal fquare in the centre, with the horfe
barrack and the little fquare on each fide, form a fpa¬
cious and extenfive front to the fouth : the palatine,
now called the new fquare, is oppofite to Oxmantown-
green ; it has been lately rebuilt with hewn ftone in a
very elegant manner.
The Royal Hofpital at Kilmainham for the fupport
of invalids of the Irifh army was founded by king
Charles II. on a plan fimilar to that of Chelfea in
England. The building was completed in 1683, and
coft upwards of L.23,500. it is fituated at the weft
end of the town on a rifmg ground near the fouth fide
of the river, from whence there is an eafy afcent to it
through feveral rows of tall trees. This edifice is of
a quadrangular form, inelofing a fpacious area hand-
fomely laid out in grafs-plots and gravelled walks: an
arcade is carried along the lower ftory in each fquare
to the entrance of the hall and chapel, which are both
X curioufly
DUB [ 16:
eurloufly decorated; in the forme? are feveral whole-
length portraits of royal perfonages and other diilin-
guiihed characters.
Dr Stevens’s Hofpital, the foundation of which
was laid in I 720, is a neat quadrangular building, plea-
fantly fituated on the banks of the river near the weft
end of James’s ftreet, from whence a gravelled walk
leads , by a gentle defcent to the entrance of the hofpi¬
tal, and is continued from thence to the water’sledge.
The Linen-hall, at the north end of Linen-hall
ftreet, which was opened at tire public expence in 1728
for the reception of linen cloths brought to the Dublin
market, is a handfome building, lately enlarged with
treble its number of former rooms, which furnilh a new
proof of commercial prosperity*
The New Prifon in Green-ftreet, the firft ftone of
which was laid in 1773, is a large quadrangular ftruc-
ture, defigned and executed under the dire&ion of the
late Mr Cooley. The eaft front confifts of a centre
bteak of mountain ftone rufticated and crowned by a
pediment, with a plain facade of black limeftone on
each fide; and at the external angles of the building
are four round towers.
There are many other public edifices in this city and its
environs which merit particular notice. The Hofpital
for Lunatics in weft Bow-lane, founded by Dean Swift,
and opened in 1757 ; the Hibernian School in the
Phoenix Park, and the Marine School on Sir John
Kogerfon’s Quay, the firft for educating the poor
children of foldiers, and the other for bringing up to
the fea fervice the fons of deceafed or difabled feamen.;
the Hofpital for Incurables in fouth Townfend-ftreet }
Mercer’s Hofpital in Stephen-ftreet} the Meath Ho*
fpital on the Coombe ; and Simpfon’s Hofpital in Great
Britain ftreet, the laft of which was eftabliftred for the
reception of blind and gouty men } are all. handfome
edifices conftrudled of hewn ftone in.the modern ftyle..
To thefe public buildings may be added St Nicho¬
las’s Hofpital in Francis-ftreet; the Infirmary for fick
and wounded foldiers of the army, and the Foundling
Flofpital in James’s-ftreet ; the Magdalen Afylum in
Leefon-ftreet; and the Houfe of Induftry in. Channel-
row ; the halls for corporations (particularly the Wea¬
vers Hall on the Coombe,. over the entrance of which
is a ftatue of his late majefty George II.) ; the Thol-
fel} the old Four Courts ; tire old Cuftomhoufe ; and
feveral others. The Charitable Infirmary, which was
firft opened in 1728 and rebuilt in 1741, ftood on the
Inn’s Quay, but has lately been pulled down, together
with mofl of the houfes on that quay, where the
new courts, of juftice are to. be eredted : and the bene¬
fits of this humane inftitution are now difpenfed to the
public at a-houfe taken for that purpofe in Jervis-ftreet.
The new courts of juftce, which will be a,principal or*
nament to the metropolis, are from a defign of Mr
Gandon’s, as is alfo the new Cuftomhoufe., bow nearly
finiftied on the north wall. This front extends 375
feet, enriched with arcades and columns of the Doric
order, crowned with an entablature: the centre has
a portico finilhed with a pediment, in which is a bas-
relief of emblematical figures alluding to commerce:
over the pediment is an attic flory ; and a magnificent
dome finilhes the centre, whereon is a pedeftal fup-
porting a ftatue of Commerce : the key-ftones over the
entrances and. in tlie centre, of the pavilions are deco-
: ] DUB
rated with emblematical heads reprefenting the produce
of the principal rivers of Ireland : the fouth or front
to the river, with the arms of Ireland over each pavi¬
lion, is of Portland ftone : the whole, being formed
of large and ftriking parts, adds much to the pictu-
refque feene of the river, and will remain a lading mo¬
nument of reputation to the feveral artifts employed in
this fuperb building.
The playhoufes, confidered as public buildings, have
nothing to recommend them to notice. One only,
viz. the old houfe, now the theatre-royal, in Smock-
alley, is kept open by Mr Daly ; who, in confequenee
of the bill pafl’ed laft feffion of parliament for the re¬
gulation of the ftage, enjoys the exclufive privilege of
managing and directing the theatrical exhibitions in
this metropolis. - The playhoufe in Crow-ftreet, which
formerly poflefled the diftindlion of theatre-royal, has
been (hut up thefe feveral years paft.
But a minute defeription of every public edifice
woujd occupy more room than this publication admits,
not to mention the feveral private houfes, juftly ad¬
mired for their elegance. Among thefe are :
Leinfter-houfe, the town refidence of his grace the
Duke of Leinfter. The entrance to this princely man-
fion is from Kildare-ftreet, through a grand gateway
of ruftic ftone work, into a fpacious court which forms
a fegment of a circle before the principal front. The
infide of this magnificent ftrufture is equal to its ex¬
terior appearance the hall lofty and noble ; and the
apartments decorated and furniftied, in a fplendid tafte,,
and enriched with feveral very valuable paintings. The
garden front, plain, yet bold, poffeffes a pleaiing fim-
plicky ; the garden is fpacious and elegant, with a
beautiful lawn in the;centre. The whole of this build¬
ing is inferior to. few private edifices in the Britifti do¬
minions.
The Earlof Charlemont’s houfe is finely fituated in
the middle of Palace-row, - on an eminence exadly
fronting the centre of the garden at the rere of the
Lying-in-Hofpital. The front is built with hewn ftone.
brought from Arklow, fuperior to that of Portlands
The infide of this houfe is fuperb and convenient: the
hall cieliug. is fupported by columns ; fome of the a-
partments are decorated with a feleft but choice col-
leftion of paintings of the beft mafters; among which
are one of Rembrandt’s fineft: pi&ures, reprefenting
Judas repenting and cafting the filver pieces on the
ground ; a portrait of Csefar Borgia, by Titian ; and
the Lady’s Laft Stake by Hogarth, See. &c. The
library is efteemed one of the fineft apartments in Dub¬
lin, and contains a very valuable colledtion of the beft
authors. At one end of it is an anti-chamber, with
a fine ftatne in white marble of the Venus de Medicis
by Wilton ; and at the other end are two fmall rooms,,
one a cabinet of pidlures and antiquities, the other of
medalsit is fituated at the rere of the houfe, and.
connefted with it by a corridore, in which are fome
handfome ftatues and Egyptian curiofrties.
Dublin* which is the feat of government and of the
chief courts of juftice, has received many charters and
ample privileges from the kings of England fince the
reign.of Henry. II. who introduced the Englifti laws-
into this kingdom. Richard II. ere&ed it into a mar-
quifate in favour of Robert de Vere Earl of Oxford,
whom he alfo created Duke of Ireland. It is an
archie-
DUB [ 163 ] DUB
arcliiepifcopal lee, and returns with the univerfity and
the county fix members to parliament. The civil go¬
vernment of Dublin is executed by a lord-mayor, re¬
corder, two (heriffs, twenty-four aldermen, and a com¬
mon council formed of reprefentatives from the twenty-
five Corporations. Every third year the lord-mayor,
in conformity with an old charter, perambulates the
bounds of the city and its liberties ; and formerly the
■freemen of the feveral corporations, armed and mount¬
ed on horfeback, were aecuftomed to attend the chief
magiftrate on this occaiion, which was titled riding the
franchifes : but as this cuftom was produ&ive of idle-
nefs, intoxication, and riots, among the lower orders
of the people, it has been of late years very properly
laid afide. Befides the filk, woollen, and worfted ma-
nufaftures carried on in that quarter of the fuburbs
called the Earl of Meath’s Liberty, and which have
been corifiderably improved within thefe few years,
other branches of ufeful manufacture are eftablilhing in
different parts of the metropolis ; and though the trade
of Dublin has heretofore confifted chiefly in the im¬
portation of foreign commodities, yet, now that the
reftriftions on their woollens and moil of their other
goods are removed, it is hoped the daily enlargement
of their export trade will caufe a proportionable increafe
of national opulence.
Dublin would have had a commodious flation for
(hipping, were it not that the harbour is choaked
up with two banks of fand, called the North and
South Bulls, which prevent veflels of large burden
from coming over the bar. This, however, is in fome
meafure remedied by a prodigious work of ftone, and
piles of wood extending fome miles into the bay on
the fouth fide, at the end of which there is a light-
houfe, beautifully conflmCted, after a defign of the late
Mr Smith’s. But the port of Dublin is capable of
much greater improvement; particularly by turning
the courfe of the river Dodder, building a mole from
the north-wall to Ringfend, and clearing the harbour,
fo as to form a grand bafon on the fouth fide for the
reception of veflels of all burthens. This work is to
be immediately carried into execution, and will no
doubt meet every pofiible encouragement, from that
fpirit for promoting the national welfare which now
prevails throughout this kingdom, and is remarkably
confpicuous in the capital, where, among others, are
the following public intlitutions.
The board of truftees for promoting the linen and
hempen manufactures, eftablilhed by act of parliament.
The Dublin fociety, incorporated by charter in the
year 1749, for improving huftandry and other ufeful
arts. The royal college of phyficians, eftablilhed in
the year 1679 f°r promoting of medical knowledge.
The royal college of furgeons, inftituted in the year
1785. The royal Irilh academy, for the advancement
of fcience, polite literature, and antiquities, incorpo-
rated by letters patent the 28th of January 1786 : His
majefty is patron, and the chief governor for the time
being is vifitor. The Hibernian fociety, for main¬
taining, educating, and apprenticing, the orphans and
children of foldiers in Ireland. The Hibernian ma¬
rine fociety, for maintaining, educating, and appren¬
ticing, the orphans and children of decayed feamen in
his majefty’s navy and the merchants fervice, alfo in¬
corporated by royal charter.
But among thefe public inftitutions, that of the
bank of Ireland mult not be omitted: it was eftablilhed
by aCt of parliament in 1783 ; and by facilitating the
circulation of fpecie, gives life and vigour to manu¬
factures and commerce. It is conducted under the
management of a governor, deputy-governor, and fif¬
teen direftors chofen annually from among the fub-
fcribers ; with this reftridtion, that five new diredtora
at leaft mull be chofen every year. This bank is kept
in Mary’s-abbey. There are four other banks in this
city under the following firms, viz. Right Honourable
David La Touche and Co. and Sir William Gleadowe
Newcomen, Bart, and Co. both in Caftle-ftreet; John
Dawfon Coates, Efq; Thomas-ftreet; and John Fin¬
lay and Co. upper Ormond-quay. The houfes in which
the firft three are kept are ftrudtures worthy of notice,
particularly that of Sir William Gleadowe Newco¬
men’s, which has been rebuilt with hewn ftone, in a
good tafte, after a defign of the late Mr Ivory’s.
To thefe public inftitutions may be added the Ge¬
neral Poll-Office of Ireland, eftablilhed by adl of par¬
liament in 1784, previous to which time the poll-
office of this kingdom was only confidered a branch of
the Englilh one. The building eredled for this pur-
pofe is on the fouth fide of College-green : it is a fine
lofty extenfive ftrudture, and the offices for clerks, &c.
are extremely well adapted. There are two poll-
mafters general, a fecretary, treafurer, accountant-ge¬
neral, refident furveyor, and comptroller. There is
alfo a penny-poll under the direftion of the fame of¬
ficers, eftablilhed for the conveyance of letters to all
parts throughout the city and its environs.
Dublin is remarkably well fupplied with flelh, fowl,
and filh, the latter in much greater perfeftion than any
other capital in Europe. It is fupplied with coals
chiefly from Cumberland and Scotland ; and water is
conveyed to the city on the north fide from the river
Liffey, by machines curioully conllrudled for the pur-
pofe, at an outlet called IJland-bridge : the fouth fide
is fupplied with that neceflary article from a fine re-
fervoif or bafon, furrounded with a wall and a hand-
fome grafs walk enclofed on each fide by a thick-fet
hedge and trees planted at equal diftances. From one
end of it there is a view of the canal for the conve¬
nience of inland water carriage, now completed as far
as Monaftereven, between which and the canal harbour
in James’s-ftreet, paflage-boats ply daily; they are
well appointed and accommodated with all neceflary
refrefhments. At a fmall diftance from the bafon
there is a bridge of a Tingle arch thrown over the ca¬
nal, the elegance and [architecture of which are much
admired: the fides of the canal for fome miles into
the country are planted with elm-trees, which renders
its banks in fair weather a delightful place of exercife for
the citizens; who alfo refoit for recreation to his ma¬
jefty’sPhoenix-park, a fine extenfive enclofure at the weft
end of the town and on the oppofite fide of the river
to the canal, diverfified with woodland, campaign,
and rifing ground, and well Hocked with deer. It is
feven miles in circuit; and befides the Hibernian fchool,
is adorned with the viceroy’s beautiful villa and fome
handfome lodges belonging to the rangers: in this park
are alfo a magazine for powder and a battery that
commands the city. In 1747, a fluted pillar 30 feet
high, with a phcenix on the top, was eredled in the
X i centre
DUB [ 164 ] DUB
Dublin centre of a ring in this park by the celebrated earl of
Ducat Chefterfield when lord lieutenant of Ireland.
. . The circular road which furrounds the city, begin¬
ning on one fide of the river, at the call end of the
town, and terminating on the oppofite (hore, is carried
through the park. This road forms a very agreeable
ride, and is much frequented. It is the boundary of
the jurifdiftion of the new police, inftituted for the
better prefervation of the peace and good order of the
city and the perfonal fecurity of its inhabitants. This
inftitution, lately eftablilhed by a£t of parliament, is
under the diredtion of a chief commiffioner, three af-
fiftant commiffioners, and four divifional juftices, who
are all aldermen of the city: which is therefore pro¬
perly termed the dijirift of the metropolis, and divided
into' four wards. The police-guard confiits of 40
horfemen and 400 foot, well armed, and in regular
uniform : they are taught military difcipline, and fta-
tioned at night-time in the feveral watch-houfes; from
whence parties are conftantly patrolling the ftreets,
and centinels are placed at different Hands. This in¬
ftitution is found by experience to be a much more
effectual prevention of robberies, riots, and nocturnal
outrages, than the parifh watches; and to this fecurity
which the well difpofed working manufacturers enjoy,
may in a great meafure be attributed that encreafing
fpirit of induftry and peaceable behaviour now fo pre¬
valent among this ufeful clafs of the community, which
cannot fail to be productive of the moft falutary con-
fequCnces to the future welfare of the metropolis and
the kingdom in general.
DUBOS (John Baptift), a learned and ingenious
French author, born at Beauvais in 1670. He iiniftied
his ftudies at Paris, and at length was intrufted' with
the management of feveral important affairs in Italy,
England, and Holland. At his retura to Paris, he
had a prebendary given him; afterwards he had a pen-
fion of two thoufand livres, and the abbey of Notre
Dame at Reffons, near Beauvais. He died at Paris,
when perpetual fecretary of the French academy, on
the 23d of March 1742. His principal works are,
j. Critical Refleftions on Poetry and Painting, in three
volumes duodecimo. 2. A Critical Hiftory of the
French Monarchy in Gaul, two volumes 410.
DUBRIS (anc. geog.J, a town of Britain ; now
Dover, from the Davoria of the lower age. A port
town of Kent, oppofite to Calais.
DUCAL, in general, fomething belonging to a
duke. See Duke.
The letters patent granted by the fenate of Venice
are called ducais: fo alfo are the letters wrote, in the
name of the fenate, to foreign princes. The denomi¬
nation of ducal is derived hence ; that, at the begin¬
ning of fuch patents, the name of the duke or doge
is wrote in capitals, thus, N—Dei Gratia Dux Vene-
tiarum, &c. The date of ducais is ufually in Latin,
but the body is in Italian. A courier was difpatched
with a ducal to the emperor, returning him thanks
for renewing the treaty of alliance (in 1716), againft
the Turks, with the republic of Venice.
DUCAS, a learned Greek, who wrote an hiftory of
what paffed under the laft emperors of Conftantinople,
till the ruin of that city. This work, which is efteem-
ed, was printed at the Louvre in 1649, with the Latin
fcranffation and notes of Bouillaud.
DUCAT, a foreign Coin, either of gold or filver.
ftruck in the dominions of a duke ; being about the Ducat
fame value with a Spaniih piece of eight, or a French H
crown, or four {hillings and fixpence fterling when of Duc!‘al,_f
filver; and twice as much when of gold. See Coin. * -
The origin of ducats is referred to one Longinus,
governor of Italy ; who, revolting againft the empe¬
ror Juftin the Younger, made himi'elf duke of Raven¬
na, and called hitnfelf Exarcha, i. e. without lord or ru¬
ler ; and, to fliow his independence, ftruck pieces of
money of very pure gold in his own name, and with
his own ftamp, which were called ducati, ducats; as
Procopius relates the ftory.
After him, the firft who ftruck ducats were the Ve¬
netians, who called them Zecchini or fequius, from
Zecca, the place where they firft were ftruck. This
was about the year 1280, in the time of John Dandu-
li: but we have pretty good evidence, that Roger
king of Sicily had coined ducats as early as 124.0.
And Du Cange fcruples not to affirm, that the firft:
ducats were ftruck in the duchy of Apulia in Cala¬
bria. The chief gold ducats now current are, the
fingle and double ducats of Venice, Florence, Ge¬
noa, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, Denmark,
Flanders, Holland, and Zurich. The heavieft of
them weighs 5 pennyweights 17 grains, and the light-
eft 5 pennyweights Io grains; which is to be underftood
of the double ducats, and of the fingle in proportion.
The Spaniards have no ducats of gold; but, in
lieu thereof, they make ufe of the filver one ; which,
with them, is no real fpecies, but only a money of ac¬
count like our pound. It is equivalent to 1 1 rials.
See Rial. The filver ducats of Florence ferve there
for crowns.
DUCATOON, a filver coin, ftruck chiefly in Italy j
particularly at Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Luc¬
ca, Mantua, and Parma : though there are alfo Dutch
and Flemiffi ducatoons. They are all nearly on the
fame footing ; and being a little both finer and hea¬
vier than the piece of eight, are valued at two pence
or three pence mare, viz. at about four fhillings and
eightpence fterling.
There is alfo a gold ducatoon, ftruck and current
chiefly in HoUand : it is equivalent to twenty florins,
on the footing of one ftiilling and eleven pence half¬
penny the florin.
DUCENARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the
Roman, army, who had the command of 2000 men.
The emperors had alfo ducenarii among their procu¬
rators or intendants, called procuratores ducenarii. Some-
fay, that thefe were fuch whofe falary was two hun¬
dred fefterces ; as in the games of the circus, horfes
hired for two hundred fefterces were called ducenarii.
Others hold, that ducenarii were thole who levied the
two hundredth penny, the officers appointed to infpedb
the raifing of that tribute. In the infeription at Pal¬
myra, the word ducenarius, in Greek occurs-
very often.
DUCENTESIMA, in antiquity, a tax of,the two
hundredth penny, exafted by the Romans.
DUCHAL (James), D. D. a late pious and learned,
diffenting minifter, was born in Ireland, and finilhed
his ftudies at the univerfity of Glafgpw; which after¬
wards, from, a regard to his merit, conferred on him,
the degree of doAor of divinity. He refided 10 or 11
years at Cambridge, as the pallor of a fmall congre¬
gation there ; where.he enjoyed his beloved retirement,.
DUG [ 16c ] DUG
Duchy, the advantage of books and of learned converfation,
Puck whieh he improved with the greateit diligence. On
’^'v Mr Abernethy’s removal from Antrim, he fncceeded
him there; and on that gentleman’s death, he fucceed-
ed him as minifter of the diffenting meeting-houfe in
Wood-ftreet, Dublin. In this fituation he continued
till his death, which happened on the 4th of May 1 761,
when be had completed his 64th year. He publiflied
a volume of excellent difcourfes on the prefumptive ar¬
guments in favour of the Chriftian religion, and many
occafional trails; and after his death were publifhed a
number of his fermons, in three volumes 8vo.
DUCHY, in geography, an appellation given to the
dominions of a duke.
Duchy Court, a court wherein all matters belonging
to the duchy or county palatine of Lancaller are de¬
cided by decree of the chancellor of that court.
The origin of this, court was in Henry the IV.’s
time, who obtained the crown by depofition of Richard
II. and having the duchy of Lancailer, by defcent, in
right of his mother, became feifed there<5f as king, not
as duke : So that all the liberties, franchifes, and ju-
; rifdicf ions of the faid county palled from the king, by
his great feal, and not by livery or attornment, as the
earldom of March, and - other polTeHions, which de¬
scended to him by other anceftors than the king’s did.
Henry. IV. by authority of parliament, fevered the
poffeflions, liberties, &c. of the faid duchy from the
crown : but Edward IV. reftored them to their former
nature.
The officers belonging to this court are, a chancellor,
attorney-general, receiver-general, clerk of the court,
and meffenger ; befide the affiltants, as an attorney in
the exchequer, another in chancery, and four councel-
lors.
DUCK, in ornithology. See Anas and Dfcoy.
This fowl is furnllhed with-a peculiar ftrudlure of
vefiels about the'heart, which enables it to live a con-
fiderable time under water, as is neceffary for it in di¬
ving. This made Mr Boyle think it a more proper
fubjeft for experiments with the air-pump than any
other bird. A full grown duck bei»g put into the
receiver of an air-pump, of which {he filled one third
part, and the air exhaufted, the creature leenjed to bear
it better for the firft moments that a hen or other fuch
fowl; but, after about a minute, fhe ffiowed great figns
of uneafinefs, and in lefs than two minutes her head
fell down, and {he appeared dying, till revived by the
Jetting in of the air. Thus, whatever facility of diving
this and other water-fowl may have, it does not ap¬
pear that they can, fubfrit, without air for refpiration,
any longer than other animals. A young callow duck
was afterwards tried in the fame manner, and with the
feme fuccefs, being reduced very near death in lefs than
two minutes.. But it is obfervable, that both birds
fwelkd very much on pumping out the air, fo that tE y
appeared greatly larger to the fpedfators, efpecialiy
about the crop; it not being intended that any water-
fowl Ihould live in an exceedingly rarefied air, but on¬
ly be able to continue occafionally fome time under
water. Nature, though, {he has provided them with
the means of this, has done nothing for them in re¬
gard to the other.
The ilrongeit inftance of thefe creatures being cal¬
culated to live almoft.in any fituation, we have in the
accounts of the blind ducks in the Zirchnitzer lake in Duck,
Carniola. It is liippoled that this lake communicates Ducking,
with another lake under ground in the mountain Sa- v
vornie, and fills or empties itfelf according to the ful-
nefs or emptinefs of that lake ; the water of the upper
lake running off, snd that in vaft quantities, by holes
in the bottom. The ducks, which are here always in
great numbers, are often carried down along with the
water, and forced into the fubterraneous lake to which
it retires. In this unnatural habitation, many of thefe
creatures undoubtedly perilh, but fome remain alive.
Thefe become blind, and lofe all their feathers ; and
in the next filling of the lake, both they and vafi num¬
bers of filh are thrown up with the water. At this
time they are fat, but make a Itrange appearance in
their naked ftate, and are eafily caught, by reafon of
their want of fight. In about a fortnight they recover
their fight and feathers; and are then of the fize of a
common wild-duck, but of a black colour, with a
white fpot in their forehead. When opened, on being
taken at their firft coming up in their blind ftate, their
ftomachs are found full of fmall fifties, and fomewhat
refembling weeds. From this it feems, that they
cannot be abfolutely blind; but that the degree of
light to which they have been accuftomed in their fub¬
terraneous habitation, was fufficient to enable them to
procure food for themfelves ; and their blindnefs, on
coming again into open day-light, is no other than that
of a man who has been long in the dark, on having in
an inftant a large blaze of candles fet under his eyes.
Duck (Stephen), originally a threftier in a barn,,
was born about the beginning of the prefent century#.
By his poetical talents he firft attracted the notice of.
fome gentlemen at Oxford;, and being recommended-
to Queen Caroline, he, under her patronage, took or¬
ders, and was preferred to the living of Byfleet in Sur¬
ry. His abilities were, however, much more confpi-
cuous in his primitive ftation than in his advancement;
though, it is faid, he was not difliked as a preacher.
Falling at length into a low-fpirited melancholy way,
probably owing to his change of life and ceflation-
from his ufual labour, he in. a fit of lunacy flung hirfi-
felf into the Thames, in 1756.
DUCKING, plunging in water, a diverfion an¬
ciently pradlifed among the Goths by way ofexercife;.
hut among the Celtas, Franks, and ancient Germans,
it was a fort of punifliment for perfons of Tcandalous
lives. — At Marfeilles and Bourbon their men and wo¬
men of fcandaloua life are condemned to the cale, as
they call it; that is, to be fltut up naked to the ffiift
in an iron cage fattened to the yard of a ftiallop, and
ducked.feveral times, in the river. The fame is done:
at Thouloufe to blafphemers.
Ducking, a fort of marine punirtiment, infli&ed:
by the French, on tbofe who have been, convicted of
defertion, blafphemy, or exciting fedition. It is per¬
formed as follows : The criminal is placed aftride of a
'ftiort. thick batten, faftened to the end of a rope, which.'
pafles through a block hanging at one of the yard-arms.
Thus fixed, he is hoilted fuddenly up to the yard, and
the rope being flackened at once, he is plunged into,
the fea. This chaftifement is repeated feveral times-
conformable to the purport of the fentence pronouuced.
againft the culprit, who has at that time feveral can--
non-lhot. fattened to his feet during the puniftiment;
which.
D U C [ j
Ducting •wVu'cK is rendered public by the firing of a gun, to ad-
JJ vertife the other ihips of the fleet thereof, that their
i ' y‘ crews may become fpe&ators.
Ducking is alfo a penalty which veteran failors pre¬
tend to inflift on thofe who, for the firft time, pafs the
tropic of Cancer, the equator, or the ftraits of Gib-
raltar, in confequence of their refufal or incapacity to
.pay the ufual fine levied on this occafion.
DucKiNG-Stoel. See Castigatory.
DUCKUP, at fea, is a term ufed by the fteer’sman,
when the main-fail, fore-fail, or fprit-fail, hinders his
feeing to fleer by a land-mark : upon which he calls
■out, Duckup the clew-lines of thefe fails ; that is, hale the
fails out of the w'ay. Alfo when a fhot is made by a
chace-piece, if the clew of the fprit-fail hinders the
fight, they call out, JDuclup, &c.
DUCT, in general, denotes any tube or canal. It
is a term much ufed by anatomifts.
DUCTILITY, in phyiics, a property poflefied by
'Certain1 folid bodies, which confifts in their yielding to
perculfion or prefl'ure, and in receiving different forms
without breaking.
Some bodies are du&ile both when they are hot and
when they are cold, and in all circumftances. Such
are metals, particularly gold and filver. Other bodies
are du&ile only when heated to a fufficient degree ;
fuch as wax and other fubftances of that kind, and
glafs. Other bodies, particularly fome kinds of iron,
called by the workmen red-Jhort, brafs, and fome o-
ther metallic mixtures, are dudtile only when cold, and
brittle when hot. The degrees of heat requifite to
produce du&ility in bodies of the firfl kind, vary ac¬
cording to their different natures. In general, the
heat of the body muft be Tuch as is fufficient to reduce
it to a middle ftate betwixt folidity and perfedt fufion.
As wax, for inftance, is fufible with a very fmall heat,
it may be rendered duftile by a ftill fmaller one ; and
glafs, which requires a moft violent heat for its per-
feft fufion, cannot acquire its greateft du&ility until
it is made perfedtly red-hot, and almoft ready to fufe.
Daftly, fome bodies are made dudtile by the abforption
of a fluid. Such are certain earths, particularly clay.
When thefe earths have abforbed a fufficient quantity
of water to bring them into a middle ftate betwixt
folidity and fluidity, that is to the confiftence of a
confiderably firm pafte, they have then acquired their
greateft dudfility. Waterhasprecifely the fameeffedt up¬
on them in this refpedt that fire has upon the bodies
above mentioned.
DUDLEY (Edmund), an eminent lawyer and able
ftatefman in the reign of Henry VII. ; who with -Sir
Richard Empfon, another lawyer of the fame com¬
plexion, affifted in filling that rapacious monarch’s cof¬
fers by arbitrary profecutions of the people on old pe¬
nal ftatutes. They were beheaded on the acceffion of
Henry VIII. to pacify the clamours Oif the people for
juftice.
Dudley (John), duke of Northumberland, fon of
the above, a ftatefman; memorable in the Englifti hif-
tory for his unfuccefsful attempt to place the crown
on the head of his daughter-in-law, lady Jane Grey,
who fell a vidtim to his ambition ; was born in 1502,
and beheaded in 1553. See o/V England.
Ai. brofe his eldeft fon was a brave general and able
flat ftnan under queen Elizabeth; and received the ap-
66 ] DUD
pellation of the good earl of Warwick, Henry, the Dudley,
duke’s fecond fon, was killed at the fiege of St Quin- Duel-
tin. Robert, the third fon, a man of bad charadter, ¥
was-created earl of Leicefter ; and was one of queen
Elizabeth’s favourites. His fourth fon was the unfortu¬
nate lord Guildford Dudley, whofe only crime was his
being the hulband of lady Jane Grey, for which he
was beheaded in 1554.
Dudley (Sir Robert), as he was called in Eng¬
land, and, as he was ftyled abroad, earl of Warwick
and duke of Northumberland, was the fon of Robert a-
bove mentioned, by the lady Douglas Sheffield ; and
was born at Sheen in Surry in 1573, where he was
carefully concealed, to prevent the queen’s knowledge
of the earl’s engagements with his mother. He ftu-
died at Oxford ; when his father dying, left him the
bulk of his eftate. He was at this time one of the
fineft gentlemen in England ; and having a particular
turn to navigation, fitted out a fmall fquadron at his own
expence, with which he failed to the river Oroonoque,
and took and deftroyed nine fail of Spanifti fhips. In
1595, he attended the eafl of Effex, and the lord high -
admiral of England, in their expedition againft the
Spaniards ; when, for his gallant behaviour at the ta¬
king of Cadiz, he received the honour of knighthood.
He now endeavoured to prove the legitimacy of his
birth, in order to be intitled to his hereditary ho¬
nours. But being overpowered by the intereft of the
countefs dowager of Leicefter, he applied for a licence
to travel; and being well received at the court of Flo¬
rence, refolved to continue there, notwithftanding his
receiving a letter of reeal; on which his whole eftate
was feized by king James I. and veiled in the crown.
He difcovered at the court of Oofmo II. great duke
ofTufcany, thofe great abilities for which he had been
admired in England, and was at length made chamber-
lain to his ferene highnefs’s confort. He there con¬
trived feveral methods of improving Ihipping ; intro¬
duced new manufa&ures; and by other fervices ob¬
tained fo high a reputation, that at the defire of the
archduchefs, the emperor Ferdinand, in 1620, crea¬
ted him a duke of the holy Roman empire. He af¬
terwards drained a vaft tract of morafs between Pifa
and the fej ; and raifed Leghorn, which was then a
mean, pitiful place, into a large and beautiful town?
improving the haven by a mole, which rendered it
both fafe and commodious ; and having engaged his
highnefs to declare it a free port, he, by his influence
and correfpondence, drew many Englifti merchants to
fettle and fet up houfes there,'which was of very great
fervice to his native country, as well as to the Spa¬
niards. He was alfo the patron of learned men, and
held a high place himfelf in theYepublic of letters. His -
moft celebrated work is his DelArcano del Mare, in
two volumes, folio.
DUEL, a Angle combat, at a time and place ap¬
pointed, in confequence of a challenge. This cuftom
came originally from the northern nations, among whom
it was ufual to decide all their controverlies by arms.
Both the accufer and accufed gave pledges to the
judges on their refpeftive behalf; and the cuftom pre¬
vailed fo far amongft the Germans, Danes, and Franks,
that none were excufed from it but women, fick peo¬
ple, cripples, and fuch as were under 21 years of age
or above 60. Even ecclefiaftics, priefts, and monks,
were
Duel
DUE [ 167 ] DUE
tf Duet, were obliged to find champions to fight in their-ftead.,
4 y—The puniihment of the vanquiftied was ^either death,
by hanging or beheading; or, mutilation of members,
according to the ciicumftances of the cafe. . Duels
were at firft admitted not only on criminal occafions,
i _ but on fome civil ones for the maintenance of rights
to eftates, and the like: in latter times, however, be¬
fore they were entirely aboliihed, they were reftrained
to thefe four 'cafes. 1 • That the crime Ihould be ca¬
pital. 2. That it fhould be certain the crime was per¬
petrated. 3, The accufed muft by common "fame be
fuppofed guilty. And, 4. Tire matter not capable of
proof by witnefies.
Duel, at prefent, is ufed for fingle combat on fome
private quarrel; and muft be premeditated, otherwile
it is called a rencounter. If a perfon is killed in a duel,
both the principals and feconds are guilty, whether the
feconds engage or not. (See the article Murder.) It
is alfo a very high offence to challenge a perfon either
by word or letter, or to be the meffenger of a challenge,
(See Law, n°clxxxv. 20.)
The general practice of duelling, in this laft fenfe,
took its rife in the year 1527, at the breaking up of
a treaty between tire emperor Charles V. and Francis I.
Tlje former defired Francis’s herald to acquaint his fo-
vereign, that he would henceforth confider him not
only as a bale violator of public faith, but as a ftranger
to the honour and integrity becoming a gentleman.
Francis, too high-fpirited to bear fuch an imputation,
had recourfe to an uncommon expedient to vindicate
his character. Fie inftantly fent back the herald with
a cartel of defiance, in which he gave the emperor the
lie in form, challenged him to fingle combat, requi¬
ring him to name the time and place of the encoun¬
ter, and the weapons with which he chofe to fight.
Charles, as he was not inferior to his rival in fpirit or
bravery, readily accepted the challenge; but after fe-
veral meflages concerning-the arrangement of all the
circumftances relative to the combat, accompanied
with mutual reproaches bardering on the molt inde¬
cent fcurrility, all thoughts of tins duel, more be¬
coming the heroes of romance than the two greateft
monarchs of their age, were entirely laid afide.
The example of tw o perfonages fo illuftrious, drew
-fuch general attention, and carried with it fo much
authoiity, that it had confiderable influence in intro¬
ducing an important change in manners all over Eu¬
rope. Duels, as has already been obferved, had been
long permitted by the laws of all the European na¬
tions; and, forming a part of their jurifprudence,
were authorifed by the magiftrate on many occafions,
as the moft proper method of terminating queftions
with regard to property, or of deciding in thof? which
regarded crimes. But fingle combats being confider-
ed as folemn appeals to the oninifeienee and juftice of
the Supreme Being, they were allowed only in pub¬
lic caufes, according to the prefeription of law, and
i •Seethe carried on in a judicial form*. Men,, accuftomed to
| article this manner of decifion in courts of juftice, were na-
uttel. turally led to apply it to perfenal and private quarrels.
Duels, w'hich at firft could be appointed by the civil
judge alone, were fought without the interpofition of
his authority, and in cafes to which the laws did not
extend. The tranfaftion between Charles and Fran¬
cis ftrongly countenanced this practice. Upon every
affront or injury which feemed to touch his honour, a
gentleman thought himfelf intitled to draw his fword, Du(T^a|e
and to call on his adverfary to make reparation. Such , ~ ‘ '<
an opinion, introduced among men of fierce courage,
of high fpirit, and of rude manners, where offence
was often given, and revenge was always prompt, pro¬
duced moft fatal confequences. Much of the belt
blood in Chriftendom was Ihed; many ufeful lives were
loft; and, at fomc periods, war itfelf hath hardly
been more deftru&ive than thefe contefts of honour.
So powerful, however, is the dominion of falhion, ,
that neither the terror of penal laws, nor reverenc*
for religion, have been able entirely to abolifh a practice
unknown among the ancients, and not juftifiable by any
principle of reafon; though at the fame time we muft
aferibe, in fome degree, the extraordinary gentlenefs
and ccmplaifance of modern manners,' and that re-
fpedtful attention of one man to another, which at pre¬
fent render the focial intercourfes of life far more a-
greeable and decent than among the moft civilized na¬
tions of antiquity.
Public opinion is not eafily controlled by civil infti- •
tutions; for which reafon it may be queftioned whe¬
ther any regulations can be contrived of fufficient force
to fupprefs or change the rule of honour which ftig-
matizes all fcruples about duelling with the reproach
of cowardice.
The inadequate redrefs which the law of the land
affords for thofe injuries which chiefly affedl a man in
his feniibility and reputation, tempts many to redrefs
themfelves. Profecutions for fuch offences, by the
trifling damages that are recovered, ferve only to make
the fufferer more ridiculous,—This ought to be reme--
died.
For the army, where the point of honour is culti--
vated with exquifite attention and refinement, there
might be eftablifhed a court of honour, with a. power
of awarding thofe fubmiffions and acknowledgments
which it is generally the objedt of a challenge to obtain;
and'it might grow into a fafhion with perfons of rank
of all profeffions to refer their quarrels to the fame tri-r-
bunal.
Duelling, as the law now ftands, can feldom be over¬
taken by legal puniihment. The challenge, appoint¬
ment, and other previous circumftances, which indi¬
cate the intention with which the combatants met,
being fuppreffed, nothing appears to a court of juftica
but the adlual rencounter ; and if a perfon be llain.
when adually fighting with, his adverfary, the law
deems his death nothing more than manflaughter.
DUERO, or Duro, a large river, which, riling in
Old Caftile in Spain,, runs from call to weft, crofles tha.
province of Leon, and after dividing Portugal from
Spain by a foutherly couffe, turns weftward, cfoffes
Portugal, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean at Porto-
Port.
DUGDALE (Sir William), an eminent Englilh
hiftorian,. antiquarian, and herald, born in Warwick-
Ihire in 1605. He was introduced into the herald’s ,
office by Sir Chriftopher Hatton.; and afeended gra¬
dually through all the. degrees, until he became garter
principal king at arms. His chief work is the Mona-
Jiicon Anglicunum, in three vols folio ; containing, the
charters and deferiptions of all the Englilh monafteries*
adorned with engravings: in the former part of which?
6- work:
D U K r 168 1 D U K
IJuillia work he was affifted by Mr Roger Dodfworth. Nor
Duke are his Antiquities of Warwickfhire lefs elteemed. He
 ^ wrote likewife, among other things of lefs note, the
Hiftory of St Paul’s Cathedral; a Hiftory of Embank¬
ing and Draining; a Baronage of England; and com¬
pleted the fecond volume of Sir Henry Spelman’s Coun¬
cils, with a fecond part of his Glofiary. He died in
1686. His fon, Sir John, was Norroy king at arms,
and publifhed a Catalogue of Englifh Nobility. His
daughter Elizabeth married the famous Elias Afhmole.
DUILLIA lex, was ena&ed by M. Duillius, a
tribune, in the year of Rome 304. It made it a ca¬
pital crime to leave the Roman people without its tri¬
bunes, or to create any new magidrate without a fuf-
ficient caufe. Another in 392, to regulate what inte*
reft ought to be paid for money lent.
C. DUILLIUS nepos, a Roman conful, the firft
who obtained a vidtory over the naval power of Car¬
thage in the year of Rome 492. He took fifty of the
enemy’s (hips, and was honoured with a naval triumph,
the firft that ever appeared at Rome. The fenate re-
* warded his valour by permitting him to have mufic
playing and torches lighted at the public expence
every day while he was at fupper. There were fome
medals ftruck in commemoration of this vidlory; and
there exifts a column at Rome which was eredted on
the occafion.
DUKE, Dux, a fovereign prince, without the title
or quality of king. Such are the Duke of Lorrain,
of Holftein, Savoy, of Parma, &c. The word is bor¬
rowed from the modern Greeks, who call doucas what
the Latins call dux.
There are alfo two fovereigns who bear the title of
grand-duke} as the grand-duke of Tufcany, and the
gnand-duke of Mufcovy, now called the c%ar or em¬
peror of Ruffia. The title of great duke belongs to the
apparent heir of Ruffia ; and the title of arch-duke is
given to all the fons of the houfe of Auftria, as that
of arch-duchefs to all the daughters.
Duke, Dux, is alfo a title of honour or nobility,
the next below princes.
The dukedom or dignity of duke is a Roman dig¬
nity, denominated a ducendo, “ leading” or “ com¬
manding.” Accordingly, the firft dukes, duces, were
the dudores exercituum, “ commanders of armies.” Un¬
der the late emperors, the governors of provinces in
war-time were intitled duces. In after times the fame
denomination was alfo given to the governors of pro¬
vinces in time of peace. The firft governor under
the name of duke was a duke of the Marchia Rhsetica,
or Grifons, whereof mention is made in Caffiodorus;
and there were afterwards thirteen dukes in the eaftern
empire, and twelve in the weftern. The Goths and Van¬
dals, upon their over-running the provinces of the
•weftern empire, aboliffied the Roman dignities where-
ever they fettled. But the Franks, &c. to pleafe the
Gauls, who had long, been ufed to that form of go¬
vernment, made it a point of politics not to change
any thing therein : and accordingly they divided all
Gaul into duchies and counties; and gave the names
fometimes of dukes, and fometimes of counts, comites,
to the governors thereof.
In England, during the Saxons time, Camden ob-
ferves, the officers and commanders of armies were
called dukes, duces, after the ancient Roman manner,
N° 105.
without any addition. After the Conqueror came in, Duke,
the title lay dormant till the reign of Edward III. who v~”
created his fon Edward, firft called the Black Prince,
duke of Cornwall; which hath ever fince been the pe¬
culiar inheritance of the king’s eldeft fon during the
life of his father ; fo that he is dux natus, non creatus.
After whom there were more made, in fuch manner
as that their titles defcended to their pofterity. They
were created with much folemnity, per cinduram gladtt,
cappaque, & circuli aurei in capite impqfit'wnem. However,
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, A. D. 1572, the
whole-order became utterly extin6I; but it was revived
about 50 years afterwards by her fucceflbr, in the per-
fon of George Villiers duke of Buckingham.
Though the French retained the names and form of
the ducal government, yet under their fecond race of
kings there were fcarce any fuch thing as dukes: but
all the great lords were called counts, peers, or barons {
excepting, however, the dukes of Burgundy and Aqui-
tain; and the duke of France, which was a dignity
Hugh Capet himfelf held, correfponding to the modern
dignity of maire de palais, or the king’s lieutenant.
By the weaknefs of the kings, the dukes or governors .
fometimes made themfelves fovereigns of the provinces
trufted to their adminiftralfott. This change happened
chiefly about the time of Hugh Chpet; when the great
lords began to difmember the kingdom, fo'that that
prince found more competitors among them than fub-
jefts. It was even with a great deal of difficulty they
could be brought to own him their fuperior, or to hold
of him by faith and homage. By degrees, what with
force, and what by marriages, thefe provinces, both
duchies and counties, which had been rent from the
crown, were again united to it. But the title duke
was no longer given to the governors of provinces.
From that time duke became a mere title of dignity,
annexed to a perfon and his heirs male, without giving
him any domain, territory, or jurifdi&ion over the
place whereof he was duke. All the advantages thereof
now confift in the name, and the precedence it gives.
The dukes of our days retain nothing of their an¬
cient fplendor but the coronet on their efcutcheon,
which is the only mark of their departed fovereignty.
They are created by patent, cindture of the fword,
mantle of ftate, impofition of a cape, and coronet of
gold on the head, and a verge of gold in their hand.
The eldeft fons of dukes are by the courtefy ©f Eng¬
land ftyled marquiffes, though they are ufually diftin-
guifhed by their father’s fecond title, whether it be
that of marquis or earl; and the younger fons lords,
with the addition of their Chriftian name, as Lord
James, Lord Thomas, &c. and they take place of vif-
counts, though not fo privileged by the law’s of the
land.
A duke has the title of grace; and being writ to, he
is ftyled, in the heralds language, mcjl high, potent, and
noble prince. Dukes of the blood royal are ftyled mojl
high, mcjl mighty, and illujlrious princes.
Duke, among Hebrew grammarians, is an appella¬
tion given to a fpecies of accents anfwering to our com¬
ma. See Accent.
DuKE-Duke, a quality given in Spain to a grandee
of the houfe of Sylva, on account of his having feveral
duchies from the uniting of tw’o confiderable houfes in
his perfon. Don Roderigo de Sylva, eldeft fon of Don
4 P . ‘ Ruy
D U M [ 169 ] D U M
foulcifying Ruy Gomez de Sylva, and heir of his duchies and
If principalities, married the eldeft daughter of the Duke
Dumbnefs. ^ pjnfanta(j0. jn virtue of which marriage, the pre-
v " fent Duke de Paftrana, who is defcended therefrom,
and is grandfon of Don Roderigo de Sylva, has ad¬
ded to his other great titles that of duke-duke, to di-
ftinguilh himfelf from the other dukes ; fome whereof
may enjoy feveral duchies, hut none fo confiderable
ones, nor the titles of fuch eminent families.
DULCIFYING, in chemiftry, is the fweetening
any matter impregnated with falts, by frequently walk¬
ing it in pure water.
DULL, in the manege. The marks of a dull horfe,
called by the French marquis de ladre, are white fpots
round the eye and on the tip of the nofe, upon any
general colour wbatfoever. Though the vulgar take
thefe fpots for figns of ftupidity, it is certain they are
great marks of the goodnefsof a horfe; and the horfes
that have them are very fenfible and quick upon the
fpuj.
DULLART (Heiman), a Dutch painter and poet.
He was a pupil to Rembrandt, for whofe works the
few he left are often miftaken. He died in 1684.
DUMBARTON. See Dunbarton.
DUMBNESS, the privation of the faculty of fpeech.
The moll; general, or rather the foie caufe of dumbnefs,
is the want of the fenfe of hearing. The ufe of lan¬
guage is originally acquired by imitating articulate
founds. From this fource of intelligence, deaf people
are entirely excluded : they cannot acquire articulate
founds by the ear: unlefs, therefore, articulation be
communicated to them by fome other medium, thefe
unhappy people mull for ever be deprived of the ufe of
language ; and as language is the principal fpurce of
knowledge, whoever has the misfortune to want the
fenfe of hearing, mull remain in a Hate little fuperior
to that of the brute creation. Deafnefs has in all
ages been confidered as fuch a total obftruftion to
fpeech or written language, that an attempt to teach
the deaf to fpeak or read has been uniformly regarded
as impra&icable, till Dr Wallis and fome others have
of late Ihown, that although deaf people cannot learn
to fpeak or read by the direftion of the ear, there are
other fources of imitation, by which the fame effedl
may be produced. The organs of hearing and of
fpeech have little or no connexion. Perfons deprived
of the former generally poflefs the latter in fuch per-
fcftion, that nothing further is neceflary, in order to
make them articulate, than to teach them how to ufe
thefe organs. This indeed is no eafy talk; but expe¬
rience Ihows that it is pradticable. Mr Thomas
Braidwood, late of Edinburgh, was perhaps the firll
I who ever brought this furprifing art to any degree of
perfection. He began with a lingle pupil in 1764;
and fmce that period has taught great numbers of
people born deaf to fpeak diltindlly; to read, to write,
to underlland figures, the principles of religion and
morality, &c. At the time we firll converfed with
him, being a few years after the commencement of his
I ' praClice, he had a confiderable number of deaf pupils,
fome of them above 20 years of age, all making a ra¬
pid and amazing progrefs in tkofe ufeful branches of
education.
Mr Braidwood’s principal iffic ulty, after he had
Voi. VI. Part I.
difcovered this art, was to make people believe in the Dmnbneft.
practicability of it. He advertifed in the public pa-  v—’
pers; he exhibited his pupils to many noblemen and
gentlemen ; Hill he found the generality of mankind
unwilling to believe him. A remarkable inftance of
this incredulity occurred fome years ago. A gentle¬
man in England fent a deaf girl of his to Mr Braid-
wood's care. A year or two afterwards, Mr Braid-
wood wrote to the father, that his daughter could
fpeak, read, and write dillinCtly. The father returned
an anfwer, begging Mr Braidwood’s excufe, as he could
not believe it; however, he defired a friend of his,
who was occafionally going to Edinburgh, to call at
Mr Braidwood, and inquire into the truth of what he
had wrote him : he did fo ; converfed with Mr Braid¬
wood, faw the young lady, heard her read, fpeak, and
anfwer any quellions he put to her. On his return, he
told the father the furprifing progrefs his child had
made; but {till the father thought the whole an im-
pofition : the girl herfelf wrote to her father, but he
looked upon the letter as a forgery. About this time
the father died ; and the mother fent an uncle and
coufin of the deaf lady’s from Shrewlhury, in order to
be fatisfied of the truth. When they arrived, Mr Braid¬
wood told the girl her uncle and coufin were in the
parlour; and defired her to go and aflc them how
they did, and how her mother and other friends did.
The friends were ailonifhed, and could hardly credit
their own ears and eyes.
When we converfed with Mr Braidwood concerning
the nature and method of teaching this wonderful art,
he feemed to be very defirous of communicating and
tranfmitting his difcovery to pofterity ; but obferved,
from the nature of the thing we believe it to be true,
that he could not communicate it fo fully in writing as
to enable any other perfon to teach it. The firft thing
in the method is, to teach the pupil to pronounce the
Ample founds of the vowels and confonants. We
have even feen him performing this operation; but
are unable to give a clear, idea of it. He pronounces
the found of a flowly, pointing out the figure of the
letter at the fame time ; makes his pupil obferve the
motion of his mouth and throat; he then puts his fin¬
ger into the pupil’s mouth, deprefies or elevates the
tongue, and makes him keep the parts in that pofition;
then he lays hold of the outfide of the windpipe, and
gives it fome kind of fqueeze, which it is impoffible to
defcribe : all the while he is pronouncing ay the pupil
is anxioufly imitating him, but at firft feems not to
underftand what he would have him to do. In this
manner he proceeds, till the pupil has learned to pro¬
nounce the founds of the letters. He goes on in the
fame manner to join a vowel and a confonant, till at
length the pupil is enabled both to fpeak and read.
That his pupils were taught not only the mere pro¬
nunciation, but alfo to underlland the meaning of what
they read, was ealily afcertained by a converfation with
any of them. Of this Mr Pennant gives a remarkable
inftance in a young lady of about 13 years of age, who
had been fome time under the care of Mr Braidwood.
“ She readily apprehended (fays he) all I faid, and re¬
turned me anfwers with the utmoft facility. She read;
(he wrote well. Her reading was not bv rote. She
could clothe the fame thoughts in a new fet of words,
Y
* 'Nowo.
7Acm. de
i'Academic
Jtoya/c, &c
de Berlin,
■1785.
[Mon. Rev.
p. 651.]
D U M [ 170 1 D U M
and never vary from the original fenfe. I have for- aftoniihment that M. Linguet fhould be fo prejudiced Durntmefo
got the book (he took up, or the fentences (he made a in favour of the medium by which he had received the v—/
new verfion of: but the efFe& was as follows: firft rudiments of knowledge, as to conclude that they
“ Original pajage. Lord Bacon has divided the could not be imparted by any other ; defiling him, at
whole of human knowledge into hiitory, poetry, and the fame time, to refledt, that the conneftion between
philofophy ; which are referred to the three powers of ideas and the articulate founds, by which they are ex-
the mind, memory, imagination, and reafon. cited in the mind, is not lefs arbitrary than that be-
“ Verfion. A nobleman has parted the total or all tween thefe ideas and the written charafters which are
©f man’s ftudy or underilanding into, An account of made to reprefent ^them to the eye. M. Linguet
the life, manners, religion or cuftoms of any people or complied with the invitation ; and the Abbe having
country; verfe or metre; moral or natural knowledge: deiired him to fix on fome abftradi term which he
which are pointed to the three faculties of the foul or would by figns communicate to his pupils, he chofe
fpirit; the faculty of remembering what is paft, thought the word unintelligibility; which, to his aftoniihment,
or conception, and right judgment.” was almoft inftantly written by one of them. The
Mr Braidwood’s fuccefs fince he went to fettle in Abbe informed him, that to communicate this word
London is univerfally known. Several other perfons he had ufed five figns, which, though fcarcely per-
have fince attempted the fame art with various degrees ceivable to him, were immediately and diftincfly ap-
of ability. But a new and different method, equally prehended by his fcholars : the firft of thefe figrre in-
laborious and fuccefsful, we underhand, is pra&ifed by dicatedan internal aftion ; the fccond reprefeiTted the
the Abb6 de I’Epee of Berlin. We are informed* adt of a mind that reads internally, or, in other words,
that he begins his inftnnftions not by endeavouring to comprehends what is propofed to it; a third fignified
form the organs of fpeech to articulate founds, but by that fuch a difpofition is poffible ; thefe, taken toge-
communicating ideas to the mind by means of figns ther, form the word intelligible: a fourth fign trans-
and characters: to effedt this, he writes the names of forms the adjedtive into the fubftantive ; and a fifth*
things ; and, by a regular fyftem of figns, eftablilhes a expreffing negation, completes the word required. M.
connection between thefe words and the ideas to be Linguet aftei wards propofed this qudtion, What do
excited by them. After he has thus furnifhed his you underjland by metaphyfcal ideas? which being corn-
pupils with ideas, and a medium of communication, mitted to writing, a young lady immediately anfvvered
he teaches them to articulate and pronounce, and ren- on paper in the following terms: “ I underftand the
ders them not only grammarians but logicians. In ideas of things which are independent of our fenfes,
this manner he has enabled one of his pupils to deliver which are beyond the reach of our fenfes, which make
a Latin oration in public, and another to defend a the- no impreffion on our fenfes, which cannot be perceived
lis againil the objedlions of one of his fellow-pupils in by our fenfes.” On reading this, we cannot help ex-
a fcholaftic deputation; in which the arguments of claiming with the poet, Labor omnia vincit imprcbus!
each were communicated to the other, but whether by a maxim by none more forcibly illuftrated than by the
figns or in writing is not faid; for it does not appear Abbe de I’Epee.
that the Abbd teaches his pupils to difcern what is Periodical Dumbness. In the Ephemerides of the
fpoken, by obferving the motion of the organs of Curious, we have an account of a periodical dumbnefs,
fpeech, which thofe inftrufted by MeiTrs Braidwoods which had continued for more than 15 years, and had
are able to do with aftonilhing readinefs- not gone off at the time the account was wrote. The
There is perhaps no word, fays the Abb£, more dif- perfon was fon to an inn-keeper at Jefing in the duchy
ficult to explain by figns than the verb croire, “ to be- of Wirtemberg in Germany. He was one night taken
tieve.” To do this, he writes the verb with its figni- fo ill after fupper, that he could neither ftand nor fit.
fications
the following manner:
r Je dis oui par I’efprit, Je penfe que out.
| fe dis oui par le coeur, f’aime a penfer que out.
Je dis oui par la benche.
\je ne vois pas des yeux.
He continued, for about an hour, opprefled with fick-
nefs to fuch a degree as to be in danger of fuffocation.
At the expiration of this time he grew better; but* du¬
ring three months, he was much deje&ed, melan¬
choly, and, at times, fearful. He was then fuddenly
After teaching thefe four fignifications, -which he does ftruck dumb, and became unable to pronounce the leail
by as many figns, he connefls them with the verb, and word, or form the leaft found, though he could fpeak
adds other figns to exprefs the number, perfon, tenfe, very articulately before. The lofs of fpeech was at
and.mood, in which it is ufed. If to the four figns, firft inftantaneous, and continued only a few minutes :
correfponding with the lines above mentioned, be added but the duration of it began to lengthen every day ; fo
that of a fubftantive, the pupil will write the word foi, that it foon amounted to half an hour, two hours, three
faith;” but, if a fign, indicating a participle ufed hours, and at laft to 23 hours, yet without any order,
fubftantively, be adjoined, he will exprefs la croyance. At laft the return, of ipeech kept fo conftant and regu-
“ belief;” to make him write croyable, “credible,” lar an order, that, for 14 years together, he could not
the four figns of the verb muft be accompanied with fpeak except from noon, during the fpace of one entire
one that indicates an adje&ive terminating in able; hour, to the precife moment of -one o’clock. Every
all thefe figns are rapidly made, and immediately com- time he loft his fpeech, he felt fomething rife from his
prehended. ftomach to his throat. Excepting this lofs of fpeech,
M. Linguet, a member of the Royal Academy, he was alfiidled with no other diforder of any animal
having afferted that perfons thus inftrufted could be function.. Both his internal and external fenfes conti-
confidcred as little more than automata, the Abbe in- nued found : he heard always perfe&ly well, and an-
■vited him to be prefent at his IdTons, and expreffed his fwered the queftions propofed to him by geftures or
writing.
D U M [ '7> ] D U M
Dumfcm- writing. All fufpicion of deceit was removed by his fined, and beft cultivated fheets of dale country that Dnmfriet.
^ keeping exaftly the fame hour, though he had no ac- one can any where meet with, and the profpeft from it1
Dumfries. cc^s to any inilruments by which time can be meafured. terminated at the diftance of a few miles, by a conti-
*—-[— ' DUMFERMLINE, a parliament-town of Scotland, nued chain of hills, forming altogether one <)f the
lituated in the county of Fife, 15 miles north-wefl of grandeft natural amphitheatres perhaps in Britain.
Edinburgh: W. Long. 30. 20. N. Lat. 56. 15. Here There was anciently a ftrong caftle at the fouth end of
was formerly a magnificent abbey and palace of the the town belonging to the Cummings, lords of Bade-
kings of Scotland, in which the princefs Elizabeth, noch, of which there are now no remains. Another
daughter of king James Vi. and mother of the prin- eaille was afterwards built at the north-weft end, which
cefs Sophia, from whom the prefent royal family are was taken down about 70 years ago. On the north-
defeended, was born. In the 'inn of this town is the eaft fide of it, at fome little diftance, are the ruins of a
marriage bed of James VI. and his queen ; it is ftill chapel built by K. Robert Bruce, and endowed for a
entire, and ufed by ftrangers who lodge here. This number of priefts to fay mafs for the repofe of the foul
place is noted for a manufaftory of figured linen cloth
called Diaper. The town gave title of earl to a baro¬
net of the Seton family, which was forfeited in the year
1690.
of Sir Chriftopher Seaton his brother-in-law, who was
taken prifoner by Edward I. at Loch-Urr, and hang¬
ed at this place. It is now only employed as a bury¬
ing place for filicides. It is not certain at what pe-
DUMFRIES, a county in the fouth of Scotland, riod Dumfries was erefted into a royal borough; but
comprehending the (hire of Nithfdale, the ftewartry of it muft have been before the middle of the eleventh
Annandale, and the lordihip of Efkdale, extends in century, as a grave-ftone was difeovered fome time ago
length from north-weft to fouth-eaft about 60 miles, bearing the date of 1079, and mentioning the perfon
and is about 30 miles in breadth where broadeft. It buried under it to have been a merchant and burgefs of
is bounded on the fouth-weft by Galloway and part of the town : and that it was a place of confequence in
Kyle; on the north-eaft by the counties of Roxburgh, the beginning of the fourteenth century, is evident
Selkirk, and Peebles; on the north-weft by Clydef- from this circumftance, that Edward II. called the
dale ; and on the fouth-eaft by Solway Frith and the eftates of Scotland to meet there in the year 1307. In
marches between Scotland and England. A great the above mentioned monaftery too, K. Robert Bruce
part of the country is mountainous and overfpread with killed his rival Gumming lord of Badenoch, with the
heath, well (locked with game of all kinds : but the afliftance of James Lindfay and Roger Kirkpatrick,
valleys, through which the Elk, the Annan, the Nith, on the 5th of February 1305. As to the prefent (late
and other ftnaller rivers run, are extremely pleafant; of the town, the houfes are well built and commodious,
and fome of them well cultivated and very fertile, and the ftreets fpacious, open, and neatly paved. It has
produce oats, barley, and wheat in abundance, both two very elegant churches, an epifcopal chapel with
for maintaining the inhabitants and for exportation ; a fine little organ, befides three meeting-houfes belong-
while the mountainous parts afford pafture for innu- ing to different deferiptiofis of fe&aries ; a tolbooth;
merable flocks of (heep and herds of black cattle, many a council-chamber ; a trades hall; a meal-market; a
thoufands of which are annually exported to England, ftrong prifon; a correflion-houfe ; a large hofpital;
In the valleys are feveral natural woods and fome ex- an infirmary, with apartments for infane patients; a
tenfive plantations of different kinds of timber. In narrow bridge of 9 arches over the river, faid to have
the divifion called Nithfdale, are the rich lead mines of' been built by one. of the three daughters and co-
Wanlockhead, the coal mines of Sanquhar and Cairn- heireffes of Alan lord Galloway. A large village, call-
burn, the inexhauftible lime-quarries of Clofeburn and
Barjarg, and free (tone in almoft every parifh. Annan-
dale has the rich lime-quarries of Kellhead and Com-
tongan, with plenty of free (lone near the towns of An¬
nan and Lochmaben : and in the lower part of Elk-
dale are lime (lone and coal in abundance.
Dumfries, the capital of the above mentioned
county, a handfome town, fituated on a ridge or nfing
ground on the north-eaft fide of the river Nith, about
ed the Bridge-end,, (lands on the oppofite fide, and is
within the (lewartry of Kirkcudbright. The afiizes for
the county, and for the (hire of Galloway and itewar-
try of Kirkcudbright, are held in the town twice a-
year. It is alfo the place for holding the (heriff and
commiffary courts, the quarter-feffions of the peace,
and. the courts of the com nifiioners of fupply. It is
governed by a provoft, three bailies, a dean of guild,
and a town-council, compofed of merchants and the
10 miles above where it falls into Solway Frith, in N. conveener and deacons of the incorporated trades; of
Lat. 55. 8. 30. Long. W. of Greenwich Obfervatory, which there are feven, viz. fquare-men, fmiths, weavers,
3. 56. Its ancient name, it is faid by fome of the tailors, (hoemakers, (kinners, and butchers ; all of
Scotch hiftorians, was Cotiac ; but on what authority whom are chofen into their refpeftive offices at Mi-
we cannot tell. Its prefent name appears to have been chaelmas annually. The trades got from king James
derived partly from its fituation, and partly from the VI. in one of his journeys to England, a finall (liver
monallery of Grey Friars that formerly ftood near the tube, like a piftol barrel, called theJiher gun, with his
head of the ftreet called the Friar-vennal, the kitchen royal licence to (hoot for it every year. At that fefti-
«f which is all that now remains; being only a corrup- val they all appear in arms, and march out of the town
tion of Drum friars, or “ the eminence of the friaryunder their refpe&ive colours, to fome convenient place,
and accordingly, till within thefe 40 or 50 years, it where they (hoot at a mark ; and the perfon that hits
was always (pelt Drumfries, and not Dumfries, as it is or (hoots neareft to it, returns to town, marching at
now for the fake of greater foftnefs. Befides the plea- the conveener’s right hand, with the filver gun tied to
fantnefs of its fituation on th^fide of a beautiful wind- his hat with ribbons ; after which they conclude the
ing river, it is furrounded on^ll fides with one of the day with a focial entertainment. The town has a
5 Y 2 weekly
DUN [ 172 ] DUN
Dumont weekly market on Wednefday, with two annual fairs,
I! the firft on the Wednefday on or next after the 13th
. . of February, and the other on the Wednefday on or
next after the 25th of September. At thefe fairs vaft
numbers of horfes and black cattle are fold ; and no
town in Scotland is better provided with all forts of
butcher-meat in their feafon. But though well fitua-
ted for fuel at a cheap rate, it has only two manufac¬
tures, one for ftockings and the other for cottons;
but the latter only in its infancy. Its foreign trade
for many years has only confifted in timber, iron, and
other articles for home confumption. It gives the title
of Earl to the chief of the family of Crichton ; and1 is
the feat of a prelbytery and provincial fynod. It con¬
tains about 6000 inhabitants.
DUMONT (Francis), a Frenchman ; compiler of
a general collection of treaties of commerce, alliance,
and peace, between the powers of Europe. This col-
leftion, with Barbeyrac’s, containing the treaties B. C.
makes 16 vols folio, very ufeful for hiftorical writers.
Dumont retired to Holland in 1720. The time of his
death is uncertain.
DUMOSiE (from dumus, a buih), an order of
plants in the Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus,
containing the following genera, viz. Viburnum, Timis,
Opulus, Sambucus, Rondeletia, Bellonia, Caffine, Ilex, Fo¬
rnax, &c.
Pla'e DUN, or Burgh, the name of an ancient fpecies
CLJCV. 0f buildings, of a circular form, common in the Ork¬
ney and Shetland iflands, the Hebrides, and northern
parts of Scotland. The latter term points out the
founders, who at the fame time bellowed on them their
natal name of borg, “ a defence or cattle,” a Sueo-Go-
thic word; and the Highlanders Univerfally apply to
thefe places the Celtic name dun, fignifying a hill de¬
fended by a tower, which plainly points out their ufe.
They are confined to the countries once fubjeft to the
crown of Norway. With few exceptions, they are
built within fight of the fea, and one or more within
fight of the other ; fo that on a fignal by fire, by flag,
or by trumpet, they could give notice of approaching
danger, and yield a mutual fuccour. In the Shet¬
land and Orkney iflands, they are moft frequently call¬
ed wart or wardbilh, which Ihows that they were gar-
rifoned. They had their wardmadher, or watchman,
a fort of centinel, who flood on the top, and chal¬
lenged all who came in fight. TKe gackman was an
officer of the fame kind, who not only was on the
watch againtt furprize, but was to give notice if he
faw any fhips in diftrefs. He was allowed a large horn
®f generous liquor, which he had always by him, to
keep up his fpirits. Along the Orkney and Shetland
fhdres, they almoft form a chain ; and by that means
not only kept the natives in fubjeftion, but were fi-
tuated ccmmodioufly for covering the landing of their
countrymen, who were perpetually roving on piratical
expeditions. Thefe towers were even made ufe of as
ftate-prifons ; for we learn from Torfasus, that after
Sueno had furprifed Paul, count of Caithnefs, he car¬
ried him into Sutherland, and confined him there in a
Norwegian tower. Out of our own kingdom, no build¬
ings fimilar to thefe are to be found, except in Scandi¬
navia. On the mountain Swalberg in Norway is one;
the Stir-bifkop, at Upfal in Sweden, is another; and
Umfeborg, in the fame kingdom, is a third.
Thefe towers vary in their inner ftru&ure ; but ex- Dunto,
ternally are univerfally the fame ; yet fome have an Dunbarton,
addition of ftrength on the outfide. The burgh of—v—“■*
Culfwick in Shetland, notwithftanding it is built on
the top of a hill, is furrounded with a dry ditch 13
feet broad ; that of Snaburgh in Unft, has both a wet 1
and a dry ditch; the firtt cut, with great labour,
through the live rock. The burgh of Moura is fur-
rounded by a wall, now reduced to a heap of ftones,
and the infide is cylindrical, not taper, as ufual with
others. The burgh of Hogsfter, upon an ifle in a
loch of the fame name, has alfo its addition of a wall;
a peculiarity in a caufeway, to join it to the main land,
and a Angular internal ftrufture. Numbers of little
burghs, with Angle cells, are fcattered about thefe
iflands, in the neighbourhood of the greater; and which
probably were built by the poorer fort of people, in or¬
der to enjoy their prote£lion. A multitude of places
in. thefe iflands have the addition of burgh to their
names, notwithttanding there is not a veftige of a tower
near them ; the materials having long fince been car¬
ried away, and applied to various ufes.
DUNBAR, a parliament town of Scotland, in the
{hire of Mid-Lothian, once remarkable for a ftrong
cattle, the key of Scotland from the eaft, and which
gave flielter to Edward II. of England in his flight
from Bannockburn, but of which fcarce a veftige now
remains. Here are ftill preferved fome of the Scottifli
pikes, fix ells long, and formed for both offence and
defence. This town has now a tolerable trade in the
fiftieries, and is remarkable for making good malt.
Dunbar has given titles of honour to different families,
who are all now extinft.
DUNBARTON, the chief town of Lenox or
Dunbarton ftiire in Scotland, fituated in W. Long.
4. 32. N. Lat. 56. 30. It is remarkable for nothing
but its cattle. This is a fteep rock, rifing up in two
points, and every where inacceflible, except by a very
narrow paffage or entry, fortified with a ftrong wall
or rampart. Within this wall is the guard-houfe,
with lodgings for the officers ; and from hence a long
flight of ftonerfteps afcends to the upper part of the
cattle, where there are feveral batteries mounted with
cannon, the wall being continued almoft round the
rock. In the middle of this upper part where the
rock ‘divides, there are commodious barracks with
a deep well, in which there is always plenty of wa¬
ter. Here likewife are the remains of a gateway and
prodigious high wall, at the top of which there was a
wooden bridge of communication from one rock to
another. This gateway was fometimes blocked up
during the inteftine commotions of Scotland,'fo that
garrifons of different factions, poffeffed different parts
of the cattle, and each had a gate towards the water.
The cattle Hands in the angle formed at the conflux
of the Clyde and Leven; fo that it is wholly fur-
rounded by water*, except a narrow ifthmus, and even,
this is overflowed, at every fpring-tide : nor is there
any hill or eminence within a Scots mile of this fos-
tiefs. It commands the navigation of the Clyde; and,
being deemed the key of the weftern Highlands, is
kept in. fome repair, and garrifoned with invalid-, un¬
der the command of a governor and fome fubaitera-
officers. The government of it is worth 7001. a-
year. -Dunbarton is a royal, borough ; and for¬
merly-
DUN [ 173 J DUN
Duncan- merly gave title of Earl to a branch of the family of
non Douglas.
Dundee DUNGANNON, a fort in the county of Wexford,
i . and province of Leinfter, in Ireland, feated on the ri¬
ver Rofs. It commands the river, infomuch that no
fhip can pafs to Waterford or Rofs without its permif-
fion. Here are barracks for three companies of foot.
W. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 52. 10.
DUNCARDS, Dunkers, or Tunkers. See Tun-
KERS.
DUNCOMBE (William), younger fon of John
Duncombe, Efq; of Stocks in Hertfordfhire, in 1722
publiihed a tranffation of Racinq’s Athaliah; which
was well received by the public, and has gone through
three editions. In 1724 he was editor of the works
of Mr Needier; in 1735, of the poems of his decea-
fed brother-in-law, Mr Hughes, 2 vols i2mo; in 1737,
of the mifcellanies of his younger brother Mr Jabez
Hughes, for the benefit of his widow, in one volume
8vo ; and in 1745, °f Ae works of the Rev. Mr Sa¬
muel Say, in one volume 4to. In 1726 he married
the only fifter of John Hughes, Efq; whom he-long
furvived. In 1734 his tragedy of Lucius Junius Bru¬
tus was adled at Djury-Lane Theatre. It was pub-
lifhed in 1735, and again in 1747. The works of
Horace, in Englifh verfe, by feveral hands, were pub-
lifhed by him in two vols 8vo, with notes, &c. in 1757.
A fecond edition, in four vols tamp, with many imi¬
tations, was publifhed in 1762. In 1763 he colle&ed
and republifhed “ Seven fermons by archbifhop Her¬
ring, on public occafions, with a biographical preface.”
He died Feb. 26.' 1769, aged 80.
DUNDALK, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Louth, about 40 miles from Dublin. It is a large,
ancient, and thriving town, with a wide ftreet, near
a mile long, and a very tine market-houfe, near the
entrance from Dublin. In the reign of Edward II. it
was a royal city, and the laft we read of where a mo¬
narch of all Ireland was a&ually crowned and refided.
It was formerly very ftrong, and had many towers and
fmall cattles in it. It is very advantageoufly fituated
for a moft extenfive inland trade, and the port is very
fafe for fhipping. The bay has good moorings at all
times, in four to upwards of eight fathoms water, with
veiy good land-marks, either for bringing up to, or
making the harbour ; and in croffing the bar at high
water, of ordinary neap tides, there is from 15 to. 18
feet water. The only cambric manufadture in Ireland
is carried on in this town.
DUNDEE, a parliament town of Scotland, in the
fliire of Forfar or Angus, is feated on the north fide
of the river Tay, about 12 meafured miles from its
mouth, 40 meafured miles north of Edinburgh, and
22 eaft from Perth, in W. Long. 2. 48. N. Lat.
56. 26. Its fituation for comirierce is very advanta¬
geous. Trading vtffels of the largeft burden can get
into the harbour ; and on the quay there are three
very convenient and handfome warehoufes built in 1756,
as well as good room for ^upbuilding, which is carried.
on to a large extent. The houfes are built of {tone,
generally three and four ftories high. Tne. market¬
place or high ilreet in the middle 'of the town is a very
fpacious oblong fquare, 360 feet long and 100 feet
broad; from whence branch out the four principal
ftreets, which with a number of leffer ones are all paved
in the bed manner. On the fouth fide of the market- Dun
place Hands the town-houfe; an elegant ftrudlure, with u‘"'
a very handfome front, piazzas below, and a neat fpire
over it 140 feet high. This building was finilhed in
the year 1734, and contains the guild-hall, the
court-room, a very neat mafon-lodge, the bank, vault¬
ed repofitories for the records, and the common prifon,.
which is in the upper ftory, and does honour to the
tafte and humanity of the magiltrates, under whofe
aufpices it was conftrucled, being well aired commo¬
dious rooms, at the fame time very ftrong and fecure.
Each prifon is 30 feet by 12, and feet high, well
arched above and below.
The meal-market and fhambles, which were for¬
merly on the high ftreet, and efteemed a nuifance, were
removed feme years ago; and in the place of the
fhambles, there is now eredled by the incorporated
trades, on the eaft end of the above large fquare, a grand
building, with a large and elegant cupola: in the
ground-flat of which is a very neat coffee-room, and
feveral merchant fhops ; and in the upper ftories pub¬
lic rooms for each trade, and a common hall occalion-
ally ufed as a theatre. This hall is 50 feet long, 30-
feet broad, and 25 feet high ; having its front tu the
fquare decorated with Ionic columns.
The opulence of the corporations, nine in number,,
may be inferred from this, that they had, along with
the kirk-feffion, but very lately finifhed a moft elegant
church when they fet about building the hall. This
church, which is called St Andrew’s Church, ftands
on a rifing ground a little north from the Cowgate
ftreet ; and has an elegant fpire 130 feet high, with a-
peal of bells much admired.. There is a neat entry ta
the church by a broad gravel walk, with grafs plots on-
every fide ; and the whole policies around it are laid
out with excellent tafte, and in a fuperb flile, as com¬
plete and well executed as any in Scotland.
Dundee, befide St Andrew’s church, has four,
other churches, and five minders on the legal eftablifli-
ment. The old church, in which were originally four
places of worfhip, when entire, had been a very mag¬
nificent building, with a. large fquare Gothic tower or
fteeple 186 feet high,on the weft end of the church- This-
building was in the form of a crofs, eredted by David
Earl of Huntington, brother to William I. of Scot¬
land (furnamed the Lion), and was dedicated to the
Virgin Mary. This he did on his return from the
third crufade (in which with 500 of his countrymen
he had accompanied Richard I. of England) anno 1189,.
in gratitude for his deliverance from feveral imminent
dangers, and particularly from ftiigwreck, by which,
he had nearly peiilhed when in fight of this town. At
the fame time he changed the name of the town from
AlleBum to Del Donum, whence its prefent name is
thought by many to be derived; while others maintain.
that its name was Dim tay, or “ the Hill of Tay.” The
word Aik Bum in the Gaelic fignifies “ beautiful,” and
harmonizes very well with the icripture fenfe of the
Hill of God. The word has-the very fame
fignification, “ the Hill of God.;” and both agree
with,the delightful fituation of Dundee, and unite in
giving it with-propriety the name of Bonny Dundee.
The hill rifes on the north of the town to a- great
height, and is called ’The Daw oj Dundee; law being
a Saxon word for a t'ouud hill fuch as it is. On its
tOj3.
BUN [ 174 1 BUN
Dundee, top there are evidently the remains of a camp, faid to
““"V ' have been firft erefted by Edward I. of England, and
laftly repaired by General Monk. Where the meal-mar¬
ket ftood is now eredted an elegant Epifcopal meeting-
houfe, with handfome fhops below.
Dundee had an old caftle which was demolifhed by
the famous Scots governor Sir William Wallace, who
was educated in this town. The caftle had proved
very ufeful to Edward I. when he put a garrifon into
it to awe the inhabitants; but Wallace getting pof-
feffion, ordered it to be deftroyed, left it fhould again
fall into the hands of the Englifh. This treatment fo
exafperated Edward, that, taking the town by ftorm,
he fet fire to the churches ; and a number of the inha¬
bitants having taken fandtuary there with their moft
valuable effefts, were all burnt along with them. At
that time he barnt alfo a great part of the town. The
defolation he brought on the church has continued
ever fince, till the year 1787, when a noble edifice
began to be huilt on the fite of the one that was burnt
down, and is now finiftiing; in which the ancient Go¬
thic of the 011 tilde is excellently united with internal
modern archite&ure, making one of the largeft and
neateft churches in the kingdom, and again completing
the fuperb fuperftrufture as ere&ed at the firft by the
Earl of Huntington.
This town fuffered greatly laft century during the
troubles of Charles II. and the ufurpation of Oliver
Cromwell; being fometimes under the command of
one party, and at others in the mercy of another. In
1645 the Marquis of Montrofe took it by ftorm ; and
in 1651, under the command of its provoft Major Ge¬
neral Lumfden, it vigoroufly oppofed General Monk,
who carried it by ftorm the firft of September, and put
all in arms to the fword. And fo great were the
tiches of Dundee, all the neighbouring gentlemen ha¬
ving retired to it with their beft effefls as a place of
fafety, that every private foldier in General Monk’s ar¬
my had near 601. Sterling to his (hare of the plunder;
there being above 60 merchant veffels in the harbour
at that time, and the like number of veffels failed for
England loaded with the fpoils of the unfortunate in¬
habitants. By thefe and other invafions, the whole
ancient records of the town were deftroyed, except a
deed of Queen Mary, figned by herfelf, conferring the
prefent burying ground; and fome charters of the
Charles’s, confirming the ancient rights and privileges
as difponed by the Alexanders and others kings of
Scotland. Tins burying-ground is the only place
in Scotland we know of called The Hoff, a Dutch
word bearing all the'fenfes of the Englifh word court,
having been formerly the burying-ground of one of the
many religious houfes that were in this town previous
to the Reformation.
Dundee at prefent has 113 veffels belonging to the
port, of above 8200 tons burden, and near 1000 fea-
men. Of thefe veffels four went laft feafon to Green¬
land, a trade of long Handing here. And befide the
three public warehoufes on the ffore, there are above
twenty large private warehoufes belonging to the mer¬
chants. The magiftrates have been lately and ftill are at
great expence in enlarging and fitting up the harbour,
fo as to render it of eafy accefs, fafe, and commodious;
and have now made the paffage over the Tay, where
there is a great refort, fo convenient, that travellers
with their horfes can get over at any time of tide, and
a fufficient number of good boats'properly manned are
always ready. The river Tay oppofite Dundee is about
three miles broad; and being Iheltered by high lands
on both fides, is a fafe road for fhips of the greateft
burden: the piers are exteniive, broad, and well
adapted for the purpofes of loading and difcharging
veffels; and when the harbour is completed in the plan
they are prefently engaged in, there will not be one
fuperior to it in Scotland.
To enable the town to repair the damage done by
Cromwell’s army, and alfo their harbour and other
public works, Charles II. granted them a fmall impoft
of one-fixth of a penny Sterling, for 25 years, on the
pint of ale brewed or brought into the town for fale;
which grant has been frequently renewed by fubfequent
parliaments; and the fund arifing therefrom is moft
properly beftowed by the magiftrates in improving the
town, and making it more convenient and healthy. For
thefe purpofes, feveral new ftreets have been made, the
old ones have been widened, and a large convenient
one at a confiderable expence carried down from the
market-place tojoin a fine walk, fhaded very neatly with
trees, that leads to the fhore. This new ftreet makes,
the accefs eafy and commodious, which was formerly
much confined and fteep.
Till the year 1745, the town had only draw-wells;
but fince that period it is moft amply fupplied from a
large fine fountain of excellent water, conveyed through
the town in lead pipes, and difcharged by good wells
at proper diftances. Thefe, with a fine well in the
town’s meadows, and a ftream of water that runs thro*
the ward and the meadows (two large beautiful greens
on the north of the town), make it as well watered as
any town in Scotland ; and thefe greens, juft at hand,
ferve all the inhabitants moft commodioufiy for the ne-
ceffary labours of waffling and bleaching.
The number of inhabitants in Dundee have increa-
fed above 4000 fince 1780. There was then an accu¬
rate lift of them taken, when they amounted to near
16,000; and lately they were reckoned and found
within a few of 20,000; and fince the year 1760 they
are fully doubled. Befide the eftablifhed churches,
there are three Epifcopal meeting-houfes, two of Se-
ceders, one of Methodifts, two of Independents, one
Berean, and two Anabaptifts. One of the Independ¬
ents is of the Glaffite denomination. Mr John Glafs,
from whom they take that name, refided here ; and
his principles, though fpread far and wide, have always
had the greateft following in Dundee.
The trade in the town has increafed amazingly
of late. Its ftaple is undoubtedly the linen ma-
nufafture : for which in fummer 1788 they import¬
ed from the Baltic 32 cargoes of flax, hemp, frc. near
3000 tons, befide feveral quantities from London,
Leith, and other places ; and on an average the brown
linen ftamped for the two preceding feafons at the
ftamp-office here amounted to about four millions
of yards, in value about 115,000!. Sterling. The
flax is wrought up into coarfe linens, chiefly Ofna-
burgs, ftieetings, foldiers fhirtings, &c. which is fold
partly bleached (feveral fine large blcachfields being
well employed in the neighbourhood) and partly brown.
Thefe linens are fent principally to London, Glalgow,
and Liverpool, and from thence exported. Seven or
eight
Dundee,
Dundee
t y
Dungan-
D U N [i
eight ve.flels are conftantly employed ia the trade be¬
tween Dundee and London, one of which fails every
ten or twelve days. The making fail-cloth 'has been
long eftablilhed here, and is carried on to a good ex¬
tent. Two rope-works have lucceeded well, and a
buckram-work has alfo been eilabliflied for feveral
years. The Dundee coloured threads have been long
juftly efteemed, and give bread to a great number of
people; indeed it was here that coloured threads firft
made a figure among the articles of trade in Scotland.
Their fugar-hoiife, a large undertaking, and tan-works,
are of eftablilhed reputation. There has been lately
erected a large glafs-work at a great expence, and a
plumbery and foundery are alfo now carried on to ad¬
vantage. No doubt the trade of the place has been
greatly promoted by the Bank; which is carried for¬
ward on the fureft and molt fteady footing, and has
always managed the bufinefs of the town and neigh¬
bourhood in fuch a way as to keep any other eftabli fit¬
ment of that kind from taking place. Of late the cot¬
ton manufa&ory has been introduced; a number of
jennies being employed in fpinning, and feveral looms
in weaving it. A large machine for fpinning (horts or
bpckens into candlewicks, the firft of the kind in
Scotland, is alfo begun to work here, and promifes to
do well. A fpirit for literature and education has
greatly prevailed of late years in Dundee : for befide
the public grammar-fchool, which has an able redtor
and two good mailers; the public Englifh and writing
fchool, where are three very proper mailers; there is
alfo lately eftablilhed, and much encouraged, an aca¬
demy for mathematics, French, Italian, and the polite
arts, with mailers fuitable for the different branches,
and a large apparatus for natural philofophy.
The falmon filhing in Tay is of much confequence ;
and the town is generally well fupplied with fifh of va¬
rious kinds, though like every other article of living
much railed in price of late years. Their other mar¬
kets are alfo well fupplied. An excellent nurfery at
the weft; end of the town has been much encouraged;
and its neighbourhood is now adorned with maay neat
and elegant villas, fhowing the wealth and tafte of the
inhabitants.
Dundee is the birth-place of the celebrated and learned
Hector Boethius, whofe Hiftory of Scotland has been
long in much reputation with many. It, with Perth,
Forfar, St Andrew’s, and Cupar, returns one member
to the Britifh parliament.
DUNFERMLINE. See Dumfermline.
DUNG, in hufbandry. See Acrjculture, n° 20.
DuNG~Bird. SeeUrupA.
Dvng Meers, in hufbandry, places where foils and
dungs are mixed and digetted together. Thefe confift
of pits, prepared at the bottom with ftone and clay,
that they may hold water, or the moifture of the dungj
. and ought to.be fo fituated, that the finks and drips of
the houfes and barns may run into them. Into thefe pits
they call refufe, fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &c. where
they lie and rot together, till the farmer have oceafion
for them.
Dung Worms, a fpecies of fly-worms, of a fnort and
fomewhat flat body, found in great plenty among cow-
dung in the months of September and O&ober.
DUNGANNON,, the chief town of the county of
75 ]
DUN
Tyrone, in the province of Ulfter in Ireland- It is Dungarve*
feated on a hill, and is a place of fome ftrength. II
DUNGARVON, a town of Ireland, in the county . Uurikirk-p
of Waterford. It ttauds on a bay of the fame name,
has a commbdious harbour for fhips, and is a walled
town with a caftle. W. Long. 7. 55. N. Lat. 51.57.
DUNIPACE. See the article Carron.
DUNKELD, a town of Scotland, in the (hire of
Perth, feated on the north fide of the river Tay, in
a fituation truly romantic, under and among very high
and almoft inaccefiible craggs, part naked and part
Wooded. It is the chief market town of the Highlands,
and has been greatly improved with buildings by the
Dukes of Athol.
The place is of great antiquity. It was the capital
of ancient Caledonia. About the dawn of Christianity,
a Pi&ifti king made it the feat of religion, by eredling
a monaftery of Culdees there ; which King David I.
in 1130 converted into a cathedral, and it ranked as
the firft in Scotland. The entire (hell of the cathedral
ftill remains, the eaft end ferving for a kirk, on the
north fide of which is the burial place of the Dukes of
Athol. The ftyle of architecture is limple and elegant,
the pillars round. The monument of one of its bifhops
remains in the fouth aifle of the nave, as alfo that of
Alexander Stuart Earl of Buchan, third fon of Ro¬
bert II. called for his cruelty The Wolf of Badenoch,
who died 1394. The tower at the weft end, with a
lingular crack down one of its fides, adds to the pi&u-
reique appearance which the whole makes among the
venerable pines at the end of the Duke’s garden. His
Grace’s feat is a modern building, and not large, with
pleafant walks and policies, and a fine cafcade on the
water of Bran, which in its way from the weftern hills
forms an aftoniftiing fall of 150 feet, called the Rum¬
bling Brig, from a narrow bridge made by the fall of
two rocks acrofs the ftream. The pencil of Rofa never
formed a more horrid Icene. The ftream has a fecond
fall, which, without feeing the other, would be deemed
capital. Sir James Galloway, matter of requefts to
James VI. and Charles I. was created Lord Dunkeld
1645, whofe grandfon James was attainted at the Re¬
volution, and dying at the beginning of this century,
the title became extindl.
DUNKERS, Duncards, or Tiwnicr.iv See Tun-
KERS.
DUNKIRK, a maritime town of- the French Ne¬
therlands, fituated in E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 51. 10.
and is the moft eafterly harbour on the fide ,of France
which is next to Great Britain."—It was originally a
mean hamlet, confifting only of a few fiftierm .ns huts:
but a church being built there, it was from that, and
from its fituation, which is a fandy eminence, called
Dunkirk; dun fignifying, in the old Gallic language, a
hill; and kirk being the old I'lemifli name for church.
About the year 960, Baldwin Earl of Flanders,
thinking the fituation convenient, enlarged it into a
kind of town, and furrounded it with a wall. In the
year 1322, Robert of Flanders, who held it as an ap¬
pendage, built a caftle for its defence; which was after¬
wards demolilhed by the revolters of Flanders. Robert
of Bar eretled a fortification round it, the remains of
which are vifible on the fide next the harbour. The
emperor Charles V. who held it as part of Flanders,.
built
DUN
Dunkirk, built another caftle to defend the harbour; but this was
alfo demolHhed foon afterwards. In 1558, the French,
under Marfhal de Thermes, took Dunkirk by ftorm,
and almoft ruined the place ; the Spaniards recovered
it again in about a fortnight, and put all the French
to the fword.
During a peace procured for the Dunkirkers by Phi¬
lip II. of Spain, they rebuilt their town with greater
fplendor than before, and the inhabitants for a long time
fubfifted by privateers fitted 6ut againft the Dutch ;
and at length, growing rich by thefe hoftilities, they
fortified their town and harbour, and fitted out no lefs
than 15 (hips of war at their own charge.
In 1634, the Dunkirkers agreed with the inhabi¬
tants of Bergues to dig a canal, at their joint expence,
for a communication between the two towns; which
was fome time afterwards effefted. By this time, Dun¬
kirk was become the beft harbour the Spaniards pof-
feffed in Flanders, which induced many foreigners to
fettle there ; and it being necefiary to enlarge the town
for their accommodation, a new fortified wall was built
r.t a confiderable diftance from the former. In 1646,
it was befieged and taken by the prince of Conde. In
1652 it was retaken by the archduke Leopold, then
governor of the Netherlands. France entering into a
treaty with England in 1655, the Dunkirkers, with
views of pecuniary advantage, fitted out privateers
againft both thofe powers : the confequence of which
was, that the French, aflifted by Cromwell, attacked
and took it; and it was put into the hands of the Eng-
lifti, in confequence of a treaty between them and the
French. To the Engliih it was even then of very great
importance ; for, during the war in which it was taken,
the Dunkirkers had made prizes of no lefs than 250 of
their fhips, many of which were of great value. They
therefore improved the fortifications, and built a cita¬
del : yet they kept it only four years; for in 1662,
two years after the reftoration, Charles II. fold this
valuable acquifition to France, for the paltry fum of
500,000!. In confequence of this fale, the town was
taken pofieffion of for the French king Louis XIV.
by the count d’Eftrades,on the 29th of November 1662.
Louis having acquainted the celebrated engineer Mon-
fieur Vauban, that he intended to make Dunkirk one
of the ftrongeft places in Europe, Vauban drew up a
plan with that view, which was gradually executed.
An arfenal was erefted, large enough to contain all the
ftores necefiary for fitting out and maintaining a large
fleet of men of war; the fortifications on the land-fide
were conftrufted in a manner that was thought to ren¬
der them impregnable; and towards the fea, the en¬
trance of the harbour being properly formed, it was
fortified by the jetties, and the two forts called Green
Fort and the Fort of Good Hope at their extremities; the
famous Rifbank was alfo eredfed on one fide of the jet¬
ties, and Fort Galliard on the other, to fecure the town.
Thefe works were all completed in 1683; and in 1685,
the whole circumference of the bafon was faced with
mafonry, and the keys completely formed : at the fame
time care was taken to build at the entrance of this
bafon a fluice, almoft 45 feet wide, that the fiiips within
might be conftantly afloat. In 1689, the fort called the
Cornicbon, and fome other works, were completed. But
though 30 years had been now employed in improving
the fortifications of Dunkirk, it was not yet in the ftate
N0IOJ. 1
DUN
in which Louis intended to put it; and therefore, in
1701, he caufed a new rilbank to be built, called Fort
Blanc.
At the treaty of Utrecht, it having been made ap¬
pear, that the privateers of Dunkirk had, during the
war then clofing, taken from the Englifh no lefs than
1614 prizes, valued at i>334>375l. Sterling, it was
ftipulated, that the fortifications of the city and
port of Dunkirk ftiould be entirely demolifhed, and
the harbour filled up, fo as never to be an harbour
again.
The treaty, of which this demolition of Dunkirk
was an article, wasfigned on the 28th of April 1713 ;
but the demolition did not take place till the Septem¬
ber following, when the queen deputed colonel Arm-
ftrong and colonel Clayton to overfee the execution of
the treaty as far as concerned the works and harbour
of Dunkirk.
Under the infpeftion of thefe gentlemen, the places
of arms were broken down, the ditches filled up, and
the demi-lunes, baftions, and covered way, totally de-
ftroyed; the citadel was razed, and the harbour and
bafon filled up ; the jetties were alfo levelled with the
ftrand, and all the forts which defended the entrance
into the harbour were demolifhed. A large dam, or
bar, was alfo built acrofs the mouth of the harbour be¬
tween the jetties and the town, by which all communi¬
cation between the harbour and the canal, which form¬
ed its entrance, was entirely cut off. The fluices were
alfo broken up, and the materials of them broken to
pieces.
But this was no fooner done, than Louis XIV. or¬
dered 30,000 men to work inceflantly upon a new ca¬
nal, the canal of Mardick, which in a fhort time they
accomplifhed; by which the harbour was rendered
almoft as commodious as ever : but in 1717 this like-
wife was rendered unferviceable.
In the year 1720, during a great ftorm, the fea
broke up the bar or dam, and reftored to the Dun¬
kirkers the ufe of the harbour in a very confiderable
degree.
In the year 1740, when Great Britain was engaged
in a war with Spain, Louis XV. fet out about improving
the advantage which Dunkirk had derived from the
ftorm in 1720, by reftoring the works, and repairing
the harbour. He rebuilt the jetties and erefted new
forts in the place of ihofe which had been deftroyed;
and foon afterwards he efpoufed the caufe of Spain, and
became a principal in the waa- againft us.
But at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, it was
ftipulated, that all the works towards the fea fhould be
deftroyed a fecond time ; yet, before the declaration
of the laft war, the place was in as good a ftate of
defence towards the fea as it was at any time during
the war which was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle. a
DUNSE, a market-town of Scotland, in the fhire
of Mers, lituated in W. Lortg. 2. 15. N. Lat. 55. 42.
It is feated on a rifing ground in the middle of the
fhire, and has a weekly market for cattle. It is by
fome reputed the birth-place of the famous John
Duns Scotus.—A mile fouth of the town is a well of
mineral water, of great ufe as a deobftruent and anti-
fcorbutic, firft difeovered in 1747 by Dr Thomas Simp-
fon who praftifed there.
[ 176 ]
DUNS
DUN [
DUNS scotus (John), a Francifcan friar, com¬
monly called Doclor SuLtilis, was born in the year 1274;
but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland, hath
long been a matter of difpute among the learned of
each nation. Dempfter, Mackenzie, and other Sc'ot-
tiih writers, affert politively that he was born at Dunfe,
a town in Scotland, about 15 miles from Berwick;
and, to fecure him more effeclually, Mackenzie makes
him defcended from the Dunfes in the Mers. Mac-
Caghwtll, an Irifh author, who wrote the life of this
Scotus, proves him to have been born at Down in the
province of Ulfter in Ireland : but Leland, Bale, Cam¬
den, and Pits, affure us, that he was born at Dunftone
in the parifh of Emildune, near Alnwick in Northum¬
berland ; and this opinion is rendered probable by the
following conclufion of his manufcript works in the
library of Merton college in Oxford.—“Here end the
writings of that fubtile do&or of the univerfity of
Paris, John Duns, who was born in a certain village,
in the pariih of Emildune, called Dunjion, in the coun¬
ty of Northumberland.” We are told, that, when a
boy, he became accidentally known to two Francifcan
friars; who, finding him to be a youth of very extra¬
ordinary capacity, took him to their convent at New-
caftle, and afterwards perfuaded him to become one of
their fraternity. From thence he was fent to Oxford,
where he was made fellow of Merton college and pro-
feflbr of divinity; and Mackenzie fays, that not lefs
than 30,000 ftudents came to Oxford to hear his lec¬
tures. His fame was now become fo univerfal, that
the general of his order commanded him to go to Pa¬
ris, that the Undents of that univerfity might alfo pro¬
fit from his lectures. He went to Paris in the year
1304, where he was honoured firft with the degree of
bachelor, then of do&or of divinity, and in 1307 was
appointed regent of the divinity fchools: during his
refidence here, the famous controverfy about the Im¬
maculate conception of the virgin Mary arofe. Albertus
Magnus maintained that Ihe was born in original fin.
Scotus advanced 200 arguments in fupport of the con¬
trary opinion, and convinced the univerfity of Paris
that fhe was really conceived immaculate. This im¬
portant nonfenfe, however, continued to be difputed till
the year 1496, after the council of Bafil, when the
univerfity of Paris made a decree, that no ftudent, who
did not believe the immaculate conception, Ihould be ad¬
mitted to a degree. Our author had not been above
a year at Paris, when the fame general of the Francif-
cans ordered him to remove to Cologne ; where he was
received with great pomp and ceremony by the magi-
ftrates and nobles of that city, and where he died of
an apoplexy foon after his arrival, in the year 1308,
in the 34th year of his age. Some writers have re¬
ported, that Scotus was buried in an epileptic fit; and
that, upon removing his bones, he appeared to have
turned himfelf in his coffin. This doclor fubtilis was
doubtlefs one of the firft wranglers of his time, admi¬
rably well verfed in fchelaftic divinity, and a moft in¬
defatigable fcribbler; but the misfortune is, that all his
huge volumes do not contain a fingle page worth the
perufal of a rational being. He was the author of a
new fed! of fchoolmen called Scotifls ; who oppofed the
opinions of the Thomifts, fo called from St Thomas
Aquinas, The reader will find a more particular ac-
Vot. VI. Part I.
177 1 D U N
count of Scotus in the Francifcan Martyrology, pub-
liihed at Paris in 1638—He was a moil voluminous
writer; his works making 12 vols. folio, as publiihed
at Lyons by Luke Wadding, 1639.
DUNSTABLE, a town in Bedfordihire, with a
market on Wednefdays. It is feated on a chalky hill;
and has ponds in the llreets, which are never dry tho’
only fupplied with rain water. It is remarkable for
feveral good inns, it being a great thoroughfare on the
northern road. It confifts of four ilreets, interfedling
each other at right angles; and in the centre flood one
of thofe beautiful croffes of queen Eleanor, which was
deilroyed by the enthufiafts in the time of the civil
wars. W. Long. o. 29. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DUNSTAFFNAGE. See Lorne.
DUNSTAN, a famous faint, and archbiihop of
Canterbury ; of whom the monkiih hiftorians give us
the following account. He was defcended from a noble
family in Wefiex, and educated in the abbey of Gla-
llonbury. Here he ftudied fo hard, that it threw him
into a violent fever which brought him to the very
point of death. When the whole family were Hand¬
ing about his bed, diifolved in tears, and expedling
every moment to fee him expire, an angel came from
heaven in a dreadful ftorm, and gave him a medicine
which reftored him to perfedl health in a moment.
Dunftan immediately darted from his bed, and run with
all his fpeed towards the church to return thanks for
his recovery ; but the devil met him by the way, fur-
rounded by a great multitude of black dogs, and en¬
deavoured to obilrudl his paifage. This would have
frightened fome boys ; but it had no fuch effedt upon
Dundan ; who pronouncing a facred name, and bran-
diihing his dick, put the devil and all his dogs to Right.
The church-doors being fhut, an angel took him in
his arms, conveyed him through an opening in the
roof, and fet him foftly down on the door, where he
performed his devotions. After his recovery, he pur-
fued his dudies with the greated ardor, and foon be¬
came a perfect mailer in philofophy, divinity, mufic,
painting, writing, fculpture, working in gold, filver,
brafs, and iron, &c. When he was dill very young
he entered into holy orders, and was introduced by his
uncle Athelm archbifliop of Canterbury to King Athel-
dan ; who, charmed with his perfon and accomplidi-
ments, retained him in his court, and employed him
in many.great affairs. At leifure hours he ufed to en¬
tertain the king and his courtiers with playing on his
harp, or fome other mufical indrument; and now and
then he wrought a miracle, which gained him great
admiration. His old enemy the devil was much of¬
fended at this, and prompted fome envious courtiers t»
perfuade the king that his favourite was a magician,
which that prince too readily believed. Dundan dif-
covering by the king’s countenance that he had loft
his favour, and refolving to refign rather than be turn¬
ed out, retired from court to another uncle, who was
bilhop of Wincheller. This good prelate prevailed
upon his nephew to forfake the world and become a
monk ; after which he retired to a little cell built a-
gainft the church-wall of Glaftonbury. Here he dept,
ftudied, prayed, meditated, and fometimes amufed him¬
felf with forging feveral ufeful things in brafs and iron.
One evening, as he was working very bufily at his
Z forge,
DUN [ 178 ] DUN
Dunftan, forge, the devil, putting on the appearance of a man,
thruft his head in at the window of his cell, and afked
him to make fomething or other for him. Dunltan
was fo intent upon his work that he made no anfvver ;
on which the devil began to fwear and talk obfeenely,
which betrayed the lurking fiend. The holy black*
fmith, putting up a fecret ejaculation, pulled his tongs,
which were red-hot, out of the fire, feized the devil
with them by the nofe, and fqueezed him with all his
ftrertgth ; which made his infernal majefty roar and
fcold at fuch a rate, that he awakened and terrified all
the people for many miles around. Thus far the le»
gend. _
Ridiculous as were thefe fictions, they ferved, in
thofe times of ignorance, to procure Dunilan a repu¬
tation which has- been confirmed by the authority of
feveral fucceeding hiftorians. * It appears that this
extraordinary perfon was recalled to court by king Ed¬
mund, A. D. 94.1 ; w'ho bellowed upon him the rich
abbey of Glaftonbury, which for his fake he ho¬
noured with many peculiar privileges. He enjoyed a
very high degree of the favour of this prince during
his Ihort reign of fix years ; but he flood much higher
in the favour of his brother and fucceffor king Edred,
to whom he was confeffor, chief confident, and prime
minifter. He employed all his influence during this
period of court-favour in promoting the intereft of the
monks of the Benedi&ine order, to which he belong¬
ed, and of which he was a moft active and zealous pa¬
tron. Having the treafures of thefe two princes, efpe-
eially of the laft, very much at his command, he la-
vifhed them away in building and endowing monafte-
ries for thefe monks, becaufe almoft all the old mona-
fleries were in the poflefiion of fecular canons. Not
contented with this, he perfuaded Edred (who was a
bigotted valetudinary) to beftow fuch immenfe treafures
©n the churches and monafteries by his laft will, that
the crown was ftripped of its moft valuable pofief-
fions, and left in a ftate of indigence. This conduct
•f Dunftan, while he was in power, rendered him
very odious to Edwi, who fucceeded his uncle Edred
A. D. 955 ; and his rude behaviour to himfelf, and
his beloved queen Elgiva, raifed the refentment of
that prince fo high, that he deprived him of all his
•'See Eng- preferments, and drove him into exile *. The ba-
iand,n° 57. nilhment of Dunftan, the great patron, or (asMalmf-
bury calls him) the prince of monks, was afevere blow
to that order, who were expelled from feveral monafte¬
ries ; which were made the impure ftables (according
to the fame author) of the married clergy. But their
fufferings were not of long continuance. For Edgar,
the younger brother of Edwi, having raifed a fuccefs-
ful rebellion againft his unhappy brother, and ufurped
all his dominions on the north fide of the river Thames,
recalled Dunftan, and gave him the biftiopric of Wor-
cefter, A. D. 957. From this moment he was the chief
confident and prime minifter of king Edgar, who be¬
came foie monarch of England A. D. 959, by the
jdeath of his elder brother Edwi. In the following
year Dunftan was raifed to be archbilhop of Canter¬
bury ; and being thus poflefied of the primacy, and af-
fured of the royal fupport and affiftance, he prepared
to execute the grand defign which he had long medi¬
tated, of compelling the fecular canons to put away
their wives and become monksj or. of driving them
but and introducing Benedictine monks in their room. Dunftan.
With this view he procured the promotion of Ofwald -*■—v—
to the fee of Worcefter, and of Ethelwald to that of
Winchefter ; two prelates who were monks themfelvesr
and animated with the moft ardent zeal for the ad¬
vancement of their order. And thefe three great chamr
pions of the order found means, by their arts and in¬
trigues, in the courfe of a few years, to fill no fewer
than 48 monafteries with Benediftines. But on the
death of Edgar in 975 they received a check. The
fufferings of the perfecuted canons had excited much
coppaftion ; and many of the nobility, who had been
overawed by the power and zeal of the late king, now
efpoufed their caufe and promoted their reftoration.
Elferc Duke, of Mercia drove the monks by force out
of all the monafteries in that extenfive province, and
brought back the canons, with their wives and chil¬
dren ; while Eifwin Duke of Eaft Anglia, and Brith-
not Duke of Effex, raifed their troops to proteft the
monks in thefe countries. To allay thefe commotions,
feveral councils were held: in which Dunftan was fo
hard puftied by the fecular canons and their friends,
that he was obliged to praftife fome of his holy ftra-
tagems ; and finally, by dint of miracles, overcame all
oppofition *. , * See Eng--
bt Dunftan died A. D. 988, in the 64th year oH3"*>n°<>4» ‘
his age, having held the bilhopric of London, toge¬
ther with the archbilhopric of Canterbury, about 27
years. As this prelate was the great reftorer and pro¬
moter of the monaftic inftitutions, the grateful monks,
who were almoft the only hiftorians of thofe dark ages,,
have loaded him with the moft extravagant praifes,
and reprefented him as the greateft wonder-worker and
higheft favourite of heaven that ever lived. To fay
nothing of his many confli&s with the devil, in which,
he often belaboured that enemy of mankind moft fe-
verely, the following fhort ftory, which is told, with
great exultation by his biographer Olbern, will give
the reader fome idea of the aftonilhing impiety and
impudence of thofe monks, and of the no lefs aftonilh¬
ing blindnefs and credulity of thofe unhappy times-.
“ The moft admirable, the moft ineftimable Father
Dunftan (fays that author), whofe perfections exceed¬
ed all human imagination, was admitted to behold the
mother of God and his own mother in eternal glory
for before his death he was carried up into heaven, to
be prefent at the nuptials of his own mother with the
Eternal King, which were celebrated by the angels
with the moft fweet and joyous fongs. When the an¬
gels reproached him for his filence on this great occa-
fion, fo honourable to his mother, he excufed himfelf
on account of his being unacquainted with thofe fweet
and heavenly ftrains; but being a little inftru&ed by
the angels, he broke out into this melodious fong,
O King and Ruler of nations/’ &c. It is unneceffary
to make any comment on this moft (hocking ftory.
The violent and too fuccefsful zeal of Dunftan and
his affociates, in promoting the buildifig and endowing
fo great a number of houfes for the entertainment of
ufelefs monks and nuns, was very fatal to their coun¬
try: for by this means a fpirit of irrational unmanly
fuperftition was diffufed amongft the people, which
debafed their minds and diverted them from nobler
purfuits ; and a very great proportion of the lands of
England being put into hands who contributed no¬
thing;
D U P [ j79
punum tiling to its defence, rendered it an eafy prey, firft to
II .the infulting Danes, and afterwards to the vi&orious
Tuplka- Normans.
» “rt" . DUNUM, a Celtic term, denoting a hill or emi¬
nence, and which often concurs to form the names of
towns, to fignify their high fituation, places of ilrength
or citadels, hills or eminences, being adapted to fuch
ftru&ures. See Dun.
Dunum (Ptolemy), a town oflreland; now thought
to be Down or Down-Patrick, in the county of Down.
W. Long 5. 57. N. Lat. 54. 23.
DUO, in mufic, a fong or compofition, to be per-
] D U II
DUPONDIUS, in antiquity, a weight of two Uupondii
pounds, or a money of the value of two afl’es. See As. II
As the as at firlt weighed a juft pondo or libra, the Purer'
dupondius then weighed two; and hence the name.
And though the weight of the as was afterwards
diminiflied, and of confequence that of the dupondius
alfo, yet they ftill retained the denomination. See
Pound and Libra.
DUPPA (Brian), a learned Engliftibifhop born in
1589 at Lewiftiam in Kent, of which place his father
was then vicar. In 1634, he was inftituted chancellor
of the church at Sarum, and foon after made chaplain
formed on two parts only, one fung, the other played to Charles I. He was appointed tutor to Charles
on an inftrument, or by
Duo is alfo when two voices fing different parts, as
accompanied with a third, which is a thorough bafs.
It is feldom that unifons and odtaves are ufed in duos,
except at the beginning and end.
DUODECIMA, in mufic, is the twelfth or the
fifth doubled.
DUODENUM. See Anatomy, p. 727.
DUPIN (Lewis Ellis), a learned dodlor of the Sor-
bonne, and one of the greateft critics of his time, e-
fpecially in eccleli.iftical matters, was born at Paris in
1657. When he publifhed the firlt volume of his Bi-
bliotheque Univerfelle dec Auteurs Ecclefia/liques, in 1686,
the liberty with which. he treated fame ecclefiaftical
writers, gave fuch offence, that M. de Harlay, arch-
bilhop of Paris, obliged Dupin to retradt many pro*
pofitions, and fuppreffed the work. He was never-
thelefs fuffered to continue it, by altering the title
from Bibliotheque Univerfelle, to Bibliotheque Nouvelle.
This great undertaking continued in feveral fuccefiive
volumes, though fufficient to occupy the life of an or¬
dinary man, did not hinder M. Dupiu from obliging
the world with feveral other works. He was a man
of prodigious reading; and had an eafy happy way of
writing, with an uncommon talent at analyfing the
works of an author; which makes his Ecclefiaftical Bi¬
bliotheque fo valuable. M. Dupin was profeffor of
philofophy in the royal college; but was banilhed fome
time from the chair to Chatelleraut, on account of the
famous Cos de Confcience; but was reftored, and died
in 1719.
DUPLE, among mathematicians, denotes the ratio
of 2 to 1. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is duple, or as 2
to 1.
Sub-DvvLE Ratio, is juft the reverfe of the former,
or as I to 2. Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to
prince of Wales, and his brother James duke of York;
was made bilhop of Chichefter; and in 1641 tranflated
to Salilbury, though the confufions that followed de¬
prived him of all benefit from his promotion. Charles I.
held him in high efteem, and he is faid to have affifted
the king in compofing the Eikon BaJUike. On the Re¬
iteration he was made bilhop of Winchefter, and lord
high almoner; but died in 1662. He bequeathed
large fums to charitable p.urpofes: andpublilhed a few
ferrnons, with other religious pieces.
DURANDUS (William), born at Puimoiffion in
Provence, in the 13th centuiy, was one of the molt
knowing lawyers of his time. Pope Martin made him
one of his nuncios, and then bilhop of Mende and Lan¬
guedoc. His Speculum Juris gave him the name of
Speculator; his fecond piece was Rationale divinorutil
officiorum, containing eight books. He wrote feveral
others.
DURxANTA, in botany: A genus of the angi-
ofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfonatee. The calyx is quinquefid, fu-
perior; the berry tetrafpermous; the feeds bilocular.
DURATION, an idea we get by attending to the
fleeting and perpetual perilhing parts of fucceffion.
See Metaphysics.
Duration, as marked by certain periods and
meafureS, is what we moft properly call time. See
Time.
Duration of ABion, according to Ariftotle, is con¬
fined to a natural day in tragedy; but the epopea, ac¬
cording to the fame critic, has no fixed time. See
Poetry.
DURER (Albert), defeended of an Hungarian
family, and born at Nuremberg in 1471, was one of
the belt engravers and painters of his age. He was at
DUPLICATE, among lawyers, denotes a copy of the fame time a man of letters and a philofopher; and
any deed, writing, or account. It is alfo ufed for the
fecond letters-patent, granted by the lord chancellor
in a cafe wherein he had before done the fame. Alfo
a fecond letter written and fent to the fame party and
purpofe as a former, for fear of the firft’s mifearrying,
is called a duplicate.
Duplicate Proportion or Ratio. See Ratio.
• DUPLICATION, in general, fignifies the doub¬
ling of any thing,, or multiplying of it by 2: alfo the
folding of any thing back again on itfelf.
DUPLICATURE, among anatomifts, a term ufed
to denote the folds of any membrane or veffel: thus
we fay, the duplicatures of the intejlinesy peritoneum,
&c.
he was an intimate friend of Erafmus, who revifed fome
of the pieces which he publiftied. He was a man of
bufinefs alfo, and for many years the leading magiftrate
of Nuremberg. Though not the inventor, he was one
of the firft improvers of the art of engraving; and he
bethought himfelf of working alfo in wood, for expe¬
dition, having an inexhauifible fund of defigns. la
many of thofe prints which he executed on copper, the
engraving is elegant to a great degree. His Hell Scene
particularly, which was engraved in the year 1513,
is as highly finilhed a print as ever was engraved, and
as happily executed. In his wooden prints too we are
furprifed to fee fo much meaning in fo early a mafter;
the heads fo well marked, and every part fo well exe-
Z 2 cut£d.
D U R L iSo ] D U R
Dureffe cuted.—This artift feems to have underftood the prin-
II ciples of defign. His compofition, too, is often plea-
Durham. ping . an(j jjjg dra;ving generally good. But he knows
very little of the management of light; and ftill lefs of
grace : and yet his ideas are purer and more elegant
than we could have fuppofed from the aukward arche¬
types which his country and education afforded. In a
word, he was certainly a man of a very extenfive ge¬
nius; and, as Vafari remarks, would have been an ex¬
traordinary artifl, if he had had an Italian inftead of
a German education. His prints are very numerous.
They were much admired in his own life-time, and
eagerly bought up ; which put his wife, who was a
teaming woman, upon urging him to fpend more time
upon engraving than he was inclined to do. He
was rich ; and chofe rather to prattife his art as an
amufement than as a bufinefs. He died in the year
1527.
DURESSE, hardship, in law, is where a perfon
is kept in prifon or reftrained of his liberty, contrary
to order of law; or is threatened to be killed, maimed,
or beaten. In which cafe, if a perfon fo in prifon,
or in fear of fuch threats, make any fpecialty or ob¬
ligation, by reafon of fuch imprifonment or threats,
fuch deed is void in law ; and in an aftion brought on
fuch fpecialty, the party may plead, that it was brought
by dureffe.
D’URFEY (Thomas), an eminent Engliih fatyrift
and fongfter, whofe name, though as well known as
that of any writer extant, yet there are very few par¬
ticulars of his life to be collefted. He was born in
Devonffire; but when, where, or of what-family, are
all uncertain. He was bred to the law, which he for-
fook for the more agreeable employment of writing
plays and fongs; and the latter he had fo happy a ta¬
lent both of writing and finging, that he received many
favours from perfons of quality on that account. Even
crowned heads' did not difdain his company. The
writer^ of the Guardian, N° 67. tells us, he remem¬
bered to have feen Charles II. leaning on Tom D’Ur-
fey’s flioulder more than once, humming over a fong
with him. This indeed was not extraordinary in fo
merry a monarch; but even the phlegmatic king Wil¬
liam could relax his mufcles on hearing him fing. He
was certainly by all. accounts a cheerful, honeft, good-
natured man : but as this character does not include
prudence,. D’Urfey grew poor as he grew old; and
prevailing on the managers of the playhoufe to a<ft his
domedy of the Plaiting Sifters for his benefit, Mr Ad-
difon wrote the abovementioned paper in the Guardian,
with another, N3 82. reprefenting him in a good hu¬
moured light, to procure him a full houfe. He died
very old, in 1,72 3.
DURHAM (bifliopric of), one of the counties of
England. Before the arrival of the Romans it was
included in the Britilh principality of the Brigantes,
and after their arrival made part of the province of
Maxima Csefarienfis. During the Heptarchy it made
part of the kingdom of Northumberland, the 5th efta-
blifiied, which began in 547, and ended in 827, having
been governed by 3.1. kings. It was not mentioned
by Alfred in his divifion of countiesj being at that
time confidered as a part of Yorklhire. At prefent it
is included in the northern circuit, in the province of
York; and is a diocefe and principality under the go¬
vernment of its own bilhop, being a county palatine, Durham,
the fecond in rank, and the richeft in England. It is
bounded on the north by Northumberland, on the fouth
by Yorkffire, on the call by the North Sea, and on the
weft by Cumberland. It is 39 miles long, 35 broad,
and 107 in circumference ; containing 410,000 fquare
acres, or 758 fquare miles; with 97,000 inhabitants, 80
parifties, 21 vicarages, one city (Durham), and 9 mar¬
ket-towns, vi%. Stockton, Sunderland, Barnard-Caftle,
Darlington, Stanhope, Hartlepool, Aukland, Stain-
drop, and Harwood; befides 223 villages. It is di¬
vided into 4 wards, fends 4 members to parliament,
pays three portions of the land-tax, and provides 400
of the national militia. It has 21 parks, 4 caftles, and
20 bridges, with the rivers Tees, Tine, Were, Tame,
Lune, Darwent, Gauntlefs, Skern, &c. The Lime
and Teefdale forefts. Its principal produdts are lead,
coals, iron, corn, muftard, fait, glafs, fine ale, with ex¬
cellent butter and falmon. The foil is various; the
fouth is rich, but the weftern parts rocky and moor-
ifh.
Durham, as already obferved, is a county pa¬
latine, governed by the bifhop, who had formerly great
prerogatives. He had power to treate barons, ap¬
point judges, convoke, parliaments, raife taxes, and
coin money. The courts of juftice were kept in his
naipe; and he granted pardons for trefpaftes, aliena¬
tions, rapes, murders, and felonies of every denomi¬
nation. He erefted corporations, granted markets
and fairs, created officers by patent, was lord admiral
of the feas and waters within the county palatine :
great part of the lands were held of the fee in capite.
In a word, he exercifed all the power and jurifdiftion
of a fovereign prince. How and at what period
thefe prerogatives were obtained, it is not eafy to
determine. Malm (bury fays, the lands weie granted
by king Alfred, who likewife made the church a fanc-
tuary for criminals. This fee was anciently called
the patrimony of St Cuthbert, who had been bilhop of
Landisfarne or Holy Ifland near Berwick. Hisbfines
being transferred to Durham, were tong efteemed as
precious relics ; and the people of the county con¬
fidered themfelves as Halwerk men, exempted from aU
other but holy work, that is, the defence of St Cuth-
bert’s body. Certain it is, they pretended to hold
their lands by this tenure; and refufed to ferve out
of the county either for the king or bifliop : but king
Edward I. brske through thefe privileges, and cur¬
tailed the prerogatives of the bifhops, which were ftili
further abridged by Henry VIII. Neverthelefs, the
biffiop is ftill earl of Sadberg, a place in this county
which he holds by barony. He is ffieriff paramount,
and appoints his own deputy, who makes up his audit
to him, inftead of accounting to the exchequer. He
has all the forfeitures upon outlawries: and he and
his temporal chancellor aft as juftices of the peace
for the county palatine, which comprehends Creke
in Yorkffiire, Bedlington, Northam, and Holy Ifland,
in Northumberland, the inhabitants of thefe places
having the benefit of the courts at Durham. The
judges of affize, and all the officers of the court, have
ftill their ancient falaries from the bifliop; and he cbn-
ftitutes the ftanding officers by his letters patent. He
has the power of prefiding in perfon in any of the
courts of judicature. Even when judgment of blood
D U R [ i
Durham, is given, this prelate may fit in court in his purple
rebes, though the canons forbid any clergyman to be
prefent in fuch cafes: hence the old faying, Solum
Dunelmenfe Jlola jus dicet et enfe. It was not till the
reign of Charles II. that the bifhopric fent reprefen-
tatives to parliament.
Durham, the capital of the above mentioned county,
is fituated in W. Long. I. 14. N. Lat. 54. 50. It
ftands on a hill almoft furrounded by the river Were ;
and is confiderable for its extent and the number of its
inhabitants, as well as for being the fee and feat of
the bifiiop, who is lord paramount. It ftands about
280 miles north from London ; being remarkable for
the falubrity of its air, and the abundance and cheap-
nefs of its provifions. Thefe circumftances have indu¬
ced a great deal of good company to take up their re-
fidence at Durham, which is ftill further animated by
the prefence and court of the bifhop and his clergy.
The town is faid to have been built about 70 years
before the Norman conqueft, on occafion of bringing
hither the body of St Cuthbert. It was firil incor¬
porated by king Richard I. but queen Elizabeth ex¬
tended its privileges. At length, in the year 1684, it
obtained a charter ) in confequence of which, it is now
governed by a mayor, 1 2 aldermen, 1 2 common coun¬
cil men, with a recorder, and inferior officers- Thefe
cam hold a court-leet and court-baron within the city ;
but under the ftyle of the bilhop, who as count pala¬
tine appoints a judge, fteward, fheriffs, and other in¬
ferior magiftrates. The mayor and aldermen alfo keep
a pie pouldres court at their fairs, and pay a yearly toll
to the bifhop. They have a weekly market on Satur-
day, and three annual fairs. Durham is about a mile
in length, and as much in breadth, refembling the fi¬
gure of a crab, the market-place exhibiting the body,
and the claws being reprefented by the ftreets, which
bend according to the courfe of the river, that almoft
furrounds one part of the city. They are, moreover,
dark and narrow; and fome of.them lying on the ac-
' clivity of a fteep hill, are very difficult and dangerous
to wheel-carriages. The faoufes are in general ftrong
built, but neither light nor elegant. The moft remark¬
able edifices are the cathedral with fix other churches,
three (landing in the city, and as many in the fuburbs 5
the college; thecaftle, or bifhop’s palace;, the tolbooth
near St Nicholas’s church; thecrofs and conduit in the
market-place; with two bridges over the Elvet. The
cathedral was begun by bifhop Carilepho in the nth
century. It is a large, magnificent, Gothic ftruc-
ture, 411 feet long, and 80 in breadth, having a crofs
aile in the middle 170 feet in length, and.two fmaller
ailes at each end. On the fouth-fide is a fine cloifter;
on the eaft, the old library, the chapter-houfe, and
part of the deanery ; on the weft, the dormitory, under
which is the treafury and a chantry ; and on the weft
fide is the new library, an elegant building begun by
dean Sudbury about 70 years ago, on the fpot where
ftood the old refe&ory of the convent. The middle
tower of the cathedral is 212 feet high. The whole
building is arched and fupported by huge pillars. Se¬
veral of the windows are curioufly painted ; and there
is.a, handfome fcreen at the entrance into the choir.
Sixteen bifhops are interred in the chapter-houfe, which
is 75 feet long and 33 broad, arched over-head, with
a magnificent.feat at the upper end fortheinftalment of,
81 ] D U R '
the bifhops. The confiftory is kept in the chapel or
weft aile called Galilee, which was built by bifhop Pud-
fey, and had formerly 16 altars for women, as they
were not allowed to advance farther than the line of
-marble by the fide of the font ; here likewife are de-
pofited the bones of the venerable Bede, whole elogium
is written on an old parchment fcroll that hangs over
his tomb, The long crofs aile, at the extremity of tlte
church, was formerly diftinguifhed by nine altars, four
to the north, and four to the fouth, and thd moft magr
nificent in the middle dedicated to the patron St Cuth¬
bert, whofe rich (brine was in this quarter, formerly
much frequented by pilgrims. The church is poffeffed
of fome old records relating to the affairs of Scotland^
the kings of which were great benefa&ors to this ca¬
thedral. The ornaments here uled for adminiftering
the divine offices, are faid to be richer than thofe of
any other cathedral in England. Before the reformation,
it was diftinguiffied by the name Ecckfta fanBa Manx
et fandi Cuthberti; but it obtained the appellation of
Eecclefia cathedralis Chrifii et leatte Manx, in the reign
of Henry VIII. who endowed the deanery with 1*
prebendaries, 12 minor canons, a deacon, fub-deacon,
1.6 lay finging men, a fchoolmafter. and uiher, a ma¬
iler of the choir, a divinity reader, eight alms-men, 1 8
fcholars, 10 choiritters, two vergers, two porters, two
cooks, two butlers, and two facriftans. On the fouth*
fide of the cathedral is the college v a fpacious court
formed by the houfes of the prebendaries, 'who are
richly endowed and extremely well lodged. Above
the college-gate, at the eaft end, is the exchequer;
and at the weft, a large hall for entertaining ftrangero,
with the granary and other offices of the convent. The
college-fchool, with the mafter’s hcafe, Hands on the
north fide of the cathedral. Between the churchyard
and caftle, is an open area, called the palace green; at
the weft end of which ftands the (hire-hall, where the
affizes and feffions are held for the county. Hard by
is the library built by hilltop Cofin; together with the
exchequer raifed by bifiiop Nevil, in which are kept
the offices belonging to the county-palatine court-
There is an hofpital on the eaft, endowed by bifitep
Cofin, and at each end of it are two fchools founded
by bilhop Langley. On the north, is the caftle built
by William the Conqueror, and afterwards converted
into the bifltop’s palace, the outward gate of which
is at prefent the county-goal..
The city confifts of three manors; the bifhop’s ma*
nor, containing the city liberties and the bailey, held
of him by the fervice of caftle-guard; the manor of the
dean and chapter, confiding of the Elvet’s crofs gate,
fouth-gate ftreet; and the manor of Gilligate, formerly
belonging to the diflblved hofpital of Kepyar in this
neighbourhood, hut granted by Edward VI. to John
Cockburn, lord of Ormiftoun, and late in the poffeffion
of John Temped, Efq.
The bifhopric of Durham is deemed, the richeft bk
(hopric in. the kingdom; and the prebends are fre¬
quently ftyled the Golden Prebends of Durham. The
diocefe contains the whole counties of Durham and
Northumberland, except the jurifdi&ion of Hexham in
the latter. It hath alfo one parifit in. the county of
Cumberland : making in the whole 135 parifiies^
whereof 87 are impropriate. The fee is valued in the
king’s books at L> 2821:1: 55, but is computed tot
D U 11 [ 182 ] D U T
3>mo worth annually L. 8700. The clergy’s tenths a- mans had fo few towns, forts, and garrifons, in this
il mount to L- 385 : 5 s 64-. It has two archdeacons, viz. pleafant country. Dorchefter, its prefentcapital, feems
J3urotngfs. of Durham and Northumberland. This fee hath gi- to have been a Roman city of fome confideration,
' ’v"r”" yen to the church of Rome eight faints and one cardi- though our antiquaries are not agreed about its Roman
nal; and to the Englifh nation one lord chief juftice, name. It is moft probable that it was the Durno*
five lord chancellors, three lord treafurers, one princi- varia in the 12th Iter of Antoninus. Many Roman
pal fecretary of ftate, one chancellor to the univerlity coins have been found at Dorcheller; the military
•of Oxford, and two mailers of the rolls. way, called 'Jeening-Street, palled through it; and fome
In the neighbourhood of this city is Nevil’s crofs, veliiges of the ancient Hone wall with which it was
famous for the battle fought in the year 1346, againft furrounded, and of the amphitheatre with which it
David II. king of Scotland, who was defeated and was adorned, are Hill vifible. The country of the Dn-
taken. rotriges was included in the Roman province called
DURIO, in botany: A genus of the polyandria Flavia Ccsfartenfis, and governed by the preiident of
order, belonging to the polyadelphia clafs of plants, that province, as long as the Romans kept any footing
The calyx is a monophyllous perianthium ; the corol- in thefe parts.
la has five petals growing to the calyx; the ftamina DURY (John), a Scots divine, who travelled much,
are conjoined in five bodies ; the germ is roundifh.; the and laboured with great zeal to reunite the Lutherans
-ftyle briftly, the length of the ftamina. The fruit is with the Calvinifts. His difeouragements in this
a rouhdilh apple every where muriCated ; the feeds fcheme ftarted another ftill more impradticable; and
have a mucous orilla. this was to reunite all Chriftians by means of a new-
DURNIUM, or DurnovariA, a town of the Du- explication of the Apocalypfe, which he publilhed at
rotriges in Britain. Now Dorchefter, the capital of Francfort in 1675. He enjoyed then a comfortable
Dorfetlhire, on the Frome. retreat in the country of Heffe; but the time of his
DURDBRIViE (anc. geog.), a town of the Caty- death is unknown : his letter to Peter du Moulin con-
^euchlani in Britain. Now in ruins, which lie on the cerning the ftate of the churches of England, Scotland,
Nen, between Cafter and Dornford, in Northamp- and Ireland, was printed at London in 1658, by the
'tonlhire, on the borders of Huntingdon. care of du Moulin, and is efteemed to be curious. '
Durobriv^;, or Durocobrivee, a town of the Trino- DUSSELDORP, a city of Weftphalia in Germa-
bantes, in Britain ; whofe ruins are fituated between ny, and capital of the duchy of Berg. It is fituated at
Hamftead and Redburn, in Hertfordfhire. the conflux of the river Duffel with the Rhine, in E.
DUROBRIVIS, 25 miles to the weft of Duro- Long, 6. 20. N. Lat. 51. 15.
vernum, or Canterbury ; from which it appears to be DUTCHY. See Duchy.
Rochefter town, confirmed by the charter’ of founda- DUTY, in general, denotes any thing that one is
tion of the church, in which it is called Durobrevis. obliged to perform.
DUROCASES, Durocassium,Durocass^e, and Duty, in a moral fenfe. Moral Pbilofophy.
Durocasses, a town of the Carnutes, in Gallia Cel- Duty, in polity and commerce, fignifies the impoft
tica ; now Dreux. See Druids. laid on merchandizes, at importation or exportation,
DUROCORNOV1UM (anc. geog.), a town of commonly called the duties of cuftoms; alfo the taxes
Britain; now Cirencefter, in Gloucefterflrire (Camden), of excife, ftamp-duties, See. See Customs, Excise,
Called Corinium by Ptolemy. &c.
DUROCORTORUM, or Duricortora, a town The principle on which all duties and cuftoms fhould
of the Rhemi in Belgica ; now Rheims in Champaign, be laid on foreign merchandizes which are imported
E. Long. 4. N. Lat. 49. 20. into thefe kingdoms, are fuch as tend to cement a mu-
DUROIA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia tual friendfhip and traffic between one nation and an-
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. The other ; and therefore due care fhould be taken in the
calyx above is cylindrical and loped ; the border fix- laying of them, that they may anfwer fo good an end,
parted; there are no filaments ; the fruit a hifpid and be reciprocal in both countries: they Ihould be fo
apple. laid as to make the exports of this nation at leaft equal
DUROLENUM, a town of the Cantii in Britain ; to our imports from thofe nations wherewith we trade,
nowLenham, in Kent (Camden); Charing (Talbot). fo that a balance in money fhould not be iffued out of
DUROLITUM, a town of the Trinobantes; how Great Britain, to pay for the goods and merchandizes
Leiton, on the Ley, in Effex (Camden). of other countries; to the end that no greater number
DUROTRIGES, an ancient Britifh nation, feated of our landholders and manufacturers fhould be depri-
in that part of the country which is now called Dor- ved of their revenues arifing from the produCt of the
fetjhire. Their name is derived from the two Britifh lands, and the labour of the,pe6ple, by foreign impor-
words Dur “ water,” and Trigo “ to dwell;” and it is tations, than are maintained by exportations to fuch
no lefs evident that they got their name from the fi- countries. Thefe are the national principles on which
tuation of their country, which lies along the fea-coaft. all our treaties of commerce with other countries ought
It is not very certain whether the Durotriges formed to be grounded.
an independent ftate under a prince of their own, or Duty, in the military art, is the exercife of thofe
were united with their neighbours the Danmonii; as fun&ions that belong to a foldier: with this diftinftion,
they were reduced by Vefpafian under the dominion that niounting guard and the like, where there is no
of the Romans, at the fame time, and with the fame enemy diredly to be engaged, is called duty ; but their
.eafe, and never revolted. The peaceable difpofition of marching to meet and fight an enemy is called going
the inhabitants was probably the reafon that the Ro- on fervice.
DUUM-
Duty
i!
Duty,
PUU’.v,
I
D W A f i
- DUUMVIRATE, the office or dignity of the du¬
umviri, See the next article.
The duumvirate lafted till the year of Rome 388,
when it was changed into a decemvirate.
DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general ap¬
pellation given to magiftrates, commiffioners, and offi¬
cers, where two were joined together in the fame func¬
tions.
Duvmfir! Capitaks were the judges in criminal
caufes : from their fentence it was lawful to appeal to
the people, who only had the power of condemning a
citizen to death. Thefe judges were taken from the bo¬
dy of the decuriones; they had great power and au¬
thority, were members of the public council, and had
two liftors to walk before them.
Duumviri Muntcipales, were two magiftrates in fome
cities of the empire, anfwering to what the eonfuls were
at Rome; they were chofen out of the body of. the
decuriones ; their office lafted commonly five years,.
upon which account they were frequently termed
quinquinales magiftratus. Their jurifdidtion was of great
extent : they had officers who walked before them, car¬
rying a fmall fwitch in their hands; and fome of them
aflumed the privilege of having lidors, carrying axes
and the fafces, or bundles of rods, before them.
Duumviri Navales, were the commiflaries of the
fleet, fir ft created at the requeft of M. Decius, tribune
©f the people, in the time of the war with the Samnites.
The duty of their office confifted in giving orders for
the fitting of fhips, and giving their commiffions to
the marine officers, &c.
Duumviri Sacrorutn, were magiftrates created by
Tarquinius Superbus, for the performance of the facri-
fices, and keeping of the fibyls books. They were
ehofen from among the patricians, and held their office
for life : they were exempted from fervingin the wars,
and from the offices impofed on the other citizens,
and without them the oracles of the fibyls could not be
confidted.
DUYVELAND,. or Diveland, one of the ifland&
of Zealand, in the United Provinces, lying eaftward of
Schonen, from which it is only feparated by a narrow
channel.
DWAL, in heraldry, the herb nightfhade, ufed by
fuch as blazon with flowers and herbs, infteadof metals
and colours, for fable or black.
DWARF, in general, an appellation given to things
greatly inferior in fize to that which is ufual in their
feveral kinds : thus there are dwarfs of the human fpe-
eies, dwarf-dogs, dwarf-trees, &c.
The Romans were paffionately fond of dwarfs, whom
they called nani or name, infomuch that they often ufed
artificial methods to prevent the growth of boys de-
figned for dwarfs,, by inclofing them in boxes, or by
the ufe of tight bandages. Auguftus’s niece, Julia,
was extremely fond of a dwarf called Sonopas, who
was only two feet and an hand-breadth high.—We
have many other accounts of human dwarfs, but moft
of them deformed in fome way or other befides the
fmallnefs of their fize. Many relations alfo concerning
dwarfs we muft neceffarily look upon to be fabulous,
as well as thofe concerning giants.—The following
hiftory, however, which we have reafon to look upon
as authentic, is too remarkable not to be acceptable-
to the generality of our readers.
S3 1 D w A
Jeffery Hudfon, the famous Engliih dwarf, was born
at Oakham in Rutlandftiire in 16x9; and about the
age of fevcn or eight, being then but 18 inches high,
was retained in the fervice of the duke of Buckingham,
who refided at Burleigh on the Hill. Soon after the
marriage of Charles I. the king and queen being en¬
tertained at Burleigh, little Jeffery was ferved up to
table in a cold pye, and prefented by the duchefs to the
queen, who kept him as her dwarf. From 7 years of
age.till 30, he never grew taller; but after 30, he Ihot
up to three feet nine inches, and there fixed. Jeffery
became a confiderable part of the entertainment of tha
court. Sir William. Davenant wrote a poem called
Jeffreidos, on a battle between him and a turkey-cock ;
and in 1 638, was publifhed a very fmall book, called the
New Tear's Gift, prefented at court by the lady Par-
vula to the lord Minimus (commonly called Little Jef¬
fery) her majefty’s fcrvant, &c. written by Microphi-
lus, with a little print of Jeffery prefixed. Before this
period, Jeffery was employed on a negociation of great
importance : he was fent to France to fetch a midwife
for the queen ; and on his return with this gentlewo¬
man, arid her majefty’s dancing-mafter, and many rick
prefents to the queen from her mother Mary de Medi-
cis, he was taken by the Dunkirkers. Jeffery, thus
made of confequence, grew to think himi'elf really fo-
He had borne with little temper the teazing of the
courtiers and domeftics, and had many fquabbles with,
the king’s gigantic porter. At laft, being provoked by
Mr Crofts, a young gentleman of family, a challenge
enfued : and Mr Crofts coming to the rendezvous armed
only with a fquirt, the little creature was fo enraged,
that a real duel enfued ; and the appointment being on
horfeback with piltols, to put them- more on a level,
Jeffery, with the firft fire, fhot his antagonift dead.
This happened in France, whither he had attended his
miftrefs in the troubles. He was again taken prifoner
by a Turkiflv rover, and fold into Barbary. He pro¬
bably did not remain long in llavery : for at the be¬
ginning of the civil war, he was made a captain in the
royal army ; and in 1644 attended the queen to France,
where he remained till the Reftoration. At laft, upon
fufpicion of his being privy to the Popiffi plot, he was
taken up in 1682, and confined in the Gatehoufe,
Weitminfter, where he ended his life, in the 63d year
of his age.
In the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences, a relation is given by the Count de Treffau,,
of a dwarf called Bebe, kept by the late Stanifiaus
king of Poland, and who died in 1764 at the age of
23, when he meafured only 33 inches. At the time
of his birth, he meafured only between eight and nine.
inches. Diminutive as were his dimenfions, his rea-
foning faculties were not lefs feanty appearing indeed-,
not to have been fuperior to thofe of a well-taught .
pointer : but that the fize and ftrength of the intel-
leftual powers are not 'affedted by the diminutivenef*
or tenuity of the corporeal organs, is evident from a
ftill more ftriking inftance of littlenefs, given us by the
fame nobleman, in the perfon of Monfieur Borulawlki,
a Poliih gentleman, whom he faw at Luneville, who
has linee been at Paris, and who at the age of 22
meafured only 28 inches. This miniature of a man,
confidering him only as to his bodily dimenfions, appears-
a giant with regard to his mental powers- and attain-.
2- saeatsv.
Dwarfi
D W I [ 1^4 1 DYE
llwaff, merits. He is defcribed by the count as poffefling all
Dwina. the graces of wit, united with a found judgment and
“ v an excellent memory ; fo that we may with juilice fay
of M. Borulawlki, in the words of Seneca, and nearly
in the order in which he has ufed them, “ Pqfle inte¬
rnum forujfmum ac beatijjimum fub quolibet corpufculo la¬
tere.” Epift. 66.
Count Borulawlki was the fon of a Polifh noble¬
man attached to the fortunes of king Staniflaus, who
loll his property in confequence of that attachment,
and who had fix children, three dwarfs, and three well-
grown. What is lingular enough, they were born al¬
ternately, a big one and a little one, though both pa¬
rents were of the common fize. The little count's
youngeft filler was much lefs than him, but died at
the age of 23. The count continued to grow till he
■was about 30, and has at prefent attained his 51 ft
year, and the height of three feet two inches. He
never experienced any ficknefs, but lived in a polite
and affluent manner under the patronage of a lady, a
friend of the family, till love at the age of 41 intruded
into his little peaceful bofom, and involved him in ma¬
trimony, care, and perplexity. The lady he chofe
was of his own country, but of French extraction, and
the middle fize. They have three children, all girls,
and none of them likely to be dwarfs. To provide
for a family now became an objedt big with difficulty,
requiring all the exertion of his powers (which could
promife but little) and his talents, of which mufic
alone afforded any view of profit. He plays extremely
well upon the guittar: and by having concerts in fe-
veral of the principal cities in Germany, he raifed
temporary fupplies. At Vienna he was perfuaded to
turn his thoughts to England, where it was believed
the public curiofity might in a little time benefit him
Efficiently to enable him to live independent in fo
cheap a country as Poland. He was furniffied by very
refpedtable friends with recommendations to feveral of
the* moft diftinguiffied chara&ers in this kingdom, as
the duchefs of Devonfhire, Rutland, &c. &c. whofe
kind patronage he is not backward to acknowledge.
He was advifed to let himfelf be feen as a curiofity,
and the price of admiffion was fixed at a guinea.
The number of his vifitors, of courfe, was not very
great. After a pretty long ftay in London he went
to Bath and Briftol; vifited Dublin and fome other
parts of Ireland ; whence he returned by way of Li¬
verpool, Manchefter, and Birmingham, to London.
He alfo vifited Edinburgh and fome other towns of
Scotland. In every place he acquired a number of
friends. In reality, the eafe and politenefs of his man¬
ners and addrefs pleafe no lefs than the diminutive, yet
elegant, proportions of his figure aftoniffi thofe who
vilit him. His perfon is pleafing and graceful, and his
look manly and noble. He fpeaks French fluently,
and Englifh tolerably. He is remarkably lively and
cheerful, though fited for the moft ferious and ration¬
al converfation. Such is this wonderful little man—
an objeft of curiofity really worthy the attention of
the philofopher, the man of tafte, and the anatomift.
His life has been publiffied, written by himfelf.
DWINA, the name of two large rivers; one of which
rifes in Lithuania, and, dividing Livonia from Cour-
land, falls into the Baltic Sea a little below Riga: the
N° 105.
other gives name to the province of Dwina in Ruffia, Eyck
difcharging itfelf into the White Sea a little below ij
Archangel. Dyer-
DYCK. See Vandyck.  1
DYE, in architedlure, any fquarebody, as the trunk
or notched part of a pedeftal: or it is the middle of
the pedeftal, or that part included between the bafe
and the corniche ; fo called becaufe it is often made in
the form of a cube or dye. See Architecture, nu 61.
DYER, a perfon who profeffes the art of dyeing, all
manner of colours. See DvErNG.
Dyer (Sir James), an eminent Engliffl lawyer, chief
judge of the court of common pleas in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. He died in 1581 ; and about 20
years after was publiffled his large colledtion of Re¬
ports, which have been highly efteemed for their fuc-
cinftnefs and folidity. He alfo left other writings be¬
hind him relative to his profeffion.,
Dyer (John), the fon of Robert Dyer, Efq; a Wtlffi
folicitor of great capacity, was born in 1700. He
paffed’through Weftminfter-fchool under the care of
DrFreind, and was then called home to be indrudfed
in his father’s profeffion. His genius, however, led
him a different way ; for befides his early tafte for
poetry, having a paffion no lefs ftrong for the arts of
defign, he determined to make painting his profeffion.
With this view, having ftudied a while under his mafter,
he became, as he tells his friend, an itinerant painter,
and wandered about South Wales and the parts adja¬
cent ; and about 17.27 printed Grongar Hill. Being
probably unfatisfied with his own proficiency, he made
the tour of Italy ; where, befides the ufual ftudy of
the remains of antiquity, and the works of the great
mailers, he frequently fpent whole days in the country
about Rome and Florence, flcetching thofe pidturefque
profpedls with facility and fpirit. Images from hence
naturally transferred themfelves into his poetical com-
pofitions: the principal beauties of The Ruins of Rome
are perhaps of this kind; and the various laudfcapes in
The Fleece have been particularly admired. On his re¬
turn to England, he publiffied The Ruins of Rome,
1740; but foon found that he could not reliffi a town-
life, nor fubmit to the affiduity required in his pro¬
feffion. As his turn of mind was rather ferious, and
his condudl and behaviour always irreproachable, he
was advifed by his friends to enter into holy orders ;
and it is prefumed, though his education had not been
regular, that he found no difficulty in obtaining them.
He was ordained by the biffiop of Lincoln, and had a
law degree conferred on him.
About the fame time he married a lady of Coleffiill
named Enfor; “ whofe grandmother (fays he) was a
Shakefpeare, defcended'from a brother of every body’s
Shakefpeare.” His ecclefiaftical provifion was a long
time but flender. His firft patron, Mr Harper, gave
him, in 1741, Calthorp in Leicefterffiire, of 801. a-
year, on which he lived ten years; and in April 1757
exchanged it for Belchford in Lincolnffiire, of 751.
which was given him by lord chancellor Hardwicke, on
the recommendation of a friend to virtue and the mufes.
His condition now began to mend. In 1752, Sir John
Heathcote gave him Coningfby, of 140I. a-year; and
in 1756, when he was LL. B. without any felicitation
of his own, obtained for him from the chancellor Kirby
DYE [i
t Dyer, ©n Bane, of i jol. In 1757, he publi/hed The Fleece,
^ his greateft poetical work ; of which Dr Johnfon re¬
lates this ludicrous ftory. Dodfley the bookfeller was
one day mentioning it to a critical •viiitor, -with more
expe&ation of fuccefs than the other could'eafily admit.
In the converfation the author’s age was alked ; and
being reprefented as advanced in life, “ He will (laid
the critic) be buried in woollen.” He did not indeed
long outlive that publication, nor long enjoy -the in-
creafe of his preferments ; for a confumptive diforder,
with which he had long Itruggled, carried him off* at
length in 175B.
85 ] D Y E
Mr Dyer’s chara&er as a writer has been fixed by
three poems, Grongar Hill, The Ruins of Rome, and
The Fleece ; wherein a poetical imagination perfectly
original, a natural fimplicity connected with and often
productive of the true fublime, and the warmeft fenti-
inents of benevolence and virtue, have been univerfally
obferved and admired. Thefe pieces were put out fe-
parately in his lifetime: but after his death, they
were collected and publifhed in one volume 8vo, 1761;
with a Ihort account of himfelf prefixed.
Dykh’s IVeed, in botany. See Reseda.
DYEING,
TN the utmoft latitude of the word, may be defined,
The art of tingeing cloth,ftuff, or other matter, with
a permanent colour, which penetrates the fubftance
thereof.-—It is, however, commonly reftrained to the art
of tingeing fxlk, wool, cotton, and linen, with different
colours ; and, as fuch, is praCtifed as a trade by tbofe
who do not meddle with any of the other branches,
1 as ftaining of leather, &c.
Antiquity The dyeing art is of great antiquity; as appears
M the art. fr0Tn the traces of it in the oldeft facred as well as
profane writers. The honour of the invention is at¬
tributed to the Tyrians ; though what leffens the me¬
rit of it is, that it is faid to have owed its rife to chance.
The juices of certain fruits, leaves, &c. accidentally
crufhed, are fuppofed to have furnifhed the firfl hint;
Pliny affures us, that even in his time the Gauls made
ufe of no other dyes. It is added, that coloured earths
and minerals, wafhed and foaked with rain, gave the
next dyeing materials.—But purple, an animal juice
• See Mu- found in a fhell-fifh called murex *, conchylium, and pur-
rr-"• puru, feems from hiftory to have been prior to any of
them. This indeed was referved for the ufe of kings
and princes ; private perfons were forbidden by law to
wear the leaft ferap of it. The difeovery of its tingeing
quality is faid to have been taken from a dog, which
having caught one of the purple fifhes among the rocks,
and eaten it up, Rained his mouth and beard with the
precious liquor; which ftruck the fancy of a Tyrian
nymph fo Rrongly, that (he refufed her lover Hercules
any favours till he had brought her a mant’e of the
fame colour.
Pliny feems to aferibe the invention of the art of dye¬
ing wool to the Lydians of Sardis: Injicerelanas Sardi-
lus Lydi; where the word metpere muit be underllood.
Bitt a modern critic fufpefts a falfe reading here; and,
not without reafon, for Lydi fubltitutes Lydda, thername
of a city pn the coaft of Phenicia, where the chief
mart of the purple dye was.
Afterthe Phenicians, the Sardinians feem to have
* arrived at the greateit perfection in the dyeing art; in-
fqmuch that faun* ZxpSvnxrov, Sardinian dye, palled in¬
to a proverb among the Greeks. Till the time of A-
lexander, we find no other fort of dye in ufe among
the Greeks but purple and fcarlet.—It was under the
fuccelfors of^ that monarch that thefe people applied
themfelves to the other colours ; and invented, or at
leaft perfefted, blue, yellow, green, '&c. — For the an¬
cient, purple, it has been long loft; but the perfeftion
Vol. VI. Part I.
- to which the moderns have carried the other colours,
abundantly indemnifies them of the lofs. It is ftitl,
however, greatly to be doubted whether the perma¬
nency of the modern colours at all equals that of the
ancient ones; though.it is certain that the former
greatly exceed them in brightnefs.
Sect. I, Theory of Dyeing.
~ 2
Beeore we can enter into any confideration of the Salts the
true theory of dyeing, it is neceffary to make the fol- me- rs
lowing obfervation concerning the pra&ice, namely» °0i0.j^K
That falls are almoft the only means we are acquainted
with by which any colouring fubftance can be made te
fix itfelf upon thofe matters which are the common fub-
jeffs -of dyeing. A folution of cochineal, for inftance,
will of itfelf impart no permanent colour to a piece of
woollen cloth put into it. The red colour of the co¬
chineal will indeed (lain the cloth while it remains im-
merfed in the folution ; but as foon as it is taken out
and waftied, thi» temporary ftain will immediately va-
ni(h, and the cloth become as white as before. If now
the cloth is dipped in the folution of any faline fub¬
ftance, alkalies alone excepted, and then immerfed in
the folution of cochineal for fome time, it will come out
permanently coloured; nor will the colour be difeharged
even by wafhing with foap and water. If a quantity
of fait is added to the folution of cochineal, and the
cloth put in without being impregnated with any fa-
line fubftance, the effedl will be the fame; the cloth
will come out coloured; only in this laft cafe, it muft
be well dried before wafhing it with foap, or moft of
the colour will be difeharged. *
By comparing this with what is delivered under the They ope.
article Cvlocr-Making, n°.i3, 14. we fhall he able to rate b7ct>a'
form a pretty rational theory of dyeing. It is there &ula ‘on*
remarked, that a faline fubftance (folution of tin in
aqua regia) had a furprifing power of coagulating the
colouring matter of certain folutions, fuch as cochineal.
Brazil-wood, logwood, &c. If therefore a piece of
cloth is previoufly impregnated with this folution, and
put into the colouring one, it is plain that feme part
of the colouring matter will be coagulated by the fo-
lution remaining in the cloth, in the very fame manner
that it would have been if a fmall-quantity of the fa-
. line folution had been poared into the other. The cloth
therefore will take up a part of the colouring matter,
which cannot be difeharged but by entirely difehar-
ging tire folution of tin. This, however, feems to unite
A a iteif
i86
D Y E
itfelf with the cloth very firmly, fo that fcarce a par¬
ticle of colour will be difcharged by vvafiling in plain
water, or even with foap; nor can the whole be taken
out without boiling the cloth in a folution of fixed
alkali.
Though folution of tin produces this coagulation in
the moft remarkable manner, it is not to be doubted
that the fame power is pofleffed in fome degree by moll
of the neutrals and imperfe& fairs. Alum poffeffes it
very confiderably, though not fo much as folution of
tin; and hence that fait is very much ufed in dyeing, as
well as fugar of lead, which alfo has a very ftrong
power of coagulation. The procefs of dyeing, there¬
fore, feems to be moft analogous to that of the coagu¬
lation or curdling of milk. Before it has fuffered: this
change, the milk is eafily mifcible with water; but
after it is once coagulated, the curd, or cafeous part, is.
very difficultly foluble in any liquid whatever. In like
manner, the colouring matter in the folution of cochi¬
neal, before the cloth is put in, is eafily foluble in water,
and may be diffufed through any quantity of fluid:
but no fooner is the cloth dipped in it, than the faline
fubftance contained in the cloth coagulates that part
of the colouring matter which lies in immediate con-
tadl with it; and as all the fluid fucceffively comes into
contatt ■dnth it, the whole of the colour is by degrees
coagulated and depofited on the cloth.
Hypothefe0 To account for the ftrohg adhefion of the colour to
concerning the dyed cloth, feveral hypothefes have been formed,
the adhe- Qne is. That the fibres of wool, filk, See. are hol-
ctiour thC ^ow tu^es» that the colouring matter enters them; and,
after being there coagulated, fhows itfelf through the
fine tranfparent fides of the tubes.—Another confi-
ders thefe filaments as folid lengthwife, but having all
round their fides an infinite number of fmall pores like
the extremities of the fine abforbing and. exhaling vef-
fels of the human body. In thefe pores, according to
the hypothefis, the colour is lodged; and as the pores
are placed exceedingly clofe to one another, the fine
threads appear to our eyes of one uniform colour.—A
third is, That the fibres are folid, or at leaft with re-
fpeft to. us may be confidered as fuch. The faline fub¬
ftance, whatever it is, that is employed to make the
colour ftrike, finks into the furface, partly corrodes
and unites itfelf with it into a third kind of fubftance
no longer foluble in plain water, nor even eafily by
foap, but which ftill preferves its coagulating quality.
According to this hypothefis, the dye lies entirely on
the outfide of the fluff, and continues as long as the ef-
fe£l of the fait continues upon the fibres of the matter
to be dyed.
M.Hellot’s Concerning the truth of thefe hypothefes, or indeed
theory dif- any others that can be invented, it is impoffible to
proved. bring any decifive proof. It feems, however, more
probable, that the procefs of dyeing is accompliftied by
a coagulation of the colouring matter itfelf, rather than
by any agglutination of it to the fibres by means of a
vitriolated tartar, as Mr Hellot fuppofes. According
to this gentleman’s theory, a vitriolated tartar is gene¬
rated in every procefs for dyeing, and proceeds from
the acid of the alum and alkaline bafis of the tartar
ufed in the preparations, or in fome of the dyeing in¬
gredients themfelves. He fuppofes that the pores of
the fluff are cleanfed and enlarged by the preparatory
ftdts, and by the boiling water, in fuch a manner as to
I N G.
receive the colouring particles, which particles are afi
terwards detained by the contraction of the pores oc~
cafioned by cold ; and further, that thefe pores are li--
ned with a faline cruft of tartar or vitriolated tartar.
On this theory the tranflator of the Chemical Dic¬
tionary has the following obfervations. “ Mr Hellot
has not drown that pure fixed alkali is incapable of
producing the effefts which he attributes to his tartar
and vitriolated tartar; and both thefe falls, though
they are difficult of fohition, and require a great quan¬
tity of water for this purpofe, will yet difiblve at laft ;
and therefore, if the colouring particles were fixed
chiefly by means of thefe falls, they might be wafhed
out by a large quantity of water; which we find to be
contrary to experience. g
“ We fhall find it more difficult to fubftitute a true Anothetr
theory than to refute that of Mr Hellot. Many ex*, ‘heorr-
periments ought to be previuufly made. Neverthelefs,
it may be obferved, That the colorific particles of moft
fubftances ufed in dyeing feem to be infoluble in water,
in fpirit of wine, and even in alkaline lixiviums: that
their diffufion through thefe liquids is caufed merely
by their adhefion to certain gummous and refinous parr
tides: and that they'may be difengaged from thofe
gummy and refinous matters, by applying a piece of
fluff to which they have a greater adhefive power,
which feems to be the cafe of the root-coloured and
blue dyes ; or by applying another fubftance to which
thefe partides have a greater power of adhefion ; fuch
as the earth of alum, in thofe dyes where that fait is
ufed, together with fome other fubftance, as fixed or vot
latile alkali, capable of decampoling alum ; or as the
ferruginous earth of the green vitriol in black dyes,-
to.which the colorific partides of the galls adhere ;
which earths are capable of applying themfdves and.
of adhering to the fluffs. The reparation of the co- <
louring particles from the gummy and refinous mas¬
ters is probably facilitated by the addition of acids and
neutral falls, which may coagulate in fome meafure the
vegetable matters, and leave the colorific particles dif¬
engaged ; fo that they may. apply themfdves to the
fluff, or to the earths above mentioned.”
In a treatife on.this fubjed by M. de Apligny, the M.de Ap-
nature of the different fuhltances ufually fubjeded to Hgny’s the-
this operation is particularly confidered. Thefe are “T*
wool, filk, cotton, and linen. Wool was probably
the firft fubftance to which any kind of dye was ap.-
plied, and which might probably have been done even
in the fleece, while mankind, in their rude ftate, wore
the fkins of animals. When fome further progrtfs in
arts was made, and the method of manufaduring wool
into worfted and cloth difeovered, the dye would then
be applied to it; but it was not till a conliderable time
afterwards that filk and cotton were known ; and the
art of dyeing linen is mentioned as a new invention e-
ven in the time of Pliny.
Wool, according to our author, cortfifts of tubes,
which, like hair, contain a medullary fubftance, but
throughout their length are fieves with an infinite
number of lateral pores; and in proportion to the
greater or leffer number of thefe pores, the woolly ft.
bres are more or lefs curled. The reafon affigned for
this is,, that “ the more interruptions there, are in the
continuity of any body, the more flexible it will be ;
the fibres of the wool therefore being curled muft have
many
DYE
many pores, and confefjuently great room for the ex¬
traneous fubftanee which may be not only lodged in
the exterior pores, but even penetrate into the whole
extent of the tubes, after the medullary fubitance has'
been expelled. It is not therefore to be wondered at,
if wool, being of all fubftances that are made into fluffs
the moll porous, Ihould be the mofl eafy to dye, and
imbibe the greatefl quantity of colour.”
Silk, according to our author, may naturally be fup-
pofed to proceed originally from the mucjlage of the
mulberry leaf on which the animal feeds, and which
he imagines is converted into an animal fubflance by a
combination with volatile alkali; but which, by the
evaporation of a thin oil, and part of this alkaline
matter, becomes tough and hard. An example of
fomething fimilar to this is obferved on the leaves of
the ros folk, on which there are found fome drops,
which being touched while the fun fhines upon it may
be drawn out into fine and very white threads. The
confolidation of the filk is alfo promoted by a yellow
fubflance w'ith which the animal impregnates the thread;
and this feems to be a concrete oil Tomething fimilar
to wax. Silk thread therefore is nothing elfe than
a continued feries of moleculae of this indurated glu¬
ten : but as in this deficcation the moleculae will re¬
main at unequal diflances, there will neceffarily be in¬
equalities, and confequently pores in the thread; but
as thefe pores are only on the furface of the thread
without any interior concavity as in the wool, it fol¬
lows, that filk can admit no particles into its pores,
but fuch as are extremely fubtile and in very fmall
quantities j that even the particles admitted require a
ftronger maflic or fixing fubflauce than wool, fince
they are only, fuperficial, and incapable of penetrating.
Hence filk is much more difficult to dye permanently
than wool, and requires likewife a much greater quan¬
tity of colouring materials ; two ounces and a half of
cochineal being required to give the fame fhade to a
pound of filk that one ounce will give to a pound of
wool. For the fame reafon alfo the colours on filk are
lefs permanent than on wool.
Cotton being a true vegetable fubflance muff ne¬
ceffarily have its fibres hollow like wool, that the juices
may circulate properly ; but as the’fe are a great deal
•finer, the cotton is therefore much more difficult to
dye. The exterior and lateral pores of cotton are
likewife filled with a kind of oil, which it is neceffary
to expel before the dye can be given.
Flax may likewife be fuppofed porous, but that its
pores are much fmaller than thofe of any of the fub-
ilances already mentioned. The detached and fepa-
rated fibres refemble filk in fome degree, only that,
being more dry and compaft, they take the dye with
flill more difficulty than even cotton ; and from the
different textures of thefe fubftances we may reafon-
ably aferibe the different fhades which are taken by
them even when the fame dyeing ingredients are made
ufe of. This holds good alfo with refpect to fluffs
differently manufactured, though of the fame kind ;
the pores being neceffarily contra&ed by certain kinds
of fabrication, whence they receive a fmaller quantity
of the dye: and hence fcarlet cloth, when cut, appears
white internally, the colouring atoms being too large
to penetrate it, which, however, does not happen in
the fluffs which have been previoufly dipped in folu-
lion of alum.—A difference of .fhade will alfo be oc-
I N G. 187
cafioned by the different pofitions and delicacy of the
fibres of the fluff; and by this alfo a difference is made
in the brightnefs of the colour. ^
With regard to the operation of thofe fubftances
commonly made ufe of for fixing the dye, our author ijraCt
remarks, that lime feems deftined by the Author of na¬
ture for binding and uniting the two feemingly oppo-
fite fubftances of falts and earth. “ Fire (fays he)
makes it foluble in water, and therefore eafily ufed ;
but it again becomes indiffoluble by the contadl and
influence of the air; and thefe properties render it
capable of forming, when united to other bodies, an
unalterable cement.” We know feveral mixtures of
this kind, of which lime is the bafis, and that in con-
fequence of thefe properties it confirms the folidity of
many colours. 9
Alum has the property of attra&ing the colouring0! alum,
particles of the dye as well as of fixing them; and Pliny
informs us that this property was known to the an¬
cients. They made ufe of certain earths of the argil¬
laceous kind, which they called creta argentar'ia, faluni-
fa, and anularia, to imbibe the colour from infufions of
dyeing ingredients ; and they became much fooner fa-
turated with the colour than wool itfelf. There are two
kinds of alum made ufe of in dyeing, viz. roch alum ‘
and Roman alum. The firft is always ufed for blues
and the colours inclining to black ; but as this gene¬
rally contains fome particles of iron, the Roman alum
is preferred for the more lively colours, as it con¬
tains nothing capable of tarnifhing their beauty. The
colours are brightened by the whitenefs of the earth,
while its tenacity, produced by fome kind of undluo-
fity with which it is combined, makes it more folid ;
and the plaftic quality of the earth makes it take the
form of the pores in the fubftance to be dyed; whence
3 greater permanency of colour mull neceffarily enfue.
There are feveral other faline fubftances made ufe
of in dyeing, particularly nitre, fea-falt, fal ammoniac,
and tartar, &c. By the three firft the red colours are
always rendered more, dark-coloured, while the others
enliven the colour and give it an orange hue. Neu¬
tral falts with a metallic bafis ferve to ftrengthen the
'Colour,^ which varies its ftiade according to the nature
of the metallic fubftance with which it is combined.
Green and blue vitriol are the molt commonly ufed in
this art. > - D ehf fn
In explaining the theory of the art of dyeing, ourpofed to be
author confiders the whole as an effect of attraiftion ; an effect of
and in order to fet forth this matter in a proper light,
it is neceffary, in the firft place, to explain the condi¬
tions requifite for the adtion of bodies upon one ano¬
ther in this way. Thefe conditions are, 1. That the
attradlive power be mutual in both. 2. That they
ftiould be placed at a diftance from each other propor¬
tioned to the force of attradlion. 3. That this force
be fuperior to that by which the colouring matter is
attradled by the water.. Hence it is neceffary for dye¬
ing Huffs of any kind, that the dye Ihould confift of
fmall particles fufpended in a liquid, in fuch a manner
that they may be feparated by a fubftaoce which has a
greater affinity with thefe minute bodies than water.
Some of thefe fubftances, however, are not attracted
by the earth of alum, and thefe enter the pores of the
cloth without its affiftance ; but in fuch as require the
affiftance of alum, the particles are fixed by the power
of attraftion, at the fame time that the acid of the
A a 2 alum
*88
DYE
alum is foftened by its combination with the princi¬
ples of thefe particles ; this acid having ferved merely
as a vehicle for diltributing equally into all the pores
of the ftuff that earth which it held in a date of the
greateft pofiible divifibility.
ii Our author next proceeds to contdl the theory, that
Salts can- falls, even fuch as are the moft infolublc, can main-
eolour in6 ta‘n t^e*r ftahihty in the pores of the fluff, however
confe- infolitble the fait may be in water. He obferves that
quence of this infolubility, however great, could not prevent a
their own great quantity of it from being carried off by water,
inlbluhility and confequently the colour from being injured by the
decompofition of thefe falls ; but fixed earth, fuch as
that of lime and alum, which from its nature obfli-
nately retains, the phlogiflic principles of all colours,
mufl neceffarily produce fuch as cannot be deftroyed
but by the flrongefl acids.
Colours de- Colours, in the opinion of our author, depend en-
pend on tirely upon phlogiflon. It is well known that, by the
phlogifton. limple addition of any fait to an oily, vegetable, and
colouring fubflance, we may either change or totally
expel its colour ; becaufe any fait, either fimple or
compound, deflroying the combination then fubliiling,
a new reflection of the rays of light mufl neceffarily
• take place. In fuch fubftances therefore as cannot
have their ■ colour affeiled by any fait, the phlogifton
is moft probably in the moll perfeft combination.with
the other principles. Were we thoroughly acquaint^'
ed with this combination, we fhould be able to make
perfeft compofitions for dyeing, fimilar to what arti¬
ficial cinnabar is for painting: but though we cer¬
tainly know the tffefts produced upon fome kinds
of oils by falts, and can decompofe fome colour¬
ing fubftances and feparate their principles; we are
Hill unacquainted with the manner in which thefe prin¬
ciples are combined ; and therefore every effort of this
kind has hitherto been found infufficicnt for the par¬
ts Pofe-
Apligny’s “ As the colour (fays our author) depends upon
thCOU(5t'orf ^ie ^aPe or %ure ^e conftituent particles of the
of acids and colouring bodies, the fhade may be varied by changing
alkalies up-their figure, but the permanency of the colour is at
on colour- the fame time diminifhed ; becaufe it is impoffible to
fhf cfUb' Pr°duce this change without altering the principles to
‘ W1C * which they owe their permanency ; and this is the cafe
with cochineal. The fhades of its colour are eafily
varied by acids and alkalies.”
M. de Apligny then proceeds to account for the ac¬
tion of acids and alkalies upon colouring fubftances.
Cochineal is rendered darker by alkalies, and always
becomes of a deep purple on adding them ; and the
volatile alkali is found to be more efficacious in this
refpett than the fixed kind. Thefe falts he fuppofes
to produce this effedl, becaufe they are natural folvents
of animal fubftances; which, however, they are inca¬
pable of difiblving without combination, caufing only
a compefition without the diffipation of any principle.
This combination gives a degree of denfity to the co¬
louring particles which they had not before ; and thus
inclines them to black, by occafioning a greater de¬
gree of refratlion in the pencils of rays. Acids, on
the other hand, efpecially thofe of the mineral kind,
burn the oil, and abforb the phlogifton, which is the
principle of all colours. By the violence of their ae-
ti< n a part-of the phlogifton and volatile alkali eva-
4
I N G.
porates, the colouring matter becomes more rarefied,
and refledls a greater number of the rays of light ;
whence it neceffarily acquires a colour nearly yellow,
and even quite fo if a proper quantity be added ; this
being, according to our author, of all colours the
neareft to white or tranfparency. Hence it is not
cuftomary for dyers to make any ufe of fixed alkali
when cochineal is the colouring fubftance, as it would
make too great an alteration in the confiJlence, and,
by mixing with the animal oil, form a foap which
would render the colour mifcible in water, and con¬
fequently of the falfe kind of dye ; the oil already
mixed with fixed alkali being no longer at liber¬
ty to combine with the earth of alum. But after the
fubftance has been already dyed, the fixed alkali may
then be ufed with advantage in fome cafes; becaufe the
colouring fubftance being already converted into what
our author calls a majlic, cannot be diflblved by the men-
flruum unlefs the latter be ufed in very great quantity.
Acids, according to M. de Apligny, are more de-
ftrudlive in their adtion than alkalies; and the oil of
vitriol, formerly ufed, always containing fome ferrugi¬
nous particles, a kind of Pruffian blue was formed,
which rendered the colour purple rather than otherwife ;
and even by fimple boiling in an iron veffel, the folu-
tion of cochineal always affumes a purple colour. The
adtivity of fpirit of nitre, which has been fubftituted
in place of oil of vitriol, is fo great, that it has been
found neceflary to give it a balls on which it might in
part exhaull itfelf, and, by communicating part of its
phlogifton, render it lefs greedy of the cochineal. This
bafis is tin, which formerly was diflblved by fpirit of
nitre, but now by aqua regia, which was found to dif-
folve it more completely. Our author’s method of
ufing this folution, however, is not by diluting it in
water, and then by dipping the {tuffs in it previous to
their being dyed. “ I bis preparation (fayshe) would
not be fufficient ; for by diluting with a great quan¬
tity of water, a part of the calx would precipitate and
be reduced into particles larger than when diffolved in
acids, efpecially if ufqd alone and feparate from the
dye ; the acid in that cafe not adting on the colour
with fufficient fored to enliven it. Only part of this
folution, therefore, is added to the cochineal liquor;
and the acid then abandoning the tin, and combining
with the oil of the cochineal, the calx of the metal
feizes the colouring matter as it precipitates, and, as
Mr Hellot obferves, forms a kind of lacker which in-
finuates into the pores of the ftuff, and is there retain¬
ed by a gluten given by the ffarch which was added to
the dyeing liquor. Hence it is eafy to conceive why
the fcarlet dye is much lefs folid than thecrimfon ; the
lacker being much drier than the fimple colouring par¬
ticles of the cochineal, is in this ftate nearer to the na¬
ture of the mineral colours. The oil and the animal
gluten, which in the crimfon dye form with the earth
of alum a majlic, are deftroyed by the acid, and the
ftarch then added is an infufficient fubftitute.”
The fame thing that has here been mentioned of
cochineal applies equally to gum-lac and kermes ; both
of which afford a fcarlct dye. The kermes, he thinks,
has the advantage of being compofed of finer particles,
which more eafily penetrate the pores of filk or cotton.
Silk indeed, on account of the fmallnefs of its pores,
takes up only a part of the cochineal; but it extra&s
D Y E
the whole of the colour from the cochineal, and the
colour is alfo more fixed, probably beeaufe the ihi ub
on which the infeft is nourished communicates its aftrin-
gency, or contains a greater quantity of oil. Cotton
may likewife be dyed with kermes, though cochineal
cannot penetrate its pores.
But in whatever. way the falls ufed in dyeing do
aft, it is certain they are capable, except in a very few
inllances, of fixing and giving a luftre and permanency
I4 to the colour which otherwife could aiever be obtained.
Exceptions The exception to this general rule inoft commonly
to the ge- known is that of indigo. This is a fine blue fecula'
produced by fermentation from the leaves of the In-
fclts. b ^an pk*nt called anil It is very difficult of folution ;
however, it may be diffolved by alkaline falls, concen¬
trated oil of vitriol, orpiment, or combinations of ful-
phur with quicklime. If a quantity of indigo is dif-
folved in a fixed alkali (for volatile alkalies will not dif-
folve it), the folution is always green, which "is the
natural colour produced in all vegetable blues by the
alkali : but if any piece of fluff is put into this folutien,
though it remains green while immerfed in the liquid,
the-moment it comes in contaft with the air, the dif-
folving power of the alkali is totally deftroyed ; the in¬
digo is precipitated upon the cloth, refumes its native
colour, arid dyes the cloth blue.
The caufe of this precipitation is very difficult to be
inveftigated. Perhaps it"'may be owing to an at-
traftion of fixed air by the alkali from the atmo-
fphere, which renders the fait unable to diffolve the
indigo anyr longer. The adhefion of the colour feems
merely owing to an attraftion between it and the cloth ;
for the alkaline fait can contribute nothing to this, but
would rather have the contrary effect. Perhaps, how¬
ever, the great folvent power poffeffed by alkaline falls,,
by perfeftly clearing away every kind of fordes, may
bring the indigo and cloth into nearer contaft with
each other, than when it is diffolved in any other way ;
and confequently the attraftion will in thefe cafes be
the flronger. This feems to have fome probability ;
for when indigo is diffolved in vitriolic acid-, as in dye¬
ing Saxon blue, the colour is much more eafily dif-
charged.
Another exception is in the juices of fome vegetables,
fuch as the nuts of the anarcadiurn. This produces,
without addition, a moft deep and lading black, never
to be wafhed out or difeharged by any means whatever.
Several other plants are to be found in different parts
of the world, which give an indelible black ftain upon
linen without addition ; and the colouring matter of
thefe feems to adhere by means of a very tenacious
gluten, with which it is mixed, and which, when once
thoroughly dried, can never be again diffolved. In this
refpeft, thefe black flaming colours feem analogous to
the purpura of the ancients ; which ftained indelibly
without addition, and was of. an exceedingly vifeous
and adhefive nature.
Sect. IL PraUlce of Dyeing.
The materials for dyeing different colours are fo
many and various, that an enumeration of them all is
fcarce to be expefted. The fame difference, however,
takes place among the materials for dyeing w>hich we
have obferved to take place among thofe for Colovk-
I N G. 189
Making. Some ingredients produce durable colours, 15
which cannot be difeharged either by expofure to the an‘*
air or by w^afhing with foap : others, though they d e ^es‘
may be made to Hand the action of foap pretty well,
cannot by any means be enabled to refifl the aftion of
the air. Thefe are diflinguifhed by the different names
of true and falfe, permanent and fading, &c. ; nor is
there any method yet difeovered of giving the falfe
colours an equal degree of durability with the true ones.
This hath been attempted by mixing a permanent and
a fading colour together; in which cafe it was thought
that the former would impart fomewhat of its durabi¬
lity to the latter : but this hath always been found to
mifgive ; the fading colour foon flying off, and leaving
the permanent one behind. Nay, in many cafes this
does not even happen ; for, by fome means hitherto not
accounted for, the volatile colour imparts its volatility to
that which would othervvife be permanent. The famehath
altb been attempted by dyeing a piece.of fluff partially
with a fading colour, and then completing the dye with a
permanent one. In this cafe it was hoped that the fading
colour being covered over, and defended from the in¬
juries of the air by the permanent one, would necef-
farily become equally durable, or at lead remain a
much longer time than if the fluff was dyed with it
alone. But this alfo hath been found ineffeftual; and
the fading colour hath been diffipated as foon when co¬
vered with a permanent one, as when left without any
fuch cover.— Solution of tin in aqua regia will give
m<?ll of thefe fading colours an high degree of beauty,
and fome fliare of durability, though even that is not
able to make them equal to the others.—The moft
permanent dyes we have are cochineal and gum lac for
fine reds and fcarlets; indigo and w-oad for blue ; and,
when mixed in different proportions with cochineal or
lac, for purple and violet colours. Weld, and fome
other vegetables, for yellow; and madder for coarfe
reds, purples, and blacks.—The fading colours are
much more numerous. In this clafs are included Bra¬
zil-wood, logwood, peach-wood, red-wood, fuftic, tur¬
meric root, annotto, archil, &c. &c„
With regard to the falls made ufe of in dyeing, it Salts to bo-
hath been but too often cuflomary to jumble together yfed in dye-
fuch a quantity of different ones, that it was not only in2‘
impoffible to know in what particular fait the virtue
refided, but often the efficacy of the whole hath been
totally deilroyed, and the colour entirely fpoiled by
fuch injudicious management. It is proper, therefore,
where a mixture of two or more faks is intended to be
made for dyeing, firft to try the change of colour pro¬
duced by each of the falls upon the colouring fubflance.
If the colours are nearly alike, the mixture may be fafe-
ly made as to that particular.. But if the two colours
produced by the different falts are very different from
one another, to mix them together mull be very inju¬
dicious. Thus, fuppofe you want to dye fcarlet, fo¬
lution of tin in aqua regia produces the neceffary
change of colour on the decoftion of cochineal, and
converts it into a high flame-colour, which Ihows it to
be a proper ingredient ; but to the folution of tin, it-
would furely be the greateft abfurdity to add a quanti¬
ty of faccharum faturni, the effeft of which is to change
the colour of cochineal to a dull purple. But though
the falts taken feparately ihould produce a colour nearlyy
fimilar, another thing muft be regarded, namely, whe--
tberr
*9© BYE
fber 'they can be mixed with fafety to one another ? It
iii the nature of many falts to deftroy one another when¬
ever they come into perfedt contadl by being diffolved
in water. Thus, folution of tin and faccharum fatur-
ni deftroy one another; and fo do folution of tin and
tartar or cream of tartar. To mix thefe together
■muft therefore be abfurd ; and yet we find this laft
•mixture ordered in almoft every'receipt for dyeing fear-
let. It is alfo to be obferved, that a mixture of dif-
-ferOnt falts ought never to be made, out of a notion _
that the colour will keep the better on that account ;
for moft commonly it will keep the worfe. A fingle
fa't will anfwer for this purpofe better than a hundred.
A mixture ftrould only be made where it is neceflary
to produce the colour defired ; and if a dyer proceeds
in this fimple manner, he may not only attain to great
perfection in the art from his own experience without
being taught by others, but even make confiderable dif-
coveries pas dyeing is at prefent far enough from being
brought to perfection.—The falts chiefly to be ufed in
dyeing are fixed alkalies ; folutions of tin in the vitri¬
olic and marine acids, and in aqua regia ; fugar of lead ;
cream of tartar ; alum ; oil of vitriol; and folution of
iron in the acetous acid. By means of thefe, almoft
all kinds of colours may be dyed at an eafy rate, and
with very little trouble.
,7 With regard to the operative part of this bufinefs,
Primitive M. Hellot .obferves, that the whole depends on the
colours in ufe 0f fome colours called by the workmen primitive,
which have no relation to the colours called pri¬
mitive by Sir Ifaac Newton. The primitive colours
ufed by dyers are in number five, viz. blue, red, yellow,
fawn or root colour, and black. Each of thefe fur-
nifh a great number of fhades, both according to the
nature of the ingredients themfelves, and the acid or
alkaline fubftances with which they are mixed. Of
thefe five colours only two ihould be prepared with in¬
gredients which produce no colour themfelves, but
-which, by their acidity, and the finenefs of the earth
they contain, difpofe the pores of the fubftance to re¬
ceive the dye. '1'hofe colours which in a more parti¬
cular manner require fuch a preparation are the red and
yellow, with fuch others as -are derived from them.
Black requires a particular ■preparation ^ but blue and
fawn colour none, at leaft for wool ; it being fufficient
for the purpofe to fcour and foak this fubftance well ;
■after which nothing more is required than to plunge it
into the vat, itirring it .well about, and letting it re¬
main for a longer or Ihorter time as the colour is in-
'i8 tended to be more or lefs deep.
Ingredients The ingredients ufed in dyeing blue are by our au-
Til'ed in dyt' thor determined to be thre-e in number, viz. patlel, <woad,
»ng blue. , • j-
and indigo.
Paftel, called in Latin if alts or glnjlum, is prepared
by gathering it when come to maturity, fuffering it
to rot, and then making it. up into balls for drying.
Lor this purpofe it is cultivated in Languedoc, and is
.made up into balls of 150 or 200 pounds weight.
Thefe refemble a colle&ion of little dry lumps of earth
intermixed with fibres of plants- For extra&ing the
colour, the dyer muft provide himfelf with large wooden
vats of a magnitude proportioned to the quantity of
fluff to be ufed. Mr Hellot recommends them from
.ten to twelve feet in diameter, and fix or feven in
Leight. They fhould be made of Haves fix inches
I N G.
broad and two inches thick, bound with iron Loops
about two or three feet afunder. They are to be
funk in the ground for the more eafy management of
their contents, which is done by means of hooks fa¬
ttened to the end of a ftaff, the length of which is
proportioned to the diameter of the vat. The bottom,
is made of lime and cement, though it might be made
of wood, were it not for" the difficulty of getting a
wooden bottom ftrong enough to fupport the weight.
The vats ufed for dyeing cottons of a blue colour, as
M. de Apfigny informs us, are generally formed of
large brandy pipes newly emptied, or of oil hogfheads
containing about 500 quarts. Before the latter are
made ufe of, they ought to be well deanfed, by flaking
lime in them, and ferubbing with a broom'till the oily
matter is thoroughly diffolved by means of the lime. ^
The preparation of the blue vat is the moft difficult Prepara-
operation in the whole art of dyeing ; and for this ourtionsof
author gives the following direflions: “ Your copper paftel
cauldron (hould be placed as near as poffible to the vat,
and then filled with pond-water. If the water be not
fufficiently putrid, you put in a handful of hay, viz.
two or three pounds, with eight pounds of brown mad¬
der, or the bark of the root. If you could have the
old liquor of a madder vat, it would fave frefti madder,
and have a better effeft. The fire {hould be lighted
about three in the morning, and the mixture {hould
boil an hour and a quarter ; though fome continue the
boiling for two hours and an half or three hours. The
liquor is now to be conveyed into the vat by means of '
a fpout, the veffei being very clean, and having a hat¬
ful of wheaten bran at the bottom. The paftel balls
are to be put into the vat one after another while the
liquor is running into it, that they may be more eafily
broken, ftirred, and mixed with the rake, an inftru-
ment compofed of a ftrong femicircular piece of wood,
with a long wooden handle. The mixture {hould be
continually ftirred till all the hot liquor is emptied out
of the copper into the vat; and when the latter is ra¬
ther better than half full, it {hould be covered with a
lid a little larger than the circumference. There {hould
alfo be a cloth put over it, to confine the heat as much
as poffible ; after which the whole {hould be allowed to
remain four hours. It ought then to be uncovered,
in order to mix it thoroughly, and to give it air. A-
bout an handful of lime ought now to be put in for
every ball of paftel; and after fcattering in-this fub¬
ftance, the vat {hould again be mixed and covered as
before, except about an handbreadth to let in the air.
in four hours after it {hould again be ftirred, but with¬
out giving it any more lime ; then it is to be covered
and fuffered to ftand for three hours longer, leaving a
fmall opening for air as before. At the end of three
hours it may again be uncovered and well ftirred ; and
if it be not yet ready and come to, according to the
language of the dyers, that is, if the blue does not
rife to the furface, but that it ftill-foams, which may
be known by ftriking with the flat of the rake, it will
be neceffary, after ftirring it well, to let it ftand an
hour and an half longer, watching it carefully during
that time in .cqfe it fliould call blue. You then fup-
ply it with more water till the vat is full, putting in
as much indigo as you think proper.
“ The indigo ufed for this purpofe fliould be in fo¬
lution ; and in order to diffolve it you muft have a fe-
paratc
DYE
parate cauldron and furnace, and the veffel fufficient
for diffolving 80 or 100 pounds of indigo mult contain
30 or 35 buckets of hard water. Thisihould be made
into a lixivium, by putting 25 buckets of clear water
into the copper with the addition of a hatful of bran,
12 or 13 pounds of madder, and 40 of good pot-alh ;
that is, half a pound of alkaline fait and two ounces
and a half of madder to each pound of indigo. It
Ihould boil quickly for three quarters of an hour; after
which the fire fhould be taken away from the furnace,
and the refiduum Hand for half an hour, in order to let
the fediment fall to the bottom. The clear liquor is
then poured into a clean calk placed clofe to the cop¬
per. Take out the grounds at the bottom of the cop¬
per, walh it .clean, return the lixivium into the copper,
light a fmall fire under it, and at the fame time put
into the copper 80 pounds of indigo reduced to a grofs
powder. The liquor (hould then be made very hot,
but not fuffered to boil; and to facilitate the folution,
it mull be kept continually ftirring with a fmall rake,
to prevent it from gathering into lumps, or from burn¬
ing to the bottom of the copper. The liquor Ihould
be kept moderately hot. and of as equal a degree of
heat as poffible, by throwing into it from time to time
feme lixivium of lime, which Ihould be at hand ready
prepared, in order to cool it. As foon as you per¬
ceive that there are nd longer any lumps in. the bottom
of the copper, and that the indigo is well diflblved
and diluted, the fire is to be withdrawn from the fur¬
nace, leaving only a few hot cinders to keep it warm.
Cover up the*copper then, and put in a pattern of llulF,
which ought to be green when taken out, and turn blue
immediately on being expofed to the air. Should this
not be the cafe, fome frelh and clear lixivium, prepared
as jull now diredled, mull be added.
“ In preparing the pallel-vats, one common, dye-
houfe kettle full is to be put in for every ball of pallel;
the veflel is then to be filled within fix fingers breadth
of the edge, when it is to be well mixed and covered as
before.
“An hour after the vat has been fiipplied with wa¬
ter, it mull have two meafures (about two handfuls)
of lime for every ball of pallel, or in proportion as it is
thought that it will be required ; but as fome kinds of
pallel require much lefs preparation than others, it is
impoffible to give any accurate directions upon the
fubjedl. In general, however, the lime Ihould not be
fcattered in till the vat be well llirred.
“ Having again covered the vat, a pattern is to be
put in at the end of three hours, which Ihould alfo be
kept three hours immerfed in the liquor, when it is- to
be taken out, in order to examine the Hate of the vat.
The pattern, as has already been obferved, ought to be
green when immediately taken out, but inftantly to
turn blue ; and if if is of a good green, you llir the
vat. adding one or two handfuls of lime, and then co¬
ver it. Three hours afterwards it is to be llirred again,
adding more lime if necefiary. Cover it then for an
hour and an half longer ; and when the matter is fet¬
tled immerfe a pattern, which mud. remain for an hour,
and then be inlpefted to know the (late of the paftel.
If the pattern be of a good green when taken out, and
becomes a deep blue when expofed to the air, another
pattern is to be put in, in order to afcertaiii the efFe&
of the vat. Should.the colour, of the pattern be fulfi-
I N G. 191
ciently high, the' vat is to be filled with hot water, or,
if it can be procured, the liquor of an old madder vat,
and then llirred again. If the vat wants lime, a fuffi¬
cient quantity mull be added according to the fmell,
and as it may be found necellary during the working.
This being done, and the vat brought to a proper
Hate, it is to be once more covered for an hour; after
which the Huffs are to be immerfed in it.” 20
This operation is -fuppofed by fome dyers to be im- M Hcllot’s--
pradlicable, except upon a very large fcale; but M. method of
Hellot has made fome experiments on this fubjeCl, l'r‘Paring
which feem to evince the contrary.. For this PurP°fe “n
he took a little barrel containing about 23 gallons, and fcale.
put it into a copper full of water kept carefully heated.
He then put ro gallons of water into a fmall copper with
an ounce and a half of madder, and a very fmall hand¬
ful of dyer’s weed ; which lall, however, he does not
fuppofe to be of any ufe. Having made the whole to-
boil together for three hours, he poured all the liquor
into the barrel about nine in-the. evening, previoully
putting into it two fmall handfuls of bran. At the
fame time he added four pounds of paltel ; and having
llirred it well for a quarter of an hour, he covered it
up, and took care to have it llirred every three hours
during the night. It is cullomary to put fome four
water into* the large vats, but this was omitted in the
prefent cafe ; and the bran, which foured with the li¬
quor, was found to be a fufficient fubllitute. .Next
morning the mixture was found to be in a Hate of fer¬
mentation, frothing up and making an hilling noife.
On mixing it well, and adding an ounce and an half of
flaked lime, the froth was increafed ; and as the fmell
became Hronger, it was judged proper to add a little
more pallel. At half an hour after ten the vat fmelt
llronger of the lime ; a pattern was put into it ; and
at the expiration of an hour, it was taken out green ;
and which, on being expofed to the air, became blue.
On being Hirred, another pattern was put in about an
hour afterward; which having alfo remained an hour im¬
merfed in the liquor, came out afterwards of a deeper
blue than the former. At half an hour after twelve
two ounces of indigo,, not diffolved, but only powdered,
fifted, and diluted with hot water, were put in, with
about the bignefs of a walnut of the cendres graveleti
or burnt lees of wine, which contain a large quantity of
alkaline fait; and every two hours afterwards a pattern
was put in an hour after flirting the vat, letting each
alfo remain an hour in the liquor. This was continued
till ten o’clock ; and the lafl patterns were not only
evidently darkefl, but of the brightefl colour.
The lafl pattern Ihowed that the lime.was exhaufted ;
but on account of the latenefs of the hour, our author
added only another half ounce of lime, and an hour
after put in another pattern; which after having re¬
mained an hour in the liquor, was taken out more blue
than the rell, though the colour had been rendered lefs
lively by the lime. Two other patterns put in during
the night were Hill darker, though the colour was
fomewhat dull; an evidence that the lime was not yet
exhaufled. The pafte which lay at the bottom was
of a yellowilh brown when taken out, but by expofure
to the air became of an olive green. Under the fur-
face it appeared of the fame colour if moved with the
hand, but inftantly became green, fmelling rather-
llrong, though not very much of the lime. The liquor-
mp ' D Y E I N G.
, itfelf was oF the colour of beer, but the feum or froth dyers correct a vat which has got too much lime with
of a blue colour. Patterns were now put in every two urine and tartar : but the beft method, according to
hours till two in the afternoon; when that which was opr author, is to put into it a fufficient quantity of
taken out appeared of fuch a fine blue, that it was jud- bran and madderf and if the excefs of lime is not very
ged proper to fill the vat. For this purpofe about great, it may be allowed to Hand four, five, or fix
eight gallons of water were put into a little copper hours, or more, adding to it two hatfuls of bran and
with a quarter of an otince of madder and an handful three or four pounds of madder, which fliould be flight-
of bran ; and when it had boiled for half an hour, the ly fprinkled on the top without any covering. At
liquor was put into the little vat for three hours. On the end of four or five hours it fhould then be ftirred
llirring and letting it then remain for an hour after- by a rake, and a pattern put in to try the effeft of
wards, a pattern was put in, which in an hour’s time it. If the blue does not rife until it be cold, it ought
Was taken out of a’beautiful blue. Anell of ferge was to have time to recover, by allowing it to Hand with-
then immerfed by means of what our author calls a out difturbance, which fometimes requires whole days
crofs ; which is an iron hoop with a net faftened to it, to accomplifh ; but, in general, the lime which feems
themefhes of which are about an inch fquare; and the to want itrength to carry on the fermentation, revives
whole may be fufpended at any height required by and prevents the vat for fome time from yielding any
means of three or four cords faltened to it. t he ferge colour. To bring it forward, fome bran and madder
had no other preparation than being made thoroughly fhould be fprinkled on the top, befides an addition of
wet; neverthelefs, in about a quarter of an hour it was two full balkcts of frefh paftel, which aflifts the liquor,
taken out very green’, and on being wrung out turned when heated again, in diffolving the lime. 5. The
blue ; but on a fecond immerfion for another quarter vat ought now to be frequently tried by putting in a
of an hour, the colour turned out much more lively and pattern, that from one hour to another you may be
brighter than could have been expected. The experi- able to judge by the green colour how far the lime
ment was repeated with a pound of woriled ; but the has operated. Thus the operation may be accurately
vaf had been fo much exhaufted that it came out only conduced; for when the vat has fuffered either by
' a fkye blue ; however, by fprinkling in about half an too much or too little lime, it is very difficult to ma-
ounce of frefh lime, the colour was afterwards made nage it. 6. If, during the time that you are thus em-
fufficiently deep. ployed in retrieving the vat, it ihould cool too faft, you
His direc- For working this vat our author gives the follow- mull endeavour to preferve the heat by emptying fome
tiuns for jng dire&ions. 1. It is in a proper Hate for working, of the liquor, and replacing it with hot water ; for
th*rltaftel e' k,r imPart'ng the blue colour to the fluffs put when the liquor grows cold, neither the paftel nor
vat/3 6 ^nt0 if* when the fediment or grounds at the bottom lime are confumed but in very fmall quantity. The
is of a fine brown green ; when it changes upon being adfion of the lime is alfo retarded by too great a de-
taken out of the vat; when the froth which rifes to gree of heat; and in this cafe it is proper rather to
the top is of a fine Perfian blue ; and when the pattern, wait a little than to be in too great a hurry to reftore
which had been fteeped for an hour, is of a fine green the vats. 7. It is evident that the vat has fuffered by
colour. 2. The vat is alfo in a proper flate for work- not being fufficiently fupplied with lime, when there
ing, when the liquor is clear and reddifh, and the drops are no large air-bubbles on the top of a fine blue co-
which adhere to the rake are of a brown colour. lour, but only a fettled froth of fmall tarnifhed bubbles;
3. When the liquor is neither harfh nor too greafy to and when, by dafhing upon the furface of it with the
the feel, and when it fmells neither of lime nor of the rake, it makes a biffing noife produced by the break-
lixivium. 4. It may be known when too much lime ing of a vaft number of thefe fmall air-bubbles as foon
has been put in, by the colour of the pattern immerfed as they are formed. The liquor has alfo an offen,-
in the liquor ; which, inftead of being a fine grafs five fmell like rotten eggs, and the fediment does not
green, will be only a dirty greyifh blue, or fome other change colour when taken out of the liquor. This
colour of that kind. The fame thing may likewife accident will very probably take place, if you do not
be underftood when the fediment does not change co- carefully attend to the fmell of the vat, but imprudent-
lour ; when there is fcarce any efflorefcence on the ly put in the fluffs when the paftel has fpent the lime;
vat; and when the liquor fmells only of lime or lixi- for in that cafe the final! quantity of lime which re-
vium. mains will adhere to the fluffs, and will thus give them
In order to reftify the (late of the vat in this a bad colour. When this is perceived, you mull im-
cafe, feveral methods have been recommended by mediately take them out, and add three or four hand-
pradlical dyers. t. Some ufe tartar or bran, ad- fuls of lime in proportion to what you fuppofe the vat
ding a quantity of either as occafion may require, has fuffered, but without flirring it up from the bot-
2. Others attempt to corredl it by throwing in a buc- tom. On ftirring the vat you ought to attend to the
ket of urine. 3. Sometimes they ufe a lai^ge iron noife as well as to the fmell; for if the hiffing ceafes,
ftoVe, which may reach fiom the grounds at the hot- and the bad fmell is alfo removed, there are great hopes
tom to the top of the*vat. This machine is furnifti- that the liquor only has fuffered, and that the paftel is
ed with a grate abolit a foot from the bottom, and an not impoverifhed. But when the liquor fmells of
iron funnel, one end of which commences with the lime, and is foft to the feel, the vat is then to be co¬
grate, and communicates with the external air. On vered, and allowed to fettle for an hour and an half;
forcing down the ftove to the bottom of the vat, where after which period, if the efflorefcence commences, a
it ought to fie retained by iron bars, the heat of the pattern is to be put in, and the lubfequenf procefs is
ftove will force up the lime to the top, where as much to be regulated by the colour it affumes.
as is required may be taken out by a fieve. 4. Some Some are of opinion that the paliel blue is much
N0 105. - fuperior
DYE
fuperiof to tliat obtained with a mixture of indigo ;
but it is undoubtedly much dearer, as yielding a much
fmaller quantity of colour : and from the experiments
of M. du Fay, as well as of our author on this fuhjedt,
it appears that the prejudice in favour of paftel is by
no means well founded. When a vat has been heated
and well worked two or three times, the fame colour
is frequently preferred, only taking out part of the
fediment, and fupplying it with frefh paftel 5 but for
this no directions can be given, as it is evident that the
whole muft be regulated by the praftice of the dyer.
Some are accuftomed to allow the fame liquor to re¬
main for years in their vats, only fupplying it with
ingredients from time to time ; but this praftice feems
not to meet our author’s approbation, who thinks it
rational to fuppofe that the beft colours will be made
by emptying the vats entirely when they have been heat¬
ed fix or feven times, and ceafe to give any more co-
m lour.
Danger of With regard to the reheating,of the paftel vats, our
a author further obferVes, that if you heat a vat when it
when die 18 exhatifted, viz. when deficient in lime, it will im-
lime is ex- perceptibly turn in fuch a manner as to be in danger
hauiled, 0f being fpoiled ; becaufe the lime, already too much
diminiihed, will be entirely confirmed by the heat.
The only remedy, if difcovered in time, is to throw it
back into the vat, to fupply it with lime, and then
wait till it recovers before you reheat. In this ope¬
ration alfo care fiiould be taken to put the grounds in¬
to the copper with the liquoT ; and it muft not be al¬
lowed to boil, otherwife fome of the more volatile
parts neceffary for producing a good colour will be
-evaporated. Some do not put the indigo into the vat
until fome hours after the liquor has been emptied
out of the copper, and the mixture begins to recover
itfelf. This precaution is taken left the vat ftrould
not recover, and then the indigo woilld be loft. An
inconvenience, however, arifes from this praftice,,viz.
that the indigo does not give out its colour freely $
fo that it is beft to put it into the vat immediate¬
ly with the liquor, and to ftir it well afterwards.
If a vat that has not been worked • is to be reheated,
it .muft not be fliimmed as in the common operations of
this kind, for then the indigo would be ikimmed off ;
but in ordinary cafes the fcum is compofed of the
earthy particles of the indigo and’paftel, with a fmall
quantity of lime. When too much lime is added, you
inuft wait till it be confutned. It might indeed be
corredled by an addition of acid or other ingredients;
but as thefe alfo confume the colour, it is better to
wait the natural operation of the lime itfelf. Weak
lime proves likewife difadvantageous, becaufe ft re¬
mains in the liquor without incorporating with the
pafte. When this is the cafe, the pafte fmells ftrong,
and the liquor has a kind of fweetifh fmell; but both
ought to be alike in this refpect. The remedy is to
baften the folution by ftirring it often in order to mix
the lime with the pafte, till the proper fmell of the
vat be reftored, and the froth on the furface becomes
43 blue.
To flack To flack the lime for the purpofe of dyeing, feveral
bme forthe pieces are to be thrown into water one after another,
esT>* taking out each piece when it begins to ferment, and
putting in another. It is then put into an empty
copper' or other veffel j and when fallen thoroughly
Vol. VI. Part I.
I N G. 193
into powder, it is to be fifted through a fine fieve, and
kept in a very dry caflc.
In this operation acid waters are fometimes necef- Prepara-
fary ; the method of preparing which is as follows ; tion of acid
Fill a copper of any fize with river water; put fl^‘ewate^*•
under it; and when it boils, throw it into a calk in
which you had before putafufficient quantity of bran.
It fliould be well ftirred three or four times a-day.
Three buftiels of bran into a veffel containing about
70 gallons of water have been found to anfwer the
purpofe. This water, at the end of four or five days,
become* acid; and therefore may be applied in all
cafes where it does not injure the preparation of the
worfted. It muft be obferved, however, that woollen
fleece, by too great a quantity of acid liquor, would
be rendered difficult to fpin, as being in a manner
glued together by the matter proceeding from the
bran. It is alfo neceffary to take notice, that the acid
muft not be left in the cauldron, efpecially if this is
made of copper; becaufe it will corrode enough of the
metal to occafion a deficiency in the colour. This
metal, when diffolved, gives a greenifli colour.
The Dutch vats are conftru&ed in fuch a manner as Conftrue-
to require lefs frequent heating than thofe above de-tion o{
feribed. The upper part of them for three feet down-Dutcl1 vats»
ward is of copper, and they are almoft furrounded by
a brick wall at about the diftance of fix or feven inches
from the metal. A quantity of hot embers are depo-
fited in this interval, which maintain the heat of the
vat fo effe&ually, that it remains for fcveral days in a
ftate fit for working even after it becomes very weak.
This is not the cafe with the others, which frequently
give a much deeper'colour than was intended, unlefs
you fuffer them to grow confiderably colder; and in
that cafe the colour is lefs bright.
The woad-vat differs from that already deferibed Of the
only in being weaker and yielding lefs colour; but itwoad-vat^
is prepared in the fame manner. The following is a
defeription of the woad vat, according to an experi¬
ment made by M. Hellot, fimilar to that concerning
the paftel already mentioned.
“ I placed (fays he) in a cauldron a fmall calk con¬
taining about twelve gallons, two-thirds full of river-
water, an ounce of madder,, and a fmall quantity of
weld ; at. the fame time I put into the caflc a good
handful of bran and five pounds of woad. At five
o’clock in the evening the vat was well ftirred and
covered. It was again ftirred at feven, at nine, at
twelve, at two, and at four. The woad was then
working, as has been already obferved with regard to
the paftel. Some air bubbles began to rife pretty
large, but in a fmall quantity, and of a very faint co¬
lour. It was then garnilhed with two ounces of lime,
and ftirred. At five o’clock I put in a pattern which
I took out at fix, and again ftirred. This pattern had
received fome colour. At feven o’clock I put in an¬
other, and at eight ftirred again. This pattern was
tolerably bright: I then added an ounce of indigo 5
at nine o’clock another pattern ; at ten ftirred again,
and put in an ounce of lime becaufe it began to fmtil
fweetifh ; at eleven another pattern, and at twelve ftir¬
red again. This proccfs was continued till five o’clock.
I then added three ounces of indigo. At fix I tried
another pattern, and at feven ftirred again. It would
have been now time to fill it, being in a proper ftate
B b for
J94
DYE
for working, as the laft pattern which had been taken
out very green became a bright blue : but as I was
very much fatigued, having fat up the whole night, I
chofe to defer it till the next day, in order to fee its
effeiSl by day-light; and for this reafon I added an
ounce of lime, fufficient to fuftain it till nine o’clock
in the morning. Patterns were put in from time to
time ; and the laft; being very beautiful, I filled the
vat with a liquor compofed of water and a fmall hand¬
ful of bran only. It was then ftirred, and patterns
tried every hour. Being in a proper ftate at five
o’clock, it was immediately worked. It was then
garniihed with lime, and mixed, in order to preferve
it till fuch time as it might be convenient to re¬
heat.
“ Two months afterwards I prepared another woad
vat without indigo, that I might be enabled to judge
of the folidity of the dye ; and was convinced, by ex¬
periment, that it was of equal goodnefs with the pa-
ftel. Hence the paftel is fuperior to the woad only
becaufe the latter yields lefs colour than the other.
“ The little variations to be obferved in the method
kn s re- cf fetting thefe different vats, fufficiently demonftrates
the prece- t^iat t^iere are rTlany circumftances in the feveral pro¬
ving opera ceffes not abfolutely neceffary. In my opinion, the
tions. only matter of importance, and which demands atten¬
tion, is to condmS the fermentation with caution, and
to avoid fupplying with lime till, from the indications
I have defcnbed, it appears neceffary. With regard
to the indigo, whether it be added at twice or all at
once, whether a little fooner or a little later, is, I think,
of very little importance. The fame may be faid of
the weld, which I ufed twice, and twuce omitted; and
likewife of the pearl-afh, a little of which I put into
the fmall paftel vat, and omitted in that of the woad.
In fhort, it appears to me very demonftrable, that the
diftribution of the lime either in the fetting or reheat¬
ing the vats requires moft attention. It muft alfo be
obferved, that in fetting either a paftel or woad vat,
it cannot be too frequently examined; becaufe though
fome are too flow, which is attributed to the weak-
nefs of the paftel or woad,. others become too foon
ready for working. I have feen feventy pounds of
paftel loft by this neglett. ft was ready for working
at eight o’clock, but for want of the workman’s con-
ftant infpeftion, he did not difcover it till two hours
afterwards. The pafte was then entirely rifen to the
furface of the liquor, which fmelt very four. It was
now impoffible to recover it; he was therefore obliged
to throw it out immediately, or it would very foon be¬
come infupportably putrid and fetid.
“ This difference in the vat may be alfo produced
by the temperature of the air, as it cools much fooner
in winter than in fummer. Ii is therefore neceffary to
watch very attentively, though it is feldom fit for
„ working in lefs than 14 or 15 hours.
©f the in- “The indigo vat (fays our author) is about five
digo vat. feet high, two feet in diameter, and grows narrower
towards the bottom, being furrounded by a wall, and
a vacancy left for the embers. In a vat of this fize
you may put from two to five or fix pounds of indigo.
In order to fet a vat containing twenty gallons, you
boil: in a copper about fifteen gallons of river-water for
half an hour, with two pounds of pot-afh, two ounces
I N G.
of madder, and a handful of bran. The indigo is pre¬
pared mean while in the following manner:
** Take two pounds of indigo, and put it into a
pail of cold water, in order to feparate the folid from
the volatile particles, which will immediately rife to
the fuiface. The water is then poured off, and the
remaining indigo pounded in an iron mortar; you then
put a little hot water into the mortar, ftiaking it from
fide to fide, and pouring into another veffel that which
fwims, and which is confequently the beft bruifed.
In this manner you continue to pound what remains
in the mortar, ftill adding frelh water, in order to
make the fineft part rife to the furface, and fo on till
all the indigo is reduced to a powder fo fine as to rife
in the water, which is all the preparation required.
The liquor which had boiled in the copper, with the
grounds of the madder and pot-afh, which probably
fell to the bottom, is thrown into the high narrow vat;
at the fame time adding the pounded indigo. The
whole is then well ftirred with a rake, the vat covered,
and the embers put round it. If this operation was
begun in the afternoon, you muft renew the hot em¬
bers in the evening, which fhould alfo be repeated both
morning and evening the next day : the vat fhould be
lightly ftirred twice the fecond day. In order to
maintain the heat of the vat, you renew the embers
on the third day, ftirring the vat twice. Youthen
perceive, that a fhining braffy fcum, divided and in¬
terrupted in many places, begins to rife on the furface.
By continuing the heat, on the fourth day the fCum
becomes more perfect and lefs broken. The froth
that rifes upon ftirring is now blue, and the vat a deep
green.
“ When it becomes green in this manner, it is ant
indication that the vat fhould be filled. For this pur-
pofe you muft prepare a frefh liquor, by putting five
gallons of water into a copper, a pound of pot-afh,
and half an ounce of madder. When this has boiled
a quarter of an hour, you fill the vat. You then ftir
it; and if it produces much froth, it will be in a proper
ftate for working the next day. This is fufficiently
known by the quantity of froth, and by the braffy
fcaly cruft that fwims on the top of the liquor; alfo
when, by blowing or ftirring it with the hand, the
liquor beneath is green, though the furface appears of
a brown blue.
“ This vat, of which I have juft defcribed the pro-
cefs, and the firft I had fet, was much longer in coming
to a colour than the others, becaufe the heat was tco
ftrong the fecond day ; but for this accident, it would
have been ready for working two days fooner. It
was attended with no other bad confequence ; and
therefore, as foon as it was in a proper ftate for work.-
ing, I dipped at feveral times 30 or 40 pounds of ferge.
As the liquor was by this means diminilhedand weakr
ened, it was neceffary in the afternoon to replenifo
with a frefh mixture, compofed of a pound of pot-afn,
half an ounce of madder, and a handful of bran. Ha¬
ving boiled this a quarter of an hour, it .was put into
the vat; which was then ftirred, covered, and a few
embers put round it. In this manner it may be kept
for many days; but when you mean to work it, it
ftiould be ftirred the preceding evening, and fupplied
with hot embers.
When
D Y E
** When you would reheat this kind of vat, and re*
plemih it with indigo, you put into a copper two*
thirds of the liquor, now no longer green, but of a brown
blue and almoft black. When it is ready to boil, the
fcum on the top fhould be taken off with a fieve; after
which it fhould be fuffered to boil, with the addition
of two handfuls of bran, a quarter of a pound of mad¬
der, and two pounds of pot-afh. The embers are
then taken from under the copper, and a little cold
water thrown in to flop the boiling. It is then emp¬
tied into the vat, with the addition of a pound of in¬
digo pulverized and diffolved in fome of the liquor, as
I have faid above. The vat being then ftirred, co¬
vered, and a few hot embers put round it, will be fit
for working the next day.
“ When an indigo vat has been reheated feveral
times, it fhould be emptied out entirely and fet anew,
becaufe the colour becomes dull: for though heated,
and in a proper Hate for working, the green colour is
not fo beautiful as at the beginning.
“ I have had feveral other vats fet in theffame man¬
ner, with a greater or lefs quantity of .indigo; as from
one to fix pounds, proportionably increafing or dimi-
nifhing the other ingredients; always, however, put¬
ting a pound of pot-afh to a pound of indigo. From
other experiments which I have fince made, I am con¬
vinced that this proportion was not abfolutely necef-
fary. I am alfo perfuaded that there are many other
methods for the preparation of the indigo vat equally
effectual. I fhall neverthelefs make fome obfervations
concerning this vat.
“ Of all thofe which I have had prepared in this
manner, I failed but in one; which was occafioned by
negledting to put hot embers round it on the fecond
day. I added fome pulverized arfenic, but without
any effect; it would never come to a colour. Red-
hot bricks were alfo thrown into it at feveral times;
the liquor at times became greenifh, but never fuffi-
ciently. At length, after having to no purpofe tried
feveral other means without being able to difcover
why it did not fucceed, and having reheated it feveral
times, I had it thrown out at the fortnight’sjjend.
“ The feveral other accidents which I met with in
the conduit of the indigo vat only retarded the fuc-
cefs; fo that this operation may be confidered as very
eafy in comparifon of the paflel or woad vat. I have
indeed made feveral experiments on each of them,
with an intent to fhorten the time of the preparation ;
. but for the molt part not fucceeding, or at leafl not
better than by common practice, it is needlefs to de-
fcribe them.
Differences “ The liquor of the indigo vat is not in every re-
betwixt thefpeit like that of the paflel. Its furface is a brown
indigo and blue, covered with coppery fcales, and the liquor it-
Ssors *" of a fine green. The fluff or woollen which it
dyes is green when taken out, and becomes blue
immediately afterwards. The fame obfervation has
been made with regard to the paftel vat, but it is very,
fingular that the liquor of the latter is not green,
though it produces the fame effect upon woollen as
the other. It is alfo neceffary to obferve, that when
the liquor of the indigo vat is changed out of the
veffel, and too long expofed to the air, it lofes its
green colour, and at the fame time all its qualities ;
i N a
fo that, though it yields a blue colour, it ii not per¬
manent. 39
“ There is likewife a cold preparation of an indigo vat Cold indigo
with urine, and it is alfo worked cold. For this pur- vat with
pofe, you take four pounds of indigo powdered, andurine*
put it into a gallon of vinegar, leaving it to digefl over
a flow fire for 24 hours. At the expiration of this
time, if it be not perfedtly diflblved, it is again pound¬
ed in a mortar with the liquor, adding now and then a
little urine. You afterwards put into it half a pound
of madder, mixing it well by flirring the whole with a
flick. When this preparation is finifhed, you pour it
into a cafk containing 60 gallons of urine : it is of no
confequence whether it be flale or frefli. You mix
and flir the whole well together; and this fhould be
repeated morning and evening during the fpace of eight
days, or till the furface of the liquor becomes green
when flirred, and produces froth like the common
vats. It may be worked immediately without any
other preparation than flirring it three or four hours
before hand. This kind of vat is extremely conveni¬
ent ; becaufe when it is once prepared, it remains fo
always till it is entirely exhaufted, that is to fay, till
the indigo ha* yielded all its colour; hence it may be
worked at all times, whereas a common vat muff be
prepared over night.
“ According as you would have this vat more or lefs
confiderable, you augment or diminifh the ingredients
in proportion to your quantity of indigo: thus for
every pound of indigo you always put a quart of vine¬
gar, two ounces of madder, and fifteen gallons of
urine. This vat is much fooner prepared in fummer
than in winter. If you would haflen it, you need only
take a little of the liquor, heat it in a copper without
fuffering it to boil, and afterwards pour it into the vat.
This operation is fo very fimple, that it is almofl im-
poffible it fhould fail.
“ When the indigo is entirely exhaufled, the vat may
be renewed by diffolving fome frefh indigo in vinegar;
but you muff add madder in proportion to the quanti¬
ty of indigo, and then pour it into the vat, which
fhould be flirred as at firll morning and evening: it
will be as good as if it were frefh. This, however,
fhould not be repeated more than four or five times;
becaufe the grounds of the madder and indigo would
tarnifh the liquor, which would confequently render
the colour lefs bright. I mull however confefs, that
as I have not myfelf experienced this vat, I cannot an-
fwer for its fuccefs : but the following with urine,
which I have feen prepared, dyes woollens a very per¬
manent blue.
“ A pound of indigo was firll fleeped in a gallon ofAn ^ vat
urine for 24 hours; it was afterwards ground in a large with urme,
iron mortar with the fame urine. When by this means
the urine became very blue, it was flrained through a
fine fieve into a fmall tub; but the indigo which re¬
mained in the fieve was beaten again in the mortar with
another gallon of frefh urine, and this was repeated tiH
all the indigo paffed through the fieve with the urine.
This operation, which continued two hours, being
finifhed, about four o’clock in the evening 62 gallon*
of urine were put into a copper, which was made very-
hot, but without boiling; and the fcum which rofc
on the iurface of the urine was brufhed off the copper
B b 3 yjitk
196 DYE
with a befom. This was frequently repeated till no¬
thing rofe but a flight white 1'cum, The urine being
thus fufficiently purified and ready to boil, it was
thrown into the wooden vat; the prepared indigo was
then added, and the vat itirred with a rake, in order
•that the indigo Ihould incorporate with the urine. Im¬
mediately afterwards a mixture, confifting of a gallon
of urine, a pound of alum,' and a pound of red tartar,
was added to the vat; but thefe were firft reduced to
a fine powder. The urine was then poured out on it
is the mortar, and mixed together till it ceafed to fer¬
ment. It was then poured into the vat, well ftirred,
and covered. In this fituation it was left all night.
The next morning the liquor was very green. This
fhowed that the vat was in a proper ftate, and that it
might have been ufed; but it was fullered to remain
without working, becaufe all that had been hitherto
done was only the fiilt preparation of the vat, and the
indigo which had been put into it was defigned only
to nourilh and temper the urine. Hence the vat was
buffered to reft two days in order to complete the pre¬
paration, but covered all the time to prevent it from
cooling too fall. It was then managed as follows:
A fecond pound of indigo was beaten with purified
urine as above. About four o'clock in the afternoon
the whole vat was emptied into the copper: it was
then made very hot, but not boiled. It ftill produced
a thick feum, which was taken off; and the liquor,
being near boiling, was returned into the vat. The
indigo was immediately added, bruifed as above, with
a pound of alum, a pound of tartar, and two quarts
of urine, with the addition of another pound of mad¬
der : it was then ftirred, clofe covered, and fuffered to
remain fo all night. The next morning it was in very
good order ; the liquor being very hot, and of a beau¬
tiful green : hence it was evidently in a proper Hate'
for dyeing ; which was executed in the following
manner. The fubftance to be dyed was woollen
fleece.
“ This fleece bad been well fcoured with urine, well
wafhed, and perfeftly well drained. Being thus pre¬
pared, 30 pounds of it were put into the vat. It was
then well opened with the hands, that it might be
equally drenched ; and after this it was fuffered to re¬
main an hour or two according to the degree of lhade
that was required. During this time the vat was kept
clofe covered, in order to preferve the heat; for the
hotter it is, the better it dyes: when it becomes cold,
it ceafes to a£f. When the wool was fufficiently blue,
it was taken out in large .balls, as big as a man’s head;
and at the fame time fqueezed and wrung oyer the vat,
and immediately given to four or five w6men who
flood round the vat, in order to open it, and expofe
it to the air between their hands till the green colour
which it had coming out of the vat changed to blue.
This change was produced in three or four minutes.
Thefe 30 pounds being thus dyed, the vat was raked,
and then fuffered to ftand for two hours, keeping it al¬
ways clofe covered. At the expiration of this time
they put in another 30 pounds of wool, which was
opened well with the hands. The vat was again co¬
vered ; and in four or five hours this wool had taken
as good a colour as the former: it was then taken out
of the vat in balls in the fame manner as the former.
This operation being finifhed, the vat was itill warm,
I N G.
but not fufficiently fo to dye any more wool; for
when it has not a fufficient degree of heat, the colour
which it yields will be neither uniform nor folid:
hence it is neceffary to reheat and replenifh with in¬
digo as before. This may be done as often as you
think proper; becaufe this vat never fpoils by age,
provided that while it is kept idle ypu give it a little
air.
“ About four o’clock in the afternoon all the liquor
was emptied into the copper, with the addition of a
fufiicient quantity of urine to replace what had been
evaporated and loft in the preceding work. This ge¬
nerally requires about eight or nine buckets of urine.
The copper was then heated, the fcum taken off as
before : when ready to boil, it was returned into the
wooden vat. You add to it a pound of indigo, pound¬
ed and mixed with urine as above, a pound of alum,
a pound of tartar, a pound of madder, and two quarts
of urine. After the vat is ftirred and clofe covered,
it is fuffered to ftand all night. It will he in a proper
ftate the next day, and capable of dyeing 60 pounds of
wool at twice, as above. In this manner, the reheat¬
ings ftiould be always done the day before you want to
dye, and may be repeated ad infinitum.
“ It is neceffary to obferve, that the more indigo you
put into the vat at once, the deeper the colour: thus,
inftead of one pound, you may add fouv, five, or fix,
without increafing the quantity of alum, tartar, or
madder; but if the vat contains more than three hogf-
headsx the quantity of the ingredients ffiould be pro-
portionably augmented. That which I have juft men¬
tioned contained only three hogftreads, and was con-
fequently too fmali to dye at one time a fufficient
quantity of wool to make a piece of cloth, vi-z. 55 or
60 pounds. To do this properly, it Ihould contain fix
hogftieads, which would be attended with a double
advantage. Firft, all the wool might be dyed in two
or three hours; whereas, by twice dipping, it could
not be finiftied in lefs than eight or ten. Secondly, at
the expiration of the three hours, the vat would be
ftill very warm; fo that, after ftirring and letting it
fettle for a couple of hours, the fame wool may be
dipped again. By this means the colour is heighten¬
ed almoft as much more ; becaufe wool once dyed al¬
ways takes a much better colour than new or white
wool, though fuffered to remain in the vat even for 20
hours.
“ It is neceffary to be very attentive in opening the
dyed balls as foon as they are taken out of the vat,
and expofing them to the air, in order to change them
from green to blue, which ftiould be done by many
hands at the fame time, that they may be equally af¬
fected by the air, elfe the blue colour will not he uni¬
form.
“ Some manufacturers pretend that cloth, the wool paftel*Vat»
of which had been dyed in this urine vat, cannot be preferable
perfectly fcoured by fulling even at twice ; others to the a-
affirm the contrary, and I believe they are right,'Jove-
Ncverthelefs, if the firlt be right, one would fuppofe
that the animal oil of the urine was become refinous
by drying on the wool, or that incorporating with the
oil by which the wool had been moiftened for its
other preparations, it would he more likely to refill
the fuller’s earth and foap than fimple oil by expreffion.
To remedy this, it is only neceffary to walh the wool
in
197
D Y E I N G.
in running water after it has been dyed, exprefled, and
opened, ungreened, and again cold. Be this as it
may, a paftel vat in a large dye-houfe is preferable to
thofe kinds of indigo vats prepared with urine; becaufe
with a good woad vat and a dexterous woad-man, you
expedite more work than could be accomplifhed with
any other blue vat. In mentioning the feveral indigo
vats in this treatife, iny defign is not fo much to intro¬
duce them to great manufactories, as to affiit thofe
who work at imall fabrics ; to whom, I flatter myfelf,
this treatife wall be equally ufeful. I will even deferibe
a cold vat for the dyers of fmall fluffs mixed with thread
or cotton, which fucceeds very well, but which would
be of no ufe for woollens.
Another “ In fome places they ipake ufe of a cold indigo vat,
cold indigo differing from that already mentioned, which is more
“wt. commodious, as it is much fooner ready, and has uo
bad fmell. It is prepared in the following manner,'
“ Three pounds of indigo, well pulverized, is put in¬
to a glazed earthen veffel, and diffolved in three pints
of foap-boiler’s lixivium, which is a flrong folution of
foflile alkali with quicklime. I have made ufe of a
folution of potafhes, and fucceeded very well. The
folution of indigo is performed in about 24 hours, as
may be eafily difeovered by its remaining fufpended
in the liquor, which is thereby thickened, and be¬
comes like an extract. At the fame time you put
into another veffel three pounds of flacked lime fifted
with fix quarts of water. The whole fhould boil du¬
ring a quarter of an hour, and when fettled fhould be
drained off clear. You afterwards diffolve in this lime-
water three pounds of green copperas, fuffering it to
fettle till the next day. You then put 75 gallons of
water into a large deal caflt, the only wood proper for
the purpofe; as any other, particularly oak, would
blacken and tarnifh the liquor. The two folutions,
which had been prepared the night before, are then
added, the vat ftirred, and left to fettk. I have feen
it fometimes take the colour in two hours; but with
this vat it was veiy different, not being ready till very
late the next day. It produces a great quantity of
froth; andthe liquortakes a fine green colour, but a little
yellowifh, fomething like the green of the common
vat.
“ When the vat is almoft exhaufted, it is replenifhed
and quickened without freih indigo, by adding to it
a fmdil liquor, confifting of two pounds of green cop¬
peras diffolved in a fufficient quantity of lime-water.
But when the colour of the indigo is quite exhaufted,
it fhould be replenifhed with frefh indigo diffolved in a
lixivium, fuch as I have juft defertbed. It is natural
to fuppofe, that the quantity of your other ingredients
muft be augmented or diminifhed in proportion to the
indigo. Some dyers ufe a mixture of vinegar and water
impregnated with rufty iron. They fuppofe that the
colour is thereby rendered more folkl; but I am. con¬
vinced by experience that there is no neceffity for it,
and that the colour is as permanent as any of the other
blues prepared as I have dire&ed above.
“ The firfl time I prepared this vat, I proceeded ac¬
cording to a receipt fent me from Rouen'. The foap-
boiler’s lixivium was limply denominatedJirong water.
I fufpefted this to proceed either from malice or mif-
take, neverthelefs, as in matters of fad it is unjuft
to condemn without examination, I tried the common
aqua-fortis, which produced the following effed.
“ I took half a pound of indigo, well powdered, and Effcdts of
fteeped it in half a pint of common aqua-fortis, made aquafortis
with vitriol and falt-petre: this produced a fermeu- U!’'on
tation. In this fituation I left it for 24 hours; and
having, as in the preceding operation, diffolved a
pound of copperas in fome lime-water, I poured thefe
two mixtures into a calk containing about 17 gallons
of river water. I ftirred it well, but there appeared
nothing extraordinary the next day. I ftill continued
to ftir three times a-day for two days together, and
then fuffered it to reft for two days more, perfuading
myfelf that it was abfolutely fpoilt. At the expira’
tion of thefe four days, the liquor became of a red co¬
lour, but clearer than the paftel vats. I ftirred it once
more, and let it ftand fix days longer: it had then a
little froth, but very pale : fix days afterwards the fur-
face of the liquor became brown, and underneath a
brown green. I ftirred again, and fancied that the
liquor underneath was ftill reddilh, though the froth
which it threw up was of a good colour; I therefore
conceived hopes that it would do, and that I ftiould
be able to work it the next day.
“ At the expiration of fixteeu hours I dipped fome
cotton, which took colour, but fo very weak, that X
was obliged to let it remain imthe liquor feveral hours,
till the blue became fufflciently deep. It then with-
ftood the fummer air and fun tolerably well for 12
days; neverthelefs, I had the vat thrown out as ufe-
lefs, on account of its tedious operation. Doubtlefs
it might have been recovered with lime, or fome o-
ther alkali that would have abforbed the acid of the.
aqua-fortis, but it was not worth the pains. Befides,
the anfwer which I received from the perfon who fent
me the receipt from Rouen, contained an explanation
with regard to the kind of aqua-fortis that fhould be
ufed ; from which I learnt that it Ihould have been*
the foap-boiler’s lixivium, which, inflead of being acid,
is one of the moil cauilic alkalies. In fact, by ma¬
king ufe of this alkaline lixivjum, the operation was*
attended with immediate fuccefs, and never failed me.
fince.
“ I tried feveral of thefe different vats in miniature,
in cucurbits, put into a water or fand bath. Thefe bine
laft are attended with no difficulty ; it is only necef-Enall q,uan«
fary to dimimfh the quality of the liquor, and of e-tide*'
very ingredient, in proportion to your vat, and it is
fcarce pofiible it ftioUld not fucceed.
“ Concerning that which Ilirft deferibed, and which
is fet hot, as it is attended with a little more difficul¬
ty, and feteralperfons may wifh to try this operation
themfelves, being rather curious, and requiring neither
expence nor preparation in miniature ; I will give the
defeription of a procefs which fucceeded extremely well,,
and which I purpofely fupplied with, much more indi¬
go than is generally done in the common, method.
“ I boiled two quarts of water with two drachms of
madder, and four ounces of pearl-afhes. When it had
boiled a quarter of an hour, I poured.it into-a cucur-
bite, containing about a gallon, which was previoufly
heated with h >t water, in which I had put a quarter
of a handful of bran. The whole being well ftirred
with a deal fpatula, I put my cucutbite into a veryr
S ms*
198 DYE
moderate fand heat, fufficknt only to keep it warm,
or nearly of the fame degree of heat requifite in a com*
mon indigo vat.
“ I continued the fand heat all night and the next
day, without perceiving any alteration. I ftirred it
only twice during the day with the fpatula. The
day following it produced an efflordcence, formed a
coppery fcum on the furface, and the liquor became
a brown green. I then filled it with a mixture, com-
pofed of a quart of water, two ounces of pearl-afhes,
and a little bran. It was well mixed, and then left
to fettle. It became perfectly well coloured, and the
next day I dyed feveral bits of woollen fluffs. Thefe
vats are reheated and replenifhed with as much eafe
as a great one.”
Method of “ After having prepared the vats according to any
dyeing 0f the methods above mentioned, the dyeing any kind
woollen wo°hen Huff is exceedingly eafy ; no other prepa-
ftuffsinany for the dye being requifite than fimple immer-
thefe 3 fion in warm water, wringing them, and then dipping
vats. them in the vat for a longer or fhorter time according
to the deepnefs of the colour you wifh to impart.
From time to time the fluff fhould be opened ; that is,
taken out and wrung over the vat, and expofing it for
a minute or two to the air till it becomes blue ; for it
mufl be obferved, that in all the folutions of indigo
or other materials hitherto defcribed, the blue colour
is produced by expofure to the air alone, and the fluff
is always taken out green, and will retain that colour
if not expofed to the air. In dyeing blue, therefore, it
is neceffary to let the colour change in this manner be¬
fore you immerfe it a fecond time, that the fhade may
be the better dillinguiflied; for dark blues require to
be dipped feveral times, but it is dangerous to make
this experiment with light blues. When a large quan¬
tity of wool is to be dyed, which cannot be put into
the vat all at once, it very often happens that the
quantity firfl put in wull take up the deepeft dye. To
prevent this, fome dilute their indigo-vat with a quan¬
tity of warm water; but M. Hellot difapproves of this,
as being apt to produce a fading colour. The bell
method, he fays, is to dip them when the vat is nearly
exhaufled; and for this purpofe he recommends the
paflel-vat rather than any other: and though the
colours produced in this manner are lefs bright than
the others, they may be fenfibly enlivened by paffiug
the fluffs through boiling water. This, he fays, is pro¬
per for all blue colours; as it not only renders the dye
more fixed and bright, but cleanles the fluffs from ac¬
cidental impurities. After the work is taken out of
the hot water, it is to be rinfed in a running flream.
It will be flill more proper to full a dark blue fluff
well withfoap and water, and afterwards to rinfe it in
running water; for the foap will be fo far from in¬
juring the colour, that it will thereby be rendered
more bright and lively. Some dyers; in order to fave
the dearer ingredients of paflel or indigo, make ufe of
logwood ; but this is by no means allowable, as the
colour, though rather brighter than that of indigo, is
exceedingly perifhable. In 1748, M. Macquer of the
Royal Academy of Sciences difeovered a method of
dyeing filk and cloth with a preparation of Pruffian
blue, fuperior to all the blues hitherto difeovered.
This, however, has never yet come into practice, nor
is it at all probable that the colour of this pigment
I
I N G.
can ever be made to Hand waihing with foap. In all
the methods in which we could try the experiment,
it could not even bear wafhing with plain water. In¬
deed , when we confider the great volatility of the co¬
louring matter of Pruffian blue, that it can only be
fixed by iron, and that any alkaline matter will in-
flantly difengage it, and make it refume its former vo¬
latility, there can be but very little hope of over¬
coming the difficulties which attend the procefs. ^
Having been fo particular with regard to the pre- M. Mao
paration of the materials and method of dyeing wool, quer’s me-
we need fay the lefs concerning the method of dyeing ‘ho!? of
filk or cotton. The following compofition is recom- 0f
mended by M. Macquer. “ To eight pounds of the colour,
findl indigo add fix of the bell pearl-affi, from three
to four ounces of madder for every pound of allies,
befides eight pounds of bran, waffied in feveral waters
to take out the flour. When walhed, and moll of the
water fqueezed out, it is placed alone at the bottom of
the vat. The pearl affi and the madder are then mix¬
ed, bruifing them thoroughly together, and then boil¬
ing them for a quarter of an hour in a copper contain¬
ing two thirds of the vat; the liquor is then fuffered to
reft, and the door of the furnace fliut.
“ Two or three days previous to this, eight pounds of
indigo are fteeped in a bucket of warm water, wafhing it
well, and even changing the water, which has a reddifh
call. Some begin with boiling the indigo in a ley of one
pound of pearl-afh with two buckets of water ; after
which they pound it while quite wet in a mortar ; then
while it is yet in a pafte, they fill the mortar with hot li¬
quor which has been boiled before ; letting it Hand to
fettle for a fhort time, and then pouring off the clear
into a feparate boiler or into the vat. The fame quan¬
tity of the mixture is then poured on the indigo which
remained in the mortar, bruifing and mixing it well,
and then as before pouring it off into the boiler ; which
operation is repeated till the whole of the indigo is thus
diffolved in the liquor. That in the boiler is gradually
poured into the vat upon the bran in the bottom, ad¬
ding afterwards the remainder of the compofition,
grounds and all. After ftirring and raking for fome
time, it is let ftand, but without fire, till it becomes
cool enough for the hand to bear. After this a little
fire is to be put round the vat, only to preferve the
fame degree of heat; and this (hould be continued till
the liquor becomes green, which is eafily knotfn by
trying it with a little white filk. This fhows that the
vat is in a proper ftate ; but in order to be afeertained
of this, it will be neceffary from time to time to ftir it
with a rake, when the brown and coppery fcum which
appears upon it after Handing for a little time fliows
that it is in a proper ftate for working. Even in this
cafe it is neceffary to behave with the utmoft caution,
and to obferve whether on blowing afide the coppery
fcum juft mentioned a freffi one appears or not; for if
it does not, it is a fign that the vat is not yet ready. If
the feum appears, it mu ft ftand three or four hours,
when a new compofuion is made to complete it. For
this purpofe as much water as is neceffary to fill the vat
is put into a copper, boiling it with two pounds of
allies and four ounces of madder as at firft. This new
liquor is poured into the vat, raked and mixed, and
then left to ftand for four hours, when it is ready for
dyeing.
The
i99
DYEING.
The method of preparing filk for the blue dye is by
boiling with foap, ufing 35 or 40 pounds of the latter
to 100 of the former ; but no impregnation with alum
is required. Before dipping it in the vat, however,
it (hould be wafhed from the foap 5 and to cleanfe it more
effedtually, it ought to be twice beetled at the river,
having been divided into hanks for the conveniency of
wringing. After being dipped in the vat, it is to be
wrung as hard as pofiible, and then opened out tothe air,
to give it the blue colour, as dire&ed for wool; it {hould
then be immediately waftied in two waters, and well
wrung out again. Laftly, it is to be dried as quickly
as poffible; cutting the thread which ties it, if the hanks
are large, becaufe if kept tied it frequently turns red
under the thread.
Silk dyed as above dire&ed is apt to take the blue
very unequally, and will moft certainly do fo, if not
walked and dried immediately after dyeing. Fine dry
weather is always bell for thefe operations ; for fhould
water accidentally fall upon it, it would be full of red-
di(h fpots. in moift weather, therefore, and. during
the winter, a room with a Hove will be neceflary. Dif¬
ferent (hades of blue are produced by dipping that firft
which is intended for the darkeft colour.
Of dyeing The method of dyeing cotton or linen blue is fo
cotton or d;fFerent from that already defcribed with regard
linen blue. woopen or (ilk, that nothing farther needs be faid
concerning it; only the colour upon cotton is general¬
ly lefs bright. M. de Apligny indeed tells us, that he has
difcovered a method of dyeing cotton velvets of a moft
beautiful and durable blue : but as he does not choofe
to communicate it, nothing can be faid on the fubjedt.
In the former edition of this work, a receipt was given
for dyeing cotton of a very good blue colour, and
which, as being inftantaneoufly done, may occafionally
be ufeful. The indigo is diffolved in a mixture of
lime and potafti (probably the pure cauftic lixivium
wouldanfwerfully as well); and after it is diffolved, fome
raiftns beat into a pulp in a brafs or marble mortar are
to be added. This very foon produces a copper-colour¬
ed fcum at top ; and the cotton being now dipped in¬
to the liquor receives the colour in an inftant. Linen
may be dyed in the fame manner,
irf dyeing The next of the primitive colours to be confidered is
red colours, red ; of which there are many varieties : but the prin¬
cipal are fcarlet, crimfon, and madder red. The dye¬
ing of thefe colours differs confiderably from that of
the blues, becaufe they require a previous preparation
in the fluffs to be dyed ; and it is on this preparation
that the goodnefs of the colour very often depends.
Thefe preparations are generally alum, tartar, aqua¬
fortis, aqua-regis, or folution of tin in thefe acids.
Galls and alkaline falts are alfo fometimes added, tho’
they do not of themfelves contribute any thing to the
40 colour. #
Venetian There are three kinds of fcarlet, viz. that dyed with
ftarlct. kermes, with cochineal, and with guru-lac. The firft,
called Venetian fcarlet, is the lead bright, but more per¬
manent, and lefs apt to be fpotted than the others; in-
fomuch that in fome pieces of tapeftry done with this
at BruxClles in Flanders, it has fcarce loft any of its vi¬
vacity in 200 years. However, it is fcarce ever ufed
except for tapeftry, and is dyed in the following man¬
ner, according to Mr Hellot.
The wool {hould be firft drenched.; for which
purpofe you put half a bufhel of bran into a copper,
with a quantity of water fufficient for 20 pounds of
wool, which to the beft of my knowledge is the ufual
batch for one dyeing. In this liquor it {hould boil for
half an hour, ftirring it from time to time; after which
it is taken out and drained. I {hall obferve, once for
ail, that when you dye worfted, you put a rod through
each fleein, which commonly weighs about a pound,
and which {hould be kept on the rod during the whole
procefs, by which means the fleein is prevented from
tangling. It is alfo convenient for turning the {lceinr
in order to dip each part, that the whole may be equal¬
ly coloured ; for which purpofe, you raife it about half
way out of the liquor; and holding the rod with one
hand, you pull the Ikein with the other, fo as to let the
part which .before was next the rod fall into the liquor.
If the worfted fhould be too hot for the fingers, it
may be done by means of another rod. The equality
of the colour depends fo entirely upon the frequency of
this manoeuvre, that it cannot be too ftrenuoufly urged.
In order to drain them, you reft the ends of the rods
juft mentioned on two poles ; which {hould be fixed-
in the wall over the copper.
“ While the worfted is draining, after being thus
drenched, you prepare a frefh liquor, viz. by throwing
out what remained in the copper, and replenifhing with
frelh water; to this you add about a fifth part four wa¬
ter, four pounds of Roman alum grofsly pounded, and
two pounds of red tartar. As foon as it boils, the
worfted on the rods {hould be immerfed for two hours,,
almoft continually moving the rods, one after another,,
as I have before directed.
“ It is neceffary to obferve, that after the alum is put
in, when the liquor is ready to boil, it will fometimes
rife fuddenly out of the copper, if you do not mind to
check the boiling by throwing in cold water. If,
when it is ready to boil, you put in the cold worftect
quickly, it will have the fame effect. It is alfo proper
to obferve, that when dyers work in the great, they
fhould have their legs bare, that the hot liquor may not
reft in the dockings. When the quantity of tartar is
rather coniiderable, as in the prefent operation, the li¬
quor does not rife fo high; but when there is nothing
befides the alum, fometimes, when it begins to boil,
half of the liquor boils over, unlefs prevented by the
above precautions.
“ When the worfted has boiled in. this liquor for two
hours, drained, lightly fqueezed, and put into a linen
bag, it is depofited in a cool place for five or fix days,
and fdmetimes longer ; this is called leaving the worfled
in the preparation, i his delay helps it to penetrate, and
increafes the action of the falts ; for as a part of tfie
liquor conftantly evaporates, it is clear that what re¬
mains, being more impregnated with the faline par¬
ticles, becomes moreafttve, that is to fay, provided there
remains a fufficient degree of moiilure for the falts
being once cryftallized and dry, their power is-detlroy-
ed.
“ When the worfteds have remained in this ftate for
five or fix days, they are then in a proper condition for
being dyed. A frefii liquor is then prepared, accord¬
ing to the quantity of the worlled;. and when it grows
warm, if you want a full fcarlet, you throw into it 12i
ounces of pounded kermes to every pound of worfted y.
but if the kermes be ftale, it will require pound for
pound,-
200
DYE
pound. When the liquor begins to boil, the worded
ftould be put in, being ftill moift ; but if it has been
fuffered to grow dry after boiling, it Ihould be put in¬
to warm water, and well drained.
“ Before you put the wool into the copper with the
kermes, it were advifable to throw in a ftnall handful
of refufe wool, which, being boiled for a moment, im¬
bibes a part of the blacknefs and drofs of the kermes;
fo that the wool afterwards dyed takes a much more
beautiful colour. You now dip the fkeins on the rods
in the fame manner as in the preparation, continually
ftirring them, and giving them air, from time to time,
one after another. In this manner they ihould be
kept boiling for a full hour. They are then wafhed
and drained.
“ If you would reap any advantage from the dye ftill
remaining in the liquor, you may dip a little prepared
wool, which will take a colour in proportion to the
goodnefs of the kermes, and to the quantity which had
been put into the copper.
“ If you mean to dye a number of (hades, one darker
than another, you require much lefs of the kermes ;
7 or 8 pounds being fufficient for ?o pounds of pre¬
pared wool. Youthen dip the quantity of worfted
intended for the lighted (hade, leaving it in the cop¬
per no longer than neceflary, in order to turn it, that
it may imbibe the colour equally. It is then raifed
upon the pegs, and the next (hade immediately put in,
and fuffered to remain for a longer time. You pro¬
ceed in this manner to the laft (hade, which (hould alfo
^remain till it has acquired the colour you defire.
“ You begin with the lighted colour, becaufe if the
wool was fuffered to remain in the copper longer than
Beceffary, it would be no lofs, provided you referve
this batch for the darker (hade : whereas, by beginning
with the darkeft, you would have no remedy in cafe
©f any accidental (kip in the light (hades. The fame
precaution is neceffary in regular (hades of all colours ;
but of the colour in queftirm thefe are feldom made,
becaufe the dark (hades are not much in ufe : and
as the operation for all colours is the lame, what
I have faid refpe&ing this will anfwer for all the
reft.
“When the wool has been dyed in this manner, and
before it is carried to the river, you may fwill it in
warm water, with a fmall quantity of foap, well dif-
folved ; this adds a brightnefs to the colour ; but, at
the fame time, gives it a little of the rofe, that is to
fay, a crimfon tindt.
“ In order to render this colour more bright and
beautiful than common, I have tried a great number
of experiments, but could not obtain a red equal to
that produced by cochineal. Of all the liquors for the
preparation of wool, that which fucceeded the bed
was made according to the proportions I have men¬
tioned. By changing the natural tinge of the ker¬
mes, by various kinds of ingredients, metallic folutiong,
&c. various colours may be obtained, which I (hall pre-
fently mention.
“ It is impofiible to prefcribe any proportions for an
ell of ftuff, confidering the infinite variety of their
breadth, and even of their thicknefs, and the quanti¬
ty of wool in' their fabrication ; experience is the heft
guide. Neverthelefs, if you chufe to be exadt, the
fureft way is to weigh the ftuff to be dyed, and to di-
N° xoj.
r n g.
mini(h about one quarter of the colouring ingredients
preferibed for worfteds; becaufe the (luffs take inter*
naliy lefs colour, as their texture, being clofer, pre¬
vents it from penetrating ; whereas the worited or
woollen fleece takes the colour internally as ealily as ou
the exterior furface.
“ The alum and tartar, ufed in the preparation for
fluffs, (hould alfo be diminifhed in the fame propor¬
tion; neither is it neceffary to let the fluffs remain in
the preparation as long as the worfted : they may be
dyed even the day after they had been boiled.
“ Woollen fleece dyed in the red of kermes, and to be
afterwards incorporated in mixed cloth, or for the
manufactory of thick cloths, will have a much finer
effedt than if dyed with madder. 4I
“ A mixture of half kermes and half madder, is call- Half-grain
ed fcarlet in half-grain. This mixture gives a colour Scarlet,
extremely permanent ; but not fo lively, inclining ra¬
ther to a blood colour. It is prepared and worked
precifely in the fame manner as if kernies alone were
ufed; only that in the liquor they put but half this grain,
the other half is fupplied by madder. This is confe-
quently much cheaper ; and it frequently happens that
the dyers who make it, render it much lefs beautiful
than it might be, by diminifliing the quantity of the
kermes and increafing that of the madder.
“ From the trials made on fcarlet in grain, or fcarlet
of kermes, both by expofing it to the fun and by va-.
rious liquors, it is proved that there does not exift a
better nor a more lading colour. It may for folidity
be compared to the blues already mentioned. Never¬
thelefs, the kermes is fcarce ever ufed except, at Ve¬
nice; for fince the fiery fcarlets are become the tafle,
this colour is almoft entirely exploded. It has, not-
withftanding, many advantages over the other, as it
neither blackens nor fpots ; fo that (hould the ftuff get
greafed, the fpot may be taken out without impairing
the colour. Neverthelefs, kermes is fo little known to
the dyers, that when Fwanted a certain quantity for
the above experiments, I was obliged, to have it
from Languedoc; the merchants of Paris encumber
themfelves with no more than what they vend for the
ufe of medicine.”
The fecond kind of fcarlet, viz. that; dyed with co- Cochineal'
chineal,is much more expenfive and lefs permanent than fcarlet.
the other. For inferior ufes, fuch as tapeftry, the co¬
lour is fometimes partly done with Brafil wood ; but
this colour cannot be made equally permanent with .
cochineal: and it is remarkable, that in whatever
manner thefe fugitive colours be mixed with perma¬
nent ones, the latter never convey to them any portion
of their durability, but, on the Contrary, both go off
together. The true cochineal fcarlet is very difficult
to dye in perfedlion, and almoft every dyer has a re¬
ceipt of his own for the purpofe. The fuccefs of the
whole operation, however, according to Mr Hellot, de¬
pends upon the choice of the cochineal, the water ufed
for dyeing, and the method of preparing the folution
of tin, which is now univerfally known to be the only
ingredient by which a fcarlet colour can certainly be
produced. The following is his receipt for the prepa¬
ration of this liquid, which from his own experience
he gives as the bed. To eight ounces of (pint of
nitre add as much river water, diffolve in the mixture
gradually half an ounce of very white fal-ammoniac,
in
201
DYE
iri order to make an aqua regia, to which add two
drachms of purified falt-petre. This laft ingredient,
> he owns, might be omitted ; but he is perfuaded that
the ufe of it contributes to make the colour more uni¬
form. In the liquor thus prepared diffolve an ounce
of Englifh tin reduced into grains by dropping it,
when melted, into a bafon of cold water. Thefe are
to be dropped into the liquor one by one, waiting for
the diffohition of the firll before we add a fccond, in
order to preferve a quantity of red vapours, which are
the phlogifiicated nitrous acid; and to thPImixture of
winch he fuppofes the beauty of the colour is part¬
ly owing. The folution prepared in this manner
is of the colour of folution of gold ; and if fine tin
be made ufe of, there is neither black dull nor fedi-
ment of any kind to be feen in it; but though tranf*
parent when juft made, it is apt to become milky
with the heats of fummer ; which, however, is no de¬
triment to it in our author’s opinion : and it is cer¬
tainly juft, if the tranfparency returns with the cool-
nefs of the folution. The aquafortis or fpirit- of
nitre ufed for this purpofe ought to be fuch as will
diffolve half its weight of filver: and by following
this method you will always be certain of having a
compofition of an equal ftrength ; fo that any flight
difference which may arife from the quality of the co¬
chineal will fcarce be perceived. A weak folution
makes the fcarlet incline towards crimfon, and a ftrong
. one towards orange.
Prej ara- When worfted is to be prepared for the fcarlet dye,
tion of the following operation is neceffary. For every pound
woifted Df ten ganons 0f clear river water are to be
fcarlctdve Put 'nto a copper ; and when it becomes pretty
hot, two ounces of cream of tartar, and a drachm and
an half of cochineal, both finely lifted, are to be ad¬
ded. A brilk fire is to' be kept up; and when the
liqour is ready* to boil, two ounces of the compo¬
fition already defcribed muft be added, by which
the liquor is immediately changed from crimfon to
blood colour. As foon as it begins to boil, the
worfted, vprevioufly fteeped in hot water, and then
expreffed, is to be added. It hiuft be fuffered to boil
for an hour and an half; after which it is taken out,
gently fqueezed, and walked in cold water, having
taken care to ftir it conftantly all the time. It will
now be a tolerable flefh colour, or even fomewhat
darker, according to the goodnefs of the cochineal
and the ftrength of the folution of tin ; but the colour
will be fo totally abforbed by the ftuff, that the re¬
maining liquid will be almoft as colburlefs as water.
This is called the fcarlet boiling; and without this -the
dye would not hold. To finilh the dye there muft
be another preparation of very clear water, the good¬
nefs of this being of the utmoft confequence to the
goodnefs of the colour. In this preparation, along
with the other ingredients, there-muft be half an ounce
of ftarch; and when the liquor is pretty hot, fix drachms
and an half of cochineal, likewife finely powdered, is to
be added. A little before it boils, two ounces of the
folution of tin are put in ; by which, as in the former
cafe, the colour is inftantaneoufly changed. As foon
as it begins to bubble, the worfted is to be dipped,
allowed to boil an hour and an half.. ftirring it all the
time, and then walking it as already direfted. An
ounce of cochineal will be fufficient to give a proper
Vol.VI. Fait. I.
I N G.
depth of colour to a pound of wool; a drachm or two
more might be added, if you would have the colour
very deep, but if it be much enlarged, the dye will
turn out very dull.
In dyeing the fcarlet colour, the material of which Proper ma-
the cauldron is made is by no means a matter of fmall for
confequence. On this our author has the following ^r^au *
obfervations. “ Their cauldrons in Languedoc are
made of fine tin. They are alfo ufed by feveral dyers
at Paris; but Mr Julienne, whofe fcarlet is very highly
efteemed, makes ufe of brafs cauldrons. Thefe are
alfo ufed in the dyeing manufaftory of St Dennis.
Mr Julienne is careful only to fufpend a large pack¬
thread net, with pretty fmall mefiies, in his cauldron,
to prevent the ftuff from touching. At St Dennis*
inftead of a net, they ufe a large open wicker bafleet;
but this is lefs convenient than the net, becaufe it re¬
quires a man at each fide of the copper to keep it even,
and to prevent it, when loaded with the ftuff, from
rifing to the furface of the liquor.
“ This pra&ice, fo different with regard to the ma- Experiment
terials of the cauldron, determined me to make an ex- of M. Hel-
perifnent. I took two ells of white Sedan cloth, lot .°n tliis
which I dyed in two cauldrons, one of copper, fur-^u^e<^‘
nifbed with a pack-thread net, and another of tin. I
weighed the cochineal, the compofition, arid other in¬
gredients, with as much accuracy as poffible. They
boiled exa&ly the fame time. In ftiort, I was fuffici-
ently attentive to make the operation the fame in
every particular; that in cafe of any perceptible dif-
• ference it could only be attributed to the different
materials of the cauldrons. At the firft boiling, the
two patterns were abfolutely alike, except that the
piece done in the tin cauldron was rather more mar¬
bled, and not quite fo even as the other; but this in
all probability might be occafioned by their not having
been equally cleanfed at the mill. I finifhed each
piece in its proper cauldron, and they were both of
them very beautiful. Neyerthelefs, it was very evident
that the cloth which had been dyed in the tin was
more fiery, and the other rather more crimfoned.
They might have been eafily brought to the fame
fliade ; but this was not my objeft. From this ex¬
periment, it appears that, with a copper cauldron, the
quantity of the compofition fhould be increafed; but
then the cloth grows harfh to the feel. Thofe who
dye in copper, to prevent this evil add a little of the
turmerick, which is a drug only ufed for falfe colours*
and therefore prohibited by the regulations to dyers
in grain, but which gives fcarlet that dazzling fiery
colour fo much the fafhion at prefent. It is, however,
if you have any fufpicion, eafy to difeover the decep¬
tion, by cutting the pattern with a pair of feiffars. If
it has no turmerick, the cut edge will appear white,
othrewife it will be yellow. When the clofe texture
is equally dyed with the fuperficies, let the colour be
what it will, they fay the colour cuts, and the contra¬
ry when the middle of the texture remains white.
Legitimate fcarlet never cuts. I call it legitimate,
and the other falfe, becaufe that with the addition of
the turmerick is more liable to fade. But as the tafte
for colours is fo variable, as the bright fcarlets are at
prefent the mode, and as it is neceffary, in order to
pleafe the buyer, that it fhould have a yellow caft, it
were better to authorife the ufe of the turmerick, though.
202
DYE
a falfe colour, than to allow too large a quantity of
the compofition, by which the cloth is injured, being
more liable not only to dirt, but alfo to tear, as the
fibres of the wool are rendered brittle by the acid.
“ I muft alfo add, that a copper cauldron Ihould be
kept extremely clean. I have myfelf frequently failed
in i'carlet patterns by neglecting to clean the cauldron.
1 cannot in this place forbear condemning the practice
even of fome eminent dyers, who at about fix o’clock
in the evening make their preparation in a Copper
cauldron ; and, in order to gain time, keep it hot till
day-light the next morning, when they dip their Huffs.
The preparation muft undoubtedly corrode the copper
during the night; and confequently, by introducing
eoppery particles into the cloth, injure the fcarlet.
They will tell us that they do not put in the compo¬
fition till immediately before the cloth is dipped : but
this is no apology; for the cream of tartar added on
the preceding evening being fufficiently acid to cor¬
rode the copper, forms a verdigris which diffolves, it
is true, as foon as it is formed, but which neverthelefs
produces the fame effeft.
How to 41 ■^lS tin's ahfolutely necefiary in the fcarlet dye,
prtferve a it were much better to have a cauldron of this metal,
tin caul- which would infallibly contribute to the beauty of the
meltin'^0”1 coh)Ur* But the price of thefe cauldrons, if fufficient-
S ly large, is an objeft of confideration, efpecially as they
may melt in the firft operation if not carefully attend¬
ed to by the woikmen. Befides, it would be very
difficult to call a veffel of fo large a fize without flaws
that would require to be filled. It is abfolutely ne¬
cefiary that they be made of block tin. If the flaws
fhould be filled with folder, which contains a mixture
of lead, many parts of the cauldron will retain the lead,
which being corroded by the acid compofition will
tarnifh the fcarlet. Hence there are inconveniences
in every particular: neverthelefs, if it were poffible to
procure a fkilful workman capable of cafting a caul¬
dron of the Melac tin without flaw, it were certainly
preferable to every other ; for though the acid of the
compofition fhould in fome parts corrode it, the de¬
tached particles will do no harm, as I have already
obferved.
“ There is no danger of melting a tin cauldron, but
when it is emptied in order to fill it with a frefh liquor.
I ftiall therefore add the precautions necefiary to pre¬
vent this evil. In the firft place, the fire ihould be
taken entirely from the furnace, and the remaining
embers quenched with water. Part of the liquor
fhould then be taken out with a bucket, while the re¬
mainder (hould be daflied about with a fiiovel by an¬
other perfon, in order to keep the upper part of the
cauldron continually moift, at the fame time cooling
what remains in the cauldron with cold water. In
this manner it fiionld be continued till you can touch
the bottom without being burnt. It fhould then be
entirely emptied, and all the fediment taken up with a
moift fponge. This attention will preferve your caul-
ay dron-
“Why wool “ Woollens are never dyed fcarlet in the fleece, for
in fleece is the two following reafons : The firft is,, or ought,’to
never dyed j-^gard all fluffs of Amply one colour ; thofe of many
fcarkt. colours are called mixedfluff's. Thefe kind of fluffs are
never dyed in the wool, efpecially when the colours are
bright and fine ; becaufe, in the courfe of the fabricn-
I N G.
tion, the fpinning, twifting, or weaving, it would be
almoft impoflible to prevent fome white or other co¬
loured wool from mixing, which though ever fo trifling
would injure the fluff. For which reafon, reds, blues,
yellows, greens, or any of thofe unmixed colours, fhould
not be dyed till after they have been manufa&ured.
The fecond reafon is peculiar to fcarlet, or rather to
the cochineal, which being heightened by an acid, can¬
not ftand the fulling without lofing much of its colour,
or being at leaft exceffively crimfoned. For the foap
which contains an alkaline fait deftroys the vivacity
produced by the acids. Hence it is evident that nei¬
ther cloth nor fluffs fhould be dyed fcarlet till they
have been fulled and dreffed.
“ To dye different pieces of cloth at the fame time,
the directions already given do not entirely anfwer. g
“ For example, in order to dye five pieces of Car- Dire<5Hons
caflionne cloth at the fame time, each piece five quar- for dyeing
ters broad, and fifteen or fixteen ells in length, it ist,jfferenti
neceffary to obferve the following proportions: Youat'the
begin by making the compofition in a very different fame tirae.
manner from the preceding procefs^-nia. twelve pounds
of aquafortis put into a ftone jar or glazed veffel, witlv
twenty-four pounds of water, and one pound and an
half of tin grains added. The folution goes on more
or lefs flow according to the acidity of the aquafortis,
and {hould ftand for twelve hours at leaft. During
this time a kind of blackifh dirt falls to the bottom ;
the top fhould be then drained off the fediment: this
liquor is of a clear lemon colour, and is preferved by
itfelf. This procefs evidently differs from the firft by
the quantity of water mixed with the aquafortis, and
by the fmall portion of tin, of which fcarce any re¬
mains in the liquor; for the aquafortis not being in
itfelf a folvent for tin, only corrodes and reduces it to
a calx, provided neither faltpetre nor fal ammoniac be
added, which would convert it into an aqua regia.
The effeft of this compofition is not, however, diffe¬
rent from others, and is perceptible to thofe who
from experience are competent judges of this colour.
The compofition without fal ammoniac has been for a
long time ufed by the manufacturers of Carcaffionne,
who doubtlefs imagined that its effeft was owing to a
fuppofed fulphur of tin, and may be preferved from
putrefaftion for thirty hours in winter and only twen¬
ty-four in fummer. It then grows turbid, forms a
cloud, which falls to the bottom of the veffel in a
white fediment. This fediment is a fmall portion of
the tin, which was fufpended in an acid not prepared
for the folution. The compofition, which ought to
be yellow, becomes clear as water; and if employed in
this ftate never fucceeds, but produces the fame effedl
as if it had been milky.
“ When the compofition is prepared, as I have now
deferibed, according to M. de Fondieres, you put, for
the quantity of cloth laft mentioned, about fixty cubic
feet of water into a large copper; when the water
grows warn, you add a fackful of bran : it is fome-
times neceffary to ufe four water ; they will either of
them do, as they fay, to corredl the water, <m;. to ab-
forb the terreous and alkaline fubftances, which crim-
fon the tinge of the cochineal. We fhould be well
informed concerning the nature of the water employed,
in order to know whether thefe corredives be necef-
fary..
DYE
Be It as It may, when the water is a little more
than warm, you add ten pounds of cryftols or cream of
tartar pulverifed, that is to fay, two pounds to each
piece of cloth. The liquor fliould be then violently
ftirred; and, when rather hot, you Ihould put into it
half a pound of the powder of cochineal, mixing it
well together, and immediately afterwards you pour
into it twenty-feven pounds of the campoiition, very
clear, which alfo requires to be well ftirred. As foon
as it begins to boil, the cloth being immerfed, fhould
boil very ,faft for two hours, and during that time
fhould be kept in continued motion on the wynch, and
when taken out palling it through the hands by the
lifting, in order to open and give it air. It is after¬
wards carried to the river and well walked.
Method of “ or<^er perfectly to underftand the method of
ftirring the ftirr!’ng the cloth, it is requifite to obferve, that a
doth. kind of reel or wynch, with a handle for turning, Ihould
be placed horizontally on the iron hooks which are
fixed in the felloes that fupport the edge of the caul¬
dron. You firft join the feveral ends of each piece of
fluff to be dyed at the fame time; and as foon as they
are immerfed, you carefully keep the end of the firft
piece in your hand ; you then lay it on the reel, which
fhould be turned till the end of the laft piece appears.
It is then turned the contrary way, and in this manner
every piece will be dyed as even as poffible.
“ When the cloth has been well walked, the caul¬
dron fhould be emptied, frelh liquor prepared, to
which you mull add, if neceffary, a fack of bran or
fome four water; but if the quality of the water be
very good, there is no oefcafion for any addition.
' When the liquor is ready to boil, you put in eight
pounds and a quarter of cochineal pulverifed and lifted.
The whole is then mixed together as even as pollible ;
but when you ceafe to ftir, you mull mind when the
cochineal rifes to the furface, forming a kind of feum
of the colour of lees of wine. As foon as this feum
begins to divide, you pour in eighteen or twenty pounds
of the compofition. You Ihould have a veffel full of
cold water near the cauldron ready to throw in, left
after putting in the compofition it Ihould rife above
the edge, as is fometimes the cafe.
“ When the compofition is put into the copper,
and the whole well mixed, you turn the wynch quick
for two or three turns, that every piece may imbibe
the cochineal equally. It is then turned more flowly,
in order to let the water boil. It Ihould boil very fall
for two hours, conftantly turning and keeping the
cloth down with a flick. The cloth is then taken
out, and paffed through the hands by the lifting, in
order to give it air and to cool it; it is afterwards
walked at the river, dryed, and dreffed.
“ There is a confiderable advantage in having a great
quantity of fluff to dye at the fame time ; as for ex¬
ample, when the five farft pieces are finilhed there re¬
mains a certain quantity of the cochineal, which, fup-
pofing feven pounds at firft, might amount to twelve
ounces; fo that cloth put into this fetond liquor will
imbibe the fame fhade of rofe-colour as if you had co¬
loured a frelh liquor with twelve ounces of cochineal.
The quantity remaining may, however, vary very much
according to the quality of the cochineal, or accord¬
ing to the finenefs of the powder. Though the quan¬
tity of colour remaining in the liquor may be very in-
I N G. 20
confiderable, it neverthelefs deferves attention on ac¬
count of the dearnefs of this drug. Of this liquor,
therefore, a preparation may be made for five pieces
of cloth ; and it will require lefs of the cochineal and
. lels of the compofition, in proportion, as near as you
can guefs, to the quantity remaining in the liquor.
This is alfo a faving. of fuel and time ; but it is irn-
pollible to give pofitive diredlions concerning this ma¬
noeuvre, which mull be left to the ingenuity of the
dyer ; for having dyed rofe-colour after the fcarlet, you
may make a third preparation, which will dye a flelh-
colour. If there is not time to make thefe two or
three preparations in 24 hours, the liquor fpoils: fome 3^1^,
dyers put Roman alum into the liquor to prevent it crimfoned
from fpoiling ; but this changes it to a crimfon. by alum.
“ Scarlets thus crimfoned in the fame liquor in which
they had been dyed, are never fo bright as thofe done-
in a frelh liquor. Drugs which reciprocally deftroy
each other’s effedl are more efficacious when employed
in fucceflion.
“ When you dye cloth of different qualities, or any
kind of fluffs, the belTmethod is to weigh them, and
for every hundred pound to allow about fix pounds of
cryllals or cream of tartar, eighteen pounds of the
compofition in the preparation, the fame quantity in
the completion, and in each of them fix pounds and a
quarter of cochineal. For the accommodation of thofe
who would make fmall experiments, the whole may be
reduced, viz. one ounce of cream of tartar, fix ounces
of the compofition, and an ounce of cochineal for
every pound of fluff. Some of the Paris dyers fuc-
ceed very well by putting two-thirds of the compofi¬
tion and a quarter of the cochineal in the preparation,
and the remaining third of the compofition, and the
other three-quarters of the cochineal, to the comple¬
tion.
“ If Is not the cuftom to put cryllal of tartars in
the finilh ; I am however convinced by experience that
it does no harm, provided that at moll you put but
half the weight of the cochineal; and in my opinion
it made the colour rather more permanent. There
have been dyers who have dyed fcarlet at three times:
in this cafe they had two preparations, and afterwards
the finiih ; but they always ufed the fame quantity of
drugs.”
We have already obferved, that the kermes were fo
little ufed for brown or Venetian fcarlets, that thefe
kind of colours were made with cochineal. For this
purpofe the preparation is made as ufual; and for the
dyeing they add to the liquor eight pounds of alum to
every hundred weight of Huff. This alum is diffolved
in a feparate cauldron with a fufficient quantity of wa¬
ter : it is thrown into the liquor before the cochineal.
The remainder is done precifely the fame as in com¬
mon fcarlet; it gives the cloth the colour of Venetian
fcarlet; but it is not by any means fo permanent as
the colour obtained from kermes.
There are no alkaline falls that do not crimfon fcar¬
let ; but it is more generally the cuftom to ufe alum,
becaufe thefe alkaline falls are no addition to the per¬
manency of the colour, and may poffibly injure the
fluffs, becaufe all animal fubftances are diffolved by
fixed alkalies. The alum, by being deprived of its
phlegm by calcination, will more certainly crimfon.
The liquor which had been ufed for crimfoning is red,
C c 2 and
2o4 DYE
and ftill redder in proportion as the fcarlet is more
crimfoned, fo that the colours part with much of their
bafis in the liquor by which they are darkened. It is,
however, impoffible to darken in grain without falts.
The late Mr Barron, in a memoir which he prefented
* to the Royal Academy of Sciences 12 or 15 years
ago, remarks, that he'fucceeded better with the fait'
of urine, than with any other fait, for uniting the colour
and preferving its brightnefs and fulnefs; but, as he
obferved, it is'very inconvenient to make any quantity
jj of this fait.
Quality of It has been obferved, that the choice of the water
the water for dyeing fcarlet was of importance ; the greateft part
fcadet^of common waters fadden, becaufe they aim oft al-
great im- ways contain a quantity of itony or calcareous earth,
portance. and fometimes of fulphureous or vitriolic acid. Thefe
are commonly called hard waters ; by this term they
mean water that will not diffolve foap, and in which it
is not eafy to drefs vegetables. By abforbing or pre¬
cipitating thefe heterogeneous fubftances, all waters
are rendered equally good. If the matter be alkaline,
a little four water will produce this effedt. Five or fix
cubic feet of this four water, added to 60 or 70 cubic
feet of other water before it has boiled, will caufe the
alkaline earth to rife in a fcum which may be eafily
taken off the liquor. A fackful of any kind of white
mucilaginous root cut in fmall bits, or, if dry, pow¬
dered, will alfo, if the fack be left tcrfoak in the wa¬
ter for a half or three-quarters of an hour, corredt a
doubtful water ; bran, as we have faid above, will alfo
fz anfwer the fame end tolerably well.
OF gum-lac The fcarlet produced by gum-lac, though lefs bright
fcarlet. coch;neal,- has the advantage of being more per¬
manent. The lac moft efteemed for dyeing Ms of a
branched form. The colour is that of an animal, like
that of cochineal and kermes, and the branched kind
has moft of the animal particles in it. The beft kind
is of a blackifh brown colour on the outfide, and red
within ; and from fome experiments made by M. Geof¬
frey, it appears to be a kind of comb, fomewhat refem-
bling that made by bees or other infedls of that kind.
Dyers fometimes ufe it when pulverifed, and tied up
in a bag; but to this M. Hellot objedls, becaufe fome
©f the gum-refin being melted by the heat of the boil¬
ing liquid, efcapes through the cloth, and adheres to
it fo clofely, that it muft be feraped off with a knife
when cold. Others endeavour to extraft the colour
by boiling it in water after it has been reduced to pow¬
der, and then letting it Hand to fettle, and pouring off
the coloured liquid ; but in this way it often turns pu-
53 trid. M.Hellot,therefore, afterfeveralunfuccefsfultrials
rnetlmd ofSt° extra<^ t^ie colour readily, had recourfe at laft to
extracSHiig mucilaginous roots; which, without communicating any
ahe colour colour of their own, retained that of the lac fo effec-
«f gum-lac. tually as to remain with it upon the filtre. Comfrey*
root was that with which he fucceeded beft. For ex-
tradting the colour, he ufed it dried and powdered, in
the proportion of half a drachm to a quart of water.
In this it is to be boiled for a quarter of an hour;
then ftrained through a linen cloth, and poured while
quite hot upon the gum-lac powdered and lifted through
an hair-fieve. By this it immediately acquires a fine
crimfon colour; after which the whole is fet to digeft
in a moderate heat for twelve hours, ftirring the gum
which remains at the bottom feven or eight times. The
I N G.
water thus impregnated with the colour is afterwards
decanted into a veffel large enough to contain four
times the quantity, which is then to be filled with cold
water, A fmall quantity of ftrong folution of Roman
alum is then added; the coloured mucilage fublides;
and if any colour remains in the liquor, it may be pre¬
cipitated by the addition of fome more alum, until at
laft the water will be left entirely colouilefs. After
the crimfon mucilage is entirely funk to the bottom, .
the clear water is drawn off with a fyphon, and the re¬
mainder put upon a fibre, to let the liquid {lowly drop
off or evaporate. If the whole of the colour be not
extradfed from the lac by one operation, it is to be re¬
peated till no more appears, and the refiduum becomes
of a pale ftraw-colour. The beft lac, detached from
its branches, does not yield more than one-fifth of its
weight in colour ; and hence there is no great advan¬
tage to be made by fubftituting it in place of cochi-
for the fcarlet dye.
For dyeing fcarlet with this extradf of gum-lac, the Method of
requilite quantity of it, dried and powdered, is to be the
put into an earthen or block-tin veffel. Some hot water
is then to be poured upon it; and, when well moiften-
ed, add the proper quantity of the fcarlet compofition,
ftirring the mixture with a glafs peftle. By this means
the powder, which before was of a dark dirty purple,
acquires an exceedingly bright fcarlet. The folution
in which the cryftals of .tartar had been previoufly dif-
folved is then to be poured into the liquor; and as.foon
as the latter begins to boil, the cloth is to be dipped
into it, turning it over and over according to the com¬
mon method. The remainder of the operation is to
be performed in the fame manner as if cochineal were
ufed. The extraft, in our author’s opinion, afforded
about a ninth part more colour than cochineal.
Crimfon is the colour produced by cochineal with of dyeing,
alum and tartar only, without any folution of tin. crimfon.
For this colour two ounces and an half of alum, with
an ounce *and an half of white tartar, are to be taken
for every pound of wool. Thefe being put into a caul¬
dron with a proper quantity of water, are to be made
to boil before the ituff is put in. A s foon as the li¬
quor Begins to boil, the wool is to be put into the caul¬
dron, and the boiling continued for two hours ; after
which it is to be taken out, gently fqueezed, rinfed in
water, and put into a bag, which is alfo neceffary to
be done with the preparations for every other colour.
A frefii liquor muft be prepared for the dye, in which
an ounce of cochineal is to be put for every pound of
wool. When it begins to boil, the wool is to be put
in, and managed as already direfted for fcarlet. For
the fineft crimfon, the ftuff, after the common .procefs
is finiflied, fiiould be dipped in a new liquor in which a
fmall quantity of fal ammoniac is to be diffolyed, and
an equal quantity of potafh, added after it is pretty
hot. , ,
A very beautiful crimfon is obtained by boiling the
wool as for common fcarlet, then making a fecond pre¬
paration with two ounces of alum, and, an ounce of
tartar to every pound of wool. It foould remain an
hour in this decodtion. A frefti liquor is then to be
prepared immediately ; in which to every pound of
wool you put fix drachms of cochineal. When it has
remained an hour in this liquor, it is taken out and im¬
mediately dipped in a folution of barilla and fal am-
a. rooniaej.
205
DYEING.
tnoniac ; and in this manner a great number of very
beautiful ftades of crimfon may be prepared by dimi-
nifhing the quantity of cochineal. In this procefs it is
necdfary that the mixture of alkaline fait and fal am¬
moniac (hould not be too hot, as this would caufe the
volatile fpirit evaporate too quickly, and the cryftals
of tartar alfo, being neutralifed,' would lofe their ef-
* JS feft.
apf dyeing por ^yC{ng fdjc 0f a fine crimfon with cochineal,
crimfon Macquer recommends only 20 pounds of foap to
lolour. too of lilk ; “ becaufe (fays he) the little natural yel¬
low ftill remaining in the lilk, after only this quantity
of foap, is favourable to the colour.
“ Having walked and beetled the filk at the river
to difcharge it well of the foap, it is put into a very
ftrong folution of alum, where it Ihould remain gene¬
rally from night till the next morning, about feven or
eight hours. The filk is then walked and twice beetled
at the river; during which time the following liquor is
thus prepared :
“ You fill a long boiler about one-half or two-thirds
full of river water ; when this water boils, you throw
in fome white nutgalls pounded, letting it boil a little
longer, about a quarter of an ounce to two ounces for
every pound of filk. If the nutgalls are well pounded
and lifted, they may be put in at the fame time with
the cochineal.
“ The filk being walked, beetled, and diftributed
upon the rods, you throw into the liquor the cochi¬
neal, carefully pounded and fifted ; it mull be then
well ftirred with a Hick, and afterwards boiled. You
may put from two to three ounces for every pound of
filk, according to the lhade required. For the molt
common crimfon colours two ounces and an half is fuf-
ficient, it being feldom neceffary to ufe three ounces
except for fome particular match.
“ When the cochineal has boiled, you add to the
liquor for every pound of cochineal about an ounce of
the folution of tin in aqua regia ; it is called compojitian,
and made in the following manner
“ One pound of the fpirit of nitre, two ounces of
fal ammoniac, and fix ounces of fine tin in grains:
the two laft are put into an earthen pot of a proper
fize; twelve ounces of water is then poured on it, the
fpirit of nitre afterwards added, and the whole left to
diflblve.
“ This compofition contains much more tin and fal
ammoniac than is ufed for the fcarlet of cochineal on
wool; it is however abfolutely necefiary.
“ This quantity of the compofition (hould be well
mixed and ftirred in the liquor, and the copper then
filled with cold water, about eight or ten quarts to
every pound of fine filk ; coarfe filk requiring lefs, as
it occupies lefs fpace. The liquor is then fit to receive
the filk which is immerfed, and returned till it appears
uniform, generally requiring about five or fix returns.
The fire is then ftirred ; and whilft the liquor is boil¬
ing, which it ftiould do for two hours, the filk is re¬
turned from time to time. The fire is then taken from
under the copper, and the filk put to foak in the fame
manner as for aluming. It ftiould remain for five or
fix hours, or even, if the liquor be ready at night,
till the next morning. It is then taken out, wafhed
at the river, twice beetled, wrung as ufual, and put
the perches to dry.
“ To fadden the grain of fcarlets, the filk when
taken out of the cochineal liquor is walked and twice
beetled at the river ; the water-liquor is then prepared,
in fummer as it is, but in wunter a little warmed, add¬
ing a folution of copperas, more or lefs according to
the darknefs of the lhade required. The filk ftiould
be returned in this liquor, in fmall hanks, till it be¬
comes very even ; and when the lhade is equal to ex¬
pectation, Ihould be taken out, wrung and put to dry
without walking if you like, becaufe the copperas li¬
quor is little more than clean water. The copperas
gives the cochineal a violet tinCt, depriving it of its
yellow. If, however, it Ihould appear to lofe too
much of its yellow, it may be preferved by adding to
the copperas liquor a little of the deco&ion of fuitic.
Nothing but copperas will fadden grain fcarlets j the
logwood being quite ufelefs for this purpofe, copperas
alone will fuffice, as it darkens greatly v/ith the nut-*
galls ufed in grain fcarlets.
“ The procefs juft related for producing this colour
is the moft in ufe at prefent, as it gives a more beauti¬
ful lhade than can be obtained by any other method,
Neverthe’efs, as many dyers proceed in the old way,
we lhall defcribe it here.
“ For thefe grain fcarlets the round pafl.e, as import¬
ed from the Indies, is added in the boiling of the filk.
When the foap boils, about an ounce of rocou is
bruifed in the cullender, in the fame manner as defcri-
bed for orange-colours. It Ihould be pounded as fine
as poffible, left any lumps Ihould remain and ftick to
the filk.
“ 1 his fmall quantity of rocou, in the boiling of
the filk, has the lame effeCf as the compofition, yel¬
lowing a little. The remainder of this procefs is juft
the fame as the preceding ; but without the addition
of either compoiition or tartar.
“ The filk dyers are accuftomed to ufe only the
fineft cochineal, and even always prefer the prepared
cochineal, which is cleanled from all its impurities, fift¬
ed and picked. This is certainly commendable, con-
fidering that the cochineal not prepared being lefs pure,
the more of it muft be added, and that the dregs re¬
maining in the liquor may injure the colour. The
white tartar ufed in grain fcarlets ferves to exalt and
yellow the colour of the cochineal, producing this ef-
fect by its acidity, all acids having the fame effect: we
muft, however, obferve, that tartar is preferable, as it
gives a more beautiful tin£f. But, notwithftanding the
quality of the tartar, it is ftill incapable of exalting the
colour of the cochineal fufficiently to produce a grain
fcarlet, whatever quantity may be added if employed-
by itfelf: for if the dofe of this ingredient be mode¬
rate, it will not yellow enough ; and if too large, it de-
ftroys and degrades the colour, without any good ef-
fe£t. In order to affift the tartar, it will be neceffary
to add fome of the compoiition, which, as we have
feen, is nothing more than a folution of tin in aqua .
regia. This folution with cochineal, when ufed for
dyeing of worfted, has a conliderable effect, changing
it from a crimfon, its natural colour, to a prodigious -
bright fire colour ; and produces only a crimfon when
applied to filk : but it gives this colour a very beautiful
tinCt; for uniting with the tartar, it augments the ef¬
fect without impoverilhing the colour, laving the ro-
cob ground, as we have before obferved,
“A*.-
2o6 DYE
5 7 “ As to nutga'Us, they produce no good effect with
^”ut"regard to colour: on the contrary, if you ufe too
ing f,lk 0f a-tnuch, they tarnilh to a degree, entirely fpoiling the
crimfun co--colour; neverthelefs, it is always the cuftom to put the
lour. <quantity we have fpecified.
“ One might probably conjefture from the intro-
•duftion of this pra&ice, that fcarlets were formerly
produced with cochineal, without either tartar or com-
pofition, yellowing only with rocou: filk dyed in this
manner, however, would have no ruftling, fo that it
could not be diftinguilhed from filk dyed with Braftl
wood. Nutgalls, on account of their concealed acid,
having the property of giving the filk a great ruftling,
are therefore added with cochineal; by which means
thefe fcarlets are diftinguiftted by the feel from the
fcarlet of Brazil wood : for we muft obferve, that the
Brafil dye cannot ftand the action of the nutgalls, by
which it is entirely deftroyed.
“ But beiides giving-this ruftling to the filk, it has
at the fame time the fingular and very remarkable qua¬
lity of adding to its weight very confiderably ; fo that
by putting one ounce of nutgalls to every pound of
filk, you add two or two and a half per cent, to the
weight: by this means fome filk-dyers add even feven
or eight per cent. They are fo much accuftomed to
this advantage in weight, owing to the nutgalls, that
even when this drug becomes ufelefs by the addition of
the tartar and compofition, which produces the fame
ruftling, they make it ftill neceffary on account of the
weight, which is not proportionably increafed by the
other acids. White nutgalls are always preferable to
the black, as they injure the colours much lefs. We
may, however, hence conclude, that for grain fcarlets
nutgalls are not only ufelefs but very prejudicial; and
ferving only as an impofition, is a blameable practice,
and injurious to commerce.
“ The filk is thus fuffered to remain in the liquor,
in order to make it wholly imbibe the cochineal. Du¬
ring this repofe it takes a good half-fhade; and the co¬
lour yellowing in proportion, gives it a much finer
caft.
“ One would be apt to believe, that leaving the filk
to boil in the liquor for a longer time would have the
fame effett; but experience proves the contrary : be-
fides, it would be more expenfive, confidering that it
would be neceffary to continue the fire.
“ The cochineal leaves on the filk, when taken out
of the liquor, a kind of fcale, or rather the Ikin of
the infe&, which always contains a portion of the co¬
louring juice. In order, therefore, to cleanfe the filk
perfectly from this kind of bran, it is twice beetled
when wafhed at the river. By this means the colour
becomes more brilliant, clearer, and fuller.
« The two beetlings before dyeing are neceffary,
becaufe the filk having been ftrongly alumed for this
colour, and intended to boil in the dyeing liquor for a
great while, would, without this precaution, yield a
certain quantity of the alum, which not only injures
the colour, but likewife prevents the perfeft extraction
of the cochineal; for generally all neutral falts added
to the dyeing liquor have more or lefs this inconveni¬
ence.
“ The grain, or cochineal crimfon, fuch as deferi-
bed, is not only a very beautiful, but may be confider-
cd as a moft excellent colour: it is the moft permanent
I N G.
of all dyes for filk. It perfeftly refills the boiling
with foap, and evidently fuffers no alteration from either
the fun or the air. Silk ftuffs of this colour, common¬
ly ufed in furniture, are fooner worn out than faded*
It is frequently feen that the colour of this grain crim¬
fon in furniture, though more than 60 years old, is
fcarce impaired. The only obfervable difference occa-
fioned by time is, that by lofing the yellow caft it be¬
comes rather darker, approaching nearer to the violet.”
_ The dyeing of cottonred is attended with much more Of dyeing
difficulty than any of the fubftances hitherto mention- cottuii of »
ed ; and indeed to produce a good fcarlet or crimfonre£i £u*UKr'
_ upon it has hitherto been a defideratum in the art. The
following are M. Apligny’s directions for dyeing fuch
reds as are commonly in ufe. “ It is neceffary, previ- «
ous to the dyeing of cotton thread, to cleanfe it from
that un&uous matter by which the dye is prevented
from penetrating its pores. For this purpofe they
make ufe of four water; which is prepared by throw¬
ing fome handfuls of bran into hot water, and let¬
ting it ftand 24 hours, or till the water becomes
four, when it is fit for ufe. Thefe four waters,
however, cleanfe the cotton but very imperfe&ly, car¬
rying off only the fuperficial part of the unduous
matter, which river water would do as well. The lixi-
viums of allies are more effedual; and therefore all fix¬
ed alkalies, particularly kelp, or even the alhes of new
wood, are, for the. reafon I have already given, gene¬
rally preferred for this operation. The falts are extrac¬
ted in the fame manner as by the bleachers ; and the
cotton is then fteeped in thefe lixiviums, which, like
the filk, is inclofed in a clean linen pocket or fack, to
prevent the Ikeins from tangling : it fhould boil for a
couple of hours : when perfe&ly cleanfed, the pockets
fink to the bottom of the liquor, becaufe the impeding
matter being removed, the water penetrates the pores.
The pocket is then taken out of the copper, the Ikeins
feparated from each other, and waflied at the river.
They are afterwards wrung on the peg, and again rin-
fed till the water comes off clear. The Ikeins are then
fpread on the perches to dry.
“ To dye cotton red requires three preparations, viz.
cleanfing, galling, and aluming. The operation of
cleanfing as above.
“ With regard to the galling, any kind of galls may
be ufed in cafe of neceffity ; or even tan may be fubfti-
tuted; but that requiring more, it would not anfwer
the purpofe fo well. The black Aleppo galls, becaufe
lefs fuffices, are preferable to the white galls, which
though cheaper make the expence come nearly equal.
The Aleppo galls are, however, liable to dull the co¬
lour, which though eaiily revived, the white not pro¬
ducing this inconvenience, are generally preferred by
moft dyers. It requires nearly five quarts of liquor to
drench one pound of cotton; fo that for 20 pounds,
five pounds of pounded galls are boiled in about 120
quarts of water ; it ffiould boil for two hours, or till
by preffing it between the fingers it breaks eafily.
This liquor is drawn off clear, and poured into a
tub, into which, when cold, or even whilft warm, the
cotton, which was before divided into hanks of about
eight ourtces each, and tied with a thread to prevent
them from tangling, is dipped. Suppofe, for ex¬
ample, that having about 40 of thefe hanks, and 100
quarts of the gall liquor, a part of it neceffarily evapo-
3 rating
D . Y E
rating in the boiling, five quarts of this liquor is taken
out of the tub and put into a trough, into which you
dip two flceins at once, carefully working them till they
are foaked. They are then taken out and laid in an
empty tub, pouring over them the remainder of the
liquor in which they had been foaked : five quarts more
are then taken out of the tub containing the gall water,
poured into the trough, and two more hanks dipped
into it, and fo on fuccelfively till the whole is galled.
The gall liquor fliould be ftirred in the tub every time
you take out, that the whole of the cotton may be gall¬
ed equally, which it would not be were the grounds to
fettle at the bottom. This operation finifhed ; if any
of the liquor remains, it is poured on the galled cotton,
being orderly ranged in the tub ; where, after remain¬
ing 24 hours, it is taken out fltein by fkein, gently
wrung, and then put to dry.
“ The aluming for the cotton confifts of about four
dunces of Roman alum for every pound of the fub-
flance. Having pounded the proper quantity of alum,
it is diflblved over the fire in a copper containing a
fufficient quantity of water, taking care not to let it
boil, otherwife it would lofe its ftrength. The liquor
is immediately poured into a tub or trough of cold wa¬
ter, proportioned to the quantity of the cotton, fo as
that the whole of the liquor may be as that of the gal¬
ling, 100 quarts for every 20 pounds of cotton. It is
the cuftom to add to this alum liquor a folution partly
compofed of arfenic and white tartar, with one part of
the lixivium of kelp. The firfl. folution confifts of one
grain of arfenic and twro grains of white tartar, in two
or three quarts of water. When the water in the cop¬
per boils, the arfenic and tartar, well pounded, is put
into it, and kept boiling till the liquor is reduced to
about half. When cold, it is {trained and put into
bottles or veflels, which fliould be flopped and kept for
ufe.
“ The kelp lixivium is made with about half a pound
to a quart of water. You will know if this lixivium be
fufficiently ftrong, when by putting an egg into it the
point only appears on the furface.
“ You then add to the alum liquor for this fuppofed
20 pounds of cotton 20 quarts of the folution, and
three quarts of the faid lixivium, obferving neverthelefs
that the whole of the water ufed in mixing the alum
and other fubftances be always in the proportion of
five quarts of liquor to every pound of cotton. The
20 pounds of cotton are then plunged into this aftrin-
gent pound by pound, in the fame manner and with
the fame precaution as in galling ; it is afterwards
wrung, but without being too much fqueezed, and
then flowly dried.
“ Some dyers never ufe the folution of tartar and arfe¬
nic with the alum, rationally fuppofing that thefe fub¬
ftances, as they ruft and yellow the red colours, would
be prejudicial to the dye:- the red furnilhed by madder,
being already too much inclined to this fhade, requires
rather to be faddened ; and for this reafon partly the
kelp lixivium is added to the alumxng. Several, there¬
fore, ufe fix quarts of this lixivium inftead of three; and
thefe fix quarts containing the falls of about three
pounds of kelp, which by fuppofing the kelp allies to
contain a quarter of its weight of fait, is in proportion
of half an ounce to every quarter of a pound of alum.
’•Taftead of the folution of tartar aad avfenicj. others
I N G. ' 205
make ufe of a folution of fugar of lead, prepared fepa*
rate. It ftiould be obferved in this particular, that
when the fugar of lead is diffolved in common water, it
becomes turbid and whitiih, becaufe plain water not
diflolving this peffeifily, a kind of partial reparation of
the calx of lead takes place ; but by mixing a fuffi¬
cient quantity of diftilled vinegar with the water, the
calx entirely difappears and the folution is complete.
“ When the cotton is taken out of the aftringent, it
is lightly wrung on the peg, jmd dried. The more
flowly it dries, and the longer before it is maddered,
the brighter the colour. Twenty pounds of cotton
are generally dyed at the fame time ; but it were flill
more advantageous to dye only 10, becanfe when there
are two many hanks to work in the copper, it is very
difficult to dye them equally, the hanks firft immerfed
having time to take a great deal of colour before the
laft are put in ; for as the firft cannot be returned up-
fide down till after the laft are plunged, k is morally
impofiible that the dye fliould be even,
“ The copper in which this ten pounds of cotton-
are dyed (hould contain about 240 quarts of water,—
that is, 20 quarts of water for every pound of cotton ;
its fliape (hould be an oblong fquare, and about two
feet deep. It (hould alfo be wider at top than at bot¬
tom ; the difference, however, {hould not be too great,
becaufe in that cafe the hanks laid llanting on the fides
would be liable to fpot. As feveral dyers have erred 59
for want of knowing how much water the copper (hould
contain refpefting its dimenfions, and as the greater f^ing the
part of the brafiers are likewife ignorant in this parti-contents of
cular, it may not be amifs, in this place, to add a fhort a veflel-
and eafy method of finding the Contents of a veffel.
“ In the firft place, fuppofe the veffel round or cy¬
lindrical, you begin by raeafuring the diameter ; you
then- feek the circumference, afterwards the furface;
and at laft, by multiplying the furface by the perpendi¬
cular height, the product is the cube fought for, and
determines the contents of the veffel.
“ For example, a copper 22 inches deep by 30 dia¬
meter ; to find the furface, take the proportion of the-
diameter to the circumference, which is as 7 to 22 :
(late as in the Rule-of-Three, the firfl number 7, the
fecond 22, and the third 30 ; the fourth number will
be the circumference. This fourth number is-found by
multiplying the two middle numbers, 22 and 30, by
each other, and dividing the produft -660 by 7, the
firft number; the quotient 94 is the circumference
fought for. If a fquare or oblong veffel, as in the
prefent cafe, you have the circumference by adding the
length of the four fides.
“ Multiply afterwards the half of the circumference
by the radius, that is 47 by 15, the produft 705 is the'
number of fquare inches, and confequently the furface
of your veffel.
“ At laft multiply 705; by 22, which is the perpen¬
dicular height, the prodiuk 15510 is the number o£
eubic inches your veffel contains. If it is larger at top
than at bottom, it is neceffary, in order to determine
the circumference, to take a middle number between
the breadth of the top and the breadth of the bottom,
as if the copper be 33 inches at the top and at bottonv
27, the middle number and real diameter is 3c.
“ Having multiplied the furface by the perpendicu^
lar height, you. mud reduce the inches to feet. Now
the.
n
o%
DYE
the fquare foot being equal to 144 fquare inches, and
the cubic foot to 1728 cubic inches; you muft there¬
fore in this example divide 15510 by 1728, the quo¬
tient g ,~-r will be about the number of cubic feet in the
. copper; and as a cubic foot contains 35 quarts, confe-
-quently the copper contains 3x8 quarts Paris meafure.
(The Paris pint is our quart.) To madder 10 pounds
of cotton, a copper containing 248 quarts of water is
made hot. When it is rather too hot for the hand,
fix pounds and a quarter of good Dutch grape madder
is put into it, and carefully opened and diffufed in the
liquor. When it is well mixed, the cotton, which
had been previbufly paiTed on the rods and fufpended
on the edge of the cotton, is dippdd into it hank by
hank. When it is all dipped, the hanks on each rod
are worked and fucceffively turned upfide down, be¬
ginning from the firft that was put in, and fo proceed¬
ing to the laft; returning to the firft, and thus conti¬
nuing without intermiflion for three quarters of an
hour, always maintaining an equal degree of heat, but
without boiling. The cotton is then raifed and drawn
out upon the edge of the copper, and about a pint of
the kelp lixivium poured into the liquor. The rods
are then pafied through the threads by which each hank
is bound, and the cotton put back into the copper
and boiled for about 12 or 15 minutes, keeping it
entirely immerfed during that time. It is at laft raifed,
gently drained, wrung, walked at the river, and
wrung a fecond time on the peg.
“ Two days afterwards the cotton is a fecond time
maddered, about eight ounces of madder to every
pound; that is, five pounds of madder added to the
dyeing liquor. The cotton is then worked in it in
the fame manner as in the firft maddering, with this
difference, that none of the lixivium is added, and that
the liquor is made of well-water. This maddering be¬
ing finilhed, and the cotton cooled, it is walked, wrung,
and dried.
“ To brighten this red, you put into a copper or
trough a quantity of warm water fufficient to drench
the cotton, pouring into it about a pint of the lixivium.
In this liquor you immerfe the cotton pound by pound;
leaving it in for an inftant only, when it is taken out,
wrung, and dried.
“ On this operation it ought to be obferved, that
the method of dyeing in two liquors has no advantage.
For, befides that it confumes more time and wood, the
fecond maddering cannot furnilh much dye, confider-
ing that the aftringent falts are exhaufted by the boil¬
ing of the firft maddering ; confequently that the cot¬
ton, when deprived of thefe falts, cannot take the dye.
I propofe therefore another method now purfued with
fuccefs by feveral dyers: it confifts in giving the cot¬
ton two alumings, and afterwards dyeing in one liquor
only. By this means it takes the dye much better,
and acquires more depth, becaufe the whole of the
madder turns to advantage. With refpeft to bright¬
ening, it is a needlefs operation for red cotton deftined
for the fabrication of callico ; becaufe the colour is
brightened after it is woven, by dipping in warm wa¬
ter lharpened with a little of the lixivium. When the
cotton is taken out of this water, if walked at the ri¬
ver and fpread on the grafs, the red brightens much
better than by any other operation.
“ The reds hitherto mentioned are vulgarly called
N° 106.
I N G.
madder reds, though thofe I am going to defcribe are
equally obtained from a fpecies of madder coming from
the Levant. The latter, however, commonly called
kxary, furnilhes a dye incomparably finer than that
produced by the heft Zealand madder: it is, however,
the falhion to call the red of madder the firft dye, and
the Adrianople red the fecond. The procefs of the
latter I lhall give in this place.
“ When you have 100 pounds of cotton to dye, you
put 150 pounds of Alicant foda, inclofed in clean
linen, into a tub. This tub Ihouid be full of holes at
the bottom, that the liquor may run into another tub
underneath. The 150 pounds of foda being in the
upper tub, is covered with 300 quarts of river-water,
meafured by wooden pails containing each 25 quarts.
The water that palfes from the firft tub into the fe¬
cond is again poured over the foda at different times,
till it has extracted all the fait. This lixivium may be
tried with oil : if it uniformly whitens, and mixes
well with the oil without any appearance of repa¬
ration at the furface, it is then fulficiently faturated
with the fait. It may be alfo tried with a frelh egg,
as I have faid above. You agairtf'jbour 300 quarts of
water over the foda contained in the fuperior tub, in
order to extraCl the whole of the fait. Two iimilar
lixiviums'are afterwards made, each with the fame
quantity of water as had been ufed for the foda, viz.
150 pounds of frelh wood-allies, and the other with
75 pounds of quicklime. Thefe three lixiviuras being
clarified, 100 pounds of cotton are put into a tub, and
watered with each of thefe lixiviums in equal propor¬
tion. When it has perfectly imbibed thefe falts, it is
put into a copper full of water without being wrung,
and boiled for three hours: it is afterwards taken out
and walked in running water. This operation being
finilhed, the cotton is dried in the air.
“ A quantity of the above-mentioned lixiviums is
then poured into a tub in equal portions, fo as to make
400 quarts. In a part of this liquor, 25 pounds of
Iheep’s dung, with fome of the inteftine liquor, is well
diluted by means of a wooden peftle, and the whole
ftrained through a hair-fieve. Twelve pounds and a
half of good olive-oil poured into this mixture, whew
finilhed, inftantly forms a foapy liquor. In this the
cotton fliould be dipped, hank by hank, ftirring every
time, and with the fame precautions I have already
recommended in the aluming of cottons deftined for
the madder red. The cotton having remained 12
hours in this foapy water, is then taken out, lightly
wrung and dried. This operation is repeated three
times. The liquor that runs from the cotton when
wrung falling again into the trough where the cotton
was laid is calledJickiou, and Ihouid be kept for bright¬
ening.
“ When the cotton has been three" times dipped in
this foapy water, and afterwards dried, it is again dip¬
ped three times in another compofition, made in the
fame manner as the firft, with 400 quarts of lixivium
and 12 r pounds of oil, but without the Iheep's dung: the
remainder of this liquor is alfo preferved for brighten¬
ing. The cotton having been dipped in this liquor
three times with the fame precautions, and left in it the
above-mentioned time, it is then carefully walked at
the river to diveft it entirely of the oil, without which
the aluming would not take elfed. Having been
walked,
209
'
DYE
Waflied, it fliould be as white as if it had been
bleached.
“ When dry, you proceed in the alutning, which is
done twice fuccefiively; but it is needlefs to give a
detail of what has been fufficiendy explained in the ar¬
ticle upon madder red. It is enough in this place to
fay, that the galls, about a quarter of Xpound to every
pound of cotton, fhould be pulverized; that fix oun¬
ces of alum fhould be-put to the firft aluming; for the
fecond four ounces; and at laft, that an equal quan¬
tity of the lixivium be added to the alum-water. We
inuft alfo obferve, that it were belt to make an interval
of three or four days between each aluming ; and that
no other aflringent be added, all metallic falls being in
general injurious to the beauty of the colour.
“ Some days after the laft aluming, you proceed to
dyeing in the fame manner as above, only ufing two
pounds oflizary in powder for every pound of cotton;
and, before you dye, adding to the liquor about 20
pounds of liquid flieep’s blood. It fhould be well
ftruck into the liquor, which fhould be carefully flam¬
med.
“ In order to brighten the colour, the cotton is
dipped in a lixivium of frefh wood afhes, diflblving in
it five pounds of the beft white Marfeilles foap; the
water fhould be warm before the foap is put into it.
In this mixture the 100 pounds of dyed cotton is im-
merfed, and worked till it becomes perfedtly penetra¬
ted. Six hundred quarts of water are then put into
another copper ; and whesi warm, the cotton, with¬
out fqueezing it out of the firft, is put into the fecond,
and boiled for three, four, five, or fix hours, over a
very flow fire, but as equal as poffible, carefully cover¬
ing the liquor to keep in the vapour, that none may
efcape but what paffes through a funnel of fmall
reeds.
“ Some pieces of the cotton are taken out from
time to time ; and when fufficiently revived and wafh-
ed thoroughly, the red is perfe&. The cotton may
be alfo brightened in the following manner: when
wafhed and dried immediately after dyeing, it fhould
be foaked in the fickiou for an hour, well fqueezed,
and alfo dried. When dry, you diffolv,e for every
100 pounds of cotton 5 pounds of foap in a quantity
of water fufiieient to cover the cotton. When the
water is warm, the cotton is immerfed ; and having
weir imbibed, is put into a copper with 600 quarts of
water. The whole is boiled very flowly during four
or five hours, keeping the copper covered to prevent
the fleam from going off. This fecond method makes
the red much brighter than the fineft Adrianople car-
60 nation.
Difficulty « 'fhe procefs juft defcribed was praftifed at Dar-
onzT good netah and in other manufactories of'France, accord-
red by this *ng t0- inftruCtions communicated by a perfon who had
proctls. feen this procefs in Turkey. But whether his obfer-
vations were inaccurate, whether he concealed a part
of the myftery, or whether the fuccefs of the opera¬
tion depended on the concurring circumftances accom¬
panying the various mixtures, I know not. Few,
however, by clofely obferving this procefs, have hither¬
to obtained a red either fo permanent or fo beautiful
as the red of Adrianople, and thofe who have fucceeded
think it but juft to reap the advantage of their fecret.
Vox.. VI. Part I.
I N G.
On this fubjeCl, however, feveral not uuufeful reflec¬
tions may be advanced. 6r
“ Firft, the manner of purging the cotton indicates Obferva-
that this procefs is capable of damaging confiderably,,ion* 1'/r-
and of rendering the cotton very brittle, owing to the u
fharpnefs of the lixivium in which it is fteeped, fo x
burning in its nature as to make holes in the legs of
the workmen who tread it with their feet. It is
therefore more fimple andlefs dangerous to cleanfe the
cotton in fix quarts of lixivium to every pound of fub-
ftance, and containing only fix ounces of kelp for
every fix quarts; to boil the fkeins in it afterwards, in-
clofed in clean linen pockets.
“ By this method the cotton would be fufficiently
cleanfed without being fpoiled ; the kelp may be even
reduced to half the quantity, fubftituting in its place
double its weight of frefti wood allies, which would
anfwer quite as well.
“ Secondly, that the failure of many dyers is owing
to their not fufficiently divefting the cotton of the oil,
which prevents both the galling and aluming from ta¬
king effeft. The mixture of the lixivium and oil not
being well made, or the lixivium being too weak,
the oil forms with it but an imperfect combination.
This oil therefore, feparating and fwimming on the
furface of the lixivium, fticks to the cotton, which it
greafes, and by obftru&ing the pores prevents the gall
from penetrating. Great attention therefore Ihould
be given to the lixivium, in order to extradl all the
fait of the kelp, and to ufe quicklime, which is abfo-
lutely neceffary to render this lixivium cauftic ; a qua¬
lity without which the oil cannot poffibly form a com¬
bination with the alkali, confequently can make no
foap.
“ In Europe the oil of olives is fubftituted inftead
of the oil of fefamum, which is ufed in the Eaft-Indies
and in Turkey ; but the nature of thefe oils makes/to
difference in the operation. The oil of fefamum dif¬
fers from the oil of olives only becaufe it is thicker,
confequently nearer to the nature of animal fat or w-ax;
but the conclufion refulting from this difference is, that
lefs of it may be required than of the oil of olives.
Were the oil of fefamum abfolutely neceffary, it might
have been eafily procured. The fefamum is a fpecies
of fox-glove that grows in the Indies; but is cultiva¬
ted in Italy, and efpecially in Sicily, where it is called
giurgulena. The fame kind of oil may be obtained
from plants analogous; fuch as the gratiole the hen¬
bane, &c. but the plant wdiofe feed refemblcs it moll
is the convolvulus or lizeron.
“ It is certain that the procefs brought from A-
drianople might be greatly abridged; but w^e mull
leave the fecret to thofe to whom it belongs: and I
am befides convinced, that a memoir on this fubje6l
will be prefented to the Academy of Sciences, and
therefore will not anticipate.
“ With regard to the Iheep’s dung and inteftinal li¬
quor, it is of no ufe in fixing the colour. But we
know, that thefe fubftances contain a large quantity
of volatile alkali quite developed, which has the pro¬
perty of rofing the red colours. If the bones of ani¬
mals owe to their tenacious gluten the faculty of re¬
taining fo ftrongly'the madder colour, the vivacity of
this colour may be attributed, as fropt experience we
D d learn.
learn, to their volatile alkali. It were abfurd to ima¬
gine that the Europeans only had difcovered this phe¬
nomenon ; as it may be rationally fuppofed, that the
Indians, having perceived it by accident, fought to
imitate what chance had brought to their knowledge.
It is certain, that in the red dye of the Maroquins,
the procefs of which was brought from the Levant,
they prepared the goat Ikins for dyeing with dog’s ex¬
crement, having found it etfeitive in exalting the dye
of the lac.
“ In the dyeing of cotton thread, it is common to
mix the Iheep’s dung with a lixivium of fixed alkali;
by which the volatile principle of the dung is retained,
and confequently putrefattion prevented. By dipping
the cotton feveral times in this foapy liquor, it is im¬
pregnated with the predominating alkaline principle ;
and we know by experience, that fubftances once im¬
pregnated with volatile alkali, for example, chemical
vefiels ufed in extracting it for a long time, retain a
fmell very like the fmell of mulk, even after having
been well fcrubbed with fand, a dies, foap, Sic. Every
time the cotton is dried when taken out of this liquor,
the evaporation of the aqueous particles (the alkaline
principles being changed into earth) produces a ftronger
adhefion in the pores of the cotton. From the union
of this earth with a portion of the oil employed, a
maftic is the refult, which is afterwards completed by
the alum ; and this, in a word, is the theory of the
fixity of this colour.
“ Linen thread may be dyed in the fame manner ;
only that, previous to its being purged like the cotton
thread, it is ufual to boil it in water, adding for every
pound of thread a quarter of a pound of chopped forrel.
Oil of vitriol is, however, more convenient and better
than forrel. But I refer my reader to what I have al¬
ready faid upon the article of thread ; obferving only,
that by this procefs the linen thread always takes lefs
dye than the cotton, owing to the difference of their
pores.
The following procefles were taken from the manu-
fcripts of M. Hellot. “ According to the letters of
M. Grange, correfpondent of the Royal Society, who
died at Schiras in Perfia, June 1737, the dyers of the
city of Damas dyed their crimfon colour, fo beautiful
and fo much efteemed in the eaft, in the following
manner : Take ten roltes (a rotte weighs five pounds)
©f filk in fkeins; wafli it well in warm water; then let
it foak in a fufficient quantity of hot water during
half an hour; fqueeze out the water; dip it after¬
wards, but once only, in a hot lixivium, made with a
fufficient quantity of water, half a rotte of kelp afhes
for every rotte of filk, which is immediately drained
on rods, taking care not to leave the filk longer in the
Kxivium than is neceffary for its being well foaked, left
the alkali fhould corrode it.
“ Whilft the filk drains, they prepare another liquor
cold, with ten ounces of the pulp of yellow melon,
very ripe, which is uniformly diffufed in a fufficient
quantity of water. They fteep in this liquor the ten
tottes of filk for twenty-four hours ; they increafe or
diminilh the quantity of the above drugs in propor¬
tion to the quantity of the filk to be dyed. The filk
having remained one day in this melon liquor, is feveral
times walhed in frefh water till it becomes perfedly
clean; they then hang it to dry. Mean while the
workmen fill a large pan of water, adding a half rotte
of alum powdered for every rotte of filk. The pan is
then fufpended over a hot furnace, and the liquor
boiled during twenty minutes ; after which the fire is
taken from the furnace. The filk is then dipped in
this alum folution, moderately hot, and again taken
out as foon as it is perfectly wet. They then put it
into another pan, pouring over it the alum folution, in
which it remains four or five hours, but no longer.
It is then taken out and feveral times walked in frdh
water,
“ Whilft the filk is walking, a workman fills a large
pan with water, adding an ounce of (a fungus),
finely powdered, for every rotte of filk; when this new
deco&ion has boiled for half an hour, they add ten
ounces of oudez (cochineal), very finely powdered, for
every rotte of filk ; that is, fix pounds four ounces of
cochineal for ten rottes of filk. As foon as this co¬
chineal is added, the fire is taken from the furnace.
The liquor is then gently ftirred round with a ftick ;
and when the mixture is perfectly made, they pour
gently and by inclination a little frelh water into the
middle of the pan. The water thus added not only
cools the dye, but makes it much more lively. They
then immediately dip the filk four or five times, wring¬
ing after every dip. This tin&ure is afterwards boiled
again for about a quarter of an hour, and the fire
is then taken from the furnace as before. When the
liquor is a little cool they dip the filk, ftill obferving
to wring after every dip. This done, they put the
filk into an empty kettle, pouring over it the remain¬
der of the dye, in which it is left to foak for twenty-
four hours. It is then well walked in clean water,
dried in the lhade, and when very dry wove into fluffs.
This crimfon is much fuperior to all the French and
Italian crimfons; becaufe the filk was never boiled in
the dye.
“The dyers of Damas and Diarbequir fay, that ^hey
could not accomplilh this dye without the pulp of the
yellow melon in the preparation, or without the lul-
fonge ufed with the cochineal in the dye. According
to M. Grainge, we have this melon in France; but he
doubts concerning the baifonge, which is a fpecies of
fungus growing on trees in fome parts of Perfia, from
whence it is brought to Damas, and might alfo be fent
into France by the way of Aleppo, were we delirous
of imitating this excellence in the crimfon dye.
“ To avoid miftakes in the quantity of the different
ingredients employed in this procefs, it may be necef¬
fary to repeat, that a rotte of filk weighs five French
pounds, and that the ten rottes of filk, produced as
an example in this memoir, Ihould alfo ferve as a ftan-
dard with regard to the quantities of the other ingre¬
dients.
“ As to the water neceffary for the preparation of
the filk with the kelp,, melon, and the alum for the
dye, it requires no more than a fufficient quantity for
wetting the filk, namely, about a finger’s breadth over
it, differing from the tin&ure, which, as the fkeins are
dipped in this liquor at leaft ten or a dozen times,
fhould be fuller in the kettle.
“ The kali ufed in the preparation of the filk is
nothing mere than the aff.es of a plant called by the
Arabs
211
G 64f
method c
dyeing
dnmion.
DYE
Arabs Icaitou. Thefe are preferable to the allies made
from the rouquet, or thofe made in Egypt.
“ The frames ufed for thefe fdks are fimilar to the
frames ufed at Lyons.
“ At Genoa the hlks defigned for crimfon are boiled
in a much lefs quantity of foap than thofe intended
for any other colour, 18 or 20 pounds ferving for a
hundred pounds of filk in the crimfon dye; for any
other colour, the Genoefe ufe 40 or-50.
“ When the filk is boiled, it is dipped in the alum
liquor ; and to a quantity of raw filk* weighing 72
pounds, they put from 16 to 18 pounds of roch alum,
finely powdered, into a copper full of cold water.
When the alum is perfectly diflblved, the filk is put to
foak in it for near four hours: it may remain longer
without any inconvenience, filk intended for crimfon
requiring more alum than for any other colour. When
taken out of the alum liquor, it is Ihook and drelfed on
the pegs, but without wringing. One of the dyers
being queftioned why the filk was not wrung when
taken out of the liquor? anfwered, that it would purge
it too much from an impregnation fo abfolutely necef-
fary for its taking the crimfon dye.
“ Of the 72 pounds of filk already mentioned,
32 pounds is organ%ine, and the remaining woof.
At Genoa it is the cullom to allow two ounces of
cochineal to twelve of organzine, if defigned for
the warp of damaflc furniture, and for the fame
filk an ounce and three quarters of cochineal for
12 ounces of the woof, fuppofing it necelfary to
the beauty of the filk that the warp fiiould be fuller
than the woof; and to bring the colour of the da¬
maflc to ftill more perfection, they add to the organz'me
a quarter of an ounce of cochineal, that is, inftead of
two ounces they add two ounces and a quarter, ad¬
ding no more to the woof than one ounce and three
quarters.
“ As the above 32 pounds of organzine fltould
be of the findt colour, they allow two ounces and a
quarter of cochineal to every pound of filk; fo that
upon the whole they ufe 142 ounces of cochineal, or
xi pounds xo ounces, Genoa weight; namely, 32
pounds of organzine to two ounces and a quarter of co¬
chineal, making 72 ounces; 40 pounds of woof to one
ounce and three quarters, making 70 ounces. Total,
142 ounces.
“ In order to dye this 72 pounds of filk, alumed as
above, they make ufe of an oval copper containing
when full 200 quarts of water; they fill this copper
two-thirds full of clean fountain water, adding after¬
wards the following drugs pounded and lifted. Two
ounces of tartar, two ounces of fajfranum, and two
pounds and a half of the Levant galls.
“ They wait till the drugs have boiled two minutes
in this liquor; after which they add the 11 pounds
lo ounces of cochineal finely powdered and lifted; and
whilft one of the workmen by degrees makes it fink
to the bottom, another keeps violently llirring the li¬
quor with a flick to promote the folution.
“ This done, they fill the veffel with clean water
to about a foot of the edge, immediately afterwards
dipping the 32 pounds of organzine, divided on 14
rods. They let it remain till the velfel which they
fill with clean water, and under which they put a large
I N G.
fire, is ready to boil; they then, to make the filk take
the colour more evenly, raife the rods without ceafing,
ene after another, that each may alternately reach the
bottom of the copper, which being but two-thirds
full, the upper part of the filk would elfe rebnain out
of the liquor, the rods being fupported on the edge of
the copper.
“ When the liquor was ready to boil, the forty
pounds of woof, divided on 18 rods, were dipped ;
they ilill continuing to raife the rods, one after an¬
other, for half an hour, both the organzine and the
w'oof, that each may alternately reach the bottom; fo
that when the workman came to the laft he returned
to the firit, and fo on fucceffively.
“ After the firll half hour, they flopped for a quar¬
ter of an hour between every operation, the workmen
flill raifing the rods from the firft to the laft, five or fix
times repeated in the fpace of an hour and an half;
all the time keeping a good fire under the copper.
The organzine was then fleeped in this liquor two hours
and a quarter, and the woof only two hours. The fire
was then taken from under the copper; and the work¬
man taking out one dip of the organzine and another
of the woof, he wrung and dried them as much as he
could to fee if the colour was what he wifhed ; if not
fufficiently deep for the purpofe, he let them both re¬
main in the liquor fomething lefs than half an hour
whilfl the liquor was growing cold. He then took out
all the filk, wrung it on the peg, then wafhed it feveral
times in clean water, changing the water every time.
This done he wrung it again on the pegs, and fo fi-
nifhed the operation.
“ It mull be obferved with regard to the organzine
and woof, that though dyed in the fame liquor, they
were not however of the fame fliade at the conclufion
of the operation ; the organzine was deeper, having
been a quarter of an hour longer in the cochineal li¬
quor, during which time it was impregnated with the
more fubtle colouring particles of the cochineal.
“ At Genoa it is not the cullom to walh the filk
out of the cochineal with foap water; on the contrary,
they are perfuaded that this practice dulls the bright-
nefs of the colour, and that the water, both for the
cochineal liquor and for walhing afterwards, flxould be
the finell fpring-water : for they remark, that the
crimfon dyed in fummer with cillern water, is by no
means fo bright as the crimfons dyed at other feafons
when the fountains are full.
“ According to the dyers of Genoa, there is a kind
of cochineal which though apparently beautiful, is
not fo in effedt; that in ufing this Cochineal it is ne-
cdfary to alum the filk as much as pofiible, and to add
to it more tartar than before mentioned. It is, how¬
ever, impoffible to give any certain rules concerning
this matter ; the dyer himfelf will judge of the quality
of the cochineal fit for ufe. He Ihould however ufe
the bed ; for were it even a fadl that the inferior kind,
with the afliitance of a greater quantity of alum and
tartar, gives a colour equal to the bell, the filk thus
weakened by alum would necelfarily be alwavs lefs
perfedl. The Genoefe manufadlurers are fo well con¬
vinced of this, that they themfelves furnilh their dyers
with cochineal in proportion to the filk given to be
dyed.”
D d 2 After
212 DYE
65 After the operations of dying fcarht and crimfon
already mentioned, there always remains a brown fe-
tnent re- diment in the bottom of the liquor, which is thrown
maining af- out as ufelefs. This, on being examined by M. Hel¬
ler tlyehig bt, was found to be a precipitated calx of tin, as he
enmfonr ^ias a^cer*a*ned by reviving the metal from it, though
not without great trouble, fo that there can be no ad¬
vantage in repeating his experiments. The remainder
of this fediment was compofed of the dregs of the
cream of tartar united with the grofs animal particles
of the cochineal. Thefe laft being waihed over with
water, and thus feparated from the earthy and metal¬
lic parts, were dried feparattiy, and afterwards bruifed
with an equal weight of cryltals of tartar ; after which
they were ground to an impalpable powder, and boiled
with a little alum. Thus they communicated a fine
crimfon colour to a pattern of white cloth ; from which
our author is of opinion, that the cuftom of reducing
cochineal to powder and only fifting it, does not give
an opportunity of fufficiently extracting the colour
from this .valuable material; he therefore gives the
66 following receipt for doing fo in a more perfect man-
How to ex- ner. “ To an ounce of cochineal powdered and fifted
trail ail the as ufual, he adds a fourth part of its weight of very
cochhed"1 wbite, clean, and dry cream of tartar. Thefe being
ground together on a marble ftone to an impalpable
powder, are ufed both in the preparation and in the
dye, omitting the fmall quantity of cryftals of tartar
formerly directed for the preparation.” The quantity
here direfted to be put to the cochineal, he thinks,
-evidently renders the colour more fixed.
For madder red the preparation is pretty much the
fame as for kermes, and is always made with alum
and tartar. Dyers are not agreed with regard to the
proportions. M. Hellot puts five ounces of alum
and one of red tartar to every pound of worlled; ad¬
ding likewife about a twelfth part of four water, and
boiling the wool in this folution for two hours.
Worfted is to be kept for feven or eight days moiit
with this folution ; but cloth is finifhed in four days.
A frefh liquor is prepared for dyeing this wool; and
when the~water is fufficjently hot to bear the hand in
it, you moft throw in, for every pound of wool, half
a pound of the fineft madder, carefully during and
mixing it well in the copper before you put in the
wool, which is to be kept in for an hour; but without
letting it boil, as that would tarnilh the colour. Ne-
verthelefs, for the dyer’s fecurity, it may boil for three
or four minutes at the end of the operation ; but
the more that madder is boiled, the worfe is the colour
it yields.
Of d •ein? ^ie tbird primitive colour fpoken of among dyers
yellow. g is that of yellow : and for this M. Hellot obferves,
that there are ten different ingredients fit for the pur-
pofe, though only five of them yield a good and per¬
manent dye. Thefe are weld, favory, green-wood,
yellow-wood, and fenugreek.
“ Weld or wold generally yields the trued yellow,
and is therefore preferred to all the others. Savory
and green-wood, being naturally greenilh, are the bed
for the preparation of wool to be dyed green; the two
others yield different fhades of yellow.
“.The fhades of yellow, beft known in the art cf
dyeing, are draw colour, pale yellow, lemon'colour, and
full yellow. The coanmoa orange colours are not
I N G.
Ample, and therefore we fhall not fpeak of them at
prefent. _
“ For dyeing worded and duffs yellow, you make Worfted
ufe of the ufual preparation, viz. of tartar and alum, woollen
You allow four ounces of alum to every pound of wool,
or 25 pounds to every 100. With regard to the
tartar, one ounce to every pound ;s fufficient for yel¬
low, though it requires two for red. The method of
boiling is fimilar to the preceding. For the welding,
that is to fay for yellowing, when the wood or duff
has boiled, you make a frefh liquor, allowing live or
dx pounds pf weld to every pound of duff; fome in-
clofe the weld in a clean woollen bag to prevent it.. '
from mixing, in the duff; and to keep the bag down
in the copper they put on it a crofs of heavy wood.
Others boil it in the liquor till it has communicated
all its colour, and till it falls to the bottom ; the fluff
is then fufpended in the net, which falls into the li¬
quor ; but others, when it has boiled, take out the
weld with a rake, and throw it away. They fome-
times mix yellow wtood with this weld; and fome
-dyeis mix any of the other ingredients before fpecified,
according to the fhade required. By varying the pro¬
portions of the huts for the preparation, the quantity
of the colouring ingredients, and the time of boiling,
it is poflibkito produce an ihfinite variety of fhades.
“ For regular (hades of light yellows you proceed
as for all other regular fhades, only that light yellows
require a weaker preparation. For example, 13;
pounds and a half of alum to 100 pounds of wool is
fufficient. The tartar fhould alfo be diminifhed, be-
caufe the wool is always waded a little by the prepara¬
tion, and that when you require only light fhades they
may be as eaftly obtained by a weaker preparation ;
thus you fave alfo in the expence of the falts. But
thefe light-fhades do not,fo well itand the ted as the
darker fhades, which are dyed with the full proportion
of tartar. Some dyers fuppofe that by letting their
wool and duff remain longer in the dye, they remedy
this evil; becaufe they imbibe the colour more dowly
in proportion to the weaknefs of the decodtion : if.
you put wool into the -dye, differently, prepared, it
will in the fame time imbibe different fliadeg. Thefe
weaker preparations are called half preparations or quar¬
ter preparations, and require great attention, efpecially
for light fhades of wool when dyed in the deece for
the manufadtory of cloth and mixt duffs, becaufe the
wool is harder and more difficult to. fpin in proportion
to the quantity of alum in the preparation ; the duff
is confequently kfs fine. This obfervation is not, how¬
ever, of much importance with regard to wordeds
for tapedry, neither with refpedl to duds; but it is
not much amifs were it only to (how that the quanti¬
ties of the ingredients ufed in the preparation are not
fo very exadt;' but that they may be varied without
any rifk, whether to give to the fame diades to
wool prepared in different preparations, or whether to.
make but one preparation, if more convenient for dif¬
ferent fhades.
“ In order to dye with yellow wood, it fhould be
fplit, or rather fhaved with a joiner’s plane : by this
means it is more divided, confequently yields better,
fo that a fmaller quantity will do. Prepare it as you
will, it. fhould always be tied up in a bag, to prevent
it from mixing with tEs wool, and. from tearing the
6 du&
213
DYE
{luff. The favory and green-wood, when ufed inftead
of weld, in order to vary the fliade, fhould be inclofed
in the fame manner.
“ To the above mentioned ingredients for dyeing
yellow we may htie add the root of dock, the bark
of afh, efpecially the fecond bark; the leaves of the
almond tree, peach, and pear tree,; in fhort, all aftrin-
gent leaves, barks, and woods. Thefe will produce
good yellows, more or lefs fine according to the time
they have boiled, and in proportion as the alum or
tartar predominates in the preparation. A larger
quantity of alum makes it almoft as fine as the yellow
of weld ; if the tartar prevails, the yellow has more of
the orange but if thefe roots, barks, or leaves, boil
too much, the yellow terminates in (hades of fawn
colour.
“Though feveral dyers are accufiomed for the good
dye to ufe turmeric, a root imported from the Eaft
Indies, and which produces an orange yellow, it is
however blameable; becaufe the colour very foon
fades, at lead if not fixed with marine fait, as pra&ifed
by fome dyers who carefully conceal this art. Thofe
who ufe it for common fcarkt, in order to fave cochi¬
neal, and to give a lively orange red, are alfo repre-
henfible ; for fcarlets dyed in this manner very foon
lofe their bright orange call, which darkens by the air.
We are, however, obliged in fome degree to tolerate
the deception ; for this flaming colour being fo much
in vogue, it were impoflible to produce it otherwife
but by increafing the quantity of compofition, the
fuperabundant acid of which confiderably injures the
6p cloth.”
ci e fiik For dyeing filk of this colour it fhould have about
lyellow 20 pounds of foap for every too of fluff; and after
mr’ boiling with this ingredient, it fhould be wafhed,
alumed, and wafhed again (which is called refrejbing),
when it is to be put upon the- rods in hanks of about
feven or eight ounces, and then dipped and returned in
the yellow liquor: The .fined yellow for filk is weld;
and the procefs, as delivered by M. Macquer, is as fal¬
lows :
“ A copper is prepared with about two pounds of
weld to every pound of filk ; and that all the weld may
be well foakcd, it is,loaded with a large piece of wood.
When it has boiled a good quarter of an hour, the
bunches are pufhed to the far end of the copper,, or
rather, if you pleafe, taken out; and by means of a
bucket or ladle all the liquor may be taken out erf the
copper, and flrained into a copper or wooden trough ;
that is, by putting a fieve or linen cloth acrdfis a trough,;
by which means the .liquor is ckanfed from all the
grain and little ftraws left by the weld in boiling.
The liquor thus drained is left to cool till you can
bear your hand in it: the filk is then dipped and re¬
turned till the colour becomes uniform. If this boil¬
ing does not make fufficient to fill the trough, it muft
be fupplied with water, which fhould be added be¬
fore the liqour is cold, that the degree of heat
already mentioned may be preferved. In general, all
dying veffels IhouldTe full, that the filk when dipped
may be only two inches from the edge.
“ During this operation the weld is- a fecond time
boiled in frefh water ; and when it has boiled, the filk
fhould be raifed at one end of the trough, either up-
I N G.
on a kind of barrow, or upon, the edge of the
trough. Half the liquor is then thrown away and
repknifhed by adding of the fecond boiling as
much as was taken from the firfl, obferving to rake-
and mix the liquor well: fuch is generally the me¬
thod when any new addition is made; at lealt
if the contrary is not particularly fpecified. This,
new liquor may be ufed rather hotter than the firlt
it fhould neverthekfs be always of a moderate heat*
becaufe otherwife it would deilroy a part of the co¬
lour which the filk had already taken, probably’',
owing to the filk being deprived of part of the
alum by the heat of the liquor. The filk is re¬
turned in this frefh liquor as at firft ; mean while
you prepare a folution of pearl-afh in proportion of
about one pound to every twenty pounds of filk.
“ For this purpofe the pearl-afh is put into a cop¬
per, and the fecond, liquor, quite boiling, poured
on it, ftirring in order to affilt the diffolving of the
fait. This fmall liquor is left to fubfide, and the filk
is a fecond time raifed on the barrow or trough,
throwing into the liquor about two or three ladles
of the cleared of the folution. The, liquor is then
well raked, the filk replunged, and again return¬
ed. This alkali developes and brightens the yellow of
the weld. After feven or eight returns, one hank is
wrung to try if the colour be full enough and fuf--
ficiently bright ; if deficient, a little more of the folu¬
tion of the alhes muft be added, and the remainder of
the filk done in the fame manner till it has taken the
Ihade required. The lixivium, feparately prepared,
may be added, if you will, at the fame time with the
fecond boiling of the weld-liquor; care fhould be
taken however that the liquor be not too hot. This
operation is only for yellows, nor would the liquor do.
for greens.
“ For yellovv ftill fuller, approaching to jonquil,,
when the pearl-afh is added, it may be alfo neceffary'to,
add fome rocou, in proportion to the fhade required.
“ For the light fhades, fuch as pale lemon or Ca¬
nary-bird, they fhould be boiled in the fame manner
as for blues, thefe fhades being much more beautiful
and tranfparent \yhen dipped in a clear ground. To
do this, when, the weld is ready to boil, fome of the
liquor fhpuld be taken out add mixed with a little
clean water and a little of the liquor of the vat if
boiled without, azure. The filk is then, dipped as
ufual; and if deficient in fhade, the weld liquor muft
be re- added, and the dipping repeated, if neceffary, to
complete the fhade required.
“ For deeper lemon colours the weld fliould boil as.
for yellows, adding only a certain quantity with clean
water, according to the fulnefe of the flia.de required :.
fome of the liquor of the- vat may alfo be added if
neceffary ; but thefe datk lemqn colours-may be boil¬
ed in the common way as for yellows. It muft be
obferved, however, that the blue of the vat is never-
added to thefe colours but when it is intended to give
them a greenifh call.
“ Thefe very pale yellow fhades are rather difficult,,
as they are very frequently liable to be affected by the
air, and to deepen too much while drying. This hap¬
pens when alumed in the common way, which is toot,
much ; but this inconvenience may be avoided, if in-
Herd-
DYEING.
ftead of alurmng as for other yellows, a feparate liquor from the Eaft Indies. It gives a beautiful yellow co-
is prepared, or even without any particular preparation, lour; but if dyed in the common manner, has but little
only a little alum put into the liquor of the weld. folidity. This colour, accoiding to M. de Apligny,
“ In manufactories where they cannot eafily procure may be fixed upon cotton or linen thread by dipping
weld, they make ufe of the grains of Avignon, -and them in a folution of fulphur of antimony in the kelp
precifely in the fame manner ; but it gives a lefs per- lixivium already mentioned. When treated in this
manent colour.” manner, it is very beautiful as well as permanent. 71
To dye cot- Cotton to be dyed of a yellow colour Ihould be firft
ton yellow. Well cleanfed in a lixivium of frelh wood alhes, and af¬
terwards well walked and dried. Another liquor is
then prepared by diffolving in the water, when ready
to boil, about a quarter the weight of the fubllance to
be dyed of Roman alum. The Ikeins are plunged into
this alum liquor, returning them on the ro is for fome
minutes. When equally penetrated throughout, the
threads by which the Ikeins are tied being palled on
the rods, the hanks are laid on the trough containing
the alum liquor. The copper or trough is then
covered, it being fufficient to keep the liquor hot
without boiling. The cotton, having been thus in-
fufed for 24 hours, is then dried, but without walk¬
ing. We mull obferve, that the longer it remains
dry, the better it takes the colour, and that the walk¬
ing may be even difpenfed with previous to the yellow
dye-
A flrong weld liquor is afterwards prepared, adding
for every pound of the fubftance to be dyed a pound
and a quarter of weld. The cotton or thread, having
been previoufly alumed, is then immerfed ; the boiling
checked with cold water, and the fubllance worked
till it has taken the lhade required.
The whole when dyed is plunged into a very hot
liquor, but not boiling, made of blue vitriol, a quarter
of a pound for every pound of the fubllance. When
it has remained for about an hour and an half, the
whole, without walhing, is thrown into another liquor
compofed of about a quarter of a pound of white foap
for every pound of the fubllance. Having been well
worked and the threads opened, it Ihould boil for
three hours or more if you think proper. The foap
might be diminilhcd to half the quantity, but the full
proportion does better. This operation finilhed, the
whole is well walhed and dried.
If you defire a dark or jonquil yellow, neither the
linen nor cotton Ihould be alumed ; but for every
pound of thread Ihould be added two pounds and
a half of weld. When it has been dipped and well
worked in this liquor till it has taken the colour
equally, it is railed above the liquor, and half a pint
of the kelp lixivium poured into it, made as direded
in the article upon red. The thread is then returned
upon the rods, dipped in this liquor; where having re¬
mained for a full quarter of an hour, it is taken out,
wrung, and dried.
The lemon yellow is done after the fame manner,
only that for every pound of thread you put but one
pound of weld, diminifhing the verdigris in propor¬
tion, or even omitting it enthely by fubftituting in
its place the alum liquor. By this means the yel¬
low (hade may be varied ad infinitum, and without
any difficulty; in brightening and fixing the colour,
however, the above method mud be always obferved.
Cotton-velvet is dyed with the root of a plant called
cureum or terra merit a, a fpecies of rulh which comes
The fourth primitive colour fo called among the Of fawn or
dyers, is that which bears the appellation offawn or[°°*c0*
root colour. It is however a kind of brown, and has
the name of root-colour from being an ingredient in a
great number of others. The procefs for dyeing it is
different from thofe lately deferibed ; the wool requi¬
ring no other preparation than that of being foaked in
water, as already diredled for blue. The materials
for dyeing it are the green {hell of the walnut, the
root of the walnut tree, the bark of the alder, fantal,
fumach, roudoul or fovic, and foot.
The green (hells of the walnut, colledled when the
nuts are perfedlly ripe, and put into tubs or calks, and
afterwards filled with water, are in this manner pre¬
ferred till the year following. The {hells are alfo ufed
before the nuts are ripe ; but thefe ffiould be faved
apart, in order to be fifft ufed ; becaufe, as the foft
{hell which adheres putrifies, it will keep but for two
months only.
The fantal or faunders is a hard wood imported from
the Indies, generally ground into a very fine powder,
and preferred in bags ; becaufe it is fuppofed to fer¬
ment, by which it is thought to be greatly improved;
but our author has never obferved any difference. This
gi'ound wood is generally ufed with one third of ca-
riatour wood ; by which, in the opinion of thofe who
prepare it for fale, it is much improved. It is how¬
ever nothing like fo good as the walnut {hells; be¬
caufe, if ufed in too large a quantity, it ftiffens con-
fiderably, and thereby injures the wool; hence it were
bed not to ufe it, either for wool or fine (luffs, except
in the {lighter {hades, where it would not have fo bad
effedl. It is generally mixed with galls, alder bark,
and fumach, as by this means only you can obtain its
colour when not mixed with the cariatour. It yields
but very little with the preparation of alum and tartar,
efpecially if it be not chipped; but notwithilanding
thefe defedls, it is ufed on account of the folidity of
its colour, which is naturally a yellow red brown.
The air makes it deeper, and foap lighter. It lofes
but little by a trial of alum, and Hill lefs by tartar.
Of all the ingredients for dyeing fawn colours the
walnut rind is the belt. Its (hades are finer, its co¬
lour folid; and by making the wool flexible, renders
it lefs difficult to work. It is prepared in the follow¬
ing manner. You fill a cauldron half full of water,
and when it grows warm, you add rinds in proportion
to the quantity of (tuffs to be dyed and to the colour
required. It is then boiled; and when it is boiled for
a quarter of an hour, the (luffs, having been previoully
moiftened with warm water, are dipped; they are then
turned and well ftirred, till they have imbibed the co¬
lour defired. If for worfteds, requiring an exadt af-
fortment of (hades, you put lefs walnut rinds, and be¬
gin with the ligTitell (hades. You put more walnut
rinds in proportion as the colour is exhaufted, and then
dip the darkeil (hades. With regard to (luffs, you
g£*
4
DYE
generally begin with the deepeft, and as the colour
of the dye diminiflies, you dip the lighted. They are
aired as ufual, dried, and dreffed.
The root of the walnut tree is, next to the hu/k,
the bed dye for fawn colour: it alfo gives a very great
number of diades, nearly refembling thofe of the
hulks; hence they may be fubdituted for each other,
but the root requires a different procefs. You fill
your cauldron three quarters full of river water, put¬
ting in the root, cut fmall, in proportion to the quan¬
tity of wool to be dyed, and to the fhade required.
When it is very hot, you dip the wool or duff, turn¬
ing and returning it as before, remembering to air it
from time to time; and, if duff, to draw it through
the hands in order to fliake off the fmall bits of the
root, which might elfe fpot the duff. To avoid thefe
fpots, the root fhould be tied in a bag. You after¬
wards dip the lighter duffs, and fo on, till the colour
of the root is exhauded. If worded, you always be¬
gin with the lighted, as for other colours; but of all
things you mud be careful to keep your liquor from
boiliiig at the beginning, as in that cafe the fird piece
I of duff would imbibe all the colour.
Precautions The method of dyeing with roots is not very eafy;
to he ufed for if you are not very attentive to the degree of heat,
in dyeing to turning and returning the duffs or wordeds, fo as
with roots. tQ tjiem eqUal]y, you run a rifle of their being ei¬
ther too dark or fpotted, for which there is no remedy.
In this cafe, the only refource is to dye them marone,
prune, or coffee colour. In order to avoid this evil,
you mud keep, the duffs continually turning on the
reel, and dip them only piece by piece, nor let the li¬
quor boil till the root has yielded all its colour. The
wordeds or duffs dyed in this manner, diould be air¬
ed, well wafhed, and dried.
Nothing more can be faid concerning the bark of
alder, than what has been already obferved with re-
fpe& to the root of the walnut tree, only that letting
t it boil at the beginning is not of fo much confequence,
becaufe it yields its colour lefs freely. It is generally
ufed for wordeds and colours darkened with copperas.
It neverthelefs produces a good effeft on wool not in¬
tended for colours extremely dark, and perfectly with-
ftands the power of the air and fun. .
Sumach is nearly of the fame nature, and ufed in
the fame manner as the hufks : its colour is not fo
deep, and is rather greenifh. It is for dark colours
frequently fubdituted for nut galls; but a greater
quantity is requifite. Its colour is alfb perfectly folid
and permanent. Thefe different fubdances are fome-
times mixed together; and as they are equally good,
and produce nearly the fame effeft, there is no great
difficulty in obtaining certain ffiades. We mud, ne¬
verthelefs, be directed by cudom in the production of
thefe fawn colour ffiades, which abfolutely depend
upon the eye, and which are not difficult to ma-
nage.
With regard to the mixing of thefe ingredients with
ground fantal, you put four pounds of the latter into
the copper, half a pound of nut galls pounded, twelve
pounds of alder bark, and ten pounds of fumach (thefe
quantities will dye 25 or 27 ells of cloth), The whole
is boiled; and having checked the boiling with a little
cold water, you immerfe the cloth, turning and re-
lliiring it for two hours: it is then taken out, aired,
I N G. 215
and waffied in the river.. You afterwards dip fome
more fluff in the fame decoftion, if you want a light¬
er fhade; and in this manner you may contrive as
long as the liquor retains any colour. The quantities
of thefe ingredients are. augmented or diminifhed in
proportion to the depth of the fhade required, letting
the wool or fluff boil accordingly. ^
Here we fhall deferibe alfo the manner of dyeing Of dyeing
with foot, though it has lefs folidity than the others, with foot,
and has alfo the property of hardening the wool, and
giving the fluff a very difagreeable fmell.
The foot and water is generally put into the cop¬
per at the fame time, and the whole well boiled. The
fluff is then immerfed, and more or lefs boiled accord¬
ing to the ffiade required ; it is afterwards taken out
and cooled, and thofe intended for the lightefl ffiade
are then put in ; they are afterwards well wafhed and
dried. But the beft method is to boil the foot in the
water for two hours, to let it fland afterwards, and
then to empty the liquor into another copper, without
mixing the foot. The wool and fluffs are then dipped
in the liquor, and are thereby lefs hardened than if
they had been mixed with the foot: but this does not
render ,the colour more permanent,; and indeed it were
better never to make ufe of this ingredient, except
for fluffs of little value, efpecially as it can be fupplied
by' other ingredients already mentioned, and which
give a better and more lafling colour, and are befides
more foftening to the wool. In the dye they fre¬
quently employ the green walnut (hell, and the root
of the walnut tree for their fawn colours. Thefe two
fubflances are ufeful both for the greater and leffer dye:
there are, however, places where it is difficult to meet
with them, and where they are therefore obliged to
make ufe of faunders and even of foot.
The lafl of the primitive colours fo called by the Of fixing
dyers, is black ; which includes a vafl number ofh'ack.
fliades, from the lightefl grey or pearl-colour to the
deepefl black. Hence it is ranked among the primi¬
tive colours in dyeing ; for among dyers the word
primitive does not denotefimpUdty, but only being the
original colour from whence a number of others are
derived. In order to dye woollen fluffs of a good
black, they fhould firfl be dyed of a mazareen blue as •
deep as poffible ; which is called the bafts or ground,
and is to be performed in the manner already direct¬
ed. The fluff ought to be wafhed well in running
water as foon as it comes out of the vat; and after¬
wards fcoured at the fulling mill; which operation is
of tfie utmofl confequence, becaufe without it the
fubfequent colour will be greatly injured by the lime
in the liquor for dyeing blue. This being done, the
colour is finifhed in the following manner. For 100
pounds of cloth put into a cauldron of a moderate fize,
ten pounds of logwood, cut into chips, and ten pounds
of Aleppo galls pulverifed, the whole enclofed in a
bag : thefe ingredients are boiled in a fufficient quan¬
tity of water for j 2. hours. A third part of this li¬
quor is emptied into another cauldron, with two pounds
of verdigris; the Huff is then entered and turned for
two hours without ceafing. It is neceffary to obferve
that this liquor fhould boil very flovvly, or it is fli!!
better to keep it very hot without boiling. The itufi
is then taken out, and the fecond third of the linuor
thrown into the copper to the firft third, with the.
2l6
DYE
addition of eight pounds of copperas. The fire un¬
der the cauldron is diminifhed,' and the copperas left
. to diffolve for half an hour, letting the liquor cool,
after which.the ftuff is,kept turning an hour; it is
then taken out arid cooled. The reft of the liquor is
■then mixed with the two firft thirds, carefully fquee-
zing the bag well. To this is added 15 or 20 pounds
pf fumach : you give it another boil, and then cool it
with a little water; having previoufly added two pounds
more of copperas, you again turn the ftuff for two
hours ; it is then taken out, cooled, and again put into
the cauldron, turning it conftantly for an hour long-
■er. After this it is carried to the river, well walhed
and fcoured at the fulling mill. When it is thorough¬
ly fcoured, and the water comes out of it clear,
you prepare a frefh liquor with as much weld as you
think proper ; you give it one boil, cool it, and dip
the ftuff. This Lift deco&ion foftens and confirms it
a very fine black. For die moft part, however, they
do not take fo much pains ; but are fatisfied, when
the cloth is blue, to dip it in a deco&ion of nutgalls,
and to let it boil for two hours. It is afterwards walk¬
ed, and fome Copperas and. logwood added to the li¬
quor ; after which the ftuff is again dipped for two
Lours, and then walhed and fcoured.
It may be alfo dyed in the following manner: for 15
tllsofcloth, previoufly dyed blue, M. Hellot had a pound
and a half of yellow wood, five pounds of logwood, and
10 pounds of fumach, put into a cauldron. In this
the cloth boiled for three hours; after which it was
taken out, and 10 pounds of copperas thrown into
the copper. When the copperas was diffolved and the
liquor cooled, the cloth was put in^o it for two
Lours; it was then taken out and cooled, after which
it was again immerfed for an hour, and then walhed
and fcoured: it was tolerably fine, but not fo velvety
as the preceding,
r.xj erl- It was commanded by the ancient 'French regula-
ments to tions, that fluffs fltould be maddered after they had
determine ^gen blued, and before they were dyed black. De-
madder!ne ^lrous °I afeertaining the advantage refulting from this
be an ad- procefs, our author took a bit of cloth which had been
vantage in dyed blue ; this being divided, one half was boiled with
this colour, alum and tartar, and afterwards maddered. It was
then blackened in the fame liquor with the other
half which had not been maddered, conformable to
the firft of the two methods juft deferibed. They
w'ere each of them a very beautiful black; it never-
thelefs appeared that the maddered ftuff had a reddilh
call: the other black was certainly more beautiful,
more velvety, and much finer. There is, indeed, lefs
danger of the maddered fluffs foiling the hands and li¬
nen, becaufe the , alum and tartar of the preparation
had carried off all the loofe particles. This advantage
is not however fufficierit to make amends for the in¬
convenience of maddering, as the ftuff is always in
fome degree injured by the alum and tartar, and as
the madder gives it a reddifti call difagreeable to the
eye, and befides this operation raifes the price of the
dye to no purpofe.
Some dyers, to avoid thefe inconveniences in part,
madder their cloth without having previoufly boiled it
in alum and tartar. But madder ufed in this manner
has no permanency.
N° 106.
I N G.
Black is fometimes dyed without having given it
the blue ground ; and this metheid of dyeing is ufed
for light or thin fluffs of inferior value, confequently
not confiderable enough to bear the expence of a deep
blue previous to their being dyed black. It is how¬
ever proper at the fame time to give thefe fluffs a
ground of the green walnut fliell, or of the root of
the walnut-tree, to avoid the neceffity of blackening
them with too great a quantity of copperas.
This procefs is attended with no manner of diffi¬
culty. The cloth is.prepared with the green walnut
fliell, and afterwards blackened in the manner already
deferibed, or aS near it as poffible. For with black,
as with fcarlet, moft dyers fuppofe that they are pof-
feffed of a fecret for dyeing a much finer black than
any of their fraternity; this, however, confifts in aug¬
menting or diminifliing the quantities of the fame in¬
gredients, or in fubftituting others which produce the
fame effeft. M. Hellot has tried feveral methods; but
fuppofes that what is ftriftly meant by fucceeding to
perfection, depends rather on the manner of working,
handling, and airing the ftuff properly, than upon the
exaft quantity of the ingredients. ,
It may not in this place be improper to explain the vvhy it is
reafon of the neceffity of giving ftuffs a blue, or at leaft neceflary
a root colour ground, previous to their being dyed Prev,ouf1y
black ; and why the dyeing wjrite black is exprefsly
prohibited in France; becaufe in that cafe it is neceffary
to ufe a much greater quantity of nutgalls: this would
indeed be no great evil, as hutgalls of themfelves do
not injure the wool; but in ordei^'to oveicome this
gall, apeording to the workmens phrafe, that is, to
blacken it, or properly fpeaking rather to form an
ink on the ftuff, it requires a greater quantity of cop-
pears, which not only hardens the ftuff, but, from the
acidity impreffed on the fibres of the wool by this fait,
makes it brittle : on the contrary, when the ftuff has
had a ground, that is to fay, a ftrong layer of fome
deep colour, there is much lefs occafien for either.
- Blue is preferable to any other colour; firft, becaufe
it is the neareft to black, which is in fad only a deep
blue ; and, fecondly, as there is no occafion for apy
other preparation than previoufly boiling the wool,
the ftuff is in no refpedt injured. For the fame rea¬
fon, viz. the prefervation of the wool, the root colour
is fubftituted for inferior ftuffs inftead of the blue,
which would enhance the price ; it is therefore necef¬
fary that this root-colour ground ftiould be as deep as
poffible ; becaufe the darker it is, there is occafidn for
lefs copperas to complete the black.
It alfo frequently happens, that when ftuffs of any
colour are badly dyed or fpotted, they are dipped in
black: it is however advifable to dip them firft in
blue, unlefs the colouP be very dark, in which cafe
they would take a very fine black; but this is the laft
refource. Thefe ftuffs are not commonly dyed black,
if it be poffible to make them any other colour; be¬
caufe, having been prepared with alum and tartar for
the firft colour, the copperas requifite for the black
would confiderably injure and greatly diminifh their
quality.
The {hades of black are greys, from the darkeft to How to
the lighteft. They are of great ufe in the art of dye-dye grey
ing, as well for their own colours fimply as when ap- colours..
plied
217
DYEING.
plied to other colours, which is called darkening. At
prefent we (hall mention two methods of producing
them. The firft and moft. general is to boil fame
pounded nutgalls with a proper quantity of water for
two hours ; at the fame time diffolving fame copperas
in a little water feparately. Having prepared a caul¬
dron of liquor fufficient for the quantity of wool or
fluff to be dyed, you add to it, whilff the water is too
hot for your hand, a little of the deco&ion of the
nutgalls'with the folution of copperas. The fluff in¬
tended for the lightett grey is then dipped. When fuf-
ficiently coloured according to your defire* you add
fome frefli decottion of nutgalls with fome of the in-
fufion of the copperas, and then dip the next fhade.
In this manner you proceed to the darkeft fhade, con-
ftantly adding thefe liquors, from the tawny grey even
to black ; but it is much better to give the tawny
grey and the extreme dark fhades a blue ground,
more or lefs as you like, for the reafon above mention¬
ed.
The fecond method of producing grey feems to be
preferable ; becaufe the juice of the galls is better in¬
corporated with the wool, and you are thereby fute
of ufing no more copperas than is abfolutely neceffary.
It even appears that the greys are more beautiful and
the wool brighter. It alfo appears to be equally fo-
lid ; for they are both of them equally proof againfl
the air and fun. The fecond method is much lefs preju¬
dicial to the quality of the wool, and is attended with
no more difficulty than the firft.
You boil a fufficient quantity of nutgalls, well
pounded and inclofed in a clean linen bag ; you after¬
wards put the wool or fluff into this liquor, letting it
boil for an hour, moving and flirring it about, after
which it is taken out. You then add to the fame li-
quer a little copperas diffolved in a part of the folu¬
tion, and then dip the woollens intended for the light¬
ed fhade. You again add a little of the copperas fo-
hition, continuing in this manner as in the firft opera¬
tion till you come to the darkeft fhades. In either
procefs, if not reftrained by patterns, you may catch
the precife fhades, beginning with the dark and finifh-
ing with the light, in proportion as the liquor becomes
exhaufted of its ingredients ; keeping the pieces of
fluff or wool immerfed for a longer or fhorter time, till
the fluff takes the colour defired.
It is as impoffible to determine the quantity of wa¬
ter neceffary for thefe operations, as it is to fpecify the
quantity of the ingredients, or the time for letting the
wool remain in the liquor. The eye muft judge of
thefe things. If the liquor be ftrongly impregnated
with colour, the wool will imbibe the fhade in a fhort
time ; but, on the contrary, it muft remain longer if
the liquor be exhaufted. When the wool is not dark
enough, it is dipped a fecond time, a third, or even
more, till it is of a fufficient colour ; the only necef¬
fary attention is to prevent the water from boiling. If
it be,by chance too deep, the only remedy is to dip
the fluff in a frefh warm liquor, adding to it a little
of the deco&ion of nutgalls. This liquor carries off
a part of the-precipitated iron of the copperas ; confe-
•opiently the wool or fluff becomes lighter.
But the bell way is to take it out of the liquor from
■*ime to time, not leaving it in long enough to imbibe
Von. VI. Part i.
more of the colour than required. It may alfo be dip¬
ped in a folution of foap or alum ; but thefe correftives
deftroy a great part of the colour, fo that it is often
neceffary to darken it again ; by this means the wool,
which fuffers greatly by the reiterated a&ion of thefe
ingredients, is injured. All greys, however dyed,
fhould be well veafhed in a large ftream, and the dark¬
eft even fcoured with foap.
Thefe dingy fhades, from the lighteft to the dark¬
eft, are produced by the fame operation from which
common ink is obtained. The green vitriol contains
iron ; were it blue, it would contain copper. Pour a
folution of this green copperas into a glafs, holding it
in the light and dropping into it fome of the deco&ion
of nutgalls. The firft drops that fall into this limpid
folution of ferruginous fait produces a reddifh colour,
the next turns it bluifh, then a dufky violet colour,
and at lafl it becomes a dark blue, almoft black, which
is called ink. To this ink add a quantity of pure wa¬
ter ; let the veffel reft for feveral days, and the liquor
by degrees becomes clearer and clearer, till it is almoft
as limpid as common water, and at the bottom of the
veffel you will perceive a black powder. Having dried
this powder, putv it into a crucible ; calcine this, and
put to it a little fuel or any other fat, you will obtain
a black powder which may be attradled by the load-
ftone. This, therefore, is iron ; this is the metal which
blackens the ink ; and this, when precipitated by the
nutgalls, lodges in the pores of the fibres of the wool,
dilated by the heat of the liquor, and contradled when
the fluff is expofed to the air. Befides the ftyptic qua¬
lity of the nutgalls, by which they have eminently the
property of precipitating the iron of the copperas and
producing ink, they alfo contain a portion of gum, as
may be afcertained by evaporating the filtered decoc¬
tion. This gum being introduced into the pores with
the ferruginous atoms ferves to retain them ; but this
gum being eafily foluble, it has not the tenacity pro¬
cured from a fait more difficult of folution ; therefore
thefe dark colours have not the folidity of other folid
colours prepared in a boiling folution of alum and tar¬
tar, and therefore plain greys have not been fubmitted
to the ufual trial. g
It is by no means eafy to produce a good black co- How to
lour on filk, though the bafis is undoubtedly the dye fdk d£
fame, viz. iron diffolved by acids, and precipitated ? 4e'
on the cloth by a vegetable aftringent. The fol- ur*
lowing procefs is given by M. Macquer. “ Twenty
quarts of vinegar are put into a trough with one pound
of black nutgalls pounded and fifted, and five pounds
of frefh iron-filings. While the infufion is making,
you clean out the copper in which you put the black
ground, with the following drugs pounded, viz.
8 lb. of black nutgalls
8 — of cummin
4 — of fumach
12 — of pomegranate rind
4 — of bitter apple
3 lb. of agaric
2 — of coque de Levant
i o — of buckthorn
‘6 — of linfeed.
“ Thefe feveral drugs are put into a copper, contain¬
ing half the quantity of the veffel ufed for the black
ground, and tilled with water. Twenty pounds of
Campeachy or logwood chips are afterwards inclofed
-in a linen bag, for the conveniency of taking them out
E e of
2i8
DYE
of the liquor, unlefs you choofe to take them out with
a pierced ladle, or any other means, becaufe thefe muft
boil a fecond time as well as the other drugs.
“ When the logwood has boiled for about a quarter
of an hour, it is then taken out and properly preferred.
The above-mentioned drugs are then put into the log¬
wood decoiftion, and alfo boiled for about a quarter
of an hour, carefully checking with cold w ater as often
as it feems ready to boil over.
“ This operation being finifhed, the liquor is ftrained
through a linen llrainer into a trough, and then left
to fettle, carefully preferving the grounds which muft
be again boiled.
“ The colcl infufion of the vinegar with the nutgalls
and iron filings is then put into the copper intended
for the black ground. The fire is afterwards put un¬
der it, and the following ingredients immediately add¬
ed, viz.
30 lb. of gum arable pound¬
ed
3 — of realgar or red
arfenic
i — of fal ammoniac
t — of fal. gem.
i — of mineral cryftal
i — of white arfenic
pounded
I — of corrof. fublimate
2 lb. of green copperas
2 — of the feum of fu-
gar candy
to — of powder fugar
4 — of litharge pound¬
ed
5 — of antimony
2 — of orpiment
2 — of plumbago.
Thefe feveral drugs flrould be pounded and fifted, ex-
^ cept the gum arable, which is only broken.
How to ufe “ Inftead of gum arabic the native gums may be ufed,
the native and diffolved in the following manner: Some of the
fhis opera l0gwo°d deco&ion is put into a boiler; when hot, you
Hob.. ^ Put *nto i1 a copper ftrainer, made in the (hape of an egg,
and open at the largeft end. The gum is put into this
llrainer, and diffolves as the liquor heats; it muft be
ftirred with a v/ooden peftle, that it may pafs through
the holes. When it is entirely palfed, you introduce
another copper ftrainer, w-ith holes ftill fmaller than the
former, to prevent the impurities of the gum from
efcaping. The liquor of the gum already diffolved is
poured into this ftrainer, and again paffed as before by
the help of the peftle. This operation is made more
eafy, by now and then taking out the ftrainer and rett¬
ing it on a crofs ttielf or plank, fufpended on the peg
over the copper ufed for wringing the black. The
gum muft be fqueezed pretty hard with the peftle to
force it through the holes of the ftrainer.
_ “ The gum would diffolve with more facility if pre-
vioufly fteeped for three or four days in the logwood
decoAion, efpecially if you are careful to pour it on
very hot.
“ When the above ingredients are put into the black
ground, you muft remember to keep the liquor hot
enough to diffolve the gum and the falls, but it Ihould
Beyer be fuffered to boil; and when it is therefore fuf-
ficiently hot, the fire is taken away, and the frefh iron-
filings fprinkled over it in a proper quantity to cover
the liquor.
“ The next morning the fire is again put under the
topper, the drugs boiled, and the logw'ood a fecond
time boiled. It is then taken out, and the following
drugs added to this fecond decodtion, viz.
r N G.
2 lb. of black nutgalls
pounded
4 — of fumach
4 — of cummin
5 — of buckthorn ber¬
ries
6 lb. of pomegranate rinds
pounded
1 — of bitter apple
2 — of agaric pounded
2 — of cr>que de Levant
5 — of linfeed
Thefe drugs are boiled, the liquor ftrained and poured
on the black ground as we have already faid, and the
grounds preferved. You then put a little fire under
the copper as at firft, and the following drugs are im¬
mediately added, viz.
8 oz. of litharge pounded
8 — of antimony pound¬
ed
8 — of plumb cle mer, alfo
pounded
8 — of white arfenic
pounded
8 — of cryftal mineral
8 oz. of rock fait
8 — of fenugreek
8 — of corrofive fubli¬
mate
8 lb. of copperas
20 — of gum arabic, pre¬
pared as above
“ When the liquor is hot enough, you take away the
fire, ftrewing over the liquor with the iron-filings, and
letting it ftand for three or four days.
“ Two pounds of verdigris are then pounded and
diffolved with fix quarts of vinegar in an earthen pot,
adding to it about an ounce of cream of tartar. The
whole fiiould boil for a full hour, taking care to check
the boiling with cold vinegar that it may not boil over.
This preparation ftiould be kept ready to be added to
the black ground when you are going to dye."
“ For the black dye the filk is boiled as ufual; ha¬
ving waftied and beetled according to cuftom, you give
the gall liquor for heavy blacks twige, but for light
blacks only once. Thefe two blacks are alike both
in beauty and fhade, differing only in the weight of the
filk : the light black has, however, rather more luftre.
“ The nutgall liquor is made as follows : For every
pound of filk you muft have three-quarters of a pound
of light nutgalls, adding the fame quantity of Aleppo.
Thefe galls are pounded together, and boiled for two
hours in a quantity of water fufficient for the whole of
the filk to be galled. As the liquor waftes a great deal
in the boiling, it is, after the firft hour, filled again,
and after two hours the fire is taken away ; the liquor
is then left to depofit, and the galls taken out with a
pierced ladle ; about an hour afterwards the filk is put
into it, prepared as above.
During this operation the filk is drained and very,
lightly fqueezed : it is ihen immerfed in the gall li¬
quor, on cords one above another, taking care to keep
it near the furface of the liquor, but fufficiently co¬
vered. In this manner it ftrould remain 12 or 15
hours ; it is then taken out, waftied at the river, and
if intended for heavy black, is a fecond time galled in
a frefti galling like the firft ; the grounds are gene¬
rally ufed for the firft galling ; but for the fecond a li¬
quor of frdh drugs.
“ Some dyers gall the heavy blacks but once, by
boiling the old grounds, taking them out immediately,
and afterwards adding frefti galls ; for every pound of
filk a pound of light gall and half a pound of fine
Aleppo. The frefh galls they boil for two hours or
more, and when the grounds are taken out they put
219
D Y E I N G.
the filk in the fredi gall liquor, where they let it re- “ It muil be obferved, that at every reheating it is
main a day and a night. _ requifite to change the order of dipping, in fuch a
“ This method, they fay, is the beft 5 becaufe, were manner that each may in its turn have the firft of the
the gall grounds to remain in the liquor, they would liquor. If the black dye is ilrong and good, the
re-imbibe part of the fubllance which they had before heavy blacks may be done with two fires only ; and
given to the water. for the light blacks one wringing lefs may do for each
“ When the filk is galled, a little fire is put under heating,
the black ground ; while it is heating, the,filk is wrung “ When blacks are finilhed they are returned in a
out of the galling, and beetled at the river. trough of cold water by dips one after another, called
“ When walked it is drained on the pegs, pafllng by the French dyers dtjhroder or rinfing ; they are then
a thread round every hank, each hank as large as for twice or thrice beetled at the river. When walhed you
common colours: it is then immediately put on the put them on the cords, only taking care not to prefs
rods. them too much.
“ While the black liquor is heating, it Ihould be “ The filk when taken out of the black dye is ex-
ftirred with an iron rake or paddle, to prevent the tremely harfh, which is by no means wonderful, con-
grounds from flicking to the bottom of the copper, fidering the number of acids and corrolives in the com-
You then diffolve fome French gum by the method pofition. It is therefore neceffary to foften it in the fol-
above deferibed, till it rifes on the top in a kind of lowing manner :
feum covering the furface of the liquor ; afterwards “ Diffolve about five pounds of foap in two bucketsTn foften
you throw into it two or three handfuls of linfeed. You of water; and while the foap is diflolving, throw in black fdk.
then add half of the vinegar and verdigris preparation a handful of anifeed or any other aromatic plant. It
with about four or five pounds of copperas ; thisftiould fliould boil till the foap is entirely diffolved. In the
be punctually repeated at every heating. _ mean time a trough Ihould be provided full of cold
“ Care Ihould be taken whilft the fire is under the water, and large enough to dip all the filk at the fame
copper to rake ; and, to try if it be hot enough, the time. Thtf foap-water fliould be drained through linen,
rake is moved round at the bottom of the copper; if the whole mixed well together, and the filk put in,
the gum flicks to the rake, and the liquor does not where it ihould remain a full quarter of an hour. It
appear through the middle of the gummy feum, it is then taken out, wrung on the peg, and dried as
fliows that it is hot enough : the fire is then taken ufual. As the quantity of foap can do no harm, too
away, becaufe, as we have before obferved, it fhould much is better than too little. This foftening is very
not boil. The rake is then alfo taken out, and the li- necelfary, in order to divefl the filk of that rultling
quor covered with iron-filings in the fame manner as and fliffnefs fo prejudicial in the manufadure of black
before ; after this it is fuffered to fubfide for about an goods. g
hour, when the furface of the liquor is again ftirred, “ To dye black in the raw, the filk fliould be galled To dye
in order to precipitate the filings to the bottom. in a cold liquor of frelh galls, which had been previ- black in th®
“ Before we explain the manner of dipping filk in oufly ufed for the boiled lilk. The natural yellow ofIaw-
the black liquor, it is proper to obferve that filk-dyers the filk is preferable for this dye, becaufe the white
never dye black but by coppers, that is when they takes a lefs beautjful caft.
have a fufficient quantity of filk for three dips, if for “ Having untied, the filk and divided it into hanks
heavy black; but if light black only two dips, which of the common iize, it is dipped with the hands into
is done in the following manner : _ the gall liquor. When foaked and a little fqueezed,
“ If heavy black, a third of the filk is put upon it is ftrung on cords, eight or ten hanks together,
the rods, and three times returned in the black ground ; They are afterwards put into the cold gall-liquor,
it is afterwards wrung on the peg _ over the copper; one above another, letting even the cords fink in the
this is done by giving it three twills: in this manner liquor, where they may remain for fix or feven days,
three hanks may be wrung at once, becaufe itT fliould They are then taken out and once beetled at the river,
be done gently, and only to drain ; it is again put on As to time, it fliould remain in the ga'ling according
the ro“®’ and fufPended.bet.w.een two perches to air. to the ftrength of the liquor and the quantity of the
• j- ^ j . tbe brd abdng> tbe fecond bhied Part filk put into it; but however ftrong it may be, and
is dipped 111 the fame manner, and afterwards the third however fmall the quantity of filk, it fliould remain
third part, always in the fame manner.' It muft be, two or three days at leaft.
remembered, that while the filk is on the rods it fliould' “ When the filk is waflied, it is again flrung on the
be turned from tune to time to give it air. cords and left to drain, after which the Cords are put
. " When the lait third part is wrung, the firft part one over the other into the rinfing or black wafli,
is put in, and then the two others fucceflively for three which is of itfelf fufficient to dye ; it will, however
times, always airing at each time. This is commonly require more or lefs time according to the ftrength of
called giving the three wrings, and thefe three-wrings the rinfing wafli, generally about three or four days,
are ^called one fire or heating. . _ Whilft the filk is thus immerfed in the rinfing water,
lie light blacks ftiould alfo have three wrings to it fhould be raifer! with flicks three or four times a-
°n«< /fr da>' ’ rt *s tben drained over the liquor, and when
After each fire the black ground is again heated, drained put on the ground in a prope place, where it
adding copperas and gum as before. This operation is fpread and aired, but not dried. This is abfolutely
is thrice done for the heavy blacks, that is three fires, neceffary to produce the black, elfe the filk might
each fire confifting of three wrings; but for light take a black-grey; this grey would, however, blacken
blacks only twice, each alfo confifting of three wrings, in the air ; neverthelefs you are thereby enabled to
E e 2 judge
220
DYE
judge how much of the colour it has taken, and how
much it may ftill want. Should the filk be fuffered to
dry, it mutl be again wetted before it is, re-dipped,
which would be an additional and unneceffary trouble.
“ This operation of walking and drying mull be fuc-
ceffively continued till the filk is fufficiently black.
“ The filk in this fituation is carried to the river,
and twice beetled ; after which it is drained on the
cords, and then put on the perches to dry without
wringing, which would foften it too much : for as this
kind of lilk is defigned for gauzes and black lace, care
fhould be taken to preferve its natural ftiffnefs as much
as poffible.
“ To produce black in the raw in the quickeft man¬
ner, the filk when wafhed from its galling fhould be
put on the rods and three times returned in the black¬
ing ground ; it is then taken out, and put to drain over
the veffel containing the black liquor, and then cooled
on the rods.
“ When drained, it is again twice dipped in the black
liquor, drained, and each time cooled as at firft. When
drained, it is again wafhed ; and the procedure is then
the fame as for thofe which had been dyed in the rin-
fing. This is not, however, the ufual method of dyeing
black in the raw ; becaufe k confumes the black liquor
too foon, confidering with what avidity the raw filk
takes any colour whatever; and befides that a good rin-
fing is fufficiently Ilrong for dyeing this colour.
“ The black dye is weakened and becomes exhauft-
ed in proportion to the filk it has dyed; it is there¬
fore neceffary to ftrengthen and repleniffi, from time to
time, by an addition of proper drugs, which is called
giving the brevet or eompqfition.
“ This compoiition is made by putting four or five
buckets of water into a copper, and then boiling it
with about four pounds of logwood chips. The log¬
wood is then taken out, and four pounds of black
buckthorn berries is added with two pounds of pome¬
granate rind, two pounds of fumach, two pounds of
Coque de Levant, two pounds of coliquinte, two pounds
of linfeed, and four pounds of cummin.
“ Thefe drugs are boiled together for about three
quarters of an hour; the fire is then put under the
black liquor, when a little more than half boiled, and
whilft hot the following drugs are added, viz.
2 lb. of realgar
4 — of antimony
j — of gold litharge
i — of filver litharge
i — of fal ammoniac
I — of rock fait
i — of cryftal mineral
It lb. of white arfenic
i — of corrofive fubli-
I mate
j i — of orpiment
II — of powder fugar
i — of funegreek
4 — of copperas.
“ Thefe drugs, when all pounded, are thrown into
the black ground, remembering to ftir. When the
compofition is fufficiently boiled, it is {trained in a trough
and left to fettle ; the grounds having fubfided, the
clear part is added to the black ground. The fame
grounds are again boiled and preferred for fome other
“ The compofition being added to the black liquor,
and fufficiently hot, the fire is taken away. The liquor
is then flrewed over with the iron-filings, and left to
fettle for two days.
When the black ground has had a certain number
I N G.
of additions, and a quantity of fediment colle&ed at the
bottom, part of the grounds ffiould be taken out in
order to clear the liquor. Thus frequently repleniffi-
ing, the foundation is always preferred ; fo that the li¬
quor is never entirely new, but having been once fet
in a dye-houfe is fet for ever. Thefe liquors are never
liable to pvitrefadlion, owing to the great quantity of
nutgalls and martial vitriol in the compofition, tw o of
the moil powerful antifeptics known.
“ Themoft material obfervation concerning the black
dye is, that in general it greatly injures the goods in
fuch a manner that (luffs of this colour, though not in¬
ferior in other refpects, wear out much fooner than
thofe of any other. This defedl may be attributed to
the vitriolic acid of the copperas, which is but imper-
fedtly faturated with the iron. Iron combined with
any, even vegetable, acid, is capable of producing black
with vegetable aftringents. It is therefore molt pro¬
bable that this inconvenience might poffibly be remo¬
ved, by fubllituting other combinations of this metal
for the copperas, if it were worth while to make the
attempt.” 8a
“ All kinds of grey, excepting black grey, are produ- Of
ced upon filk without aluming. The filk being walh-^1”
ed from the foap and drained on the peg, a liquor is
made of fullic, logwood, archil, and copperas. Fuftic
gives the ground ; archil the red; logwood darkens ,
and the copperas foftens all thefe colours, turns them
grey, and at the fame time ferves in (lead of alum in
extradling them. As there is an infinite variety of
greys without any pofitive names, and produced by
the fame methods, it would be endlefs to enter into a
detail that would prolong this treatife to fo little pur-
pofe.
Suffice it to remark here, that in producing a red-
diffi grey the archil ffiould predominate; for thofe more
grey, the logwood ; and for thofe dill more rufty and
rather greeniffi, fuftic.
In general, when obliged to complete the colour
with logwood, it ffiould be ufed rather fparingly, be¬
caufe it is apt in drying to darken too much, differing
in this particular from all other colours.
To give an example of the manner of producing
thefe colours we (hall take the nut-grey.
The fuftic deco&ion, archil, and a little logwood, is
put into water moderately hot. The filk is then re¬
turned, and when the liquor is exhaufted it is taken
out; and to foften the colour the copperas folution is
added. Some dyers for this purpofe add the black
waffi inftead of the copperas; the filk is again return¬
ed ; and if the colour does not appear fufficiently
even, fome red fpots ftill remaining, it may be conclu¬
ded that it requires a little more copperas.
It mud alfo be remembered, that as copperas is the
general bafe of all greys, if deficient in quantity, the
colour will be apt to change in drying, and to become
rough and uneven.
To try if the colour be fufficiently foftened, it
ftould be examined ; and if it wets eafily, after having
been wrung on the peg, it wants copperas ; but if on
the contrary it foaks with a little difficulty, the colour
is enough foftenedi
On the other hand, too much copperas fiiffens the
filk confiderably, making it harffi, and even depriving
it of a great part of its luftre. To remedy this, the
filk
221
DYE
Clk when taken out of the liquor fhould be wrung on
the peg, and then immediately wafhed at the river,
which carries off the fuperfluous copperas.
The black greys, becaufe alumed and welded, make
a feparate clafs. When the filk is alumed and cooled
at the river, and the weld liquor prepared as for yel¬
lows, the filk is returned ; and when the liquor is ex-
hauited, a part of it is thrown away, and the logwood
deco&ion fubftituted in its place. The filk is again re¬
turned in this liquor; and when the logwood is ex-
haulled, fome copperas may be added in a fufficient
quantity to blacken the colour. The filk is then wafh¬
ed, wrung, and finifhed as ufual.
For iron grey, it is neceffary to boil the fame as for
blues. This colour is much more beautiful when laid on
a very w'hite ground. It is more ufed in the manufac¬
turing of dockings than any other colour, therefore
generally wrought in fhades; that is, many different
lhades made at the fame time.
When the filk is wafhed and prepared as ufual, you
make the liquor of river or well water, no matter
which ; but either mu ft be cold.
If river water, the logwood decoftion made with
river W'ater is added, fufficient to produce the dark
fhade required ; -the filk is then dipped, and when fi¬
nifhed it is wrung and hung up. A part of the liquor
is then thrown away and replenifhed with water for the
following fhades, and fo on to the lighteft, carefully
dividing ; that is, preferving an equal diftance between
the fhades.
When all is finifhed with the logwood, the dark
fhades are put again on the rods, to be dipped in a
new liquor with the addition of copperas ; the remain¬
ing lighter fhades are then dipped in the fame liquor,
but without the copperas addition: if, however, the
fecond fhade is not enough foftened, a little copperas
mutt be added. This defedt is eafily perceived in the
dipping, as we have before obferved.
When arrived at the lighteft fliades, care fhould be
taken that the liquor be not overcharged with copperas,
which is eafily perceived by its having a reddifh caft ;
in which cafe fome of the liquor fhould be thrown away
and replenifhed with water, too much copperas pro¬
ducing the fame effedf with regard to theie fhades as
the preceding.
When the liquor is made with well water, the log-
vmod decoction fhould alfo be made of well water.
This being added to the liquor, -the darkeft fliades are
firft dipped as in the preceding procefs. When the filk
has fufficiently drawn, it is taken out, and the follow¬
ing fhades are then dipped, but without replenifhing,
the colour being much better and clearer without the
river water.
When all the fhades are complete, you foften with
copperas, in the fame manner as above deferibed ; the
filk is afterwards wafhed, and if neceffary beetled.
To dif- ^'° d’fcharge greys, that is when the fhades are too
charge grey-dark and too full, you put fome tartar pounded in a
colours mortar and fifted into a bucket or fmall trough; ypu
from filk. then pour over it fome boiling water. The cleareft of
this liquor is afterwards put in a trough, and the.filks
returned in it; by which operation a part of the colour
is immediately difeharged.
If the filk does not inftantly take an equal colour,
a. little more tartar muft be added as above mentioned.
I N G.
The filk thus difeharged of its fuperfluous colour
is once-beetled at the rive , and afterwards dipped in
hot water, without any other addition. This laft ope¬
ration reftores in part what it had loft by the tartar;
but to try the colour it fhould be wrung on the peg.
The tartar always deftroying fome part of this co¬
lour, it fliould be reftored with a frefh liquor made for
the purpofe, and then foftened with copperas as ufual.
If the filk has been alumed, then the hot water
may be omitted after the beetling ; the hot water is,
however, always of ufe in removing the harfhnefs oc-
cafioned by the tartar.
To difeharge iron greys when too dark, they fhould
be fulphured, afterwards beetled at the river, and then
again dipped in a frefh liquor fimilar to the firft.
This method of difeharging iron greys is preferable
. to either tartar or lemon juice, thefe ingredients giving
them a ground that does not eafily yield even to the
boiling with foap, which confequently fpoils the co¬
lour ; whereas the fulphuring almoft entirely whitens
the filk by totally deftroying the logwood.
For greys in the raw, the filk fhould be as white as
for common colours, except the black grey, for which
the natural yellow would be no difadvantage. Having
foaked the raw filk, the' procefs is then the fame for
producing thefe fhades as on boiled frlk.
Cotton or linen receive a black colour with ftiUofdvtin
more difficulty than filk. “ The various proceffes cottoiro/
(fays M. de Apligny) for dyeing black, agree in the l‘nen bladfc*.
foie intention of introducing within the pores of the
ftuff ferruginous particles diftblved in different menftrua,
and of precipitating them on the fluff by means of
aftringent fubftances furnifhed with phlogifton capable
of colouring iron black. The beft method therefore
of fucceeding, is to choofe a folvent capable of divi¬
ding the particles fo minutely that the calx may not
injure the fluff. Copperas or green vitriol are ufed
in thefe proceffes; but the iron it contains is by no
means in a ftate of perfeft divifion, on account of the
phlogifton obftinately retained by it, which facili¬
tates its union with the acid without the iron being
perfedlly diffolved. It is for this reafon, doubtlefs,
that a folution of green vitriol in water depofites in
lime a fpecies of ochre; which, according to M. Geof-
froy, feems to be an extraneous fubftance. For the
fame reafon the fpirit of nitre, faturated with iron,
will diffolve ftill more, by abandoning the groffer par¬
ticles of what is held in folution, and of which it retains
only the phlogifton.
“ This being the cafe, whenever copperas is ufed in Canfe of
dyeing of black, tbh fluffs dyed are generally harfh toffi® rotten-
the feel and confiderably damaged ; becaufe the grofsnef? fT*
particles oT the iron being only divided, and not dif-bbcfc
folved by the vitriolic acid of the copperas, overfill the
pores of the fluff into which they had entered, and by
their hardnefs extending the partition of thefe pores,
force them afunder. M. Hellot very well obferves,
that cloth -dyed biack without a blue-or root ground
requires a greater quantity of copperas, by which the
fluff is rendered rotten; but I have alfo remarked,
that when diffolving the ruft ofiron in vinegar, either
for yellow or for the black of painted linens, it is apt
io tear in the parts where thefe colours are applied, .
particularly if there has been no attention to take
oft the grpfler earth by feumming the folution. T© <
thij-
.222
DYE
Comp'fi-
•tions for
proved by
tge.
this earth therefore the rottennefs of black fluff may¬
be attributed ; and not, as vulgarly imagined, to the
fait of vitriol, nor to any other burning caufe.
“ And therefore, in order to render the colour more
equal, and the fluffs lefs damaged, the beft method for
black is to ufe a folution of iron perfeftly divided.
Confequently, as experience daily teaches, thofe acids
which attack the iron too rapidly are the leaft proper
to produce a perfect folution of this metal. Weak
acids are therefore preferable ; which, notwithftanding
their flow operation, penetrate entirely, dividing it in¬
to impalpable particles. Black compofitions alfo fuc-
ceed much better in proportion as the black liquor is
older, and confequently the folution of the iron more
complete. The manufa&urers in India are fo truly
fenfible of this confequence, that many of them pre-
ferve their black vats for more than 20 years. In the
iftates of Genoa, Florence, and Naples, every manu-
fadturing city has a place of referve, called the Sera¬
glio, where at the public expence eight or ten vats are
continually fupported. Thefe vats have been fet from
300 to 400 years, more or lefs; that is, prepared for
the dipping of filk defigned for black, and requiring
only to be fupplied with proper drugs in proportion
as they are diminifhed by ufe. The ground remaining
always the fame,' forms a kind of leaven, by which the
fermentation of the neceffary additional drugs is af-
87 fifled.
Houen pro- « 'p}ie procefs at Rouen for dyeing linen and cotton
h^3 cotfon" thread black, is firft to give it a iky-blue ground, and
iiijr co ton wring and dry. It is afterwards galled, a
quarter of a pound of galls for every pound of the fub-
ftance (as for reds) ; having remained 24 hours in the
gall liquor, it is again wrung and dried.
“ About five quarts of the black liquor for every
pound is then poured into a trough. The cotton Is
then dipped and worked with the hand, pound by
pound, for about a quarter of an hour, then wrung
and aired. This operation is twice repeated, adding
each time a freih quantity of the black liquor carefully
fcummed. It is again aired, wrung, wafhed at the
river, well drained, and dried.
“ When this cotton is to be dyed, about one pound
of the rind of the alder-tree for every pound of thread
is put into a copper and boiled in a fuflicient quantity
“of water during one hour. About half the liquor that
had been ufed for the galling is then added, with about
half the weight of the rind of the alder of fumach.
The whole is again boiled for two hours, after which
it is ftrained through a fieve. When it is cold, the
cotton is dipped in it on the rods, and worked pound
by pound; from time to time airing, and returning it
into the liquor; where having remained 24 hours, it is
wrung and dried.
“ For foftening this cotton when too harlh, it is the
cuftom to foak it in the remainder of the weld-liquor
that had been ufed for other colours, adding a little of
the logwood-liquor. It is then taken out, and inftantly
plunged into a trough of warm -water, into which had
been poured about an ounce of the oil of olives for
every pound of the fubftance: it is then wrung and
•gg dried.
froctfs of “ M. 1’Abbe Mazeas has given a procefs for the
the Abbe dyeing of linen .and cotton thread black, by madder-
Mazeas. jjng aft£r having prepared with the flckiou of the A-
c r linen
Liack.
I N G.
drianople red, galling and dipping in an aflringent
compofed of lime-water and green copperas calcined.
This procefs, though long and expenlive, is in my
mind no better than thofe I have juft defcribed. In
order to obtain a permanent black, it is my opinion
that we muft ftlll have recourfe to the black refulting
from a combination of the three primitive colours, un¬
til we difcover feculae capable of yielding a direft black.
I fhall now defcribe a procefs in which I myftlf have
fucceeded perfectly.
“ To dye linen and cotton thread black by a com- Of M.^de
bination of colours, it is neceflary to begin by clean- Apligny,by
ling the thread as ufual by galling, in the fame man-
ner as mentioned in the article upon red, aluming af- jourg>
terwards, and then dipping in a weld-liquor. When
taken out of this liquor, it muft be dyed in a decoc¬
tion of logwood, to which has been added a quarter of
a pound of blue vitriol for every pound of the fub-
ftance. It is then taken out, waflied at the river,
wrung, and waflied feveral times, but not wrung hard.
It is at laft dyed in a madder liquor, about half a pound
of this dye for every pound of the fubftance. It is
needlefs to repeat here the manner of galling, aluming,
and welding, &c. having defcribed them above. By
this procefs we may reft afliired of obtaining a very
beautiful and permanent black, that will not be liable
to be difcharged, provided that after having been dyed
the thread be dipped in a boiling foap-liquor.
<! Several different Ihades of grey are diftinguifhed in of dyeing
the art of dyeing; viz., black-grey, iron-grey, date-grey, cotton and
thorn-grey, agate-grey, &c. It is eafy to conceive, hnen of a
that grey in general, being a mixture of black and £rei,co*our*
white, its different fliades can be obtained only by in¬
troducing into the fubjeft a fmall quantity of matter,
by which the rays of light are abforbed in fuch a man¬
ner, that fame of the pores not being occupied, refleft
all the rays, and prefent to the eye a grey colour by
means of the black particles contained in the inter¬
mediate pores. This operation in dyeing is therefore
precifely the fame as in painting, which produces grey
by a mixture of lamp-black and of white lead.
“ It would be too tedious, and even fuperfluous, to
defcribe the different proceffes for the feveral greys juft
mentioned. The dyer will be better able to judge of
thefe ftrades by his eye than by any particular rules.
All that can be lard is, that it is the common praftice
to give a blue ground to black-grey, iron-grey, and
flate-grey ; but to none of the others. Thefe Ihades
require aluming in proportion to the (hade wanted,
and are even frequently galled with liquors that had
been previoufly ufed.
“ The thread having been firft galled, wrung, and
dried, is dipped on the rods in a trough full of cold
water, adding an arbitrary quantity of the black liquor
and of the logwood decodtiun. The thread is then
worked pound by pound, walked, wrung, and dried.
“ It is poliible to produce more permanent greys by,
the two following proceffes. Firft, by galling the thread,
by dipping in a very weak black vat or liquor, and after¬
wards maddering. Secondly, by dipping the thread
in a very hot fohrtion of cryftals of tartar, lightly
wringing, and then drying. The thread is then dyed
in a decodtion of logwood. It appears black; but by
dipping the thread, and working it attentively in a
hot folution of foap, the fuperfluous dye being difchar-
223
DYE
ged, it remains a flate-grey, very pretty and very per-
p, mancnt.”
Of com- Having defcribed in fuch a particular manner the
sound co- methods of dyeing the primitive colours, there can be
*CIJIS' very little difficulty in comprehending the management
of thofe which proceed from a mixture of them. But
though an infinite number of different dhades may be
formed from thofe already mentioned, we are not to
imagine that a good colour will be produced by the
mixture of any two at random. Thus, though you
mix blue and fcarlet together in any way you pleafe
in order to produce a purple, the colour will neither
be good nor uniform, owing to the oppofite attion of
the acid and alkaline ingredients by which thefe two
primitive colours are ftruck. With crimfon the cafe
is altered : for, as we have already feen, that colour is
produced in the greateft perfection where volatile al¬
kali is concerned ; and therefore the alkaline ingredi¬
ents of the blue, which can only tend to heighten that
property in the other colour, have no fuch pernicious
Purple, See. tendency. From a mixture of blue and crimfon, there¬
fore, are produced columbine, purple, amaranth, penfy,
violet, with innumerable other (hades, varying accord¬
ing to the depth of the original colours employed.
In all thefe compound colours, it is neceffary to dye
the (luff completely of one colour, and then proceed
with it for the other exactly as if it had been quite
white. In the prefent cafe, you muff begin with blue;
becaufe, though the indigo cannot be hurt by the in¬
gredients neceffary for dyeing crimfon, yet the cochi¬
neal would be very confiderably injured by the lime
ufed for diffolving tke indigo. Colours of an inferior
kind are produced from madder.
Green. Blue and yellow produce a green, which is always
effentially the fame; though there are alfo innumerable
(hades of it which go by different names, as yellow-
green, pale-green, bright-green, grafs-green, fea-green,
olive-green, &c. &c. Thefe are all dyed, by the general
method already mentioned, viz. a yellow dye fuper-
added to a blue ground; though they differ in fome
particulars in refpedt to the various (hades above men¬
tioned.
For yellow-greens, M. Hellot dire.&s the (luff to be
a fine light blue, boiled with the common quantities
of alum and tartar, and then dipped in the yellow dye
in order to receive a llrong colour, that the yellow
may predomiirate. For thofe (hades called cabbage and
parrot greens, or any others more inclining to blue, it
is reqpifite that the latter (hould be very deep and the
yellow dye weak, or that a fmaller quantity of falts
(hould be ufed in the preparation. This laft method,
however, is not approved of by M. Helkrt; and in*
deed it is natural to think, that a great quantity of
Colour with little of the preparation neceffary to make
* it adhere and brighten it, muff be much lefs durable,
as well as lefs beautiful,, than one where the colour and
preparation are in due proportion to one another.
A very beautiful green will be produced by dipping
a deep blue cloth in the decodtiom of the virga aurea
Canadienfis, provided the fluff after being dyed blue
has been boiled in a folution of three parts of alum
and one of white tartar. This, green is equally perr
manent with that dyed with weld. A very perma¬
nent green is alfo produced by the bark of the afli-tree,
but lefs beautiful than the other. A duck’s-wing
I N G.
green is produced by ufing the root of the (harp-pointed
dock grofsly powdered and in fufficient quantity. For
this the fluff muft be dyed firft of a dark blue ; then
well fcoured, and afterwards boiled in a folution of
four parts of alum and one of tartar; and, laftly, it
muft be boiled full two hours with the other colouring
ingredient the dock-root. By this root alfo many va¬
rious (hades of colour may be obtained.from the paled
yellow to a tolerable olive ; fo that our author thinks
it is a confiderable acquifition in the art of dyeing.
Sea-green is ufually dyed, according to M. Hellot, Dutch nie-
with verdigris; and the following, he fays, is thedye*.
Dutch method of doing it, and which produces a
more permanent colour than ufnally is obtained by
means of that ingredient. “ Two cauldrons are to be
placed at a little diftance from each other; in one of
vyhich you put two pieces of cloth of 40 or 50 ells in
length, with eight or ten pounds of white foap (haved,,
and which muft be perfectly diffolved. When the
mixture is ready to boil, the fluff (hould be immerfed,
and fuffered to boil a full half hour. In the other caul¬
dron you muft prepare another liquor; and when that
is quite hot, you put into it a clean linen bag, con¬
taining eight or ten pounds of blue vitriol, and ten or
twelve of lime, each of them well pulverized and mixed
together; it being neceffary that the mixture (hould
be as accurate as poffible. This bag (hould be moved
about in the water, hot, but not boiling,, till the vi¬
triol is diffolved. A winch is then to be fixed on in
the ufual manner; but which ought to be carefully
wrapped round with a clean linen cloth very tight and
well fewed. One end of the cloth is fixed on the
winch, which is then turned fwiftly round, that the
cloth may pafs fwiftly from the foap-cauldron into
that with the vitriol; and here it is turned more (lowly,
that it may have time to imbibe the. particles -of the
copper, which by means of the lime were diffufed in
the liquor by feparating and precipitating them from
the blue vitriol in which they were contained. The
cloth is left in this liquor, which (hould never boil till
the cloth has taken the fea-green colour defired. It is
then to be taken out, drained on the winch, and aired
by the lifting. It (hould hang till it is perfe&ly cold
before it be waftied at the river. If it touches wood
it will be fpotted; for which reafon, the winch, and
every thing of wood over which it muft pafs, ought
to be well covered with linen.-”
Qn examining this procefs by the principles of che-
miftry, it appears to be no other than impregnating
the cloth with a folution of copper in fixed alkali. It
is undoubtedly a miftake to fay, that it is done by
verdigris; for no verdigris can. be formed from blue
vitriol, lime, and foap. All that we can fay of it is, that
it is cloth impregnated with a combination of copper
with fixed alkali; which being naturally extremely ready
to unite with water, .and having very little attraction
for the cloth, ,the latter may be fuppofed to be painted
rather than dyed with it. A much better method, there¬
fore, feems to be that recommended by M. Hellot, of
firft dyeing the (luff a very light blue, and then giving
the neceffary. yellow with virga aurea.
Thefe receipts may ferve as fpecimens of the me¬
thods of dyeing all kinds of mixed colours. There
are, however, methods of producing both a blue and
green fi'om indigo itfelf, by diffolving it in.acids.; and
5- the
S24- D Y E
9S the colours fo produced are called Saxon Hues and greens.
Saxon blue ge;ng perifhable colours, they are now feldom ufed ;
an green. Mr Wolfe fome time ago publiftied a receipt
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for preparing them
after an. improved method. This method, for the
blue, was to diffolve indigo in concentrated oil of vi¬
triol by digefting them in the heat of boiling water
xnftead of fand, which had formerly been ufed, and
■was apt to fpoil the colour. After the folution of the
indigo, the liquor may be weakened at pleafure ; and
any piece of cloth dipped in it will imbibe a dye deeper
or lighter according to the quantity of colour it con¬
tains. This colour is very beautiful, but apt to prove
unequal; and, as has been already faid, extremely
perifhable. For the Saxon green it is neceffary to
have a yellow from indigo alfo, which is obtained by
diffolving it in fpirit of nitre. Mr Wolfe recommends
an ounce and an half of powdered indigo to be mixed
with two ounces of fpirit of nitre diluted with four
times its quantity of water. The mixture is then to
itand for a week, and at the end of that fpace is to
be digefted in a fand heat for an hour or more ; after
which four ounces more of water are to be added.
The folution, when filtered, will be of a fine yellow
colour. Strong-fpirit of nitre, when mixed undiluted
with indigo, is apt to fet fire to it; for which reafon
the water is added. Even in its diluted ftate, it will
froth and run over if the digeftion be performed within
24 hours after the mixture ; and on this account it is
allowed to remain a week in the cold. One part of
the folution of indigo in the acid of nitre, mixed with
four or five parts of water, will dye filk or cloth of the
paleft yellow colour, or of any lhade to the deepeft,
by letting them boil a longer or {horter time, adding
water as the liquid evaporates. The addition of alum
makes the colour more tailing. None of the colour
feparates in the operation but what is imbibed by the
cloth, and therefore this liquid goes very far in dye¬
ing. That part of the indigo which remains undiffol-
ved in the vitriolic acid, when colledled by filtration
and diffolved in fpirit of nitre, will dye filk and wool
of all lhades of brown inclining to yellow.
M. de On the procefs for dyeing Saxon blue M. de Aplig-
Apligny’s ny 0bferves,. that there is no real folution of the indi-
Temarks on ^ q£ v[trj0ij but that it is only divided in-
^ ’ to very fine particles and fufpended in the liquor; nei¬
ther can any alteration be made in it by an alteration
in the procefs. Nor does this make any exception to
the general rule in chemiftry, that acids dilfolve and
redden the blue colouring matter of vegetables ; it not
being their nature to adl upon feculae fuch as indigo,
but upon vegetable juices, the colour of which depends
on the falls and effential oil of the plant. For the truth
of his alfertion he appeals to the appearance of the li¬
quor prepared for dyeing Saxon blue.
Material? From the vaft profufion of colours which nature ex-
for dyeing hibits in the flowers which grow every where around
lefs mime- us, it is natural to think that the materials for dyeing
nd'ht1?)11 ke had in the greateft plenty without any ne-
Jhirpofed' cefiity of having recourfe to foreign countries. But this
is far from being the cafe : for fcarce one of our blue
or red flowers can be made to communicate any du¬
rable colour to cloth ; while, on the other hand, almoft
all the yellow ones may be made to do fo. Numberlefs
experiments have been made to determine the plants
Nu J 06.
I N G.
which might be really ufeful to dyers ; and mod that
have yet been found fit for their purpofe in Britain
are comprehended in the following lift.
Yellows.
Bark of buckthorn, Rhamnus catharticus,
berry-bearing alder, frangula.
berberry, Berberis vulgaris.
plum-tree, Prunus domejiica.
apple-tree, Pyrus malus.
hornbeam, Carpinus betulus.
Root of meadow-rue, PhaliSrum jlavum.
common nettle, Urtica dioica.
Herb, faw-wort, Serratula tincloria.
bulky hawkweed, Hieracium umbellatum.
hemp-agrimony, Bidens tripartita.
gale, or Dutch myrtle, Myrica gale.
fweet willow, Salix pentandra.
birch-tree, Betula alba.
hedge-nettle, Stachys fyhatica.
fpotted arfmart, Polygonum perjicaria*.
yellow loofeftrife, Lyftmachia vulgaris.
devil’s-bit, Scabiofa fuccifa.
kidney-vetch, Anthyllis vulneraria.
common yellow liver- r. , , . .
t 1 luichen panetims.
wort, f
Flowers of St John’s wort, Hypericum perforatum.
Reds.
Roots of ladies bedftraw, Galium verum.
herb wdodroof, Afperula tinftoria.
forrel, Rumex dcetofa.
tormentil, Pormentilla erect a.
purple cinquefoil, Comarum paluflre.
Purples.
Herb, or tops of wild n
joram.
Blues.
Bark of the alh, Fraxinus excelfior.
Flowers of larkfpur. Delphinium confolida.
bell-flower, Campanula rotundifdia.
Berries of black heath, Empetrum nigrum.
Greens.
Herb of ragwort, Senecio facohra.
cow-weed, Cheerophyllum fylvejlre.
Panicle of brome-grafs, Bromus fecalinus.
common reed, Arundo phragmites.
Blacks.
Bark of oak, Shiercus robur.
Water horehound, Lycopus europaus.
As it is often neceflary to give another colour to How to dif-
ftuffs which have been already dyed, it is plain, that it charge r
is as neceffary for a dyer to know how to difcharge co- w
lours as how to make the cloth imbibe them.—Con¬
cerning this, it is only neceflary to obferve, that alka¬
line falls are in general the beft, and, where the colours
are well dyed, the only means of difcharging them. If
a piece of cloth is dyed with logwood, and the colour
ftruck upon it with alum, that colour will be nearly
difcharged by oil of vitriol, or any other ftrong acid ;
but if folution of tin has been employed in linking the
colour, acids have then no effedl, and alkalies only can
be employed. Neither will they difcharge the colour
totally, but the fluff mull be bleached for fome time
to get out the remainder. If alkaline falls cannot be
employed with fafety to the fluff, it is then impoffible
to dye it any other colour than black; unlefs it be dyed
Origanum fylvejlre
:s when
DYE
a compound colour, of which the original one is a com-
ponent part.
■Weight ad Concerning the weight that colours give to filk (in
ded to filk which it is moft taken notice of, being fold by weight,
ryKn fterent and a comtn°dity of great price), it is obferved, that
u ances. one p0untj 0f raw {0feth four ounces by walking
out the gums and the natural fordes; that the fame
fcoured filk may be raifed to above thirty ounces from
the remaining twelve, if it be dyed black with fome
materials. Of all the materials ufed in dyeing, efpecially
I N G. 225
of black, nothing incrcafes weight fo much as galls, by
which black filks are reftored to as much weight as they
loft by walking out their gum ; nor is it counted ex¬
traordinary, that blacks fliould gain about four or fix
ounces in the dyeing upon each pound. Next to the
galls, old fuftic increafes the weight about in 12 ;
madder, one ounce; weld, half an ounce ; the blue
vats in deep blues of the fifth ftall give no confider-
able weight; neither do logwood, cochineal, nor even
copperas, where galls are not ufed.
D Y S
Dyeing DrFiNG of Hats. See Hats.
H Dyeing of Leather. See Leather.
^ ) PeP 7- Dyeing, or Staining, of paper, wood, bone, marble,
&c. See Bone, Marble, Paper, Wood, &c.
DYNASTY, among ancient hiftorians, fignifies a
race or fuccelfion of kings of the fame line or family.
Such were the dynafties of Egypt. The word is form¬
ed from the Greek JWwa of .Ws-v«, be powerful, or
ting.
The Egyptians reckon 30 dynafties within the fpace
of 36,525 years; but the generality of chronologers
look upon them as fabulous. And it is very certain,
that thefe dynafties are not continually fucceffive, but
collateral.
DYRRACHIUM (anc. geog.), a town on the
coaft of Illyricum, before called Epidamnum, or fipi-
damnus, an inaufpicious name, changed by the Romans
to Durrachium; a name taken from the peninfula on
which it flood. Originally built by the Corcyreans.
A Roman colony (Pliny). A town famous in ftory: its
port anfw'ered to that of Brundufium, and the paflage
between both was very ready and expeditious. It was
alfo a very famous mart for the people living on the
Adriatic ; and the free admiflion of ftrangers contri¬
buted much to its increafe: A cOntraft to the conduft
of the Apollonians; who, in imitation of the Spartans,
difeouraged ftrangers from fettling among them.
DYSuE, in mythology, inferior goddefles among
the Saxons, being the meflengers of the great Woden,
whofe province it was to convey the fouls of fuch as
*■ died fn battle to his abode, called Valhall, i. e. the hall
of daughter; where they were to drink with him and
their other gods cerevifa, or a kind of malt liquor, in
the fkulls of their enemies. The Dyf<e conveyed thofe
who died a natural death to Hela, the goddefs of hell,
where they were tormented with hunger, thirft, and
every kind of evil.
DYSCRASY, among phyficians, denotes an ill ha¬
bit or Hate of the humours, as in the feurvy, jaundice,
&c.
DYSENTERY, in medicine, a diarrhoea or flux,
wherein the ftools are mixed with blood, and the bowels
miferably tormented with gripes. See MEDiciNE-/«r/ex.
DYSENTERIC fever. Ibid.
DYSERT, a parliament town of Scotland, in the
county of Fife, fituated on the northern Ihore of the
frith of Forth, about 11 miles north of Edinburgh.
DYSOREXY, among phyficians, denotes a want
of appetite, proceeding from a weakly ftomach.
DYSPEPSY, a difficulty of digeftion.
Vox.. VI. Part I.
D Y S
DYSPNOEA, a difficulty of breathing,' ufually Dyfpnoea
called ajlhma. _ !}.
DYSURY, in medicine, a difficulty of making urine, *
attended with a fenfation of heat and pain. See Me¬
dic in E-/«i/ex.
DYTISCUS, water-beetle, in zoology, a genus
of infedls of the order of the celeoptera ; the antennae
of which are flender and fetaceous, and the hind feet
are hairy, and-formed for fwimming. There are 23
fpecies, diftinguifhed by their antennae, the colour of
the elytra, Sec.
The larvae of the dytifeus are often met with in wa-
ter. They are oblong, and have fix fcaly feet. Their
body confifts of eleven fegments. The head is large,
with four filiform antennae and a ftrong pair of jaws.
The laft fegments of their body have rows of hairs on
the fides ; and the abdomen is terminated by two
fpines charged with the like hairs, forming a kind of
plumes. Thefe larvae are frequently of a greeniffi va¬
riegated brown : they are lively, aftive, and extremely
voracious : they devour and feed upon other water-
infefts, and often tear and deftroy each other. The
perfeft infeft is little inferior to its larvae in voraciouf-
nefs, but it can only exercife its cruelty on the larvae;
the perfeft infefts, like himfelf, being ftieltered by the
kind of fcaly cuirafs with which they are armed. This
creature mull be touched cautioufly; for befides its
power of giving a fevere gripe with its jaws, it has
moreover, under the thorax, another weapon, a long
ffiarp fpine, which it will drive into one’s fingers by
the effort it makes to move backwards. The eggs ot
the dytifei are rather large, and are by them inclofed
in a kind of filky dulkiffi cod, of a ftrong and thick
texture, in form round, and terminated by a long ap¬
pendix or flender tail, of the fame fubftance. Thefe
cods are often found in the water, and from them are
brought forth the eggs and larvae of the dytifei. The
ftrength of thefe cods probably ferves the infect to
defend their eggs from the voracioufnefs of feveral other
aquatic infefts, and even from that of their fellow-
dytifei, who would not fpare them.
Many fpecies of the perfedl infedl are common in
ftagnated waters, which they quit in the evening to
fly about. They fwim with incredible agility, ma¬
king ufe of their hinder-legs after the faffiion of oars.
The elytra of the females are in general furrowed, and
thofe of the male plain: when they firft arrive at their
perfeft ftate, their elytra are almoft tranfparent, and
in many fpecies of a beautiful dun colour, mingled
with lhades of greeniffi brown. The bell method of
F f catching
D Y V r 226 1 D Y V
catching them is with a hand-net or fieve; for they
are fo nimble, and exercife their defenfive weapons fo
often, and with fuch painful fuccefs, to thofe who en¬
deavour to catch them, that they are very often obli¬
ged to let them efcape ; the eafieft way to kill them,
is to let them fall into boiling hot water, which ia-
ilantly deltroys them.
DYVOUR, in Scots law; otherwife Bare-man: A
perfon who, being involved in-debt, and unable to pay
the fame,—for avoiding imprifonment and other pains.,
makes ceffion of his effefts in favour of his creditors;
and does,bis devoir and.duty to them, proclaiming him-
felf bare man and indigent, and becoming debt-hound
to them of all that he has. The word is ufed in the
fame fenfe as Bankrupt: fee that article; and Law
iLclxxxv, 11, 12. clxxii. 10, 11, 12, &c.
E.
E A D
ETHE fecond vowel, and fifth letter of the al-
_ V phabet. The letter E is moll evidently derived
from the old character 3; in the ancient Hebrew and
Phoenician alphabets, inverted by the Greeks to this
pofition E, and not from the Hebrew He n. From the
fame origin is alfo derived the Saxon e, which is the
firfl; letter in their alphabet that differs from the Latin
one. It is formed by a narrower opening of the la¬
rynx than the letter A; but the other parts of the
mouth are ufed nearly in the fame manner as in that
letter..
It has a long and flrort found in moft languages.
The fiiort found is audible in bed, fret, den, and other
words ending in confonants: its long found is produ¬
ced by a final e, or an e at the end of words; as in glebe,
here, hire, fcene, fphere, interfere, revere, fincere, &c. in
■molt of which it founds like ee; as alfo in fome others
by coming after i, as in believe, chief, grief, reprieve,
&c. and fometimes this long found is exprelfed by ee,
as in bleed, beer, creed, See. Sometimes the final e is
filent, and only ferves to lengthen the found of the pre¬
ceding vowel, as in rag, rage, fag, fage, hug, huge,
&c. The found of e is obfeure in the following words,
oxen, heaven, bounden,fre, mafacre, maugre, &c.
The Greeks have jheir long and fhoit e which they
call epflen and eta. The French Lave at lead fix kinds
of e’s: the Latins havelikewife along andfhorte; they
alfo write e inilead of a, as dicem for dicam, &c. and
this is no doubt the reafon why a is fo often changed
into e in the preter tenfe, as, ago, egi; facio, feci. See.
As a numeral, E Hands for 250, according to the
yerfe,
E, quoque ducentos et quinquagiata.tenebit.
In mufic it denotes the tone e-la-mi. In the kalen-
dar it is the fifth of the dominical letters. And in fea-
charts it diftinguifiies all the eafterly points: thus, E
alone denotes Eaft; and E. by S, and E. by N- Eaft
by South, and Eaft by North.
EACHARD (John), an Englilh divine of great
learning and wit in the 1,7th century, bred at Cam¬
bridge, author, (in 1670) of The Grounds and Occafons
of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired into.
In 1675 he was chofen mailer of Catharine-hall upon
the deceafe of Dr John Lightfoot;. and the year fol¬
lowing was created D. D. by royal a.andate. He died
in 1696.
Eachard (Laurence), an eminent Englilh hiftorian Eachard,
of the 18th century, neatly related to Dr John Eachard. Eadmerus.
He was the fon of a clergyman, who, by the death of' “ 1 ’.
his elder brother, became mailer of a good eftate in
Suffolk. He was educated in the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, entered into holy orders, and was prefented to
the living of Welton and Elkington in Lincolnlhire,
where he fpent above 20 years of his life, and diftin-
guilhed himfelf by his writings, efpecially his Hiilory
of England, wnich was attacked by Dr Edmund Ca-
lamy and by Mr John Oldmixon. His “ General Ec-
clefiallical Hiftory from the Nativity of Chrift to the
firft Eftablilhment of Chriftianity by Human Laws un¬
der the emperor Conftantine the Great,” has paffed
through feveral editions. He was inftalled archdeacon
of Stowe and prebend of Lincoln in 1712. He died
in 1730-
EADMERUS, an efteemed hiftorian, was an Eng-
lifhman ; but his parents, and the particular time and
place of his nativity, are,not known. He received a
learned education, and very early difeovered a tafte
for hiftory, by recording every remarkable event
that came to his knowledge. Being a . monk in the
cathedral of Canterbury, he had the happinefs to
become the bofom-friend and infeparable companion •
of two archbiftiops of that fee, St Anfelm and his
fucceflbr Ralph. To the former of thefe he was ap¬
pointed fpiritual dire&or by the Pope ; and that pre¬
late would do nothing without his permiffion. In the
year 1120, he was fent for by king Alexander I. of
Scotland, to be raifeef to the primacy of that king¬
dom; and having obtained leave of king Henry and the
archbilhop of Canterbury, he departed for Scotland,
where he was kindly received by the king; and on,
the third day after his arrival, he was elefted bilhop
of St Andrew’s with much unanimity. But on the day
after his election, an unhappy difpute arofe between
the king and him, in a private conference about his
confecration. Eadmerus having been a conftant com-
panion of the late and of the prefent-archbilhops of
Canterbuiy, was a violent fticklei for the prerogatives
of that fee. He therefore told the king, that he was
determined to be confecrated by none but the archbi-
ftiop of Canterbury, who he believed to be the pri¬
mate of: all Britain. Alexander, who was a fierce
£riuces
E A G [ 227 ] ' E A G
prince, and fupported the independency of his crown
and kingdom with great fpirit, was fo much offended,
that he broke off the conference in a violent paflion,
declaring, that the fee of Canterbury had no pre-emi-
nency over that of St Andrew’s. This breach be*
tween the king and the bifhop-elect became daily
■wider, till at length Eadrherus, defpairing of recover¬
ing the royal favour, fent his palloral ring to the
king, and laid his pafloral ftaff on the high altar,
from whence he had taken it, and abandoning his bi-
Ihopric returned to England. He was kindly re¬
ceived by the archbifhop and clergy of Canterbury,
though they difapproved of his ftiffnefs,' and thought
him too hatly in forfaiting the honourable ftation to
which he had been called. Nor was it long before
Eadmerus became fenfibie of his error, and defirous
of corredting it. With this view he wrote a long
fubmiffive letter to the king of Scotland, intreating
his leave to return to his bifhopric, promiling com¬
pliance with his royal pleafure in every thing refpedt-
ing his confecration, which was accompanied ■ by an
epillle to the fame purpofe from the archbifhop.
Thefe letters, however, which were written A. D.
1122, did not produce the defired effedl. But Ead¬
merus is mod worthy of the grateful remembrance
of poderity for his hillorical works, particularly for
his excellent hiftory of the affairs of England in his own
time, from A. D. 1066 to A. D. 1122 ; in which
he hath inferted many original papers, and preferved
many important fadts, that are no where elfe to be
found. This work hath been highly commended,
both by ancient and modern writers, for its authenti¬
city, as well as for regularity of compofition arid pu¬
rity of dyle. It is indeed more free from legendary
tales than any other work of this period ; and it is im-
pofiible to perufe it with attention, without conceiving
a favourable opinion of the learning, good fenfe, lin-
cerity, and candour of its author.
EAGLE, in ornithology. See Falco.
Eagle, in heraldry, is accounted one of the mod
noble bearings in armoury; and, according to the learn¬
ed in this fcience, ought to be given to none but fuch
as greatly excel in the virtues of generofity and cou¬
rage, or for having done Angular fervices to their fove-
reigns; in which cafes they may be allowed a whole
eagle, or an eagle naiffant, or only the head or other
parts thereof, as may be mod agreeable to their ex¬
ploits.
The eagle has been borne, by way of enfign or dand-
ard, by feveral nations. The fird who feem to have
affumed the eagle are the Perfians ; according to the
tedimony of Xenophon. Afterwards, it was taken by
the Romans; who, after a great variety of dandards,
at length fixed on the eagle, in the fecond year of the
confulate of C. Marius: till that time, they ufed indif
ferently wolves, leopards, and eagles, according to the
humour of the commander.
The Roman eagles, it mud be obferved, were not
painted on a cloth or flag ; but were figures in relievo,
of filver or gold, borne on the tops of pikes ; the wings
being difpkyed, and frequently a thunder-bolt in their
talonS. Under the eagle on the pike, were piled buck¬
lers, and fortietimcs crowns. Thus much we learn from
the medals.
Cdndantine is faid to have fird introduced the eagle
with two heads, to intimate, that though the empire
feemed divided, it was yet only one body. Others
fay, that it was Charlemagne who refumed the eagle as
the Roman enfign, and added to it a fecond head ; but
that opinion is dedroyed, by an eagle with two heads,
noted by Lipfius, on the Antonine column ; as alfo
fey the eagle’s only having one head on the feal of the
golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. Tae coni
jedture, therefore, of F. Menedrier appears more pro¬
bable, who maintains, that as the emperors of the ead,5
when there were two on the throne at the fame time,
druck their coins with the impreflion of a crofs, with
a double traverfe, which each of them held in one
hand, as being the fymbol of the Chridians; the like
they did with the eagle in their enfigns ; and indead
of doubling their eagles, they joined them toge¬
ther, and reprefented them with two heads. In!
which they were followed by the emperors of the
Wed.
F. Papebroche wifltes that this conje&ure of Mene-
ftrier were confirmed by ancient coins 5 without which,
he rather inclines to think the ufe of the eagle with
two heads to be merely arbitrary ; though he grants
it probable, that it was fird introduced on occaiion of
two emperors in the fame throne.
The eagle on medals, according to M. Spanheimf
is a fymbol of divinity and providence; and, accord¬
ing to all other antiquities, of empire. The princes
on whofe medals it is mod ufually found, are the Pto¬
lemies and the Seleucides of Syria. An eagle with
the word cosisecratio, expreffes the apotheofis of
an emperor.
Eagles, a name found very frequently in the an¬
cient hidories of Ireland, and ufed to exprefs a fort of
bafe money that was current in that kingdom in the
fird jears of the reign of Edward I. that is, about
the year 1272. There were, befides the eagles, lio-'
nines, rofades, and many other coins of the fame
fort, named according to the figures they were im-
preffed with.
The current, coin of the kingdom was at that time
a compofition of copper and lilver, in a determined
proportion, but thefe were fo much worfe than the
llandard proportion of that time, that they were not
intrinfically worth quite half fo much as the others.
They were imported out of France and other foreign
countries. When this prince had been a few years
edablifhed on the throne, he fet up mints in Ireland
for the coining fufficient quantities of good money,'
and then decried the ufe of thefe eagles, and other thd
like kinds of bafe coins, and made it death, with con-
fifcation of effedts, to import any more of them info
the kingdom.
Eagle, in aftronomy, is a conftellation of the
northern hemifphere, having its right wing contiguous
to the equinodlial. See Aquila.
There are alfo three feveral liars, particularly deno¬
minated among the Arab aftronomers, najr, i. e.
“ eagle.” The firft, mfr fohcril, the “ eagle of Cano¬
pus,” called alfo fitareh jemen, the liar of Arabia Felix,-
over which it is fuppofed to prefide; the fecond, naff
ahhair, the “ flying eagle ;” and the third, nafr alvake,
the “ refting eagle.”
White Eagle, is a Polilh order of knighthood, in-
ftftuted in 1325 by Uladiflaus V. on marrying his fon
F f 2 Cafimire
»
EAR [ 228 ] EAR
Eagle Cafimire with a daughter of the great-duke of Li-
N thuania.
ar , The knights of this order were diftinguiftied by a
gold chain, which they wore on the ftomach, whereon
hung a filver eagle crowned.
Black Eagle, was a like order, inftituted in 170!
by the eledior of Brandenburgh, on his being crowned
king of Pruflia.
The knights of this order wear an orange-coloured
ribbon, to which is fufpended a black eagle.
Eagle, in architedture, is a figure of that bird an¬
ciently ufed as an attribute, or cognizance of Jupiter,
in the capital and friezes of the columns of temples
confecrated to that god.
EagleJlawer. See Balsamine.
EAGLR-Jlone, in natural hiftory, a flone, by the
Greeks called atites, and by the Italians pietra d’aquila,
as being fuppofed to be fometimes found in the eagle’s
neft. It is of famous traditionary virtue, either for
forwarding or preventing the delivery of women in
labour, according as it is applied above or below the
womb. Matthiolus tells us, that birds of prey could
never hatch their young without it, and that they
go in fearch for it as far as- the Eaft Indies. Baufch
has an exprefs Latin treatife on the fubjeft. See
iErixES-
EAGLET, a diminutive of eagle, properly figni-
fying a young eagle. In heraldry, when there are fe-
veral eagles on the fame efcutcheon, they are termed
eaglets.
EALDERMAN, or Ealdorman, among the
Saxons, was of like import with earl among the
Lanes.
The word was alfo ufed for an elder, fenator, or ftatef-
man. Hence, at this day, we call thofe aldermen who
are affociates to the chief officer in the common-council
of a city or corporate town.
EAR, in anatomy. See there, n° 141.
Several naturalifts and phyficians have held, that
cutting off the ear rendered perfons barren and unpro-
lific ; and this idle notion was what firft occafioned the
kgiflators to order the ears of thieves, &c. to be cut
off, left they ftiould produce their like.
The ear has its beauties, which a good painter ought
by no means to difregardwhere it is well formed,
it would be an injury to the head to be hidden. Sue¬
tonius infifts,, particularly, on the beauties of Auguftus’s
cars ; and iElian, deferibing the beauties of Afpafia,
obferves, ffie had ffiort ears. Martial alfo ranks large
ears among the number of deformities.
Among the Athenians, it was a mark 6f nobility
to have the ears bored or perforated. And among
the Hebrews and Romans, this was a mark of fer-
vitude.
Lofs of one ear is a punilhment enafted by 5 and 6
Edw. VI. cap. 4. for fighting in. a church-yard; and
by 2 and 3 Edw. VI. cap. 15. for combinations to
raife the price of provifions, labour, 84c. if it be the
third offence, befide pillory, and perpetual infamy, or
9 fine of 40I.
By a ftatute of Henry VIII. malicioufly cutting
©ff the ear of a perfon is made a trefpafs, for which
treble damages fhall be recovered ; and the offen¬
der is to pay a fine of ten pounds to the king.
3
37 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. $ 4. In the index to the Sta- Ear
tutes at Large, it is faid, that this offence may be pu- II
nilhed as felony, by 22 and 23 Car. II. cap. 1. $ 7. ^ari-
commonly called Coventry's a£t; but ear is not men- yr“"
tioned in that ftatute. «
Ear of Fijhes. See Comparative Anatomy,^ 167.
Ear, in mufic, denotes a kind of internal fenfe,
whereby we perceive and judge of harmony and mufi-
cal founds. See Music.
In mufic we feem univerfally to acknowledge fome-
thing like a diftimff fenfe from the external one of
hearing ; and call it a good ear. And the like diftinc-
tion we ftiould probably acknowledge in other affairs,
had we got diftindt names to denote thefe powers of
perception by. Thus a greater capacity of perceiving
the beauties of painting, architecture, &c. is called a
fne tajle.'
Ear is alfo ufed to fignify a long clufter of flowers,
or feeds, produced by certain plants ; ufually called by
botanifts/pica. The flowers and feeds of wheat, rye,
barley, &c. grow in ears. The fame holds of the
floivers of lavender, &c. We fay the ftem of the ear,
i. e. its tube or ftraw ; the knot of the ear; the lobes
or cells v^herein the grains are inclofed ; the beard of
the ear, &c.
Ear-AcIo. See Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
EAR-Pick, an inftrument of ivory, filver, or other
metal, fomewhat in form of a probe, for cleanfing the
ear. The Chinefe have a variety of thefe inftruments,
with which they are mighty fond of tickling their ears;
but this prardtice, Sir Hans Sloane obferves, muft be
very prejudicial to fo delicate an organ, by bringing too
great a flow of humours on it.
EAR-Ring. See Pendent.
Ear-Wux. See Cerumen, and Anatomy, p. 764,
col. 1.
EARWIG, in zoology. See Forficula.
EARING, in the fea-language, is that part of the
bolt-rope which at the four corners of the fail is left
open, in the fhape of a ring. The two uppermoft
parts are put over the ends of the yard-arms, and fa
the fail is made fail to the yard ; and into the lower-
moft earings, the ftieets and tacks are feized or bent at
the clew.
EARL, a Britiih title of nobility, next below a
marquis, and above a vifeount.
The title is fo ancient, that its original -cannot be
clearly traced out. This much, however, feems tole¬
rably certain, that among the Saxons they were called
ealdormen, quaji elder men, fignifying the fame with
fenior or fenator among the Romans ; and alfo fchire-
men, becaufe they had each of them the civil govern¬
ment of a feveral divifion or fhire. On the irruption of
the Danes they changed their names to eqrels, which,
according to Camden, fignified the fame in their lan¬
guage. In Latin they are called cmites (a title firft
ufed in the empire), from being the king’s attendants;
a focietate nomen fumpferunt, regis enlm tales fibi affociant.
After the Norman conqueft they were for fome time
called counts, or countees, from the French; but they
did not long retain that name themfelves, though their
{hires are from thence called counties to this day. It
is now become a mere title : they have nothing to do
with the government of the county ; which is now eifc-
EAR
Earl tirely devolved on the /heriff, the earl’s deputy, or vice-
|| comes- In writs, commiflions, and other formal inftru-
Earth. meats, the king, when he mentions any peer of the de-
’'““v gree of an earl, ufually ftyles him “ trufty and well-
beloved coujin:” an appellation as ancient as the reign
of Henry IV.; who being either by his wife, his mo¬
ther, or his fillers, actually related or allied to every
earl in the kingdom, artfully and conftautly acknow¬
ledged that conneftion in all his letters and other pub¬
lic a&s ; whence the ufage has dtfeended to his fuc-
ceflbrs, though the reafon has long ago failed.
An earl is created by cindlure of fword, mantle
of Hate put upon him by the king himfelf, a cap
and a coronet put upon his head, and a charter in his
hand.
E/iRL-MarJJjal. See Marshal.
EARNEST (arrh.e), money advanced to bind the
parties to the performance of a verbal bargain. By the
civil law, he who recedes from his bargain lofes his
earned, and if the perfon who received the earned
give back, he is to return the earned double. But
with us, the perfon who gave it, is in dridlnefs obliged
to abide by his bargain ; and in cafe he decline it, is
not difeharged upon forfeiting his earned, but may be
fued for the whole money dipulated.
EARTH, among ancient philofophers, one of the
four elements of which the whole fydem of nature was
thought to be compofed. See Element.
Earths, in chemidry, are defined by Crondedt to
be fuch fubdances as are not dudlile, modly indidb-
luble in water or oil, and that preferve their conditu-
tion in a drong heat. Mr Bergman remarks that they
are infipid, and not foluble in jooo times their weight
of boiling water; though, by augmenting the heat
as in Papin’s digeder, perhaps all the kinds we are
yet acquainted with may be found capable of folu-
tion, efpecially when precipitated from fome other
mendruura ; their furface being then greatly augment¬
ed. In the chain of nature they proceed by an. infen-
fible gradation towards the falts, fo that they cannot
be feparated but by artificial limits. A moderate heat
does not change their form, nor are they diffipated by
a more violent one. Dr Black defines them to be fuch
bodies as are not foluble in water, not inflammable,
and their fpecific gravity not more than four times the
weight of water. They are didinguiflied from the
falts by their infolubility ; from the inflammables, by
their want of inflammability ; and from the metals, by
their deficiency in weight. Some obje&ions have been
made to this definition, as not being driftly applicable
to thofe earths which are known to be foluble in wa¬
ter : but this obje&ion may be accounted of little
weight, when we confider the extreme difparity betwixt
the folubility of the earths and falts, a few grains of the
earths faturating fome pounds of water ; Co that if
they have any folubility, they mud be allowed to pof-
fefs but a very {mall (hare of it.
Another property, which is not ufually taken into
the definition, makes neverthelefs a remarkable part
©f the character of earthy bodies, viz. their great fix-
ednefs in the fire. All the other clafles of bodies (how
themfelves volatile in more or lefs violent degrees of
heat. All the falts can be made to evaporate; all the
inflammable fubdances ate volatile; all the metals,
EAR
gold not excepted, have been converted into vapour;
but the earths, as far as we know, have never been vo¬
latilized, excepting only two, the diamond and albedos.
Some phenomena attending the volatilization of the
diamond give reafon to fufpedt that it is not a pure
earthy fubdance. There is an appearance of inflam¬
mation ; and it feems to be a compound, having an
earthy matter for its b'afis, and deriving its volatility
from other matters. In general therefore, the earths
have been found fixed in any degree of heat of which
we have had experience ; though there is no doubt a
poflibility, that heat might be raifed to fuch an inten-
iity as to volatilize the mod fixed body in nature; but
till the means of doing fo (hall be found out, the eartha
may be cqnfidered as abfolutely fixed.
The earths called primitive or funpk,. becaufe they
cannot be decompofed by any method hitherto known,
were by Crondedt fuppofed to be nine ; but later che-
mids have reduced them to five. Some reduce the
number dill farther; but Mr Bergman informs us that
thefe “ red their opinions upon fanciful metamorpho-
fes unfupported by faithful experiments. As experi¬
ments teach us that there are five primitive earths, it
is evident that the fpecies arifing from their mixture
cannot exceed 24, viz. ten double, confiding of twa
earths;’ fix triple, three quadruple, and the five pri¬
mitive earths. Even all thefe different mixtures have-
not been found, though they probably do exid in na¬
ture. The natural compofitions of acids with the
earths, forming fubdances not foluble in 1000 times
their weight of boiling, water, and which may be call¬
ed faline earths, are undoubtedly chemical combina¬
tions. The five primitive earths are, terra ponderofa ;
calx or calcareous earth, capable of being reduced
into quicklime; magnefia ; argilla-or argillaceous earth;
and filiceous earths,
“ But though, we mud confider thefe as the modi
pure of all the earthy bodies, they are never found na¬
tive in a date of abfi lute purity ; nor indeed can they
be made perfe&ly pure even by artificial means. Wa¬
ter and aerial acid unite readily with the four fird ; and'
when expelled by fire, a little of the matter of heat
is added, until driven out by a more powerful attrac¬
tion. But in this date they poffdfs a degree of purity
not to be attained by any other known method. There¬
fore it ia.neceffary to examine them when fuffieiently
burnt, in order to didinguifla be.tter what properties
depend upon adhering heterogeneous matters.”
Our author at fird adderf the earth of gems to the
five ckffes already mentioned;, but he found afterwards
that all kinds of gems are compounded of fome of the
five kinds already mentioned, particularly of the ar¬
gillaceous kind, infomuch that they may be faid ai¬
med entirely to belong, to this clafs. Still, however,
the earth of diamonds feems to poffefs properties ef-
fentially didincf from the five already mentioned, and
therefore may not unjuftly be reckoned a fixth clafs,
though its characters have as yet been but verv im-
perfedtly examined.
I. Terra Ponderofa- This was difeovered in Sweden
about the year 1774, and is found in feveral. different
forms.
I. Combined with aerial acid, called by Dr Witheiv
ing terra, ponderofa aerata- This fubdance has been
met
[ 229 ]
R
sEatth. -met with in England; and an account of it, with Dr
Withering’s analylis, is given under the article Che¬
mistry.
2. The fpar-like gypfum, marmor metallicum, la¬
pis bononienfis, phofphorus nativus, baro-felehite, &c.
t 1
EAR
of very thin flattiih lenfes put together, than like
cocks combs. Varieties of it are al'fo found of white -
and reddilh colours. It is likewife met with of a fi¬
brous texture in the form of zeolite or aibeftos in fila¬
ments. M. Monnet is of opinion that thefe fpars fome-
is of very confiderable fpecillc gravity, approaching times contain phlogifion, having obferved that they
to that of tin or iron ; on which account it has been' become a liver of fulphur in a ftrong heat; but Mr
fuppofed to contain fomething metallic. But no ex- Woulfe is of opinion that this gentleman was deceived
periments hitherto made have evinced the exiftence of by charcoal falling into his crucible,
any metal in it, excepting a few traces of iron, which 4. The lapis hepaticus, or leberltein of the Germans
' . . • ..n *1.. z. r„ r* ^ - • * , ■ „ ...
are to be met with in all the j^ypfa. It is met with
of two kinds, femitranfparent and opaque 5 the lat¬
ter being either of a white or reddifh colour. The
fpecilic gravity is about 4,500, w^ater being ac-
and Swedes. Some fpecimens of this ftone conftantly
fmell like liver of fulphur, but others only when rub¬
bed. It does not effervefce with acids, and according1
to M. Magellan is a medium between the gypfum and
counted loop. It contains about 84 parts of ponde- fetid calcareous ftones with which it has generally been
rous earth, 13 of the moft concentrated vitriolic acid, confounded; but it will not yield any lime, though
and three of water. The method of preparing the the latter are more fit for the purpofe than any other,
phofphorus from this fubftance is mentioned under the Mr Kirwan informs us that this (tone is generally corn-
article Chemistry ; but Crbnftedt obferves, that the padl, but not hard enough to ftrike fire; its texture?
phofphorelcent quality of thefe ftones is different from is either equable or laminar, fcaly or fparry ; and it
that of the fparry fluors and limeftones, which is only takes a pohih like alabafter, does not effervefce with
produced by their being llowly heated, and fee ms to acids, and when calcined is partially reduced to. a kind
-arife from a1 phlogifton which is deftroyed by a glow- of plafter of Paris. According to the analyfis of this
ing heat. M. Scheffer, in the Stockholm Memoirs ftone given us by Profeffor Bergman, 100 parts of it
for 1753, relates feme experiments'on a ftone of this contain 33 of baro-felenite, 38 of liliceous earth, 22
kind from China, which fhow that it is exa&ly the of alum, feven of gypfum, and five of mineral oil.
fame with the petuntfe of that country, an ingredient Gronftedt denies that thefe ftones contain any volatile
in their porcelain manufaflories. This ftone does not alkali, though his affertion is contradifted by Walle-
burn into plafter as gypfum does, and is infufible by rius, who affirms, that a volatile alkali certainly exilts
itfelf. It frequently. contains calcareous earth, and in them, and may be difeovered by a chemical analyfis.
fometimes is met with in the ores of metals, and it “ The method which nature takes to combine the in-
likewife forms the bafis of fome petrifications. Some- gredients of the lapis hepaticus (fays Cronftedt), may
*  rxv t-Txrrx of irnri {n the hlin- nerhims thp fame as when a Kmeftrvne is lat/i in an
times it contains one or two parts of
dred.
3. The marmor metallicum druficum, or ponde¬
rous drufen fpar, is found in the lead-mines at Alfton-
moor in Cumberland, regularly cryftallized in the form
be perhaps the fame as when a limeftone is laid in an
heap of mundic while it is roafting; becaufe there the
fulphur unites itfelf with the limeftone, whereby the
latter acquires the fmell of liver of fulphur, inftead of
which the vitriolic acid alone enters the compofition of
of alum, folid, and femitranfparent. M. Magellan gypfum. How the fulphur combines itfelf may like-
fays that he was fhowed fome fine fpecimens of this wife be obferved in the Hate-balls or kernels from the
mineral by a Mr Thomfon, who informed him that Andrarum alum mines to be afterwards mentioned,
« jt (eems to affeft the peculiarity of having its cry- where it fometimes combines with a martial earth with
ftals laminated, as radiating from a centre; but that which this flate abounds, and with it forms pyrites
this radiation feldom amounts to a whole circle. The within the very flate-balls. The fetid or fwine itonesy
corners of thefe flat-cryftals are truncated like thofe of as well as the liver-ftones, are, with regard to the ftruc-
alum and thicker on one fide than the other of the ture of their parts, fubjeft to the fame varieties with
parallelogram, in fuch a manner as to fit one another the other kinds of limeftones.” This kind of ftone is
in the kind of archei vault which they form together, found, 1. Scaly, of which there are two varieties ; one
and have fome fmall ones adhering to their fides like having coarfe feales, the other of a whitiffi yellow co-
drufen fpars, having internal angles, as the macks lour. 2. With fine glittering fcnles. This is met with
of the French, or the cruciform cryftallizations.” The of a black colour at Andrarum in Sweden, in the alum
fpecific gravity of thefe cryftals were found by Mr Ni- flate above mentioned. Bergman fays that this kind
cholfon, with an inftrument of his own invention, to be confifts of a ponderous earth combined with vitriolic
to water as 44,745 to io,coo. This fpecies of cry- acid, mixed with a rock oil, and with the calcareous*
ftals is found in Auvergne in France, and has been de-
feribed by Mr Bayen, who fuppofed its bafis to be
calcareous. It was extremely refraftory, and the fur-
face of its cryftals covered with ferruginous ochre. A
variety of this is found jagged like cocks combs. This
is met with in clifts and fiffures, accreted on the fur*
argillaceous, and filiceous earths. He adds, that by
a chemical analyfis one of thefe kernels gave 29 parts
of cauftie ponderous earth, 33 of filiceous, almoft 5 of
the argillaceous, and 3.7 of lime, befides the wates
and vitriolic acid which entered its compofition.
II. Calcareous Earths, when freed from impurities
faces of balls of the fame fubfbmce. In Derby (hire as far as poffible, have the following properties, i. They
this fubftance is called caul or calk. M. Magella
(bowed fome fpecimens of it by Mr Whitehurft, which
had not only- convex but flat furfaces. Thofe of the
Upper aggregated' parts were rather like the edges
become friable when burnt in the lire. 2. They more
readily fall into powder by being thrown into water,
or having it thrown upon them after calcination*
3. They cannot be melted by themfelves into glafs in
clofs
EAR [ 231 1 EAR
clofe veffcls. 4. They augment the caufticity of alka- and in this ft'ate diflblves in 760 times its weight of Earth.
' line faks by being mixed with them after burning, water, producing heat at the fame time. If acids are—y"—*1
5. They exhibit different phenomena in combination poured upon it when in a calcined ftate, a great degree
■with the different acids. With the vitriolic they pre- of heat is produced ; infomuch that unlefs part of it
cipitate in the form of a gypfeous earth capable of be abftradled by previoufly mixing the earth with vva*
{hooting, by proper management, into felenitic cry- ter, the mixture will be made to boil. The pouring
ftals. With marine acid they form-a deliquefcent mafs of water upon calcined earth of this kind likewife ex-
called amflwn/ar, and which forms a kind of pels the atmofpheric air from its pores. In this cafe,
phofphorus. With nitrous acid they combine into a if nitrous or muriatic acid be added, no effervefcence
glutinous deliquefcent mafs, from which the acid may will enfue ; the fplution will proceed (lowly, but the
be partly driven off by fire ; in which operation part faturation becomes at length as perfe& as if the earth
of the earth itfelf is volatilized, and which, in a cer- had not been calcined. By this burnt earth the acid
tain Hate of calcination, produces Baldwin’s phofpho- is expelled from fal ammoniac, fulphur is diffolved, and
rus. With the fluor acid they regenerate the fpar other remarkable effects performed, of which an ac-
from which this acid was procured. With phofphoric count is given under the articles Chemistry, Dyeing,
acid they are laid to regenerate the earth of bones; Cement, Mortar, &c.
though the experiments by which this is faid to be
proved are, as we have often had occafion to obferve,
by no means condufive. With the acid of vinegar
they cryiiallize into neutral falls, which do not deli-
quefce in the air. 6. With borax they readily melt
Into a kind of glafs which takes imprefiions in a degree
of heat below ignition. 7. With the microcofinic acid
they likewife melt into glafs with efiervefcence ; a cir-
cumftance likewife obfervable when borax is made ufe
of; and both thefe glaffes are quite colourlefs and tranf-
parent while hot, but become opaque as foon as they
The calcareous earth, according to Cronftedt, is
common to all the three kingdoms of nature; exifting
in the (hells and bones of animals, the afhes of vege¬
tables ; and confequently, fays he, it muff have exifted
before any living or vegetable fubftance, and is no doubt
diftributed throughout the eavtlvin a quantity propor¬
tioned to its general ufe.
The forms in which calcareous earth is ever met
with are the (hells of animals, chalk, limeftone, and
marble; for an account of which fee thefe different
articles. Its ufes as a manure, and in building, are
cool; but if the bead is thrown whilit hot into melted detailed under the articles Cement and Agriculture.
tallow, or even into warm water or any other hot li¬
quor, it preferves its tranfparency. 8. With flufs-fpat
they melt more readily than with any other into a kind
of (lag, by which crucibles are corroded. This, how¬
ever, according to M. Magellan, is entirely to be at¬
tributed to the folvents. 9. In certain cafes they are
likewife found capable of reducing fome metallic calces,
as thofe of lead and bifmuth ; fometimes alfo thofe of
iron and copper are affedled, though in a Jtfs degr
Meffrs Sage, Rome de L’lfle, &c- have fuppofed the
exiftence of a kind of earth called alforhent, diftinct
from the calcareous ; but M. Monnet has (hown this
to be truly calcareous.
III. Magnejia, called alfo terra muriatic a ^ or magne-
fia alba. The nature and properties of this earth are
deferibed under the article Magnesia. It is found,
1. Combined with the vitriolic acid in the form of
a bitter fait called Epfom or Sedlitz fait. This i
But on this Mr Kirwan- remarks, that fuch redu&ions found in great plenty in the liquor which remains after
take place only when the earth is combined with aerial the cry ft all iz at ion of fea-falt.
acid ; and that though calces of lead are in fome mea- 2. With the marine acid; in which cafe it forms a
fure reduced by chalk, they are not in the lead affeft- fait likewife cryftallizable, but of a very hot burning
ed by lime ; which evidently proves that they receive take, and emitting vapours of (pint of fait by diftil-
phlogifton from fixed air, which is a compound of lation This is known by the name of magnejia falita,.
phlogifton and dephlogi(Heated air. 10. In this laft and is likewife found in plenty in the liquor above men-
inftance, as well as in fome others, they refemble al- tioned.
kaline falls; whence they frequently take the title of
alkaline earths. Mr Bergman obferves, that as cal¬
careous earth united to the aerial acid is found native,
very little trouble is neceffary to procure it in a ftate
3. It is contained alfo in frelh waters, where it is
diffolved by the aerial acid.
4. Combined with the filiceous earth. This is com¬
monly unftuous to the touch, and of different degrees
of purity. For this purpofe nothing more is requifite of hardnefs, incapable of being diffufed in water, and.
than to boil fele&ed pieces of chalk repeatedly in pure growing hard and very refradory in the fire. It is
water, which diffolves any calcined earth or magnejia fa- met with in various parts of the world, particularly iri
iita that may be contained in it; after which operation the eaft, and is the fub ft a nee-of which the large Tur-
it has no heterogeneous matter but what mechanically ky tobacco-pipes are made. It is alfo called French
adheres to it, the quantityof which is generallyextreme- chalk, and is met with in England about tiie Land’s ■
ly fmall; and if we likevvife defire to have it abfolutely End of Cornwall, of a yellow colour, or red and white
free of this, we muff diffolve it in vinegar, precipitate
it with mild volatile alkali, and dry it after carefully
wafhing the precipitate. The fpecjfic-gravity of the
precipitate thus carefully waihed and dried is about
like Caftile foap. It confifts, according to Mr Wiegleb,
of equal parts of magnefia and filiceous earth. A mix¬
ture of this with calcareous earth andiron is found near
Thionville in the French part of Luxembourg. It is
2.720. An hundred parts of it contain about 34 of of a blue colour, and contains the greateft proportion
aerial acid, 11 of water, and 54 of pure earth. Acids . of calcareous earth, with fome clay and petrified mat-
unite with it with effervefcence, and the mixture pro- ters. Ariother of an olive colour is found in the fame.,
heat. When burnt it lofes of its weight; place ; but has no argillaceous earth in it, though they..
both.
EAR f 232 ] EAR
Ka; th. l,0th look like clay, and the lafl: is ufed in pottery.
A mixture of this earth with clay, talc, and iron, is
found in Silefia. It is of a greenilh yellow, is of a
loofe form and greafy feel. According to Mr Mar-
graaff it contains one-third of magnefia.
5. In lleatites Or foap-rock. See Steatites.
6. In ferpentine done. See Serpentine.
IV. Argillaceous Earths. See Clay.
V. Siliceous Earths. See Chem 1 stry, Flint, Gems,
Diamond, Emerald,Sapphire,&c. alfo Chemistry,
nJ 829, 847, 1074, and 1076.
Earth, in aftronomy and geography, one of the
primary planets ; being this terraqueous globe which
we inhabit.
The. cofmogony, or knowledge of the original for¬
mation of the earth, the materials of which it was com-
pofed, and by what means they were difpofed in the
order in which we fee them at prefent, is a fubje&
which, though perhaps above the reach of human fa-
gacity, has exercifed the wit of philofophers in all
ages. To recount the opinions of all the eminent phi¬
lofophers of antiquity upon this fubjeft would be very
tedious: it may therefore fuffice to obferve, that, ever
fince the fubjeft began to be canvaffed, the opinions of
! thofe who have treated it may be divided into two
Different claffes. 1. Thofe who believed the earth and whole
opinions vifible fyftem of nature to be the Deity himfelf, or
refpedhng conngfted wjth him in the fame manner that a human
gony.0 m°" body is with its foul. 2. Thofe who believed the ma¬
terials of it to have been eternal, but diftinft from the
Deity, and put into the prefent order by fame power
either inherent in themfelves or belonging to the Dei¬
ty. Of the former opinion were Zenophanes the foun¬
der of the eleatic fe£t, Strato of Lampfacus, the Peri¬
patetics, &c.
The fecond opinion, namely, that the fubftance of
the earth or univerfe (for it is impoflible to fpeak of
the one without the other) was eternal, though not
the form, was moft generally held among the ancients.
From that eftabliflied axiom, that “ nothing can be
produced from nothing,” they concluded that creation
was an impofiibility; but at the fame time they thought
they had good reafon to believe the world had not been
always in its prefent form. They who held this opi¬
nion may again be divided into two claffes: firft, thofe
who endeavoured to account for the generation of the
world, or its redu&ion into the prefent form, by prin¬
ciples merely mechanical, without having recourfe to
any affiftance from divine power; and, fecondly, thofe
who, introduced an intelligent mind as the author and
difpofer of all things. To the firft of thefe claffes be¬
longed the cofmogony of the Babylonians, Phoenicians,
and Egyptians; the particulars of which are too ab-
furd to deferve notice. Of the fame opinion alfo were
moft of the poets; the philofophers Thales, Anaximan¬
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, &c. The latter at¬
tempted to reform the philofophy of his mafter Anaxi¬
menes by introducing an intelligent principle into the
world diftindt from matter; thus making his intelli¬
gent principle, or God, the foul of the world. Dio¬
genes of Apollonia fuppofed air, which he made the
firft principle of all things, to be endued with reafon :
His manner of philofophifing differed very little from
that of Des Cartes. “ All things (fays he) being in
N°ic6.
motion, fome became condenfed and others rarefied. Earth.
In thofe places where condenfation'prevailed, a whirl-
ing motion or vortex was formed ; which by its revo¬
lution drew in the reft, and the lighter parts flying up¬
wards formed the fun.” 4
The moft remarkable of the atheiftic fyftems, how- Syftems of
ever, was the atomic one, fuppofed to have been in- Democritus
vented by Democritus ; though Laertius attributes Jt and Epicu-
to Leucippus, and fome make it much older. Ac-™*"
cording to this fyftem, the firft principles of all thing*
were an infinite multitude of atoms, or indivifible par¬
ticles of different fixes and figures; which, moving
fortuitoufly, or without defign, from all eternity, in
infinite fpace, and encountering with one another, be¬
came varioufly entangled during their conflidl. This
firft produced a confufed chaos of all kinds of particles >
which afterwards, by continual agitation, ftriking and
repelling each other, difpofed themfelves into a vortex
or vortices, where, after innumerable revolutions and
motions in all poftible dire&ions, they at laft fettled
into their prefent order.
The hypothefis of Democritus agrees in the main
with that of Epicurus as reprefented by Lucretius;
excepting that no mention is made of thofe vortices,
which yet were an effential part of the former. To
the two properties of magnitude and figure which De¬
mocritus attributed to his atoms, Epicurus added a
third, namely, weight ; and, without this, he did not
imagine they could move at all The fyftem of De¬
mocritus neceffarily introduced abfolute fatal neceflity;
which Epicurus not choofing to agree to, he invented
a third motion of the atoms, unknown to thofe who
had gone before him. His predeceffors allowed
them to have a perpendicular and reflexive motion: but.,
Epicurus, though he allowed thefe motions to be ab-
folutely neceffary and unavoidable, afferted that the
atoms could alfo of themfelves decline from the right
line : and from this declination of the atoms he ex¬
plained the free will of man.—The moft material dif¬
ference between the two fyftems, however, was, that
Epicurus admitted no principle but the atoms them¬
felves ; whereas Democritus believed them to be ani¬
mated.
Of thofe who held two diftinft and coeternal prin- of Pytha-
ciples, vix. God and Matter, we fhall only take notice goras, Pla-
of the opinions of Pythagoras, Plato, and Ariftotle, asto>.anci
being the moft remarkable. Anftotle.
Pythagoras is faid to have afferted two fubftan-
tial felf-exiftent principles: a monad, or unity; and
a dyad, or duality. The meaning of thefe terms is
now fomewhat uncertain. Some think, that by the
monad he meant the Deity, and by the dyad mat¬
ter. Others think, that the Pythagoric monads were
atoms. The dyad is fometimes thought to fignify a
demon or evil principle; but Porphyry’s interpre¬
tation, which feems the moft probable, is as fol¬
lows. The caufe, fays he, of that fympathy, hannony,
and agreement which is in things, and of the confer-
vation of the whole, which is always the fame and like
itfelf, was by Pythagoras called unity; that unity which
is in the things themfelves being but a participation of
the firft caufe: but the reafon of difference, inequality,
and conftant irregularity in things, was by him called
a dyad. This philofopher held numbers to be the prin-
EAR
t 23.? ]
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Earth, ciples of all things; and from them he accounted for From thefe three laws, together with the two con-
\ ’ the produftlon of the world In the following manner, trary forces of attra&ion and repulfion, Sir Ifaac New- *
He fuppofed that the monad and dyad w-ere the two ton and his followers have attempted to explain all the
' ' ' ' phenomena of nature. When they come to explain the
nature of the attraftive and repnlfive forces, however,
they are exceedingly etnbarralTed. Sir Ifaac hath ex-
prefled himfelf in two different ways concerning them.
In his Principia, he pretty pofitively determines them
ments which manifeft themfelves to our fenfes are, fire, to be owing to a caufe that is not material; and in his
air, earth, and water. Thefe are in a perpetual change, Queries, he fuppofes they may be effefts of fame fub-
fources of numbers, from whence proceeded points ;
from points, lines; from lines, plane figures ; from
planes, folids : from folids, fcnfible bodies. The ele¬
ments of fenfible bodies are four; but, befides thefe,
there .was a fifth (never yet difcovered). The four ele-
and from them the world was formed; which is ani¬
mated, intelligent, and fpherical; containing, in the
midft of it, the earth, a globofe and inhabited body.
The world, he faid, began from fire and the fifth ele¬
ment ; and that as there were five figures of folid bo¬
dies, called mathematical or regular, the earth was
made of the cube, fire of the pyramid or tetrahedron,
the air of the o&ahedron, water of the icofahedron,
and the fphere of the univerfe of the dodecahedron.-
tile matter which he calls ether. This difagreement Difagree-
with himfelf hath produced no fmall difagreementment t".
among his followers. One party, laying hold of his lowers,
affertions in the Principia, determine the world to be
upheld by immaterial powers; while the other, neglect¬
ing the Principia, and taking notice only of the Que¬
ries at the end of the Optics, ftrenuoufly maintain,
that attraction and repuluon are owing to the aCtioft
of fome exceedingly fine and fubtile ether.—The firft
This method of philofophizing, which has no manner of thefe fuppofitions, it is argued, neceffarily involves
of foundation in nature, was adopted by Plato and A-
riftotle ; and hence proceeded all the abfurdities
one of the following dilemmas. 1. If the attrac¬
tive and repulfive forces are not material, they muff ei-
cerning ideas, forms, qualities, &c. with which the A- ther be occafioned by fpiritual beings, or they muff be
riftotelian philofophy was loaded. rf — c'—•J 1—  a-'- —
For a long time, however, the philofophy of Ari-
flotle prevailed, and the world was thought to be up-
qualities of matter. If they are occafioned by the aCtion
of immaterial beings, thefe beings muff either be crea¬
ted or uncreated. If they are produced by the aClion
held by forms, qualities, and other unintelligible and of created beings, we run into the fuppofition of fome
imaginary beings.—At laft the French philofopher of the ancient heathens, that the world is governed by
Des Cartes fuperfeded the Ariftotelian, by introducing demons or fubordinate intelligences; and thus may
the atomic or Democritic, and Epicurean philofo- make an eafy tranfition to polytheifm. If attraCIion
* See AJlro. phy *. The Cartefian fyftem was quickly fuperfeded and repulfion are the immediate aftion of the Deity
nomy, by the Newtonian ; which ftill continues, though con- himfelf, we run into the doCtrine of making God the
n°a5i. fiderably different from what it was left by that great foul of the world.—This laft hypothefis hath been moft
4 man.—His opinions, indeed, concerning the cofmo- "    
Newtonian gony feem to have been in a fluctuating ftate; and
fyftem fu- ^ence delivers himfelf in fuch a manner, that he hath
Ariftofe* 6often incurred the charge of contradicting himfelf.—
lian and He maintained, for inftance, that matter was infinitely that, according to them, the whole world confiits ofDr,Prie.fl>
ftrenuoufly adopted by Mr Baxter in his treatifbof the
Immateriality of the human Soul. Mr Bofcovich,
Mr Mitchel, and Dr Prieftley, have likewife adoptedcheI,Bof-
the hypothefis of immaterial powers to fuch a degree, covich, and
Cartefian. divifible ; and the mathematical demonftrations of this nothing elfe but attratlions and repulfums furroundingley s °Pi‘
propofition are well known. Notwithftanding this, phyfical points f. 2. If we fuppofe the attractive andj. see Cvhc-
however, when he comes particularly to fpeak of the
original conftruCtion of the world, he feems to retraCt
repuliive powers to be only properties, qualities, or laws,/ton.
impreffed on matter by the Deity, we might as welUiave
his opinion, and adopt the atomic philofophy. He been contented with the occult qualities of Ariftotle.
tells us, that it feems probable, that in the beginning —If attraction and repulfion are occafioned by the ac-
God formed matter in folid, majfy, impenetrable par-
f See Cobs- tides, &c. f; and that of thefe particles, endowed with
/ion, n° 2. various powers of attraction and repulfion, the prefent
j fyftem of nature is formed. His primary laws of na-
Three lawsture are only three in number, and very fimple. The
of nature jS) that all matter has a tendency to continue in
laid down • - . , , ,,
tion of mere matter, and all the powers in nature are
only material, the charge is incurred of making nature
direCt itfelf in fuch a manner, that there is no occafion
for the interpofition, or even the exiftence, of a Deity
at all.
Thus we fee, the Newtonian cofmogony muft incline
bydSir°Ifiuc t^lat ^ate w^‘c^ ^ ^ once placed> whether of reft or either to the Platonic and Ariftotelian, or to the Ato-
’moHon Tf ,'t la at rort _ fm-ovamrdp. It or>nt,'mio mic or Epicurean 5 according to the hypothefis we lay
down concerning the nature of attraction. Des Car-
” motion. If it is at reft, for example, it will continue
at reft for ever, without beginning motion of itfelf; but
if it is once fet in motion by any caufe whatever, it tes’s fyftem was plainly a revival of that of Democri-
will for ever continue to move in a right line, until tus and Epicurus, with fome corrections and improve-
fomething either flops k altogether, or forces it to ments. It was farther improved and corrected by Mr g
move in another direction. 2. That the change of Hutchinfon, who added to it the authority of Revela-Mr Hut-
motion is always equivalent to the moving force em- tion. The created agents he chofe in his cofmogony
ployed to produce it, and in the direction of the right were fire, light, and air. Thefe, we fee, have indeedfy^ein’
line in which it is impreffed ; that is, if a certain force a very confiderable ftiare in the operations.of nature ;
produces a certain motion, double that force will pro- but unlefs we explain the manner in which they operate,
duce double that motion, &c. 3. ReaCtion is always our knowledge is not at all increafed, and we might as
contrary and equal to aCtion; or the aftions of two bo- well have been contented with the Newtonian attrac-
dies upon one another are.always equal and contrary to tion and repulfion, or even the occult qualities of Ari-
one another. ftotle. Attempts have indeed been made to folve the
VouVI. Part i. Gg phenomena
EAR [ 234 1 EAR
phenomena of nature, from the aftion of thefe three ingly jealous of the powers of this new principle, have
agents, both by Hutchinfon himfelf and many of his denied its exiftence altogether, and in its ftead introdu- ^
followers.—Thefe attempts, however, have always ced another equally infufficient, called the oxygenous
proved unfuccefsful. Some phenomena indeed may be principle. Others have reduced all nature to the two
explained pretty plaufiljly from the known action of principles ca\\e<\principiwn forlile andprmcipiumpropriunu
thefe three; but when we come to fpeak of what may be
called the nicer operations of nature, fuch as the growth
A deficLen P^ants anc* anima^s» we are utterly at a lofs.
cy of adtive manifeft deficiency of aftive principles in all the prired of the quantity of phlogifton it ufually contains;
principles theories of the earth that have yet been invented, hath the principium forbile, the.fame; and the principium
in all the occafioned a conftant fearch after others which ftiould proprium, a name for the particular modification of the
£remedyet a^e’ t^e'r Superior adlivity, to fill up the blank
en e ’ which neceffarily remained in the fyftem.—Pythagoras,
All thefe, however, are fhown, in other parts of this
work, to be mere ina&ive fubftances ; the phlogifton,
common charcoal; the oxygenous principle, water de-
what we pleafe to call the invifible effence of
matter which diftinguilhes one body from another, and
Plato, and Ariftotle, being unable to account for the which muft be for ever unknown to all human crea¬
tures.— Be this as it will, the late difeoveries in elec¬
tricity have tended very much to change the form of
the Newtonian philolophy, and to introduce that mate-
rialifm into our theories of the natural phenomena which
is by fome people fo much complained of. IO
From this general hiftory of the different agents Little pro-
themfelves infufficient, afferted that they were not atoms, which philofophers have chofen to account for the ori- Krel" as yet
but might be broken into fmaller parts, and thus con- ginal formation of the earth, and for its prefervation in jjh
ftitute matter of various degrees of fubtility. The New- the prefent form, it appears, that fcarce any advance in faj,hy.
Ionian philofophers have found Des Cartes’s fyftem true knowledge hath yet been made. All the agents
formation of the earth from their four elements, called
in the affiftance of a fifth, which was never yet difeo-
vered. Epicurus, finding the motions attributed to
his atoms by Democritus to be infufficient, had recourfe
to an imaginary, and on his own principles impofiible,
declination of the atoms. Des Cartes, finding the atoms
infufficient ; but being greatly diftreffed in their at¬
tempts to folve all the phenomena of nature by mere
attra&ion and repulfion, have been obliged to call in
the aftion of mind to their affiftance.' The Hutchin-
fonians were hardly put to it in accounting for every
thing by the aftion of fire, light, and air, when luckily
the difeoveries in eleftricity came to their affiftance.
It muft be owned, that this fluid does indeed come in
like a kind of fifth element, which in many cafes ap¬
pears to be the animating principle of nature. For
fome time paft, almoft all the remarkable phenomena
in nature have been explained by ele&ricity, or the ac¬
tion of the eleftric fluid. But unlefs this a&ion is
explained, we are got no farther than we were before.
have been prodigioufly defedtive; eledlricity itfelf, as
far as yet known, not excepted. But before we enter 11 .
into a particular confideration of thofe theories which wj1jcj1UGc-*
feem moft worthy of notice, it will be neceffary to cur in
point out the principal difficulties which ftand in the forming a
way of one who attempts to give a complete theory of ^rwy (f
the earth. _ the earth-
1. The earth, although pretty much of a fpherical
figure, is not completely fo; but protuberates confider-
ably about the equatorial parts, and is proportionably
flattened at the poles, as is undeniably proved by the
obfervations of modern mathematicians The que- -j. See Geo-
ftion here is. Why the natural caufe which gave the grnply.
earth fo much of a fpherical figure, did not make it a
To fay that any thing is done by eledtricity, is not more complete and exadt fphere?
intelligible than to fay that it was done by attradfion. 2. The terraqueous globe confifts of a vift quantity
If we explain an effedt by a material caufe, it ought of water as well as dry land. In many places, fuch as
to be done upon mechanical principles. We ought to the Ifthmus of Darien, a narrow neck of land is inter-*
be fenfible how one part of matter adts upon another pofed betwixt two vaft oceans. Thefe beat upon it on
part in fuch a manner as to produce the effect we de- either fide with vaffi force ; yet the Ifthmus is never
fire to explain. The eledtrical philofophers, however, broke down nor diminifhed. The cafe is the fame with
have not yet been able to inveftigate the manner in the Ifthmus of Suez which joins Alia and Africa, and •
which this fubtile fluid operates; and hence the many with that which joins the Mor'ea or ancient Pelopom-
difeoveries in eledtricity have not contributed to throw nefus to the continent. The difficulty is, By what n
that light on the theory of the earth, which perhaps
they may do hereafter. With fome phitofophers, how-
tural power or law are thefe narrow necks of land pre-
ferved amidft the waters which threaten them on both
* Phil.
Tranf.
V0L.67.
ever, the eledtric fluid itfelf, and indeed all the powers fides with deftrudlion ?
of nature, were in danger of being fuperfeded by a prin- 3. The furface of the earth is by no means fmoeth
ciple, lately very little known, called the phlogifion.— and equal ; but in fome places railed into enormous
Thus, Mr Henly tells us*, that Mr Clarke, an ingeni- ridges of mountains, and in others funk down in fuch
ous gentleman in Ireland, hath difeovered all the dif- a manner as to form deep valleys. Thefe mountains,
ferent kinds of 3ir produced from metals, &c. by Dr though they have been expofed to all the injuries of
Prieftley, to be only phlogtfiic vapours arifing from thefe the weather for many thoufand years, exhibit no figns
fubftances. Dr Prieftley himfelf fuppofes, that the elec- of decay. They ftill continue of the fame fize as be*
trie light is a modification of phlogifton; and confe- fore, though vaft quantities of earth are frequently
quently thinks it probable, that all light is a modifica*
tion of the fame. Fire or fiame is thought to be a
chemical combination of air with the phlogifton; and
phlogifton is thought to give the elafticity to air, and
every other elaftic fluid, &c. Another party, feem-
waflred down from them by the rains, which, together
with, the force of gravity, tending to level and bring
them on an equality with the plains on which they
ftand, we might reafonably think, ought by this time
to Itave rendered .them fmaller than before. It muft
therefoie
r
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[ 235 ]
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therefore be inquired into, By what natural caufe the
J mountains were origipally formed, and how they come
to preferve their fize without any remarkable diminu¬
tion ?
4. The internal parts of the earth are ftill more won¬
derful than the external. The utmoft induftry of man,
delivered from the waters, except the places in the Earth.
loweft fituations ^ fo that the ocean and feas are ftill a 'r~“
part of the ancient abyfs, that have had no place to
which they might return. Blands and rocks are frag¬
ments of the earth’s former cruft; continents are larger
mafles of its broken fubftance ; and all the inequalities
indeed, can penetrate but a little way into it. As far that are to be found on the furface of the prefent earth
as we can reach, however, it is found to be compofed of are effedts of the confufion into which both earth and
diflimilar ftrata lying one upon another, not commonly water were at that time thrown.
in a horizontal direftion, but inclined to the horizon
at different angles. Thefe ftrata feem not to be difpofed
either according to the laws of gravity or according to
their denfity, but as it were by chance. Befides, in the
internal parts of the earth are vaft chafms and vacuities.
By what means were thefe ftrata originally depofited,
the fiffures and chafms made, &c. ?
5. In many places of the earth, both on the furface
II. Dr Woodward begins with afferting, that all ter- ^
rene fubftances are difpofed in beds of various natures, ward’».
lying horizontally one over the other, fomewhat like
the coats of an onion: that they are replete with fhells,
and other produ&ions of the fea; thefe (hells being
found in the deepeft cavities, and on the tops of the
higheft mountains. From thefe obfervations, which
are warranted by experience, he proceeds to obferve,
and at great depths under it, vaft quantities of marina that thefe (hells and extraneous foflils are not produc-
produdlions, fuch as (hells, &c. are to be met with.
Sometimes thefe (hells are found in the midft of folid
tions of the earth, but are all aitual remains of thofe
animals which they are known to refemble; that all the
rocks of marble and limeftone. In the very heart of ftrata or beds of the earth lie under each other in the
the hardeft ftones, alfo, fmall vegetable fubftanees, as order of their fpecific gravity, and that they are dif-
leaves, &c. are fometimes to be found. The queftion pofed as if they had been left there by fubfiding wa¬
ters. All this he very confidently affirms, tho’ daily
experience contradifts him in fome of them ; particu¬
larly, we often find layers of (tone over the lighted
foils, and the fofteft earth under the hardeft bodies.
However, having taken it for granted, that all the lay¬
ers of the earth are found in the order of their fpecific
gravity, the lighteft at top, and the heavieft next the
centre, he confequently afferts, that all the fubftances
of which the earth is compofed were originally in a
ftate of diffolution. This diffolution he fuppofes to
is, By what means were they brought thither?
Thefe are fome of the molt ftriking difficulties which
prefent themfelves to one who undertakes to write a
natural hiftory or theory of the earth. The molt re¬
markable attempts to produce a theory of this kind are
i» the following.
Dr Burnet’s J. According to Dr Burnet, the earth was original-
theory. ly a fluid
mafs, or chaos, compofed of various fub¬
ftances differing both in denlity and figure. Thofe
which were moft heavy, funk to the centre, and formed
there a hard folid body : thofe which were fpecifically have taken place at the flood : but being aware of an
lighter remained next above ; and the waters, which obje&ion, that the (hells, &c. fuppofed to have been
were lighteft of all, covered the earth all round. The depofited at the flood are not diffolved, he exempts them
air, and other ethereal fluids, which are ftill lighter from the folvent power of the waters, and endeavours to
than water, floated above it, and furrounded the globe (how that they have a ftronger cohefion than minerals;
alfo. Betweeen the waters, however, and the circum- and that, while even the hardeft rocks are diffolved,
ambient air, was formed a coat of oily and un&uous bones and (hells may remain entire.
matter lighter than water. The air at firft was very
impure, and mull neceffarily have carried up with it
III. Mr Whifton fuppofes the earth to have been on- ^
ginally a comet ; and confiders the Mofaic account oft0
many of thofe earthy particles with which it was once the creation as commencing at the time when the
blended : however, it foon began to purify itfelf, and Creator placed this comet in a more regular manner,
depofit thofe particles upon the oily cruft above men and made it a planet in the folar fyftem. Before that
tioned ; which, foon uniting together, the earth and time, he fuppofes it to have been a globe without beau-
oil became the cruft of vegetable earth, with which the ty or proportion ; a world in diforder, fubjedt to all
whole globe is now covered. His account of the de- the viciflitudes which comets endure ; which, accord-
ftrudlion of the primeval world by the flood, by the ing to the prefent fyftem of philofophy, mnft be alter-
falling down of the (hell of earth into the waters of the nately expofed to the extremes of heat and cold. Thefe
abyfs, is given under the article Deluge. It only re- alternations of heat and cold, continually melting and
mains then to give his account of the manner in which freezing the furface of the earth, he fuppofes to have
he relieves the earth from this univerfal deftrudlion; and produced, to a certain depth, a chaos refembling that
this he does as follows. Thefe great maffes of earth, deferibed by the poets, furrounding the folid contents
fays he, falling into the abyfs, drew down with them of the earth, which ftill continued unchanged in the
vaft quantities alfo of air; and by da(hing againft each midft; making a great burning globe of more than
other, and breaking into fmall parts by the repeated 2000 leagues in diameter. This furrounding chaos,
violence of the (hock, they at length left between however, was far from being folid : he refembles it to
them large cavities filled with nothing but air. Thefe a denfe, though fluid atmofphere, compofed of fub-
cavities naturally offered a bed to receive the influent (lances mingled, agitated, and (hocked againft each
waters; and in proportion as they filled, the face of other; and in this diforder he fuppofes the earth to
the earth became once more vifible. The higher parts have been juft at the eve of the Mofaic creation. But
of its broken furface, now become the tops of moun- upon its orbit being then changed, when it was more
tains, were the firft that appeared ; the plains foon af- regularly wheeled round the fun, every thing took its
ter came forward ; and at length the whole globe was proper place, every part of the furrounding fluid then
G g 2 fell
EAR
[ 235 ]
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Earth, fell into a certain fituation according as it was light or nearer and more attentive infpe&ion, we difcover funk Earths
“"""'v heavy. The middle or central part, which always re- mountains, caverns filled up, (battered rocks, whole  f—*
mained unchanged, dill continued fo ; retaining a part countries fwallowed up, new iflands emerged from the
of that heat which it received in its primeval approaches ocean, heavy fubftances placed above light ones, hard
towards the fun ; which heat he calculates may conti¬
nue about 6000 years. Next to this fell the heavier
parts of the chaotic atmofphere, which ferve to fuftain
the lighter : but as in defcending they could not en¬
tirely be feparated from many watery parts, with which
they were intimately mixed, they drew down thefe
alfo along with them; and thefe could not mount
again after the furface of the earth was confolidated:
they therefore furrounded the heavy firft-defcending
bodies inclofed within foft bodies: in a word, we find
matter in every form, dry and humid, warm and cold,
folid and brittle, blended in a chaos of confufion, which
can be compared to nothing but a heap of rubbilh, or
the ruins of a world.”
When taking a particular furvey of the external
furface of the globe, he begins with the ocean, and
the motion communicated to it by the influence of the
fun and moon which produces the tides.—u In exa-
parts in the fame manner as thefe furrounded the cen- mining the bottom of the fea (fays he), we perceive
tral globe. Thus the entire body of the earth
compofed next the centre of a great burning globe
it to be equally irregular as the furface of the dry land.
We difcover hills and valleys, plains and hollows, rocks
next this is placed an heavy terrene fubftance that and earths of every kind ; we difcover likewife, that
encompafles it ; round which is circumfufed a body iflands are nothing but the fummits of vaft mountains.
of water. Upon this body of water is placed the
cruft of earth on which we inhabit: fo that, accord¬
ing to Mr Whifton, the globe is compofed of a num¬
ber of coats or (hells, one within the other, all of
different denfities. The body of the earth being thus
formed, the air, which is the lighted fubftance of all,
furrounded its furface ; and the beams of the fun dart¬
ing through, produced the light, which, we are told
by Mofes, firft obeyed the divine command.
The whole economy of the creation being thus ad-
jufted, it only remained to account for the rilings and
depreflions on the furface of the earth, with the other
feeming irregularities of its prefent appearance. The
hills and valleys are by him confidered as formed by
their preffing upon the internal fluid which fuftains the
external (hell of earth, with greater or lefs weight:
thofe parts of the earth which are heavieft fink the
lowed into the fubjacent fluid, and thus become valleys:
thofe that are lighted; rife higher upon the earth’s fur¬
face, and are called mountains.
whofe foundations are buried in the ocean. We find
other mountains whofe tops are nearly on a level with
the furface of the water; and rapid currents which run
contrary to the general movement. Thefe currents
fometimes run in the fame dire&ion; at other times
their motion is retrograde; but they never exceed their
natural limits, which feem to be as immutable as thofe
which bound the efforts of land-rivers. On one hand
we meet with tempeftuous regions, where the winds
blow with irrefiftible fury; where the heavens and the
ocean, equally convulfed, are mixed and confounded in
the general (hock ; violent inteftine motions, tumultu¬
ous fwellings, water-fpouts, and ftrange agitations pro¬
duced by volcanoes, whofe mouths, tho’ many fathoms
below the furface, vomit forth torrents of fire; and
pu(h, even to the clouds, a thick vapour, compofed of
water, fulphur, and bitumen; and dreadful gulphs or
whirlpools, which feem to attract veffels for no other
purpofe than to fwallow them up. On the other hand
we difcover vaft regions of an oppofite nature, always
Such was the face of nature before the deluge: the fmooth and calm, but equally dangerous to the mari-
carth was then more fertile and populous than it
prefent; the life of men and animals was extended to
ten times it prefent duration; and all thefe advantages
To conclude, direfting our eyes toward the fou-
thern or northern extremities of the globe, we difcover
huge maffes of ice, which, detaching themfelves from
arofe from the fuperior heat of the central globe, which the polar regions, advance, like floating mountains,
—- n—- R—" ''"''i*— At! to the temperate climates, where they diffolve and va-
nifh from our view. The bottom of the ocean and the
(helving fides of rocks produce plentiful crops of plants
of many different fpecies: its foil is compofed of fand,
gravel, rocks, and (hells; in fome places it is a fine
clay, in others a compaft earth : and in general, the
bottom of the fea has an exadt refemblance to the dry
land which we inhabit.
“ Let us next take a view of the dry land. Upon
an attentive obfervation of this, we will find, that
the great chains of mountains lie nearer the equator
than the poles; that in the old continent their direc¬
tion is more from eaft to weft than from fouth to north;
and that, on the contrary, in the new continent they
extend more from north to fouth than from eaft to weft.
But what is dill more remarkable, the figure and di-
reftion of thefe mountains, which have a moft irregu
tion of thefe obje&s neither order nor regularity. If lar appearance, correfpond fo wonderfully, that the
has ever fince been cooling. As its heat was then in
its full power, the genial principle was alfo much
greater than at prefent; vegetation and animal increafe
were carried on with more vigour; and all nature
feemed teeming with the feeds of life. But as thefe
advantages were produdtive only of moral evil, it was
found neceffary to deftroy all living creatures by a flood;
and in what manner this puniftiment was accompliftred,
according to Mr Whifton, is particularly taken notice
of under the article Deluge.
Mr Buf- IV. M. Buffon’s theory differs very widely from the
fon’stheo foregoing. He begins with attempting to prove,
.*!• that this world which we inhabit is no more than the
ruins of a world. “ The furface of this immenfe globe
(fays he) exhibits to our obfervation, heights, depths,
plains, feas, marlhes, rivers, caverns, gulfs, volcanoes ;
and on a curfory view, we can difcover in the difpofi-
: penetrate into the bowels of the earth, we find
metals, minerals, ftones, bitumens, fands, earths, waters,
and matter of every kind, placed as it were by mere
accident, and ■without any apparent defign. Upon a
prominent angles of one mountain are conftantly oppo¬
fite to the concave angle;; of the neighbouring moun¬
tain, and of equal dimenfions, whether they be fepa¬
rated by an, estenfive plain or a fmall valley. I have
further
Earth.
EAR [ 237 ] EAR
Earth, further remarked, that oppofite hills are always nearly
■—v—' of the fame height; and that mountains generally oc¬
cupy the middle of continents, iflands, and promonto¬
ries, dividing them by their greatett lengths. I have
likewife traced the courfes of the principal rivers, and
find that their dire&ion is nearly perpendicular to the
fea-coafts into which they empty themfelves;. and that
during the greateft part of their courfes they follow
the direftion of the mountains from which they derive
their origin. The fea-coafts are generally bordered
with rocks of marble and other hard ftones; or rather
with earth and fand accumulated by the waters of the
fea, or brought down and depofited by rivers. In
oppofite coafts, feparated only by fmall arms of the
fea, the different ftrata or beds of earth are of the
fame materials. I find that volcanoes never exift but
in very high mountains; that a great number of them
are entirely extinguifhed; that fome are connefted to
others by fubterranean paffages, and their eruptions
not unfrequently happen at the fame time. There are
fimilar communications between certain lakes and feas.
Some rivers fuddenly difappear, and feem to precipi¬
tate themfelves into the bowels of the earth. We
likewife find certain mediterranean or inland feas, that
conftantly receive from many and great rivers prodi¬
gious quantities of water, without any augmentation
of their bounds; probably difcharging by fubterra-
neous paffages all thofe extraneous fupplies. It is
likewife eafy to diftinguifh lands which have been long
inhabited, from thofe new countries where the earth
appears in a rude flate, where the rivers are full of
catarafts, where the land is nearly overflowed with
water or burnt up with drought, and where every
place capable of producing trees is totally covered
with wood.
“ Proceeding in our examination, we difcover that
the upper ftratum of the earth is univerfally the fame
fubftance : that this fubftance, from which all animals
and vegetables derive their growth and nourifhment, is
nothing but a compofition of the decayed parts of ani¬
mal and vegetable bodies, reduced into fuch fmall par¬
ticles that their former organic ftate is not diftinguifh-
able. Penetrating a little deeper, we find the real
earth, beds of fand, limeftone, clay, fhells, marble, gra¬
vel, chalk, &c. Thefe beds are always parallel to each
, ether, and of the fame thicknefs throughout their whole
extent. In neighbouring hills, beds or ftrata of the
fame materials are uniformly found at the fame levels,
though the hills be feparated by large and deep valleys.
Strata of every kind, even of the moft folid rocks, are
uniformly divided by perpendicular fiflures. Shells,
Ikeletons of fifties, marine plants, &c. are often found
in the bowels of the earth, and on the tops of moun¬
tains, even at the greateft diftances from the fea. Thefe
fhells, fifties, and plants, are exactly fimilar to thofe
which exift in the ocean. Petrified fhells are to be met
with almoft every where in prodigious quantities: they
are not only inclofed in rocks of marble and limeftone,
as well as in earths and clays, but are actually incorpo¬
rated and filled with the very fubftances in which they
are inclofed. In fine, I am convinced, from repeated
obfervation, that marbles, limeftones, chalks, marles,
clays, fand, and almoft all terreftrial fubftances, where-
ever fituated, are full of fhells and other fpoils of the
ocean.”
From thefe pofitions, which he lays down as fadts,
Mr Buffon draws the following conclufions :
1. The changes which the earth has undergone
within thefe laft 2000 or 3000 years muft be inconfi-
derable, when compared with the great revolutions
that took place in thofe ages immediately fucceeding
the creation. The reafon he gives for this affertion is,
that terreftrial fubftances could not acquire folidity but
by the continued adlion of gravity : hence the earth
muft have been originally much falter than it is now,
and therefore more apt to be changed by caufes which
cannot now affedf it*.
2. It feems an incontrovertible faft, that the dry
land which we now inhabit, and even the fummits of
the higheft mountains, were formerly covered with the
waters of the fea ; for (hells and other marine bodies
are (fill found upon the very tops of mountains.
3. The waters of the fea have remained for a long
track of time upon the furface; becaufe in many places,
fuch immenfe banks of (hells have been difcovered, that
it is impoffible fo great a multitude of animals could
exift at the fame time.
4. From this circumftance it likewife appears, that
although the materials on the furface of the earth
were then foft, eafily difunited, moved, and tranfported
by the waters, yet thefe tranfportations could not be
fuddenly effedfed : they muft have been gradual and
fucceflive, as fea-bodies are fometimes found more than
1000 feet below the furface; and fuch a thicknefs of
earth or (lone could not be accumulated in a (hort time.
5. It is impoffible thefe effedts could be owing to
the univerfal deluge. For though we (hould fuppofe
that all the (hells in the bottom of the ocean (hould.
be depofited upon the. dry land ; yet, befides the dif¬
ficulty of eftabliftung this fuppofition, it is plain, that
as fhells are found incorporated in marble, and in the-
rocks of the higheft mountains, we muft fuppofe thefe
rocks and marbles to have been formed all at the very
inftant when the deluge took place; and that before tin's
grand revolution, there were neither mountains, nor
marbles, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matter of any kind
fimilar to what we are now acquainted with; as they
all, with few exceptions, contain (hells and other pro¬
ductions of the ocean. Befides, at the time of the
univerfal deluge, the earth muft have acquired a con-
fiderable degree of folidity, by the aCtion of gravity
for more tlian 16 centuries. During the (hort time
the deluge lafted, therefore, it is impoffible that the
waters (hould have overturned and diffolved the whole
furface of the earth to the greateft depths.
6. It is certain (for what reafon he does not men¬
tion), that the waters of the fea have, at fome period,
or other, remained for a fucceffion of ages upon what
we now know to be dry land; and confequently that
the vaft continents of Afia, Europe, Africa, and Ame¬
rica, were then the bottom of an immenfe ocean, re¬
plete with every thing which the prefent ocean pro¬
duces.
7. It is likewife certain, that the different ftrata of
the earth are horizontal and parallel to each other.
This parallel fituation muft therefore be owing to the
operation of the waters, which have gradually accu¬
mulated the different materials, and given them the
fame pofition which the water itfelf invariably affumes.
8. It is certain that thefe ftrata muft have been gra-
Earth.
EAR [ 238 ] EAR
dually formed, and are not the effeft of any fudden re¬
volution; becaufe nothing is more frequent than ftrata
compofed of heavy materials placed above light ones ;
which never could have happened if, according to
fome authors, the whole had been blended and diflbl-
ved by the deluge, and afterwards precipitated.
9. No other caufe than the motion and fediments of
water could poffibly produce the regular pofition of
the various ftrata of which the fuperficial part of this
earth confifts. The Jhigheft mountains are compofed of
parallel ftrata, as well as the loweft valleys. Of courfe,
the formation of mountains cannot be attributed to the
ftiock of earthquakes, or to the eruptions of volcanoes.
Such fmall eminences as have been raifed by volcanoes
or convulfions of the earth, inftead of being compofed
of parallel ftrata, are mere maffes of weighty materials,
blended together in the utmoft confufion.
Having now, as he thinks, proved, that the dry and
habitable part of the earth has remained for a long
time under the waters of the fea, and confequently
muft have undergone the fame changes that now take
place at the bottom of the fea, he proceeds to inquire
what thefe changes are.
10. The ocean, fince the creation of the world, has
been conftantly agitated by the tides, occafioned by
the aftion of the fun and moon; and this agitation is
greater in the equatorial than in the other parts of the
globe, becaufe the aftion of the fun and moon is there
ftrongeft.
11. The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis;
and confequently its parts have a centrifugal force,
which is alfo greateft at the equator.
12. From the combined attion of the two laft men¬
tioned caufes, the tides and the motion of the earth,
it may be fairly concluded, that although this globe
had been originally a perfe<ft fphere, its diurnal mo¬
tion, and the ebbing and flowing of the tides, muft ne-
ceflarily, in a fucceffion of time, have elevated the
equatorial parts, by gradually carrying mud, earth,
fand, fhells, &c. from other climates, and depofiting
them at the equator.
13. On this fuppofition, the greateft inequalities on
the furface of the earth ought to be found, and in fa61
are found, in the neighbourhood of the equator.
14. As the alternate motion of the tides has been
conftant and regular fince the exiftence of the world,
it is natural to think, that, at each tide, the water
carries from one place to another a fmall quantity of
matter, which falls to the bottom as a fediment, and
forms thofe horizontal and parallel ftrata that every
where appear. Here it may indeed be objefted, that
as the flux is equal to, and regularly fucceeded by,
the reflux, the two contrary motions will balance each
other ; and whatever is brought in by the flux will be
carried back by the reflux. The motion of the ocean,
therefore, could never be the caufe of the formation
even of parallel ftrata; much lefs of mountains, and
all the inequalities to be obferved in this globe. To
this Mr Buffon replies, that the alternate motion of
the waters is by no means equal; for the fea has a
continual motion from eaft to weft: the agitations oc¬
cafioned by the winds likewife produce great inequa¬
lities in the tides. It muft alfo be acknowledged,
that, by every motion of the fea, particles of earth
and other matter muft be carried from one place and
depofited in another; and that thefe colle&ions of
matter muft affume the form of parallel and horizontal
ftrata. Laftly, this obje’ftion is obviated by a well
known fa6t. On all coafts where the ebbing and flow¬
ing of the fea is difcernible, numberlefs materials are
brought in by the flux, which are not carried back by
the reflux. The fea gradually increafes on fome
places and recedes from others; narrowing its limits
by depofiting earth, fand, (hells, &c. which naturally
take a horizontal pofition. Thefe materials when ac¬
cumulated, and elevated to a certain degree, gradually
(hut out the water, and remain for ever in the form of
dry land.
15. The poffibility of a mountain’s being formed at
the bottom of the fea by the motion and fediments of
the water, will appear from the following confidera-
tions. On a coaft which the fea walhes with violence
during the flow of tide, fome part of the earth muft
be carried off at every ftroke of the waves. Even
where the fea is bounded by a rock, it is a known
fa6f, that the rock itfelf is greatly wafted by the wa¬
ter ; and confequently that fmall particles are carried
off by the retreat of every wave. Thofe particles of
earth or done are necefiarily tranfported to fome dif-
tance. Whenever the agitation of the water ceafes,
the particles are precipitated in the form of a fedi¬
ment, and lay the foundation of a firft ftratum, which
is either horizontal or inclined, according to the fitua-
tion of the furface on which they fall. This ftratum
is foon fucceeded by another, produced by the fame
caufe ; and thus a confiderable quantity of matter will
be amaffed, and depofited in parallel beds. In pi-o-
cefs of time this gradually accumulating mafs will be¬
come a mountain in the bottom of the fea, exadfly re-
fembling, both in external and internal ftrudture, thofe
mountains which we fee on the dry land. If there hap¬
pened to be fhells in that part of the bottom of the
fea where we have fuppofed the fediments to be depo¬
fited, they will be covered, filled, and incorporated
with the depofited matter, and form a part of the ge¬
neral mafs. Thefe fhells will be lodged in different
parts of the mountain, correfponding to the times in
which they were depofited: thofe which lay at the
bottom before the firft ftratum was formed, will oc¬
cupy the loweft ftation; the others w'ill be found in
places more elevated.
16. It has been imagined that the agitation of the
fea produced by the wunds and tides is "only fuperficial,
and does not affe6f the bottom, efpecially where it lies
very deep. But it ought to be remembered, that
whatever be the depth, the whole mafs is put in mo¬
tion by the tides at the fame time ; and that, in a fluid
globe, this motion would be communicated even to the
centre. The attradfive power, which occafions the flux
and reflux, is penetrating. It afts equally upon e-
very particle of the mafs; fo that the quantity of its
force at different depths may be determined by calcu¬
lation. We cannot therefore hefitate in pronouncing,
that the tides, the winds, and all other caufes of mo¬
tion in the fea, muft produce heights and inequalities
in its bottom ; and that thefe heights muft uniformly
be compofed of regular ftrata either horizontal or in¬
clined. The heights thus produced will gradually aug¬
ment ; like the waves which formed them, they will
mutually refpe6l each other ; and if the extent of the
4 bafe
EAR [ 239 ] EAR
Earth, bafe be great, in a courfe of years they will form a vaft
1 chain of mountains.
1 7. Whenever eminences are formed, they interrupt
the uniform motion of the waters, and produce cur¬
rents. Between two neighbouring heights in the bot¬
tom of the ocean there mud be a current which will fol¬
low their common direfti 'n, and, like a river, cut a
channel, the angles of which will be alternately oppo-
fite through the whole extent of its courfe. Thefe
heights muft continually increafe: for, during the flow,
the water will depolit its ordinary fediment upon their
ridges; and the waters which are impelled by the cur¬
rent will force along, from great diltances, quantities
of matter, which will fubfide between the hilh, and,
at the fame time, fcoop out a valley with correfpond-
ing angles at their foundation. N »w, by means of
thefe different motions and fediments, the bottom of
the ocean, though formerly fmooth, muff foon be fur¬
rowed and interfperfed with hills and chains of moun¬
tains, as we aftually find it at prefent. The foft ma¬
terials of which the eminences were originally compo-
fed, would gradually harden by their own gravity.
Such of them as confifted of fandy and cryftalline par¬
ticles would produce thofe enormous maffes of rock and
flint, in which we find cryttals and other precious
ftones. Others, compofed of ftony particles mixed
with (hells, give rife to thofe beds of limeftone and
marble in which vaft quantities of fea-fhells are ftill
found incorporated.
18. Thefe caufes, as before obferved, aft with great¬
er force under the equator than in other climates ;
for there the tides are higher, and the winds more
uniform. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the
higheft in the world ; often extending through whole
continents, and ftretching to great diftances under the
waters of the ocean. The mountains of Europe and
Afia, which extend from Spain to China, are not fo
high as thofe of Africa and South America. Accord¬
ing to the relations of voyagers, the mountains of the
north are but fmall hills, when compared with the
mountains of the equatorial regions. Thofe prodigi¬
ous chains of mountains which run from eaft to weft
in the old continent, and from north to fouth in the
new, muft have been formed by the general motion
of the tides. But the origin of the lefs confiderable
hills muft be afcribed to particular motions occafioned
by winds, currents, and other irregular agitations of
l6 the fea.
How the Having thus difcuffed fome very- important points
earth was refpefting the theory of the earth; our author now
deferted ly procee(js to anfwer other queftions which feem ftill
andkft”’ more difficult of folution.
dry. 19. But how has it happened that this earth, which
we and our anceftors have inhabited for ages, which,
from, time immemorial, has been an immenfe continent,
dry, compaft, and removed from the reach of water,
ftiould, if formerly the bottom of an ocean, be now
exalted tofuch a height above the waters, and fo com¬
pletely feparated from them ? Since the waters remain¬
ed fo long upon the earth, why have they now defert¬
ed it ? What accident, what caufe, could introduce.a
change fo great? A little reflection, fays he, will fur-
nift ;;s with at lead plaufible folutions to thefe feem-
ing:y fo difficult queftions. We daily obferve the fea
gaining ground on certain coafts, and lofing it on o-
thers. Wre know that the ocean has a general and u-
niform motion from eaft to weft : that it makes vio¬
lent efforts againft the rocks and low grounds which
encircle it ; that there are whole provinces which hu¬
man induftry can hardly defend againft the fury of the
waves; and that there are inftances of iflands which
have but lately emerged from the waters, and of re¬
gular inundations. Hiftory informs us of inundations
and deluges of a more extenfive nature. Ought not
all this to convince us, that the furface of the earth
has experienced very great revolutions, and that the fea
may have aftually given up poffeffion of the greateft
part of the ground which it formerly occupied ? For
example, let us fuppofe, that the old and new worlds
were formerly but one continent; and that, by a vio¬
lent earthquake, the ancient Atlantis of Plato was
funk. The confequence of this mighty revolution muft
neceffarily be, that the fea would ruftt in from ail
quarters, and form what is now called the Atlantic 0-
cean ; and vaft continents, perhaps thofe we now in¬
habit, would of courfe be left dry. This great revo¬
lution might be effefted by the hidden failu-e of fome
immenfe cavern in the interior parts of the globe, and
an univerfal deluge would infallibly fucceed.
20. But, however conjeftures of this kind may
ftand, it is certain that fuch a revolution hath hap¬
pened : and we may even believe that it hath happerv
ed .naturally ; for if a judgment of the future is to be
farmed from the pad, we have only to attend careful¬
ly to what paffes before our eyes. It is a faft efta-
bliftied by the repeated obfervation of voyagers, that
the ocean has a conftant motion from eaft to weft-.
This motion, like the trade-winds, is not only per¬
ceived between the tropics, but through the whole
temperate climates, and as near the poles as naviga¬
tors have approached. As a neceffary confequence of
this motion, the Pacific Ocean muft make continual
efforts againft.the coafts of Tartary, China, and In¬
dia ; the Indian Ocean muft a<ft againft the eaft coaft
of Africa ; and the Atlantic muft in a fimilar manner
adt againft all the eaftern coafts of America. Hence
the fea muft.have gained, and will always continue to
gain, on the eaft, and to lofe on . the weft. This of
itfelf would be fufficient to prove the pofiibility of the
change of the fea into land, and land into fea. If
fuch is the natural effect of the fea’s motion from eaft
to weft, may it not reafonably be fuppofed, that Afia,
and all the eaftern continent; is the moft ancient coun¬
try in the world ? and that Europe, and part of Afri¬
ca, efpecially the weft parts of thefe continents, as
Britain, . France, Spain, &c. are countries of a more .
recent date ?
21. The caufe . of the perpendicular fiffures with
which the earth abounds, is eafily inveftigated. As
various materials conftituting the different ftrata were
tranfported by the waters, and depofited in the form <
of fediments, they would at firft be in a very diluted
ftate, and would gradually harden and part with the
fuperfluous quantity of moifture they contained. In
procefs of time, drying, they would naturally contra&
and fplit at irregular diftances.. Thefe fiffures neceffa¬
rily .affumed a perpendicular dire&ion: becaufe in this
direftion the adlion of gravity of one particle upon an¬
other is equal to nothing: but it a£ls dire&ly oppofite
to this defeription, in a horizontal .fituation : the di- '
mi-.
EAR t 24° 1 EAR
Earth, minution in bulk could have no fenlible effect but in a
vertical line. The contraftion of the parts in drying,
therefore, and not the contained water forcing an if-
fue, as has been alleged by fome, is the caufe of per¬
pendicular fiffures; Tor it may be often remarked, that
the fides of thofe filfures, through their whole extent,
correfpond as exadtiy as the two fides of a fplit piece
of wood.
22. Perpendicular fifiures vary greatly as to the ex¬
tent of their openings. Some are about half an inch
or an inch; others a foot or two feet; fome extend fe-
veral fathoms, and give rife to thofe vaft precipices
which fo frequently occur between oppofite parts of
the fame rocks, in the Alps and other high moun¬
tains. It is plain, that the fiffures, the openings of
which are fmall, have been occafioned folely by dry¬
ing. But thofe which extend feveral feet are partly
owing to another caufe; namely, the finking of the
foundation upon one fide, while that of the other re¬
mains firm. If the bafe finks but a line or two, when
the height is confiderable, an opening of feveral feet,
or even fathoms, will be the confequence. When
rocks are founded on clay or fand, they fometimes flip
a little to one fide ; and the fiffures are of courfe aug¬
mented by this motion.
23. The large openings, however, and prodigious
cuts, which are to be met with in rocks and mountains,
are to be aferibed to another caufe. They could be
produced no other way than by the finking of immenfe
fubterraneous caverns, that were unable any longer to
fuftain'their incumbent load. But thefe cuts or inter¬
vals in mountains are not of the fame nature with the
perpendicular fiffures : they appear to have been ports
opened by the hand of nature for the communication
of nations. This feems to be the intention of all large
openings in chains of mountains, and of thofe ftraits by
which different parts of the ocean are connefted ; as
♦he flraits of Thermopyle, of Gibraltar, &c. the gaps
or ports in mount Caucafus, the Cordeleras, &c.
24. But the greatetl changes upon the furface of
the earth are occafioned by rains, rivers, and torrents
from the mountains. Thefe derive their origin from
vapours raifed by the fun from the furface of the o-
cean, and which are tranfported by the winds through
every climate. The progrefs of thefe vapours, which
are fupported by the air, and tranfported at the plea-
fure of the winds, is interrupted by the tops of the
mountains, where they accumulate into clouds, and
fall down in the form of rain, dew, or fnow. At firft,
thefe waters defeended into the plains without any fix¬
ed courfe ; but they gradually hollowed out proper
channels for themfelves. By the power of gravity they
ran to the bottom of the mountains; and penetrating
or diffolving the lower grounds, they carried along
with them fand and gravel, cut deep furrows in the
plains, and thus opened paffages to the fea, which al¬
ways receives as much water by rivers as it lofes by e-
vaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers
have uniformly correfponding angles on their oppofite
banks; and as mountains and hills, which may be re¬
garded as the banks of the valleys by which they are
feparated, have likewife finuofities with corfefponding
angles, this circumftance feems to demonftrate, that
the valleys have been gradually formed by currents of
the ocean, in the fame manner as the channels of ri-
N° 106. 6
vers have been produced. Rivers produce confider* Earth,
able changes on the furface of the earth ; they carry —v—“■“*
off the foil, wear aw^ay the moft folid rocks, and re¬
move every thing that oppofes their paffage. The
waters of the clouds alfo, which defeend upon the
mountains, by continually wafhing away fome part of
the earth, tend to level them with the plains; and would
undoubtedly do fo, if time enough were allowed foV
that purpoie.
25. From what has been advanced, we may conclude,
that the flux and reflux of the ocean have produced all
the mountains, valleys, and other inequalities on the
furface of the earth: that currents of the fea have
fcooped out the valleys, elevated the hills, and beftow-
ed on them the correfponding diredtions: that the
fame waters of the ocean, by tranfporting and depo-
fiting earth, &c. have given rife to the parallel ftrata :
that the waters from the heavens gradually deftroy the
effedts of the fea, by continually diminifliing the
height of the mountain, filling up the valleys, and
choaking up the mouths of rivers; and by reducing
every thing to its proper level, they will in time reftore
■ the earth to the fea, which by its natural operations will
again create new continents interfperfed with moun¬
tains and valleys, and every way fimilar to thofe which
we now inhabit. ^
Thus far our author preferves fome degree of plau- Buffon’s
Ability in his reafoning ; but in his account of the ori-count
ginal formation of the earth, he certainly goes to the t.he fma'
utmoft verge of probability, or rather of poffibility, inH””° 1 s
his fuppofitions. According to him, all the planets*^
in our fyftem were originally parts of the fun himfelf.
They were detached from his body all at once by a
mighty ftroke of a comet. The poflibility of driving
off fuch a quantity of matter from the fun by a fingle
ftroke, he labours hard to prove ; but this is far from
being the greateft difficulty in his fyftem.—“ To this
theory (fays he) it may be objedted, that if the planets
had been driven off from the fun by a comet, in place
of deferibing circles round him, they mull, according
to the law of projedliles, have returned to the fame
place from whence they had been forced; and, there¬
fore, that the projedlile force of the planets cannot be
attributed to the impulfe of a comet.
“ I reply, that the planets iffued not from the fun
in the form of globes, but in the form of torrents; the
motion of whofe anterior particles behoved to be ac¬
celerated by thofe behind,, and the attradfion of the
anterior particles would alfo accelerate the motion of
the pofterior; and that this acceleration, produced
by one or both of thefe caufes, might be fuch as
would neceffarily change the original motion arifing
from the impulfe of the carnet; and that, from the
caufe, might refult a motion fimilar to what takes place
in the planets; efpecially when it is confidered, that
the fhock of the comets removes the fun out of its
former ftation. This reafoning may be illuftrated by
an example. Suppofe a mnlket-ball difeharged from
the top of a mountain, and that the force of the powder
was fufficient to fend it beyond a femidiameter of the
earth : it is certain that this ball would revolve round
the earth, and return at every revolution to the place
from whence it had been difeharged. But, inftead of
a muflcet-ball, if a rocket were employed, the conti¬
nued adtion of the fire would greatly accelerate the
original
EAR
original impulfive motion. This rocket would by no
^ means return to the fame point like the ball; but, ca-
[ 241 1
EAR
of the earth, and that of the tides, elevated the waters
in the equatorial regions, and neceflarily tranfported '
teris paribus, would defcribe an orbit, the perigee of thither great quantities of flime, clay, and fand; and
which would be more or lefs diftant from the earth in
proportion to the greatnefs of the change produced ii
its dire&ion by the accelerating force of the fire. In
the fame manner, if the original proje&ile force im-
by thus elevating thofe parts of the earth, they per-
haps funk thofe under the poles about two leagues, or
a 230th part of the whole, as was formerly remarked :
for the waters would eafily reduce into powder-pumice-
prefied by the comet on the torrent of folar matter was ftones, and other fpongy pans of the vitrified matter
accelerated, it is probable that the planets formed by upon the furface; and by this means excavate fome
.  —1 —1 “’i:*-places and elevate others, which, in time, would pro¬
duce i(lands and continents, and all thofe inequalities
on the furface, which are more confiderable towards
this torrent acquired their circular or elliptical move¬
ments around the fun.”
In like manner he accounts for the formation and
circulation of the fecondary planets. The revolutions the equator than towards the poles The highefl:
©f the primaries on their axes, he accounts for from
the obliquity of the original Itroke imprefiedby the co¬
mountains lie between the tropics and the middle of
the temperate zones, and the loweft from the polar
met. The oblate fpheroidal figure of the earth is eafily circles towards the poles. Indeed, both the land and
deduced from its diurnal motion, and the fluidity of the fea have moil inequalities between the tropics, as is
1- c-n c — nnu^ —1-" evident from the incredible number of iilands peculiar
to thofe regions.” ig
V. In the firft volume of the Edinburgh Philofo- Dr Hut-
given by the mathematicians who were fent to diffe- phical Tranfaftions a new theory of the earth has been ton’sthe‘’
rent parts of the world on purpofc to determine the laid down at confiderable length by Dr Hutton; oforir‘
of the earth, and who made the flatnefs at the which the following is an abftraft.
The general view of the terreftrial fyflem conveys
to our minds an idea of a “ fabric, ere&ed in wifdom,
to obtain a purpofe worthy of the power that is ap¬
parent in the produdtion of it.”
The end for which it was formed, as far a
whole at its firft formation. The flattening at the poles
he eftimates at about one 230th part of the whole. As
this computation differs confiderably from the account
figi
poles equal to one 175th part of the whole, he fuppofes
this difference to have arifen from changes that have
fince taken place on the furface of the earth, occafion-
ed by the caufes already mentioned. He then pro¬
ceeds to account for the formation of all things, in the
following manner. —“ It is therefore evident, that the comprehend our author’s meaning, is, that it might be ed to he in¬
earth affumed its figure when in a melted ftate ; and,
to purfue ortr theory, it is natural to think, that the
earth, whett it iffued from the fun, had no other form
but that of a torrent of melted and inflamed matter:
that this torrent, by the mutual attra&ion of its parts,
took on a globular figure, which its diurnal motion
changed into a fpheroid: that when the earth cooled,
the vapours, which were expanded like the tail of a co-
an habitation for living creatures; and we are enabled habited,
to underftand the conftitution of this earth as a thing
formed by defign, “ not only by feeing thofe general
operations which depend on its conftru&ion as a ma¬
chine, but alfo by perceiving how far the particulars
in the conftruftion of that machine depend on the ope¬
rations of the globe.”
In taking a comprehenfive view of the mechanifm Compofed
met, gradually condenfed, and fell down in the form of ©f the globe, we obferve three principal parts of which of three
water upo.n the furface, depofiting at the fame time a it is compofed ; and which, by being properly adapted principal
flimy fubftance mixed with fulphur and falts; part of to one another, form it into an habitable world. Thefe Parts*
which was carried by the motion of the waters into the are the folid body of the earth, the waters of the ocean,
, ra- r ', /1 ‘ --j -^-2—J and the atmofphere furrounding the whole. On thefe
©ur author obferves,
1. The parts of the terreftrial globe mote immedi-
perpendicular fiffures of the ftrata, and produced me¬
tals ; and the reft remained on the furface, and gave
rife to the vegetable mould which abounds in diffe¬
rent places, with more or lefs of animal or vegetable ately expofed to our view are fupported by a central
particles, the organization of which is not obvious to
the fenfes.
“ Thus the interior parts of the globe were origi¬
nally compofed of vitrified matter ; and, I believe, they
are fo at prefcnt. Above this vitrified matter were
placed thofe bodies which the fire had reduced to the
body commonly fuppofed, but without any good rea-
fon, to be folid and inert.
2. The aqueous part, reduced to a fpherical form bv
gravitation, has become oblate by the earth’s centri¬
fugal force. Its ufe is to receive the rivers, be a foun¬
tain of vapours, and to afford life to innumerable ani-
fmalleft particles, as fands, which are only portions of mals, as well as to be the fource of growth and circu-
glafs; and above thefe pumice-ftoncs and the fcorise
of melted matter, which produced the different clays.
The whole was covered with water to the depth of 500
lation to the organized bodies on earth.
3. The irregular body of land, railed above the
level of the fea (though the fmalleft of thefe large divi-
or 600 feet, which originated from the condenfation of fions), is by far the moil interefting, as immediately ne*
the vapours when the earth began to cool. This wa- ceffary to the fupport of animal life.
4. The atmofphere furrounding the whole is evi¬
dently neceffary for innumerable purpofes of life and
vegetation, neither of which could fubfift a moment
without it.
Having thus confidered the mechanifm of the globe, Pow4er, by
‘ Such was the condition of the earth when the Dr Hutton proceeds to inveftigate the powers by which it is
tides, the winds, and the heat of the fun, began to in- which it is upheld.—Thefe are the gravitating and upheld,
troduce changes on its furface. The diurnal motion projeftile forces by which the planets are guided, the
Vot. VL Part. I. H h influence
ter depofited a ftratum of mud, mixed with all thofe
matters which are capable of being fublimed or ex¬
haled by fire ; and the air was formed of the moil fub-
tile vapours, which, from their levity, rofe above the
water.
EAR [ 242 ] EAR
, Earth- . influence of light and heat, cold and condenfation ; to of the earth; confequently thofe folid parts have been Earth.
" which may be added ele&ricity and magnetifm. formed after the ocean was inhabited by thofe animals  v—
Why the . In tlie further purfuit of our general or preparatory which are proper to that fluid medium.” a6
land muft ideas> the Doftor obferves, that “ a folid body of land That all the mafles of marble or limeftone are com- Marble and-
receffarily could not have anfwered the purpofe of a habitable pofed of the calcareous matter of marine bodies, he limeltone
decay, and WOrld, for a foil is neceffary for the growth of plants; concludes, 1. From there being few in which fome 0ftotally &>
_a )e. but a foil is onlv the materials collefted from the de- thofe nhiefts mav not be frmnr? .1 be derived
deftro ' H ^ut a *s on^y t^ie rnaterials collefted from the de-
6 °^e ’ ftruftion of the folid land. Therefore the fnrfaee of
Therefore the furface of
this land, inhabited by man, is made by nature to de¬
cay, in difiblving from the hard and compact ftate in
which it is found below the foil; and this foil is ne-
ceflarily walhed away by the continual circulation of the
water running from the fummits of the mountains ”
Thus he fuppofes that the land muft at laft be entirely
thofe objefts may not be found which indicate the n
rine origin of the mafs ; And a Angle cockle-lhell or “
piece of coral found in a marble or limeftone quarry,
will certainly prove it to have been originally at the
bottom of the fea as much as if it had been all com-
pofed of fuch bodies. 2. In the calcareous ftrata,
which are evidently of marine origin, there are many
parts of a fparry rtrucfture ; which ftiows that in thefe
deftroyed; a misfortune unavoidable from the very places the original texture of thofe ftieds has been dif-
conftitution of the globe as an habitable world. It
remains, therefore, to be confidered, whether there be,
[‘in the conftitution of this world, a reproductive ope-
folved and a new ftructure affumed. This change is
produced by cryftallization, in confequence of a pre¬
vious ftate of fluidity ; which has fo difpofed the con-
ration by which a ruined conftitution may be again creting parts, as to allow them to affume a regular ftiapc
repaired, and a duration and liability procured to the and ftrudlure proper to that fubftance. 3. There are
        J __ 1 IT .1 « 1 m t J 1 r\ oil ~ C 4. »  1- I  ^ «
machine confidered as capable of fuftaining plants and in all the regions of the earth, huge maffes of calca-
animals?” The folution of this queftion, he fays, is reous matter in that cryftalline or fparry ftate, in which
perhaps within the reach of human fagacity, and, as he perhaps no veftige can be found of any organized body,
juftly obferves, might add fome luftre to fcience and nor any indication that fuch calcareous matter had be-
Marine ani¬
mals of
much
the human intellect,
With regard to the beginning of the world, though
longed to animals ; but as, in other mafles, this fparry
cryftalline ftate is evidently affumed by the calcareous
er antiquity
than the
human
race.
our author does not pretend to lay afide the Mo- matter of the marine productions, we have no reafon
• faic accounts concerning the origin of man, yet, to derive thefe from any other fource : and hence, fays
fays he, “ though there has not been found in natural our author, we are led to conclude, that all the ftrata
hiftory any document by which a high antiquity might of the earth, not only thofe confifting of fuch calca-
be attributed to the human race, this is not the cafe reous mafies, but others fuperincumbent upon thefe,
with regard to the inferior animals, particularly thofe have had their origin at the bottom of the fea, by the
which inhabit the ocean and its (bores. We find in colleClion of fand and gravel, of (hells, of coralline
natural hiftory monuments which prove that thefe ani- and cruftaceous bodies, and of earths and clays vari-
mals had long exifted; and we thus procure a mea- oufly mixed, or feparated and accumulated.
fure for the computation of a period of time extremely
remote, though far from being exaClly afcertained.—
Thus, in finding the relics of fea animals of every kind
“ Fhe general amount of our reafoning (fays he) is this; Almoft the
that nine-tenths perhaps, or99 hundredths, of this earth, who£ body
 | 0 . , far as we fee, have been formed by natural operations <>f earth
the folid body of the earth, a natural hiftory of of the globe, in collecting loofe materials and depo-forl,leii at
thofe animals is formed, which includes a certain por- filing them at the bottom of the fea, confolidating ^etu0tf°ia
tion of time ; and for the afcertaining this portion of thofe collections in various degrees, and either elevating 1 e ea‘
tiijre, we muft again have recourfe to the operations of thofe confolidated mafles above the level on which they
this world. were formed, or lowering the level of that fea.”
From a view of the prefent conftruCtion and ope- With regard to the railing of the land, thus formed Coufifnc
rations of nature, therefore, our author fuppofes, that at the bottom of the fea, to fome height above its beraifed*
we may underftand what has formerly paffed in the ori- furface, our author differs from Buffon, and contends, from thence«
ginal formation of the globe; and then proceeds to that “no motion of the fea occafioned by the earth !Tariy m*‘-
tn ttip fnllnwlnor roannf'f ? revolving in this folar fvftpm rnnlrl Krinn- aKr..., -Un-ft°n °f th®
end ; for let us fuppofe the axis of the earth to be "
changed from the prefent poles and placed in the equi-
reafon in the following manner:
General The folid parts of the globe are, in general, corn-
view of the pofed of fand, gravel, argillaceous and calcareous ftrata,
folid parts or 0f thefe mixed with fome other fubftances. Sand noCtial line, the confequence of this might indeed be
«fthegIobe. ^ feparate(] and fized by dreams and currents ; gravel the formation of a continent of land about each new
is formed by the mutual attrition of (tones agitated in pole, from whence the fea would run towards the new
water ; and marly or argillaceous ftrata have been col¬
lected by fubfiding in water in which thofe earthy
fubftances had floated. Thus, fo far as the earth
equator; but all the reft of the globe would remaia
an ocean. Some new points might be difcovered, and
others which appeared before above the furface of the
is formed of thefe materials, it would appear to have fea would be funk by the rifing of the water; but, on
been the production of water, winds, and tides. the whole, land could only be gained fubftantially at
Earth in a The next inquiry of our author is into the origin of the poles. Nor could the continents, even fuppofing
mea- 0ur land, which he feems willing to derive entirely from they had been originally produced in this manner, have
jure com- tke exUviae of marine animals. The only argument continued ftationary for many thoufand years, and pre-
exuvl* oV 6 makes ufe of for determining this molt important fented to us, everywhere below their furface, maffei
ani- point is drawn from the quantity of them to be met of confolidated marble and other mineral fubftances,
with in the different parts of it. “We find (fays he) in a ftate as different as pofiible from wftiat they were
the marks of marine animals in the molt folid parts originally. Befides an operation, therefore, by which.
the
EAR [ 243 ] EAR
Earth, the earth at the bottom of the fea fhould be converted
V“"—v into an elevated land, or placed high above the level
of the ocean, there is required a confolidating power,
by which the loofe materials that had fubfided from
water (hould be formed into maffes of the moft perfect
folidity, having neither water nor vacuity betwixt their
conftituent parts, nor in the pores of thefe conftituent
parts themfelves.
Confolida- This confolidating power, he is of opinion, muft lie
ting power out of the reach of common obfervation, becaufe the
t0ofbheed^coaconfolidated ma^es on t^le furfece of the earth are now
vered by an *n a ^ate decay ; and therefore we mutt look into
infpedtien thefe mattes themfelves, in order to difcover the caufe
ihe ma- by which they aflumed their prefent form,
themfelves cnter‘ng uPon t^ie inveftigation of this confoli-
6 ves' dating power, our author obferves, that there are only
two ways in which the requilite changes can happen,
viz. Ample congelation from a fluid ftate, or a conti¬
nual accretion of folid particles. Fire and water, there¬
fore, may be confidered as the general agents in this
operation ; and we are to confider whether they have
afted in the way of aqueous folution and cryftalliza-
tion, or in that of fufion. If the former of thefe
ways is fuppofed to be that in which the ftrata in ge-
30 neral have been confolidated, we may look for a con-
Coniequen-fiderable degree of uniformity in its effects. “ The
Cofin the a<"^on water (he fays) upon all different fubftances
ftraufto be 18 what we are well acquainted with; and there is no
confolida- reafon to conclude any thing myfterious in its opera¬
ted by a- tion, unlefs we fuppofe an immenfe comprefling power
kition3 t0 ^ave f°nie effedt in altering it. Compreflion, how¬
ever (he fays), only alters the relation of evaporation
to heat, or changes the degree of heat which water
can contain. We are therefore to look for no occult
quality in water adting at the bottom of the fea more
than on the furface of the earth. Time, indeed, may
<k> a great deal where the courfe of the operation is
flow ; but where it is contrary to the nature of the
things to produce the change in queftion, it is plain
that no length of time can have any effedt.”
Difficulties ^ga*n> if tnaffes have been confolidated by cry-
attending ttallization, the bodies muft firft have been diffolved in
this fuppo- water as a menftruum ; and therefore another power is
Ction. to be fought for by which the water might again be ex¬
tricated from thofe endlefs labyrinths in which the fo¬
lid matter of the ftrata is depofited, without leaving a
fluid particle in its compofition. There is likewife
another difficulty in finding a fource from whence the
vaft quantity of matter depofited in thefe ftrata ftiould
be derived. Befides, the water contained in the cavi¬
ties and interftices of thefe bodies compofing ftrata
muft be in a ftagnating ftate ; and confequently it can
only a& on the furface of thofe cavities which are to
be filled up. “ But with what are they to be filled ?
Not with water; they are full of this already : Not
with the fubftance of thofe bodies which contain the
water ; this would be only to make one cavity in order
to fill up another. If, therefore, the cavities of the
ftrata are to be filled with folid matter by means of
water, there muft be made to pafs through thefe po¬
rous maffes water impregnated with fome other fbb-
ftances in a diffolved ftate, and the aqueous menftruum
muft be feparated from the diffolved fubftance, and to
depofit the fame in cavities through which the folution
moves.” This fuppofition is, however, according to
our author, inadmiffible ; for, in the cafe of materials Earth,
accumulated in the bottom of the ocean, there is no ^——y—
proper means for feparating the diflblved matter from
the water included in thefe enormous maflefi ; nor are
there any means by which a circulation in thofe maffes
may be formed.
In the further profecution of his fubjeft, our author
informs us, that “ if water had been the menftruum
by which the confolidating matter was introduced into
the cavities of the ftrata, maffes of thofe bodies that
are foluble in water could only be found confolidated ;
and thefe only in fuch a ftate as the Ample feparation
of the diffolving water might produce. But this is far
from being the cafe. We have ftrata confolidated by straf*con-
calcareous fpar ; a thing perfectly diftinguifhable from folidated by
the ftalaftical concretion of the calcareous earth in con- fubftances
fequence of aqueous folution. We have ftrata madeinfoluble in
folid by the formation of fluor ; a fubftance, fo far aswater"
we know, not foluble in water. We have ftrata con¬
folidated with fulphureous and bituminous fubftances,
which do not correfpond to the folution in water. We
have ftrata confolidated with filiceous matter in a ftate
totally different from that in which it is depofited by
water : we have them alfo confolidated by almoft all
the various metallic fubftances, with their almoft endlefs
mixtures and fulphureous compofitions ; that is to fay,
we find perhaps every difterent fubftance introduced
into the interftices of ftrata which had been formed by
fubfidence at the bottom of the fea.”
For thefe reafons, our author thinks it more pro- xhef/pm-
bable that the ftrata have been confolidated by heat bably con-
and fufion ; and this hypothefis, he imagines, will folve folidated by
every difficulty. And as the queftion is of the greatetl jl^atan<^u~
importance to natural hittory, he propofes to invefti-
gate it at great length ; at the fame time that the fub-
jetft is generalized as much as poffible.
He confiders, that among the various ftrata which
compofe the earth, we find fome ftrata formed of filicecus
and fome of fulphureous materials; and with one or
other, or both of thefe fubftances, the ftrata are fo in¬
timately mixed, that what has changed the filiceous or
fulphureous materials from a fluid to a folid ftate, muft
likewife have materially affe&ed the ftrata which con¬
tain them. The former, he looks upon to be abfolute-
ly infoluble in water ; and there are many other bodies bodies iup.
whofe folubility is fo fmall, that it could not be difeo- P‘>fed abf(,-
vered but by means of the filiceous matter. Of this
an inftance is adduced in the feldt-fpar, a compound Wat<r. *
of filiceous, argillaceous, and calcareous earth, inti¬
mately united together; which being for ages expo-
fed to the weather, the calcareous part is diffolved,
and the filiceous left in form of a white foft earth ;
though it is uncertain whether this diffolution be per¬
formed by means of pure water, or whether an acid
be alfo concerned. Siliceous matter is undoubtedly'p
contained in the water of the boiling fountain of Gey- diffolvedby
fer in Ireland; but he thinks that here it muft be dif- an alkali m
folved by an alkali, one of the natural folvents of this diefoun-
earth. “ It may therefore be afferted (fays he), that ^no^Ge^'
no filiceous body having the hardnefs of flint, nor any er‘
cryftallization of that iubftance, has ever been formed
except by fufion. If by any art this fubftance lhali
be diffolved in fimple water, or made to cryftaltize from
any folution, in that cafe the affertion which has been
here made may be denied.”
Hh 2 But
EAR
[ 244 1
EAR
Exempli¬
fied in
chalk;
3«
In petrified
.Wood,
Earth. But befi^es this proof he adduces another, fuppofed
to be more direft ; and that is, the penetration of ma-
Bodies e ^°^'es w*t^ a fl'nty fubftance, which, according to
netrated by ever7 collateral circumftance, muft have been perform-
flinty mat ed by the flinty matter in a ftate of Ample fufion, and
ter in fu- not in a ftate of fafpenfion by any folvent. Flinty
f''’ri bodies are found perfectly infulated in ftrata of chalk
and fand : and here our author determines that it
is not pojftlle that flint matter could be conveyed into
the middle of thefe ftrata by a menftruum in which it
was difiblved, and thus depofited in that place, with¬
out the fmalleft trace of depofition in the neighbouring
parts. The form of thefe bodies alfo demonftrates, in
his opinion, “ 1. That they have been introduced a-
mong thofe ftrata in a fluid ftate, by inje&ion from
fome other place ; 2. That they have been difperfed
in a variety of ways among thofe ftrata then deeply
immerfed at the bottom of the fea ; and, 3. That they
have been there congealed from the ftate of fufion, and
have remained in that fituation, while thofe ftrata have
been removed from the bottom of the ocean to the fur-
face of the prefent land.”
There are alfo fpecimens brought from many differ¬
ent places, which contain in themfelves the mojl evident
marks of this injeHiion of theflinty fubflance in a fluidJlate ;
and thefe are pieces of foffle wood brought from Eng¬
land, Germany, and Loch Neagh in Ireland. Some¬
times thofe fpecimens appear to have been previoufly
penetrated by an irony or calcareous matter, and fome-
times not : “ the inje&ed flint, however (fays he), ap¬
pears to have penetrated the body of this wood im-
merfed at the bottom of the fea, under an immenfe
comprefiion of water. This appears from the wood
being penetrated partially, fome parts not being pene¬
trated at all Now, in the limits betwixt thefe two
parts, we have the moft convincing proofs that it had
been flint in a Ample fluid ftate which had penetrated
the wood, and not in a ftate of folution.
“ Firfl, Becaufe, however little of the wood is left
unpenetrated, the diviflon is always diftimft between
penetrated t^ie ’nje<^e<^ Part ant^ that which is not penetrated by
by ftint in the fluid flint. In this cafe the flinty matter has pro-
a ftate of- ceeded a certain length, which is marked, and no far-
folution. ther; and beyond this boundary there is no partial im¬
pregnation, nor a gradation of the flintifying opera¬
tion, as there muft have been if Aliceous matter had
been depoAted from a folution idly. The termina¬
tion of the flinty impregnation has affumed fuch a form
precifely as would have happened naturally from a fluid
ftint penetrating that body.
“ In other fpecimens of this mineralizing operation,
foffile wood, penetrated more or lefs with ferruginous or
calcareous fubftance, has been afterwards penetrated
with a flinty fubftance. In this cafe, with whatever
different fubftances the woody body fhall be fuppofed to
have been penetrated in a ftate of folution by water, the
regular ftrudlure of the plant would ftill have remained,
with its vacuities varioufly Ailed with the petrifying
fubftances, feparated from the aqueous menftruum, and.
depoflted in the vafcular ftrufture of the wood.
“ There cannot be a doubt with regard to the truth
ef this propofition; for, as it is, we frequently And
parts of the confolidated wood with the vafcular ftruc-
ture remaining perfedtly in its natural Ihape and fitua¬
tion 5 but if it had been by aqueous folution that the
3f
Why the
wood ha?
not: been
neralized
>y aqueous-
wood had been penetrated and confolidated, all the Earth,
parts of that body would be found in the fame natu- —v—“^
ral ihape and fttuation.
“ This, however, is far from being the cafe ; for
while in fome parts the vafcular ftructure is preferved
entire, it is alfo evident, that in general the woody
ftrufture is varioufly broken and diffolved by the fufton
and cryftallization of the flint.”
With regard to the fecond kind of fubftances to beOfthe ful-
confidered, and which are called by our author fulphu- phureous
reous, he tells us, “ that they are not foluble in water fubftaiiCei*
fo far as we know, but fulible by heat, and inflamma¬
ble by means of heat and vital air. They are either
more Ample or more compound. The former conAft of
phlogifton united either with acid or metallic fubftances,
the one forming fulphur, properly fo called, the other
metals. The more compound kind are compofed of
oily matter produced by vegetables, and forming bi¬
tuminous fubftances. 4t
“ Sulphur is found naturally combined with metals, Metals can.
which are faid to be mineralized by it; and it is well "°^ ^
known that this mineralization is performed by means ^ a ^
of heat and fufion ; nor will any perfon (killed in che- foktion.
miftry pretend to fay that this is done in the way of
aqueous folution. The combination of iron and ful¬
phur, for inftance, may be eaiily performed by fuAon ;
but this compound is refolved into a vitriolic fait by
aqueous folution.”
Our author further remarks, that unlefs all the fub¬
ftances of this kind were foluble in water, we ought
not to fay that any one of them is formed by aqueous
folution ; for there is fuch a continued chain of con¬
nexion between them, that all muft have been formed
either by aqueous folution or by means of heat and
fufion. In one mafs, for inftance, we find, 1. Pyrites, Exempli-
containing fulphur, iron, and copper : 2. Blend, con-fied in dif*
filling of iron, fulphur, and calamine: 3. Galena,
confining of lead and fulphur: 4. Marmor metalli- ances’
cum, confifting of terra ponderofa faturated with the
vitriolic acid, a fubftance infoluble in water: 5. A fa-
turation of calcareous earth with the acid of floor,
forming a fubftance likewife infoluble in water: 6. Cal¬
careous fpar of different kinds, being calcareous earth
faturated with fixed air, and fomething alfo which
makes a variety : And, laftly, Siliceous fubftance, or
quartz cryftals. Unlefs, therefore, every one of thefe.
different fubftances were foluble in water, and cryftal-
lizable from it, we will look in vain for any explana¬
tion of thefe appearances by means of aqueous folution ;
while heat being capable of rendering all thefe fub¬
ftances fiuid, they may be with the greateft fimplicity
tranfported from one place to another; and they may
be made to concrete altogether at. the fame, time, and
diftmctly feparate in any place. ^
But what puts, the matter beyontlall doubt with our Suppofed
author, is a fpecimen of ore taken from an Hungarian proof from
mine, and which contains petro-filex, pyrites, and cin- an Hui1ga*
nabar, fo mixed: together and cryftallized upon one rait
another, that it is impoffible. to conceive any one of
thefe bodies to have had its fluidity and concretion
from a caufe which had not affe&ed the other two.
“ Now (fays our author), let thofe who would deny
the fufion of this filiceous body explain ■ how water
could diffolve thefe three different bodies, and depoiit
them in their prefent ftiape. If, on the contrary, they
have
EAR r 245 ] E A 11
have not the leaft ftiadow of reafon for fuch a gratui- is contained in a rock, which every naturalift, he Earth.
44
From the
exittence
of native
metals in
the earth.
tons fuppofition, the prefent argument muft be admit¬
ted in its full force.”
The next argument in favour of our author’s doc¬
trine is drawn from the exiftence of metallic bodies in
their malleable Hate in the bowels of the earth. In
this fituation they are alfo commonly attended with
fuch evident marks of fufion, that it is impoffible to
deny their having been really melted ; and for the truth
fays, will allow to have been produced by fire and fu-
flon. 48
The flrata of foffil coal are found in almoft every in- Formation
termediate Hate, as well as in thofe of bitumen and tIie
charcoal. Of the former kind is that fofiil coal which ^r®“'jlun<is
melts and becomes fluid by heat ; of the latter, is that
fpecies found both in Wales and Scotland, winch is
perfedly infufible in the fire, and burns like coaks with-
of this he appeals, among a thoufand inftances, to the out flame or fmoke. The former abounds in oily mat-
great native mafs of iron found by Dr Pallas in Si-
beria.
Of bitumi- Oily or bituminous bodies are found varioufly inter-
uousbodics. mixed with mineral fubflances, as well as forming di-
flincl ftrata of themfelves. Vegetables afford oily and
ter; the latter has been difUlled by heat until it has be¬
come a caput mortuum, or perfect coal. The more vo¬
latile parts of thefe bodies are fometimes found in their
feparate date. Thus at Raith in Fifefhire, there is a stratum
ftratum of lisneftone, which, though butflightly tinged containing.
refinous matters ; which being collected at the bottom with a black colour, contains bituminous matter like hquid bitu-
of the ocean are there formed into ftrata, afterwards
changed by various degrees of heat, and the evapora-
Why thefe tion of their more fluid parts. “ In order to under¬
hand this (fays our author), it muft be confidered.
pitch, in many cavities which are lined with calcareous
fpar cryftallized. Now, it is to be obferved, that had Fifefhire.
the cavity in the folid limeftone or marble, which is li¬
ned with calcareous cryftals containing pyrites, been
^otl^“red that, while immerfed in water, and under infuperable thus incrufted by means of filtration with water, this
while under comPre^'lon> 1:^e vegetable, oily, and refinous fubftan- water muft have diflblved calcareous fpar, pyrites, and
water. ces would appear to be unalterable by heat; and it is bitumen. But thefe natural appearances would not
only in proportion as certain chemical reparations take
place, that thofe inflammable bodies are changed in
their fubilance by the application of heat. Now, the
moft general change of this kind is by evaporation, or
the diftillation of their more volatile parts; by which
oily fubftances become bituminous, and bituminous
fubftances become coaly. There is here a gradation,
which is beft underftood by comparing the two ex¬
tremes. On the one hand, we know by experiment,
be folved by this hypothefis of diflblution and fil¬
tration of thefe fubftances. There is alfo required,
firft, a caufe for the feparation of thefe different fub¬
ftances from the aqueous menftruum. 2. An explana¬
tion of the way in which a bitumen fliould be formed
into hard round bodies (our author has a fpecimen of
this kind) of the moft folid ftru&ure; and; laftly,
fome probable means for this complicated operation be¬
ing performed below the bottom of the ocean, in the
that oily and bituminous fubftances can be melted, and clofe cavity of a marble ftratum.
partly changed into vapour by heat; and that they be¬
come harder and denfer in proportion as the more vo¬
latile parts have evaporated from them. On the other
hand, coaly fubftances aredeflitute of fufibility and vo¬
latility, in proportion as they have been expofed to
greater degrees of heat, and to other circumftances fa¬
vourable to the diffipation of their more volatile and
Having thus run through his courfe of argument for
the probability of the ftrata of earth being formed by
heat and fufion rather than by aqueous folution, our
author proceeds to the examination of a phenomenon
in the mineral kingdom, which may be thought incon-
fiftent with what he has advanced ; viz. the exiftence
great maffes of fait in the bowels of the earth.. On Onthepre-*
fluid parts. If, therefore, in mineral bodies we find this fubjeft he obferves, that the formation of maffes of dudion of
the two extreme ftates of this combuftible fubitance,
and alfo the intermediate ftates, we muft either con¬
clude that this particular operation of heat has been thus
adlually employed in nature, or- we muft explain thofe
appearances by fome other means in as fatisfa&ory a
fait at the bottom of the fea, without the affiftance of '
fubterraneous fire, is not a thing unfuppofeable as at ^ fu‘lori*
firft fight might appear. “ Let us but fuppofe a rock
placed acrofs the gut of Gibraltar (a cafe nowife unna¬
tural), and the bottom of the Mediterranean would be
manner, and fo as ftiall be confiftent with other ap- certainly filled with fait; becaufe the evaporation from
pearances. In this cafe it will avail nothing to have the furface of that fea exceeds the meafure of its fup-
pearances.
recourfe to the falfe
11 nothing
malogy of water diffolving and
cryftallizing falts, which has been fo much employed
for the explanation of other mineral appearances. The
operation here in queftion is of a different nature, and
47 neceffarily requires both the powers of heat and proper
■proof that conditions for evaporation. Therefore, in order to
bituminous decide the point with regard to what is the power in
have^een nature> ^7 which mineral bodies have become folid, we
confolida- have only to find a bituminous fubftance in the moft
ted by heat, complete ftate of coal, intimately connedted with fome
other fubftance which is more generally found confoli-
dating the ftrata, and affifting in the concretion of mi¬
neral fubftanees. A moft undoubted proof of this
kind our author has in his poffefiion, viz. a mafs in
which are blended together coal of the moft fixed kind,
quartz, and marmor metallicum. The fpecimen alfo
meafure of its fup-
ply. But ftrata of fait formed in this manner at the
bottom of the fea are as.far frwm being confolidated by
means of aqueous folution as a bed of fand in the fame
fituation ; and we cannot fuppofe the confolidation of-
fuch a ftratum of fait by means of water, without fup-
pofing fubterranean heat employed to evaporate the.
brine which would fucceffively occupy the iuterftices of
the faline cryftals4 But this, it may be obferved, is
equally departing from the natural operation of water
as the means for confolidating the fediment of the
ocean, as if we were to fuppofe the fame thing done
by heat and fufion. For the queftion is not, if fubter¬
ranean heat be of fufiicient intenfity for the purpofe of
confolidating ftrata by the fufion of their fubftances?.
but, whether it be by means of this agent, fubterraneous
heat, or by. water alone, without the operation of a-:
meltings
l?arth.
EAR [ 246 1 EAR
Sarth. melting heat, that thofe materials have been varioufly
confolidated ?”
From'the The Doctor now attempts to prove, from the ap-
appSrance Pearance °f the faline ftrata, that they have been formed
of the fait- by fubterraneous heat and fufion as well as the others,
rock in “ The falt-rock in Chelhire lies in ftrata of red marl.
Cheftiire. jt is horizontal in its direftion, and is dug 30 or 40
feet deep. The body of this rock is perfectly folid,
and the fait in many places pure, colourlefs, and tranf-
parent, breaking with a fparry, cubical texture : but
the greateft part is tinged by the admixture of the
marl, and that in various degrees, from the llighteft
tinge of red to the moft perfeft opacity. Thus the
rock appears as if it had been a mafs of fluid fait, in
which had been floating a quantity of marly fubftance
not uniformly mixed, but every where feparating and
fubfiding from the faline fubftance. There is alfo to
be obferved a certain regularity in the reparation of the
tinging from the colourlefs fubftance; which, at a pro¬
per diftance, gives to the perpendicular fedtion of the
rock a diftinguilhable figure in its ftrufture. When
looking at this appearance near the bottom of the rock,
it firft prefented the figure of regular ftratification;
but upon examining the whole mafs of rock, this ftra¬
tification was found only to take place near the bot¬
tom. At the top of the rock, the moft beautiful fi¬
gure, though the moft diftant from ftratification, was
obferved. It was all compofed of concentric circles,
and thefe appeared to be the fe&ion of a mafs made up
entirely of concentric fpheres, like thofe beautiful fy-
ftems of configuration which agates fo frequently pre-
fcnt us with in miniature. In about eight or ten feet
from the top, the circles growing large, were blended
together, and gradually loft their regular appearance,
until at a greater depth they again affumed that of a
regular ftratification. This regular arrangement of the
floating marly fubftance in the body of the fait, which
is that of the ftru&ure of a coated pebble, or that of
concentric fpheres, is altogether inexplicable upon any
other fuppofition than the perfeft fluidity or fa lion of
the fait, and the attractions and repulfions of the con¬
tained fubftances. It is in vain to look in the opera¬
tions of folution and evaporation for that which nothing
but perfeft fluidity and fufion can explain.
From the “ This example of a mineral fait congealed from a
'Mineral al- melted ftate, may be confirmed by another argument
:kali on Te- fUggefted by Dr Black, vi%. an alkaline fait found in a
.oerift. mineral ftate, and defcribed in the Philofoph. Tranfac.
for 1771. The fofiile alkali cryftallizes from a diflbl-
ved ftate, in combining itfelf with a large quantity of
water, in the manner of alum: and in this cafe the
water is effential to the conftitution of that folid cry-
ftalline body ; for, upon the evaporation of the water,
the tranfparent fait lofes its folidity, and becomes a
white powder. If, inftead of being gently dried,
the cryftalline fait is fuddenly expofed to a fufficient
degree of heat (that is, fomewhat moie than the heat
of boiling water), it enters into the ftate of aqueous fu¬
fion, and boils, emitting the water by means of which
it had been cryftallized in the cold, and rendered fluid
in that heated ftate. It cannot be cryftallized from a
diflblved ftate without the combination of that quan¬
tity of water ; nor can that water be feparated with¬
out deftroying its cryftalline ftate. But in this mine-
IS?1 fpecimen we have a folid cryftalline fait, with a
ftrufture which, upon examination, appears to be fparry
and radiated like the zeolite. It contains no water in —v—^
its cryftallization, but melts in a fufficient heat with¬
out any aqueous fufion. Therefore this fait muft have
-been in a fluid ftate of fufion immediately before its
congelation and cryftallization.
“ Another example may be drawn from the iron- Fronuron-
ftonc, which is commonly found among the argillace- (tone,
ous ftrata attendant upon foflile coal, both in Scotland
and England. This ftone is generally found among
the bituminous fchiftus or black argillaceous ftrata,
either in feparate mafles of various lhapes and fizes,
or forming of itfelf ftrata which are more or lefs con¬
tinuous in their dire&ion among the fchiftus or argil¬
laceous beds. This mineral contains in general from
40 to 50 per cent, of iron, and it lofes near one-third
of its weight in calcination. Before calcination it is
of a grey colour, is not penetrable by water, and takes
a polilh. In this ftate therefore it is perfectly folid ;
but being calcined, it becomes porous, red, and tender.
The fact to be proved with regard to thefe iron ftones
is, that they have acquired their folid ftate from fu¬
fion, and not in concreting from any aqueous folution.
A fpecies of this kind of ftone is found at Aberlady
in Eaft Lothian, refembling an oblate or much com-
prefled fphere, and the fize from two or three inches
diameter to more than a foot. In the circular or ho¬
rizontal feCtion they prefent the moft elegant fepta-
rium: and from the examination of this particular
ftruCture, the following conclufions may be drawn. ^
“ 1. That the fepta have been formed by the uni- Suppofed
form contraction of the internal parts of the ftone,to have re¬
tire volume of the central parts diminilhing more than
that of the circumference; by which means the fepa-y U*
rations of the ftone diminifh in a progreffion from the
centre towards the circumference.
“2. There are only two ways in which the fepta
muft have received the fpar with which they are filled
more or lefs; either, firft, by infinuation into the ca¬
vity of thefe fepta after they were formed; or, fecond-
ly, by feparation from the fubftance of the ftone at
the fame time that the fepta were forming.
“ Were the former of thefe fuppofitions true, ap-Thelspta
pearances would be obfervable, fhowing that the fparry ofthis floo*
fubftance had been admitted either through the porous not
ftruCture of the ftone, or through proper apertures
communicating from without. Now, if either of thefe queous fo-
had been the cafe, and the ftone had been confo- lution.
lidated from no other caufe than concretion from a
diflblved ftate, that particular ftruCture of the ftone by
means of which the fpar had been admitted muft ap¬
pear at prefent upon an accurate examination. This,
however, is not the cafe ; and we might reft the argu¬
ment here: The fepta reach not the circumference ;
the furface of the ftone is folid and uniform in every
part; and there is not any appearance of the fpar in the
argillaceous earth around the ftone. It therefore ne-
ceflafily follows, that the contraction of the iron-ftone,
in order to form the fepta, and the filling the cavities
with fpar, had proceeded pari pajfu ; and that this ope¬
ration muft have been brought about by means of fu¬
fion or by congelation from a ftate of Ample flnidity
and expanfion.
“ There is one fa£t more, which is well worth our
attention; viz. the cryftallizations which are found in
1 clofe
EAR [ 247 1 EAR
Earth, clofe cavities of the moft falid bodies. Thefe concre- of folution in a menflruum, it muft have been fluidity Eurth..
*—'v—“ tions are well known to naturalifts, and form part of from heat and fufion.”
Of t^e beautiful fpecimens which are to be found in the This is the fubftance of all the evidence brought by
zations in cabinets of colle&ors, and which the German minera- Dr Hutton in fupport of his doftrine, that moft of the ■
cavities of lifts have named drufen.” Our author, however, con- mineral fubftances with which the ftrata are conjoined
folidbodies. oniy one 0f thefe fpecies, which is of the agate muft have been produced by fubterraneous heat, and $0
Particular kind. It belongs to the kind of ftones frequent in not from any aqueous folution. Thus far he thinks The doc-
kind of this country, which are commonly called pebbles. Many it is perfectly conclufive, though not altogether fo trine of fu-
drufea de- cf them are filled with a filiceous cryftallization, which with regard to the formation of the ftrata themfelves:
ftribed. evidently proceeds from the circumference towards but, in order to make it apply alfo to thefe, he next niation 0f
the centre. Many of them again are hollow. They propofes to give examples of ftrata confolidated with- the ftrata.
are uniformly lined with cryftallized fubftances ; and out the introduftion of foreign matter, merely by the
it is proper to attend to this circumftance, that the foftening or fufion of their own materials.
cavity is perfectly inclofed with many folid coats im- For this purpofe he confiders the calcareous and fi- Univerfal
pervious to air or water ; but particularly with the liceous ftrata, which are the two fo much prevalent on prevalence
external cortical part, which is extremely hard, takes the furface of the globe, that all others, according to
the higheft polifti, and is of the moft perfeft folidity, him, may be confidered as nothing: “ for (fays he) j.ij;ceou8
admitting nothing but the paffage of light and heat. unlefs it be the bituminous or coal ftrata, there isftrata,
O'her mi- “ Within thefe cavities we find, firft, the coats of hardly any other which does not contain more or lefs
neral cry- cryftals with which this cavity is always lined: and of one or other of thefe two fubftances. If therefore
it can be fhown, that both of thefe two general ftrata
have been confolidated by the fimple fufion of their
fubftance, no defideratum or doubt will remain with
regard to the nature of that operation which has been
tranfa&ed at great depths of the earth, places to which
circumftances from a ftate of fufion ; for when thus
at liberty they naturally cryftallize. 2. We have fre¬
quently a fubfequent cryftallization fet upon the firft,
and more or lefs immeifed in it. 3. There is alfo
fometimes a third cryftallization fuperincumbent on all accefs is denied to mortal eyes.
the fecond, in like manner as the fecondwas upon the
firft:. Our author has one fpecimen in which the pri¬
mary cryftals are filiceous ; the fecond thin foliaceous
cryftals of deep red but tranfparent ore, forming ele¬
gant figures that have the form of rofes ; the tertiary
cryftallization is a frofting of fmall filiceous cryftals
We are now to prove, 1. That thofe ftrata have
been confolidated by fimple fufion ; and, 2. That this
operation is univerfal in relation to the .ftrata of the
earth, as having produced the various degrees of hard-
nefs or folidity in thefe bodies. fa
“ I ftiall firft remark, that a fortuitous collection of Confolida-
upon the edges of the faliaceous cryftals. In other hard bodies, fuch as gravel and fand, can only toucht'onofa
fpecimens there is firft a lining of colourlefs filiceous in points, and cannot while in that hard ftate be ma(Ie
cryftals, then another lining of amethyftine cryftals, to correfpond fo precifely to each other’s fhape as to tuitous col¬
and fometimes within that fuliginous cryftals. Upon confolidate the mafs. But if thefe hard bodies Ihould ledhon of
thefe fuliginous and amethyftine cryftals are many fphe- be foftened in their fubftance, or brought into a certain hard bodies*
rides or hemifpheres of red compaft iron-ore like has- degree of fufion, they might be adapted mutually to
matites. In others again, the primary cryftals are fi- each other; and thus confolidate jthe open ftrudure
liceous, and the fecondary calcareous. Of this kind of the mafs. Therefore, to prove the prefent point,
there is one in the Doftor’s pofleffion, which has upon we have but to exhibit fpecimens of filiceous and cal-
the calcareous cryftals beautiful tranfparent filiceous careous ftrata which have been evidently confolidated ^
cryftals, and iron fphericles upon thefe. He has alfo in this manner. Of the firft kind great varieties occur ^
an agate formed of various red and white coats, and in this country. They are the confolidated ftrata of
beautifully figured. The cavity within the coated gravel and fand, often containing abundance of feldt-
part of the pebble is filled up without vacuity; firft fpar, and thus graduating into granite; a body, in this ■
t with colourlefs filiceous cryftals ; fecondly, with fuli- refpedf, perfectly fimilar to the more regular ftrata
ginous cryftals ; and, thirdly, with white or colour- which we now examine. The fecond kind again are
lefs calcareous fpar. But between the fpar and cry- lefs common, unlefs we confider the fliells and co-
ftals there are many fphericles, feemingly of iron, half ralline bodies of our limeftones as exhibiting the fame _
funk into each of thefe two different fubftances.” example, which indeed they do. But I have a fpeci-
From the foregoing fadts-our author now draws the men of marble from Spain which will afford the moft
j5 following conclufions. fatisfadory evidence of the fad in queftion. This 6"
Conciufions “ 1. That concretion had proceeded from the fur- Spanhh marble may be confidered as a fpecies of pud-sPaniih
theCfufbdg k*ce ^6 agate inwards. This neceffarily follows ding-ftone; a fpecies of marble which, from Mr Bowles’s *
ftate of the ^rom ^e nature of thofe figured bodies, the figures of Natural Hiftory, appears to be very common in Spain. c ai C ”
minerals, the external coats always determining the fhape of The gravel of which this marble is compofed 'confiib
thofe within, and never contrariwife, thofe within af- of fragments of other marbles of . different kinds. A-
feding thofe without. mong thefe are different fpecies of zeolites, marble,
“ 2. That when the agate was formed,, the cavity fome Ihell marbles, and fome compofed of a chalky
then contained every thing which is now found in it, fubftance, or of undiftinguifbable parts. But it ap-
and nothing more.
“ 3. That the contained fubftances muft have been
in a fluid ftate, in order to their cryftallizing.
“ 4- That as this fluid ftate had not been the effect
pears that all thefe different marbles had been confoli¬
dated or made hard, then broken into fragments,
rolled and worn by attrition ; and thus colleded to¬
gether, along with fome fand or fmall filiceous bodies,
into -
EAR
[ 248 ]
64
Proof of
this having
fiate of fu¬
sion.
65
'The fame
•dodlrine
exemplified
in chalk.
66
Account of
a ridge of
indurated
chalk run¬
ning thro’
tthe ifle of
Wight.
67
Another in
Ireland.
tf8
Granite al-
fo confoli-
dated by
fufion.
Into one mafs. Laftly, this compound body is
folidated in fuch a manner as to give the moft diftinft
evidence that this had been executed by the heat of
fimple fufion.
“ The proof is, that, befides the general conforma¬
tion of thofe hard bodies, fo as to be perfectly adapted
to each other’s ihape, there is in fome places a mutual
indentation, which refembles perfedlly the junction of
the different bones of the cranium; and which muft
neceflarily have required a mixture of thofe bodies
while in a foft or fluid ttate.
“ This appearance of indentation is by no means
lingular or limited to one particular fpecimen. I have
feveral fpecimens of different marbles, in which fine
examples of this fpecies of mixture may be perceived.
But in this particular cafe of the Spanilh pudding-done,
where the mutual indentation is made between two
pieces of hard ftone worn round by attrition, the foft-
enin^ or fufion of thefe two bodies is not limply ren¬
dered probable, but demonftrated.
“ Having thus proved, that thofe ftrata had been con-
ifolidated by fimple fufion, as propofed, we now pro¬
ceed to Ihow, that this mineral operation had been not
only general but univerfal, in confolidating our earth
in all the various degrees, from loofe and incoherent
{hells and fand to the mod folid bodies of the filiceous
and calcareous fubdances.
“ To examplify this in the various colle&ions and
mixtures of fands, gravels, diells, and corals, were end-
lefs and fuperduous. We lhall only take for an ex¬
ample one fimple homogeneous body, in order to ex¬
hibit it in the various degrees of confolidation, from
the date of fimple incoherent earth to that of the
mod folid marble. The fubdance meant is chalk,
naturally a foft calcareous earth, but which may be
found confolidated in every different degree.
“ Through the middle of the ifle of Wight there
runs a ridge of hills of indurated chalk. This ridge
runs from the ifle of Wight direftly wed into Dorfet-
fhire, and goes by Corfcadle towards Dorcbeder, per¬
haps beyond that place. The fea has broke through
this ridge at the wed end of the ifle of Wight, where
columns of the indurated chalk remain, called the
Needles ; the fame being found on the oppofite fhore
in Dorfetfhire. In this field of chalk we find every
gradation of this foft earthy fubdance to the mod
confolidated body of this indurated ridge, which is not
folid marble, but which has loft its chalky property,
and acquired a kind of ftony hardnefs.
« We have this cretaceous fubdance in its mod in¬
durated and confolidated date in the kingdom of Ire¬
land, not far from the Giant’s Caufeway; and it af¬
fords the mod perfect evidence of this body having
been once a mafs of chalk, which is now a body of
folid marble. Thus, if it is by means of fufion that
the drata of the earth have in many places been confo¬
lidated, we mud conclude that all the degrees of con¬
folidation, which are indefinite, have been brought
about by the fame means.
“ It may, however, dill be alleged, that there is a
great part of the folid mafs of this earth not properly
comprehended among thofe bodies which have been
thus proved to be confolidated by means of fufion.
This is granite ; a mafs which is not generally drati-
fied, and which being a body perfectly folid, and
107.
EAR
forming fome parts in the ftru&ure of this earth, de- Earth,
ferves to be confidered. The nature of the granite —v—"*'
is too intricate a fubjeft to be here confidered: we
[hall therefore only now take notice of one fpecies; and
if this appears to have been once in a date of fufion,
we mud conclude that all the red have been fo too. .
The fpecies in quedion comes from Portfoy, on the DefcHptFon
road to Huntley ; and is partly a porphyry and partly of a fpecies
a granite. The Angularity of it, however, confids notfrom Por£*
in the nature or proportions of its condituent parts,foy*
but in the uniformity of the fparry ground, and
the regular fliape of the quartz mixture. This filice¬
ous fubdance, viewed in one direftion, or longitudi¬
nally, may be confidered as columnar, prifmatical, or
continued in lines running nearly parallel. Thefe co¬
lumnar bodies of quartz are beautifully impreded with
a figure on the fides, where they are in contaft with
the fpar. This figure is that of furrows or channels,
which are perfectly parallel, and run acrofs the longi¬
tudinal direction of the quartz. This driated figure
is only feen when, by fracture, the quartz is feparated
from the contiguous fpar. But what is more particu¬
larly to be noticed is, that the tranfverfe feftion of
thofe longitudinal bodies not only have feparately the
forms of certain typographical chara&ers, but collec¬
tively give the regular linear appearance of types fet in
writing.
“ It is evident from the infpeftion of this fofiil,
that the fparry and filiceous fubdances had been mixed
together in a duid date ; and that the crydallization
of the fparry fubdance, which had been rhombic, had
determined the regular dru?ture of the quartz, at lead
in fome dire&ions. Thus the filiceous fubdance is to
be confidered as included in the fpar, and as figured
according to the laws of crydallization proper to the
fparry ground ; but the fpar is alfo to be found inclu¬
ded in the quartz. Now it is not poffible to conceive
any other way in which thefe two fubdances, quartz
and feldt-fpar, could be thus concreted, except by con¬
gelation from a duid date, in which they had been
mixed.”
Our author having at length finifhed his arguments on
the formation of the drata, draws the following general
conclufion. “ If it be by means of heat and fufion that Veinsof
drata have been confolidated, then, in proportion to the the ftraca
degree of confolidation they have undergone from their numerous
original date, they (hould, cateris paribus, abound with "H'rt<^’or‘
more reparations in their mafs. But this conclufion isnot -heFr con¬
found confident with appearances. A dratum of fand-folidation.
done does not abound fo much with cutters or veins as
a limilar dratum of marble, or even a fimilar dratum
of fand-done that is more confolidated. In propor¬
tion therefore as drata have been confolidated, they
are in general interfered with veins and cutters ; and
in proportion as drata are deep in their perpendicular
fedtion, the veins are wide, and placed at greater di-
dances. In like manner, when drata are thin, the
veins are many, but proportionally narrow.
“ It is thus upon chemical principles to be demon-gtrata com.
ftrated, that all the folid drata of the globe have been pofed of
condenfed by means of heat and hardened from athe frag*
date of fufion. But this propofition is equally to be J^ers.
maintained from propofitions that are mechanical. The
drata of the globe, befides being formed of earths, are
compofed of gravel, fand, and fragments of hard bo-
5 dies;
EAR L 249 ] EAR
„ . dies; all of which may be confidered as in their nature
. - ^ Ample : but thefe ftrata are alfo found compofed of
bodies which are.nof Ample, but are fragments of for¬
mer ftrata which'hpti been confolidated, and afterwards
were broken and worn by attrition fo as to make gra¬
vel. Strata compofed in this manner have been again
cmifolidated; and now the queftion is, By what
means ?
uM not “ If ftrata compofed of fuch various bodies had been
be confoli- confolidated, by any manner of concretion, from the
anted by a- fluidity of a diflblution, the hard and folid bodies muft
fjiito’ 5 dif- jje foun(i in their entire ftate, while the interftices be-
iblution. -tween. tb0fc conftituent parts of the ftratum are filled
up. No partial fra&ure can be conceived as introdu¬
ced into the middle of a folid mafs of hard matter
without having been communicated from the furround¬
ing parts. But fuch partial feparations are found in
the middle of thofe hard and folid mafles; therefore
this compound body muft have been confolidated by
other means than that of concretion from a ftate of
folution.
’Muft'have “ ^ ^Pan^ marWe already deferibed, as well as
underg ne many confolidated ftrata of filiceous gravel, afford the
■afufion by cleareft evidence of this fact. Thefe hard bodies are
fire-. perfe&ly united together in forming the moft' folid
mafs ; the contiguous parts of fome of the rounded
fragments are interlaced together, as has already been
obferved ; and there are partial fhrinkings of the mafs
forming veins traverfing feveral fragments, but perfect¬
ly filled with the fpaoy fubftauce of the mafs, and
fometimes with parts of the ftone diftin6tly floating
on the traufparent body of the fpar. Now there is
not in nature any known power, befides heat and fu-
fion, by which thefe effects might be produced. But
fuch effects are general to all confolidated maffes, al¬
though not always fo well illuftrated in a cabinet fpe-
cimen.”
Ilow the Thus the formation of the ftrata is fuppofed to be
strata have fully difeuffed: after which our author goes on to con-
been eleva fider the means by which they have been elevated from
ted from jjjg bottom of the ocean ; for he looks upon it as an
trfthe o-”1 undoubted fa(a» tbat the bigbed: points of our land
Xean. * have been for ages.at the bottom of the ocean. “ It is a
truth unqueftionable (fays he), that what had been ori¬
ginally at the bottom of the fea, is at prefent the high-
eft of our land. In explaining this appearance, there¬
fore, no other alternative is left, but either to fuppofe
ftrata elevated by the power of heat above the level of
the prelent fea, or the furface of the ocean reduced many
miles below the height at which it had fubfifted during
the collection and induration of the land which we inha¬
bit. Now if, on the one hand, we are to fuppofe no ge¬
neral power of fubterraneous fire or heat, we leave to our
theory no means for the retreat of the fea or the lowering
of its furface. If, on the other, we are to allow the ge¬
neral power of fubterraneous heat, we cannot have much
difficulty in fuppofing either the furface of the fea to have
fubfided, or the bottom of the ocean in certain parts to
have been raifed by a fubterranean power above the level
of its furface, according as appearances ftiall be found
to require the one or the other of thefe conclufions.
“ The ftrata formed at the bottom of the ocean are
neceffarily horizontal in their pofition, or nearly fo ;
and continuous in their horizontal dire&ion and ex¬
tent. They may change, and gradually affume the
Voi. VI. Part. I.
nature of each other fo far as concerns the materials of Earth.
which they are formed ; but there cannot be any fud- v—
den change, fradture, or difplacement naturally in the
body of a ftratum. But if thefe ftrata are cemented
by the heat of fufion, and erefted with an expaufive
force adting below, we may expedt to find every fpe-
cies of fradture, diflocation, and contortion in thole
bodies, and every degree of departure from a horizon¬
tal towards a vertical pofition. The ftrata of the strata
globe are adtually found in every poffible pofition : for found hro-
from horizontal, they are frequently found vertical; from1^" aml
continuous, they are broken and feparated in every
poffible diredtion j and from a plane, they are bent and t,ie pofi-
doubled. It is impoffible they could have been formed tion.
by the known laws of nature in their prefent ftate and
pofition. And here the apparent irregularity and dif-
order of the mineral regions are as inftrudtive, with
regard to what had been tranfadled in a former period
of time, as the order and regularity of thefe fame re¬
gions areconclufive in relation to the place in which a
former ftate of things had produced that which, in its
changed ftate, we now perceive.
“ We are now to conclude, that the land on which Have been
we dwell had been elevated from a lower fituation byra‘Iedby
the fame agent which had been employed in confoli- ^ force
dating the ftrata, in giving them liability,^and prepa¬
ring them for the purpofe of the living world. This
agent is matter aftuated by extreme heat, and expand¬
ed with amazing force. If this has been the cafe, it
will be reaforiable to expe& that fome of the expanded
matter might be found condenfed in the bodies which
have been heated by that igneous vapour, and that
matter foreign to the ftrata may have been thus intro¬
duced into the fra&ures and feparations of thofe indu¬
rated maffes. We have but to open our eyes to bepro,/ej
convinced of this truth. Look into the fources of from the
our mineral treafures; alk the miner from whence has infp<’&i'>n
come the metal into his vein ? Not from the earth ot. miUe*«
air above ; not from the ftrata which the vein traver-
fes. There is but one place from whence thefe mine¬
rals may have come; and that is, the bowels of the
earth; the place of power and expanfion ; the place
from whence muft have proceeded that intenfe heat
by which loofe materials have been confolidated into
rocks, as well as that enormous force by which the re¬
gular ftrata have been broken and difplaced.”
Our author is of opinion, that this adlion of heat is a great
likewife evident from an infpe&ion of the materials mechanical
with which the veins are filled, as well as their various Pnwer rc"
fractures and irregularities 5 and informs us, that fome t0
great mechanical power muft have been employed in v';nS
filling thefe veins, as well as that neceffarily employed the matter
-in making the firft fra&ure and divulfion. The fuc- t!ley con*
ceffive irruptions of fluid fubftances into the veins, hetain-
fays, is detnonftrable from the mere infpeftion of the Sncceffive
veins and their contents, it being very common to fee irruptions
three fucceffive feries of thefe operations ; “ all which°f flu‘d.
may be perceived in a fmall fragment of a ftone, which mat£er
a man of fcience may examine in his clofet, often bet-t0 1 em‘
ter than by defeending to the mine where all the ex¬
amples are found on a large feale.”
Thefe fiery operations, he contends, are not to be
accounted any way accidental, but as entirely natural
to the globe, and remain at this day with undiminiffied
force : and of this he brings a proof from the erup-
I i lions
E A R t 25
Earth, tions of mount ^Etna, informing us, that hd has in his
' 1 » ' poffcffion a table of Sicilian jafper, which evidently
. Ihows that this calcareous ftone had flowed and been
per cmce^n ftlch a ftate of fufxon as lava is.
a ftate of This fubterraneous heat manifefted in the burning
fufion. mountains is the renovating power which the earth
Heat of P°ffeffes within itfelf, and which prevents it from co-
volcanoes ming to an en^ hy reafon of the perpetual wade taken
the renova-notice of n° 22. “ Volcanoes (fays he) are natural to
ting power the globe as general operations; but we are not to
^nh confider nature as having a burning mountain for an
’ end in her intention, or as a principal purpofe in the
general fyftem of this world. The end of nature in
placing an iniernal fire or power of heat, and a force
of irrefiltible expanfion in the body of this earth, is to
confolidate the fediment colle&ed at the bottom of the
fea, and to form thereof a mafs of permanent land
above the level of the ocean, for the purpofe of main¬
taining plants and animals. The power appointed for
this purpofe is, as on all other occafions where the
operation is important, and where there is any danger
of a ftiortcoming, wifely provided in aburfdance ; and
there are contrived means for difpofing of the redun-
ga dancy. Thefe, in the prefent cafe, are our volcanoes.
■Volcanoes “ A volcano is not made on purpofe to frighten
to be con- fuperftitious people into fits of piety and devotion, nor
ftJered as overwhelm devoted cities with deftrufition : A vol-
tiuffubter- cano ^hou^ he confidered as a fpiracle to the fubterra-
raneous neous furnace, in order to prevent the unneceffary ele¬
vation of land and fatal effefts of earthquakes; and
we may reft affured, that they in general wifely an-
fwer the end of their intention, without being in them-
felves an end for Which nature had exerted fuch ama¬
zing power and contrivance.”
The Do6tor then goes on to fliow, that volcanoes
proper for are not proper for elevating land, unlefs placed at the
ekvatmg bottom of the fea, where the contadi of the water
the bottom ten^s to c^°^e the orifice, and to accumulate matter
of the fea. upon the weakeft part. An inftance of this was given
in the year 1707, when the burning ifland arofe in the
Mediterranean ; and he cofifirms his theory by the
great number of melted matters which are every where
to be found in the ftrata, even of countries where no
^ *4 volcanoes exift at prefent. Examples are brought
fupp'ofed tch °m the dykes of whin-ftone, as they are called in this
have been country, and which he fuppofes to have been once in
in a ftate of a ftate of fufion.
Jullon. jn orcjer to avoid an objeftion which might here
Difference ar^e from the difference betwixt the appearance of
between our whinftone and the lavas of volcanoes, our author
erupted and makes a diftin&ion between fuch as have been erupted
^"®ruPtc<* at the moment of explofion, and thofe which had been
*va?‘ melted under a vaft compreffion of weighty materials,
and at laft expofed to the air after the Ipafe of a num¬
ber of ages. “ In the erlxpted lavas, thofe fubftances
which are fubjeft to calcine and vitrify in our fires,
fuffer fimilar changes when delivered from a compref-
fion which had rendered them fixed, though in an
Ebullition extremely heated ftate. Thus a lava in which there
in volca- is much calcareous fpar, when it comes to be expofed
tioes owing to the atmofphere, or delivered from the compreffing
tricatlotTof ^°rce conhnement, effervefees by the explofion
fxed air. *ts ^xe<^ air > the calcareous earth at the fame
time vitrifying with the other fubftances. Hence
fuch violent ebullition in volcanoes, and hence the e-
heat.
83
Are only
o ] ^ EAR
miffion of fo much pumice ftone and afhes which are Eartb.
of the fame nature. In the body of our whinftone, on v—^
the contrary, there is no mark of calcination or vitrifi- 87
cation. We frequently find in it much calcareous
fpar, or the terra calcarea aerata, which had been in a whin-ftone
melted ftate by heat, and had been cryftallized by con-deferibed.
gelation into a fparry form. This is the caufe of the
differences between the erupted lavas and our whin¬
ftone, toadftone, and the Swedifh trap ; which may be
called fulterranean lavas.1*
All this time our author feems to have excluded
from his fyftem every idea of accounting for the ori¬
gin of metals ; though this would feem to be no lefs jg
neceffary than to account for that of whinftone. At Strange ac-
laft, however, we are informed that there are peculiar count of the
productions in the mineral kingdom which are rare» * j 5
as being found only in few places; and of thefe he
enumerates the diamond of the eaft, the platina of the
weft, and the tin ©f Cornwal, Germany, and Suma¬
tra. “ But all thefe fubftances (gold itfelf not ex¬
cepted),” fays he, “ are to be confidered as the vapours
of the mineral regions condenfed occafionally in the
crevices of the land.” g
The laft part of our author’s differtation contains Syftem of
the fyftem of decay and renovation obferved in the decay and
earth. In this having again obferved what had been renovation
already repeated over and over, that the land
fee at prefent had been formed at the bottom of the
fea, he proceeds to inform us, that, “ at a grofs com-A fourth
putation, there may perhaps be a fourth part of our part of the
folid land which is compofed from the matter that had land fup-
belonged to thefe animals. Now what a multitude of
living creatures, what a quantity of animal economy,
muft have been required, for producing a body of cal- rine ani-
careous matter which is interfperfed throughout all the mals.
land of the globe, and which certainly forms a very con-
fiderable part of the mafs ! Therefore, in knowing how
thefe animals had lived, or with what they had been
fed, we {hall have learned a moft interefting part
of the biftory of the earth; a part which it is neceffa-
ry to have afeertained, in order to fee the former ope¬
rations of the globe, while preparing the materials of
the prefent land.”
Before entering upon this fubjefl, however, he ft'Horavd
thinks it neceffary to confider fome other of the fand, and
component parts of the ftrata of our prefent earth, clay conli
Thefe are gravel, fand, and clay. Gravel, he tells us,dereci-
is no other than ftones worn round by their attrition
in water ; and finding them in the compofition of our
land, we muft conclude, that in the former earth there
had been operations of wind and water fimilar to thofe
which we behold at prefent; and by which new gra¬
vel is continually prepared, as well as old gravel con-
fumed or diminiflied by attrition upon our fhores.
Sand is no other than fmall particles of hard and folid.
bodies worn round by attrition. Clay is a mixture of
different earths or hard fubftances in an impalpable
ftate ; and thefe fubftances are chiefly the filiceous and
aluminous earths. Others are occafionally mixed in
days; or perhaps always to be found in fome fmall
portion. But the great quantity of filiceous, argilla¬
ceous, and other compound fubftances, in form of
earth or other impalpable fediment, correfponds per-
fe&ly with that quantity of thefe fame fubftances which
muft .have been prepared in the formation of fo much
gravel-,
E A R [ i.
Eaith. gravel and fand, by the attrition of thefe bodies in the
111 ‘ “ moving waters.
From thefe confiderations our author tells us, that
tures con- we ^ave reafon to conclude there had been in the
cerning the former earth fuch operation as we fee at prefent; and
former likewife that it had been compofed of fimilar mate-
earth. rja]s> 'j’hg anJmals which had formerly exifted, alfo
appear by their remains to have been fimilar to what
they are now ; and it is alfo probable that their food
had been derived from the fame origin, viz. vegetables.
There mull therefore have exifted in the former earth
a world of vegetables, as well as a world of animals
and an ocean. The exiftence of thefe he determines
from the maay fpecimens of foffil wood and petrified
plants to be met with ; and its profufion he thinks is
evidenced from the quantities of mineral coal: of which
Craffup- t^iat “ nothing can be more certain than that
pofed to all the coaly or bituminous ftrata have had their ori-
haye been gin from the fubftance of vegetable bodies that grew
deiived Up0n the land.”
romwoo . Lgftjy.^ when he comes to fpeak of the adlual dimi-
nution of the earth we at prefent inhabit, he proceeds
Of the di- in the following manner: “ Our land has two extre-
nnnuiion of jnhies ; the tops of the mountains on one hand, and
hTd^ the fea-fhore on the other. It is the intermediate
fpace between thefe two that form the habitation of
plants and animals. While there is a fea, ftiore, and a
high ground, there is that which is required in the
fyftem of the world; take thefe away, and there
would remain an aqueous globe, in which the world
would perilh. But, in the natural operations of the
world, the land is perilhing continually; and this is
what we now want to underftand.
“ Upon the one extremity of our land there is no
increafe, nor any occafion of mineral fubftance. That
place is the mountain top, on which nothing is ob-
ferved but continual decay. The fragments of the
. mountain are removed in a gradual fucceffion from
the higheft ftation to the loweft. Being arrived at
the ftiore, and having entered the dominion of the
waves in which they find perpetual agitation, thefe
hard fragments, which had eluded the refolving powers
natural to the furface of the earth, are incapable of
refilling the powers here employed for the deftrudtion
of the land. By the attrition of one hard body upon
another, the moving ftones and rocky Ihores are mutu¬
ally impaired ; and that folid mafs, which of itfelf had
potential liability againft the violence of the waves,
affords the inftruments of its own deftruftion, and thus
55' gives occafion to its adtual inftability.”
No percep- Flaving thus deferibed very particularly the means
* reft made ^7 "'h'ch the defti'uflion of the prefent earth is going
fu'the dif- on> it is natural to inquire what progrefs has been
folution of made in the work. But in this, neither ancient nor
this earth, modern hiftory give any affiftance. The ftrait between
Italy and Sicily he eonfeffes to be no wider; the
ifthmus of Corinth to be no narrower; nor the rock on
which the famous tower of Pharos was erected, either
larger or fmaller than before. The Palus Masotis in
the time of Polybius appeared to be very near filling
up, asthathiftorian informs us; and fo it continues to
appear at this day, without any apparent progrefs
having been made in it. In Ihort, the whole of our
author’s refearches can produce nothing more than
the lofs of a fmall ifland in the mouth of the harbour
1
EAR
of New Carthage, which, Polybius fays, exiAed in his Earth.
time ; and for which there is now only a rock under
water. Our author therefore is obliged at laft to own,
that the quantity of decay in the rocks he fpeaks of,
has either been too fmall for human obfervation, or,
which is more probable, that no accurate meafurement
of the fubjedt by which this quantity of decreafe might
be afeertained had been taken and recorded. “ To
fum up the argument, therefore (fays he), we are
certain, that all the coafts of the prefent continents
are wafted by the fea, and conftantly wearing away
upon the whole; but this operation is fo extremely
flow, that we cannot find a meafure of the quantity in 96
order to form an eftimate. Therefore the prefent hnmenfe
continents of the earth, which we confider as in uj
Hate of perfeftion, would, in the natural operations
thegbjbe, require a fpace indefinite for their deftru&ion. deftrudtioa
But in order to produce the prefent continents, the and>epro-
deftruftion of a former vegetable world was neceffary ; ^
confequeatly the produftion of our prefent continents ian(i.
muft have required a time which is indefinite. In
like manner, if the former continents were of the fame
nature with the prefent, it muft have required an¬
other fpace of time, which is alfo indefinite, be¬
fore they had come to their perfe&ion as a vegetable
world.
“ It is neceffary, however, that the prefent land of the
Ihould be worn away and wafted exaftly in proportion manner of
as new land fiiall appear ; or coaverfely, that an equal ^e.'r diffo-
proportion of new land ftiould always be produced
the old is made to difappear. It is only required, that ^
at all times there fhould be a juft proportion of land
and water upon the furface of the globe, for the pur-.
pofe of a habitable world. Neither is it required, in the
adtual fyftem of this earth, that every part of the land
Ihould be diffolved in its ftrudlure, and worn away
by attrition, fo as to be floated in the fea. Parts of
the land may often fink in a body below the level of
the fea, and parts again may be reftored, without
waiting for the general circulation of land and water;
which proceeds with all the certainty of nature, but
which advances with an imperceptible progreffion.
Many fuch apparent irregularities may appear without
the lead infringement on the general fyftem. That
fyftem is comprehended in the preparation of future
land at the bottom of the ocean, from thofe materials
which the diffolution and attrition of the prefent land
may have provided, and from thofe which the natural
operations of the fea afford.
“ We have been now fuppofing, that the begin¬
ning of our prefent earth had been laid in the bottom
of the ocean at the completion of the former land ;
but this was only for the fake of diitinCtnefs. The
juft view is this, that when the former land of this
globe had been complete, fo as to begin to vyafte and
be impaired by the encroachment of the fea, the pre¬
fent land began to appear above the furface of the o*
cean. In this manner we fuppofe a due proportion of
land and water to be always preferved upon the fur¬
face of the globe for the purpofe of a habitable world,
fuch as we poffefs. We thus alfo allow- time and op¬
portunity for the tranflation of animals and plants to
occupy the earth. But if the earth on which we live
began to appear on the ocean at the time when the
laft began to be refolved, it could not be from the ma-
I i 2 terials
E . A ,R . .£ 25
Earth, terials of the continent immediately preceding this
r which we examine, that the prefent earth had been
Prefent conftru&ed : for the bottom of the ocean muft have
earth con- been filled with materials before land could be made
ftnnfted to appear above its furface.—Let us fuppofe, that the
of continent which is to fucceed our land is at prefent
the third beginning to appear above the water in the middle of
before it. the Pacific Ocean ; it muft be evident, that the ma¬
terials of this great body, which is formed, and ready
to be brought forth, muft have been collected from
the deftruftion of an earth which does not now ap¬
pear. Confequently in this true ftatement of the cafe,,
there is neceffarily required the deftru&ion of an ani¬
mal and vegetable earth prior to the former land ; and
the materials of that earth which is firft in our ac¬
count, muft have been colle&ed at the bottom of the
ocean, and begun to be conco&ed for the production
of the prefent earth, when the land immediately pre¬
ceding the prefent had arrived at its full perfection.
This, however, alters nothing with regard to the na¬
ture of thofe operations of the globe ; the fyftem is
ft ill the fame. It only protraCts the indefinite fpace
of time in its exiftence, while it gives us a view of a-
nother diftinCt period of the living world ; that is to
lay, the world which we inhabit is compofed of the
materials, not of that which was the immediate prede-
ceffor of the prefent, but of the earth which, in a-
fcending from the prefent, we confider as the third,,
and which had preceded the land that was above the
furface of the fea while our prefent land was yet be¬
neath the water of the ocean. Here are three diftinCt
fuccefilve periods of exiftence ; and each of them is, in
our meafurement of time, a thing of indefinite dura-
Eternity of tion. We have now got to the end of our reafoning ;
the world we have no data further to conclude immediately from
the final whic}j aCtually is; but we have got enough. If
this theory t^ie ficceffion of worlds is eftablifhed in the fyftem of
nature, it is in vain to look for any thing higher in the
origin of the earth. The refult therefore of our pre¬
fent inquiry is, that we find no veftige of a beginning,
100 no profped of an end.”
White- VI. Though the theory of which we have now gi-
hurft’s the- ven fuch a large abftraCt is the moft laboured and com-
WY' plete that hath yet appeared, it is ftill neceffary to take
notice of fome other attempts, though perhaps lefs cal¬
culated to draw the attention of the public than that
of Dr Hutton. One of thefe is by Mr Whitehurft ;
of which the following is the moft material part of. an
101 abftraft given by himfelf at the end of his work.
The globe “ I- The globe we now inhabit was originally in a
originally ftate of fluidity ; and that not owing to any diffolvent
fluid principle or fubfequent folution,. but to the firft af-
femblage of its component parts. Whence it is pre¬
fumed, that the earth had a beginning, and has not
exifted from eternity, as fome have imagined; though
the precife number of ages it has exifted have not yet
been aCtually determined.”
The proof given, by our author of. this original flui¬
dity of the earth refts entirely upon its oblate fpheroi-
Jjpheroidal dal form ; which -a fluid globe may eaftly be fuppofed
figure- to affume, though we cannot conceive how a folid one
Ihould do fo.
2. “ The fluidity of the earth, and the infinite di-
llended to- vifibility of matter, evidently fhow, that the compo-
^er-° nent parU of, air,. earth, water, &c. were uniformly
ftate.
io»
Proved
from
Its parts
2 T EAR
blended together, none being heavier or lighter than Earth,
another; whereby they compofed an uniform mafs
or pulp, of equal confiftence in every part, from its
furface to its centre ccnfequently the new formed
globe was unfit for animal or vegetable life; and there¬
fore it would feem extremely abfurd to fuppofe that
either the one or the other were created during the
chaotic ftate of the earth, or prior to its being formed
into an habitable world : therefore the prefumption is
great, that mankind were not created till the earth
was become fuitahle to the nature of their exiftence.” io^
The proof of this pofition is laid down in the follow-. Prove,!
ing manner. “ It is a truth univerfally known, that bom the
the component parts of the moft denfe bodies become
fufpended in whatever menftrua they are diffolved ; asacjjs ^
for inftance, the particles of gold in aqua-regia, lilver
in aquafortis, falls in water, and water in air. Nay,
we may likewifeadd, that the component parts of mer¬
cury, in the aft of diftillation, become fufpended in air,
notwithftanding the fpecific gravity of the former is to
that of'the latter as 11,000 to i nearly. Such, therefore,
are the confequences arifing from the infinite dtvifibility
of matter, nonebeingheavieror lightertlian another when
thus reduced to their original elementary principles.” I01.
3. “ The component parts of the chaos were hete- Parts ,'f tire
rogeneous, or endowed with peculiar laws of eleflivc at- chaos en-
traBion ; whereby fimilar bodies are difpofed to unitectowt(1 Wltil
and form feleft bodies of various denominations, as air, jra^;olls *
water, earth, &c. : by means of thefe principles the
chaos was progreflively formed into an habitable world.
“ But the firft operation which prefents itfelf to our
confideration is the oblate fpheroidal figure of the earth,
acquired from its diurnal rotation, and the laws of gra¬
vity, fluidity, and centrifugal force; which was no
fooner completed, than the component parts began to’
aft more freely, according to their affinities: hence the
particles of air united to thofe of air, thofe of water to
water, and thofe of earth to earth; and with their
union commenced their fpecific gravities, and deftroy-
ed that uniform fufpenfion which had hitherto prevail-
ed throughout the chaotic mafs. Thus commenced fjow tjje , ,
the reparation of the component parts ; for thofe of reparation
the greateft denfity began their approach toward the °f it* con¬
centre of gravity ; and thofe of the greateft levity a-
fcended towards the furface : therefore, as air is near- piaCe,
ly 800 times lighter than water, the prefumption is
great, that the former was fooner freed from the gene¬
ral mafs than the latter, and formed a kind of muddy
impure atmofphere, furrounding the newly formed
globe. Water, being next in levity, fucceeded the air,
and univerfally encompaffed the earth in one vaft ocean.
In procefs of time thefe elements became perfeftly
pure and fit for animal life. To
4. “ T he component parts-of the chaos being thus Mands
progrdfively feparated and formed into feleft bodies, formed by-
the following confequences neceflarily enfued ; name-the attra£-
ly, as the fun and moon were coeval with the chaos, the c
fojids could not uniformly fubfide from every part of moon’
the furface, and become equally covered by water ; for
as the feparation of the fblids aud fluids increafed, fo,
in like manner, the tides increafed, and removed the
former from place to place without any order or regu¬
larity. Hence the fea became unequally deep; and
thefe inequalities daily increafing, in procefs of time
dry land appeared, and divided the waters which had
.a hitherto,
Earth.
fiale,
EAR
hitherto prevailed univerfally over the earth,
"v mitive iflands being thus formed, in procefs of time
became firm and dry, and fit for the reception of the
108 animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Several “ Such appears to have been the natural order
haveeia? an<^ Pro£>re^on °f thefe things ; confequently, as the
fccTbefore ^un was coevai with the earth, feveral days and nights
mult have preceded the fun’s firlt appearance in the
- heavens, or its becoming vilible on the fourth day, ac¬
cording to the fcripture account.
Order m 6- “ hhe atmofphere, fea, and land, being thus formed
which ter- for the reception of the animal and vegetable kingdoms
reilrial bo- ln fuccefiive periods of time, we have now to conlider the
createdF6 or<^er wh>ch they were feverally created. Eirft, fince
it appears that the ocean became perfedtly pure and fit
for animal life before the primitive illands were form-
II0 ed, therefore we have endeavoured to prove from a
Marineani-feries of undeniable fails (a), that marine animals
mals■full were firlt formed ; and being extremely prolific, they
formed. increafed and multiplied fo exceedingly as to replenilh
the fea from pole to pole. The ocean being thus Hock¬
ed with inhabitants prior to the formation of the pri¬
mitive iflands, many of them became enveloped and
buried in the mud by the continual aition ofthe tides;
l ajj 1 EAR
The pri- dowed with fimilar powers, all the matter we fee ought Earth.
to be homogeneous alfo. But this is far from being J.J
the cafe. Some parts of it we fee are exceedingly hard,
others proportionably foft. The parts of fome bodies
attraft each other violently ; thofe of others have hard¬
ly any attraction for each other, but are feparable by
the fmalleft force. And though it Ihould be granted
that the powers of attraction and repulfion were ori¬
ginally different in different parts of matter, we have
ftill to explain by what means the fimilar parts of mat¬
ter found out each other in fuch a chaos as the earth
originally was. This feejns an infuperable difficulty in
the fyftems of Drs Burnet and Woodward; and is
equally, though lefs confpicuoufly fo, in thofe of Whi-
iton and Buffon. jj^
Mr Whillon’s fyllem has another and very remark-Deficiency
able defect. He fuppofea the earth to have been ori-*^
ginally a comet, and at a certain time to have become 41
a planet: but he forgets to tell us by what means this ‘ *
comet was' originally formed, or what kind of bodies
the comets are. Yet certainly this theory of the comet
was as neceffary to his fyltem as the theory of the
earth itfelf: for all the fubftances now exilting on the
earth mult originally have exifted in the comet; and if
particularly all the fpecies of fhell-filh, which are lealt the natural powers were known which made a diftinc-
able to defend themfelves from fuch interments. There¬
fore, fince the remains of marine animals are imbedded
at various depths in the earth, from one to that of 'fe¬
veral thoufand feet,, and this in all parts of the world
tion between one fubftance and another in the comet,
we would allb know thofe which diltinguiffied terre-
llrial fubftances from one another. But though even
this great deficiency ffiould be overlooked, the fuppo-
Have been hitherto explored, they bear fufficient teftimony, that lition of a chaos or original confufion of any kind in-
buried in thefe marine bodies were thus entombed at fucceffive
ffc efi't}l at Per*°^s t‘me 5 anc^ that they were created
periodsof Pr‘or to t^ie primitive iflands, and confequently prior
time. to any terreftrial animals. It may be needlefs further
to obferve, that thefe beds of marine ffiells plainly
evince, that they were generated, lived, and died in the
very beds wherein they are found, and were not brought
frorti diftant regions by a flood or floods of water, as
fome people have fuppofed ; confequently fuch beds
in were originally the bottom of the ocean.
Mountains 7, With regard to the mountains, and indeed the
8n<1ts form cont‘nents a^°> Mr Whitehurft is of opinion, that they
40 * are the effedts of fubterraneous fire. His fentiments on
volves us in the greateft difficulties. If the whole fur-
face of the earth confifted of a chaos of melted mat¬
ter, we cannot reafonably think it would have appear¬
ed otherwife when cool than the lavas of burning
mountains do juft now ; and this is a confequence of
his fyftem which Mr Whifton feems to have entirely
overlooked.
Mr Buffon’s theory is liable to the fame difficulties Of Mr BoT^
with the reft. He places his chaos in the fun ; and ton’s,
therefore ought to have given a theory of the fun be¬
fore he gave one of the earth. It ought alfo to have
been ftiown for what purpofe the fun was created when
he had nothing to ffiine upon,, or what probability there
ed by fub- , _ . w , . - . .
terraneous this fubjedt, however, are fomething Angular; for he is that comets exifted when there were no planets. His
fire. tells us, that “ mountains and continents were not pri- account of the formation of the. planets by the ftroke
mary produdtions of nature,^ but of a very diftant pe¬
riod of time from the creation of the world, when the
ftrata had acquired their greateft degree of firmnefs and
of a comet, is juft within the verge oipoffib'illty ; but his
account of the formation of mountains by the motion
of the winds and tides, is certainly inconfiftent with
cohefion, and the teftaceous matter had aflumed a ftony the common prineiplps of mechanics. Though it fhould
11 r~ ” be granted, that water can dillblve every terreftrial fub¬
ftance when, vitrified by a heat 10,000 times greater
hardnefs.
Theories of Thus we have given a very particular account of all
Burnet, &c. tjje theories of any note concerning the formation of than our hotteft furnaces, as the fun muft neceffarily
infumcient. tjie earth which have yet made their appearance. The be ;. and though the water fliould let fall this matter
deficiency of thofe of Burnet, Woodward, Whifton, as a fediment in what quantities and forms we think
and Buffon, muft be exceedingly obvious even to the proper to imagine ; it is impoffible any of it could b«
Powers of moft fuperficial reader. They all affume only the pow-
attra&ion ers of attraction and repulfion as. agents ; without coni
thrown two or three miles above the furface of the wa->
ter, in. order to form thofe high mountains which are :
[nfuffi ftdeiing t^iat t^e^e tw0 powers, or indeed any other to be met with in different parts of the world. It is
'cient. U ^ two with which we are acquainted, could only have indeed very plain, that though by the motion, of the
compofed matters nearly fimilar to each other. If the waters their fediment might be collected in great heaps,*
original particles of matter are homogeneous, and en? it could never reach, higher than their furface. The.
(a) Thefe proofs are afterwards conlidered, as.here our author feems.to be of the fame opinion with Prt
Hutton.
EAR [ 254 ] EAR
'Earth, mountain, once formed, muft then be for ever covered
u"‘"*v with water ; for the fediment would take up.precifely
the fame bulk when a mountain that it did when in a
ftate of diflblution, and the water could never retire
from it as he fuppofes. If the waters retired into vail
fubterraneous caverns, according to another of Mr
Buffon’s fuppofitions, they muft have remained for ever
in thcCe caverns, from whence they could not have re¬
turned to effedl thofe wonderful changes he afcribes to
them. But what in the ftrongeft manner Ihows the
iallacy of Mr Buffon’s hypothefis, is the analogy he
draws between mountains on dry land and iflands in
the fea. The iflands, he fays, are only the tops of
great mountains in the ocean. If, therefore, the ocean
had for a feries of many ages covered the prefent ha¬
bitable part of the world, as our author fuppofes, we
ftiould undoubtedly find many mountains upon the dry
land, the tops of which had formerly been jflands. But
no fuch thing is to be found. There is not on earth a
_ mountain with a top broad and flat like the ifland of
Great Britain or Ireland, or even like iflands of much
Ids confideration.
'Thefe, and many other objedlions that will naturally
occur to an attentive reader, fltow the extreme difticul-
117 ties under which the hypothefis of Mr Buffon labours,
A number as well as others. Thefe difficulties arife, in the firft
°owerUrbe I^ace’ fr°m their affuming too few natural powers.
fideTattrac- Though it is certain that the powers of attraction and
tion and re-tepulfion exift in nature, it is no lefs certain that there
publon pro- are many others. One very remarkable power en-
ved to exift. judy different from thofe of attradion and repul-
fion, may be called the power of ajfmilation or tranf-
mutation. By this, each animal, and each plant,
changes the nutritious particles thrown into its fto-
xnach, or which it meets with in the earth, into a fub-
ftance of its own peculiar kind. Thus, a ftalk of
wheat, by means of its roots, always aflimilates the nu¬
tritious particles of the ground into that particular
grain we call wheat, and no other. This power natu-
ralitls have not been able to explain on the principles
of attradion and repulfion, or any others with which
•we are acquainted ; and therefore it may juftly be called
one of the primary laws of this earth at leatt, whether
we underftand the manner in which it operates or not.—•
Another power which feems to be diffufed throughout
this terraqueous globe, and common to all fubftances,
water alone excepted, is that of multiplying themfelves,
or producing others of the fame fpecies. With regard
to plants and animals, this is exceedingly evident; but
may be cfifputed in the cafe of minerals. It is certain,
however, that mines which have been exhaufted, will
in time be again repleniftied with ore ; that fpars and
cryftals, if broken or cut while their connexion with
the earth remains, will protrude a fubftance fimilar to
the reft, as certainly as the wounded body of an animal
will protrude flelh of a kind fimilar to what was taken
away. The earth itfelf is capable of this multiplica¬
tion. We fee how it hath a tendency to afcend, and
cover ftones, &c. which lie a long time on its furface ;
and thus does this element, feemingly the moft fluggilh
of all others, fwallow up every thing that lies for fome
time undifturbed upon it. Hence we now meet with
many monuments of antiquity below ground, which
formerly were undoubtedly above it. Yet we have no
fight from thence to conclude, that the height of the
dry land above the water was greater at that time than Earth.
what it is now. This multiplication of earth is chief-  
ly owing to vegetation ; which continually produces a
new cruft on the top, and thus tends to bury all fuch
matters as yeft upon the furface. This cruft, however,
does not produce a continual increafe in the height of
the dry land ; for whatever quantity the vegetables add
to the furface, they take from the under parts by the
fuftipn of their roots. Thus the ground becomes
more porous, and the weight of ancient buildings,
ftones, &c. gradually forcing them downwards, they
are at laft buried under ground to a confiderable depth.
— Hence it is eafy to account for the finking of the. n*_
marine bodies that are to be found at different depths aifte of
in the earth, even fuppofing them to have been left on ftielb at
its furface by the deluge. M. Buffon’s obje&ion, great
drawn from the great quantities of them, feems but joimtedfor
very weak : for it is certain, that marine animals, both
of the cruftaceous and other kinds, are found in the
fea at this day in amazing quantities; and there is no
bed of (hells i'o large, that we can reafonably think it
Impojjible for all the animals to have exifted in it at
once.
With regard to the ftrata, it feems undeniable that changes
they may be produced from natural caufes. Clay will may natu-
fometimes be confolidated into (lone; flint, marble,ra^yhaP-
and limeftone, are all found to grow naturally in the
earth ; fo that we cannot draw any conclufion from the the earth,
order in which we now find them. Though we find a
bed of (hells, then, in the heart of a folid rock, this
makes no difficulty in the theory of the earth ; fince
we know that the rock hath by fome natural caufe
been confolidated around them. In fail, this is not fo
wonderful, as what is related by Mr Price in his Trea-
tife of Minerals, Mines, &c. viz. That at the town of
Redruth in Cornwall, “ fome labourers being put to
clear and level the ftxeet for a pavement, they found a
piece of hard Hone in the ground, with abundance of
common fmall pins of brafs interfperfed in and through¬
out the (lone, in fuch manner and form, that all thofe
who faw it afterwards were convinced it was not done
artificially, but that the ftone was formed and produced
by petrifailion, fubfequent to the time the pins were
dropped into the ground. Doctor Plot, in his Na¬
tural Hiftory of Staffordlhire, fays, that near New-
caftle under Lyne, there was found a ftone with a
man’s flcull, teeth and all, inclofed in it.”—From thefe
and other fa&s in fome meafure fimilar, this author
concludes, that every earth or clay, in fome places,
may be converted into ftone in procefs of time, at fuch a
depth where it is undifturbed by being never lacerated
nor molciled, and alfo where it abounds with an un¬
common quantity of juices of a lapidefeent quality :
but this property being extenuated or deftroyed, the
earthy ftones may not improbably again return to their
primitive clay. Thus we fee fome iorts of ftone, when
dug out of the ground and expofed to the air for a
confiderable time, do moulder again into earth, at lead
in appearance ; while others, of an earth-like quality,
are indurated, and become more compact and durable
by lying above ground.”
The theory laid down by Dr Hutton is of a differ-p,,. Hut_
ent nature from the reft ; and as it has been fuppofed ton’s theo-
direftly to militate againll revelation, merits a very par- ry conftdtr
ticular coufideration. The expieffion, however, with. •
3 which
Earth.
EAR L 255 ] EAR
which he concludes his diflertation, that “ we can find
no veftige of a beginning—no profpedt of an end,”
might be fuppofed to relate only to the deficiency of
ourunderftandings or mode of inquiry, had he through¬
out the whole courfe of his work given a fingle hint
of any materials from which the world was originally
formed. In this he differs moft effentially from the
other theorifts whom we have mentioned; for all of
them fuppofe a chaos to have been originally created,
from whence all the variety of fubftances we fee at pre-
fent have been formed. But as the Doctor makes no
mention of any thing prior to a world nearly fimilar to
in what we fee juft now, we muft necdfarily conclude that
Arguments its eternity is a part of his creed. Now, that the world
eternit ^as not *jeen etenia^> may proved from what he him-
theworld all°ws- Wherever we perceive ti fucceflion, we know
in that there muft of neceflity have been a beginning: but,
From the according to our author, there has been a fucpeffion of
ffvrorlds wor^s* ^7 a kind of uncouth generation, fimilar to what
fuppofed by wouW happen to the human race if a man was to de-
Dr Hutton, fcend immediately from his grandmother. Proceeding
in this way, therefore, we muft at laft arrive at one great¬
grandmother of earths, from whence all the reft were
defcended; and of this one a theory was no lefs ne-
ceflary than of any of her fucceffors. This theory
would have been the more difficult, as his- great ele¬
ment cockle-Jljells and oyflen would then have been ab-
fent, and the materials from whence they were after¬
wards to be produced muft have been fought for.
A fuperna- Another argument, which evidently ffiows not only
ti:ral power that the world is not eternal, but that fome other pow-
neceffary iner be/ides its own interfered with it originally, may be
t’or/of tlf" ta^en from the exiftence of animals and vegetables ;
world. 6 koth which our author allows to have had a place
Ia4 throughout all his worlds. We fee at prefent, that
Shown animals proceed from animals, and vegetables from ve-
*r0n? getables ; but the time muft have been, when an ani-
ofauimaU m.al was Pr0<luced without a parent, and a vegetable
and vegeta- without a feed. At this time tHe vvorld muft have been
ties. influenced by a power different from any it poffeffes at
prefent; for no fuch power is now to be found in any
part of the globe.
Quantity of daftly, the quantity of /hells, gr'eat as it is, can by
fhells found no means be reconciled with an eternal fucceffion of
on earth worlds, or even with three ; for, according to him, we
<.n°the Dor mu^ *iave *n O’fler to have two habitable ones;
tor’s prin-~y*x’ Qne tying at the bottom of the fea, another wear-
ciplcs. ing away, and another beginning to emerge. Now he
informs us, that only a fourth part of our land is com-
pofed of calcareous matter derived from marine ani-
• See 0*90. But. if one of the worlds has continued for a
126 time indefinite,, and confequently another Iain at the
Amazing bottom of the fea for an equal length of time, it muft,
inftead of having a fourth part of its foil compofcd of
calcareous matter at the time of its emergence, have
been entirely compofed of it, at leaft if we can credit
what ijs faid concerning the prolific nature of thefe ani¬
mals. Mr Whitehurit informs us, that “ it is not
uncommon to take away a bed of ffiell-filh feveral fa¬
thoms in thicknefs ; and though the places where
they are fiihed for appear to be entirely exhaufted, yet
in the enfuing year there fnall be as many found in all
thefe places as before.” Such an amazing inertafe
muft, in a time indefinite, efpecially if repeated for an
indefinite number of times, have reduced the whole
terraqueous globe to an heap of cockk-fiiells or other Earfli.
fubftances of that kind. ——y——;
Our author is equally unfortunate in the very firft
ftep of his argument, where he fays that the foil is only tur
u the materials collefted from the deftrufiion of the mult have
folid land.” He owns that all his earths produced taken p'ace
vegetables ; but thefe muft have had a foil whereon to*1! the on-
grow before the firft world had time to be deftroyed. Ety?-1 .„or'r
We are thererore here in the lame dilemma with re-vegetable
gard to the foil that we were before with regard to the foil,
vegetables; and as we are obliged to own the inter¬
ference of a Superior power to produce the firft vege¬
table, fo muft we alfo have recourfe to the fame power
for the produftion of the foil ori which it grew. All
thefe confiderations ought to have led the Doftor to a
conclufion very different from that which he has drawn,
and to have Ihowed him that the beginning of the world
was occafioned by a power which cannot poffibly be
inveftigated, becaufe it lies without the bounds of
Nature itfelf, and far beyond the reach of our facul¬
ties. /   i2g.
This objtftion indeed militates invincibly againft •all Origin of
theories of the earth which feekto derive its originalthe earth
from natural caufes. The powers of attraction
repulfion we have already Ihown to be infufficient ; and for fraru.
though we fhould add to them thofe of lire and wa-natural,
ter, with all the train of folvents and precipitants which caufes.
chemiftry can afford,, the deficiency will ftill be as
great. It is true, that by means of chemiftry we can
imitate many of the natural operations, provided we
have the proper materials: But this is the capital
defied in all our theories of the earth. Whence came
vaft quantities of argillaceous earth into one place, of
filiceous earth into another, of the materials for iron,
filver, gold, &c. into the places where they are now
found r With Dr Hutton indeed the whole ftems to Too much
be compofed of two materials, viz. calcareous earth attributed
and flint. But before he could juftify this- aflertion,*®^*^'
he ought to have produced from thefe two materials, an(j fl;1K by
at leaft a great number of.the different fubilances with Dr Huttoiu
which the earth is replenilhed. But inftead of this,
he has recourfe to natural productions, formed, as he
fays, by means which, in the hands of the belt che-
mifts, will prove infufficient to produce any thing like
them.
In his account of- the origin of calcareous matter, Calcareoti*-
he tells us, it is to be derived entirely from the ftrelte m.itter pr»-
of marine animals; but he forgets to inform us whence.ved to
thefe animals got their Ihells. There rauft have been
fome fource of calcareous matter from which the fi>JIr;ne am* '
oyfter (for we have already feen that they could not mals.
have exifted.from eternity) derived its Iheli, and that
independent of any other marine animal. Now, we fee
at this day an abundant fource from whence the Ihells
of all marine animals may be derived, viz. the waters .
of the ocean, whiefi contain a great quantity of calca¬
reous matter. If we inquire whence thefe waters have
it, we may fay they take it up from the earth, part
with it again in the form of (hells, corals, &c. rediffolve
it, and fo on. But if we will ftill inquire farther whence
the earth itfelf had it, we muft once more have recourfe
to that unfearchable and fupernatural power to which.
we aferibed the origin of animals, vegetables, and the
foil whereon they grow.
It is the foundation of Dr Hutton’s theory, and in*
deed.
"EAR [ 236 1 EAR
, :garrt>- deed feems now to be a favourite drt&rine of moft ed by an inceffant rain of fix weeks, but the fea rafe Earth.
”rr”'v"~~' theoritts, that the earth we inhabit has once been at on all fides, and poured in upon it with all the move- —^—•*
-Earth pro ^ k°ttom °f the fea ; and it is thought to be a fuf- able contents which the waters carried along with
vcd not to fic*ent proof of this, that fuch vaft quantities of ma- them ?
have re rine Ihells are to be met with on dry land. Mr White- That great numbers of fiiells already formed would Vaft mim*
.maineJ hurft, after giving a long account of thefe Ihells, infers, be brought along with the waters of the ocean, is angers of
botfomo/ amonS other things, that the “ beds of foffil flrells, affertion which can fcarce be denied; and we Ihall befllcllsn'11^
■the fea. which confift of one fpecics only, and are not natives inclined to look upon this number as exceedingly great,
•of the climate where found, but of very diltant regions if we confider the way in which it is moft probable that long^with"
■ of the earth, evidently ftiow that they were generated, the deluge came on. Thi3"wasby the iffuing out of wa- it. ^
and have lived and died in the very beds where found; .ters* from every pore of the earth and bottom of the • gee Dc*
and could not have been removed from their native cli- ocean, as well as by their defcent from the clouds. In luge.
mates by a flood or floods of water, with fo much or- confequence of the former aftion, all the light bodies
der as to form beds eonfifting only of one feleift fpe- at the bottom of the fea muft have been turned topfy
cies ; and therefore all fuch beds muft have been on- turvy, and carried up no one can tell how far; at the
132 ginally the bottom of the ocean.” fame time that by the progreffive motion of the waters
Ealfe mode On this mode of reafoning, however, we muft ob- they were carried to an unknown length over the land,
'''*"" ‘r ” ferve, that no hypothefis can have a worfe foundation and there depofited when the motion ceafed.
riygmanyted t^an when i1 ^ built confefledly on our own ignorance,
thconfts. We know not, for inftance, how a bed of foflile {hells
came into a certain place; therefore the whole world
has been at the bottom of the fea for many thoufand
The wa
of coral
rocks on
land Ihows
This circumftance of itfelf will account for the ap-Th/fifh
pearance of vaft numbers of (hells and other marine would leave
produ&ions on land ; but there is another which muftthe!r form-
be taken along with it, and will undoubtedly adder
years, the climates have changed, or it has been eter- greatly to its force. The unfathomable depths of overland,
nal! Thus to unhinge the fettled laws of ^nature for the ocean are not the proper habitations of fifli ; and
fuch trivial purpofes, is certainly the greateft contra- they are only found on ftioals, or near the fea-coafts.
dittion to true reafoning that can be imagined. But At the time of the deluge, therefore, great numbers
it is not only from a negative argument of this kind the marine animals mull have exchanged their an-
that we may refute this hypothefis; there is a much £>ent habitations for thofe where the water was more
ftronger one drawn from the marine produdlions them- (hallow; and of confequence would have abounded on
felves. It is certain, that there are fubftances very the tops of mountains and other elevated places. Whe-
different from (hells of any kind, which grow up from ther thofe animals whofe exuviae are moft plentifully
jana mows the bottom of the ocean, and in time indefinite afcend tr.et with on land have any locomotive power when
that it has the waY t0 the furface, and there form iflands. full-grown, is uncertain; but whether they have or
not been ' Thefe are the coral rocks fo common and fo dangerous n°t> they are certainly of fuch minute fizes when
long at the in the South Sea, and of which many of the iflands y°ung> that they may be floated to any diftance by
ihefea. there are formed. .Now, how comes it to pa fs, that water. Thus therefore any kind of (Itell-fiih may have The1 cont!-
among all the marine monuments to be found on land reached any place in the globe; and Mr Whitehurft nuance of
we find no coral rocks growing there i The anfwer to himfelf owns, that they can arrive to their full matu-t!ie
.this is obvious. The coral rocks require a vaft length r*ty in lefs than a year, as the beds which have been
of time for their produiftion, and are ftrongly fixed to exhaufted one year are found to be repleniftied the fhell-fift t»
the place where they grow ; they cannot therefore be next. Now the flood, according to the Scripture breed on
removed over land by any fudden flood or inundation, account, continued long enough to allow time for ^an^-
-not even by a general deluge. Though it appears their increafe from fpawn to their full fize. It arrived
therefore, from the (hells and other marine moveables, at its full height in 40 days; and continued ftationary
that what is now dry land has once been at the bottom f°r five months. It then began to decreafe ; but fp
of the fea, yet it is equally evident from the deficiency gradually, that it was not till the firft day of the tenth
of thefe rocks, that it has not remained fo for any month that the tops of the mountains began to appear
’ ’ r ■’ ’ " * ’ ’ above the furface of the water; and it v
•length of time ; and therefore, though we (hould by
no means be able to explain all the appearances of fof-
file (hells, we are not to admit a fuppofition which,
from the circumftance juft mentioned, cannot pof-
libly be true.
“Why every With regard to thefe (hells, however, we muft re¬
appearance mark, that it is in vain to attempt the explanation of
of foifil every appearance ; nor can any fuch thing be reafon-
-not Ik ex' delired, even though we {hould acknowledge the
plained. deluge to be the univerfal caufe. We know not, nor
can we have any conception of, whatftnight be accom-
135 pliflied by the mere mechanical motion of the waters in fiderable depth. But to account for the great depths
the this cafe. Every one who has had an opportunity of at which we find them fometimes buried, feveral other
the deWe ee*nS t*ie e^e(^s °fi a violent land-flood, will be ready things muft be taken into confideration. One is, that would be
certainly to own that it has performed things which a priori he the earth, by the continual rains at the time of thefunk
produced, would not have thought it could have done. But deluge, as well as by the iffuing of the waters every
how infinitely muft thefe effefts be exceeded by one where through its fubftance, muft have been exceed- the prdfure
vaft deluge, in which not only the dry land was foften- fngly f0ft and ealily penetrated. The helplefs animals, »f the wa..
itf° 107. there-ters-
s not till to¬
wards the end of the eleventh that the tops of trees
began to emerge. Here then we have time for beds
of lhell-fi(h to grow, live, and afterwards be left by the
water; which in their mature (late they could not
follow, and thus to die in the places where they were
generated.
Thus far we may fafely argue with regard to the
exiftence of large beds of (hells on the furfaee of the
earth: and it has already been ftiown how the earth
would naturally cover and fwallow them up to a con*
Gct eral re-
caj itulatiot;
of fads.
- Examples
of bodies
incloied by
ftone.
EAR [ 257 ] EAR
therefore, brought along with the ocean at its firft fubftartce of the Hone; and we have likewife feveral Earth,
irruption over land, would have been deep buried in inftances related by authors of the bones of terreftrialy-—
the mud: and when we take into our account the animals, and alfo of wood, having been found inveloped
preffure of a column of water four miles deep, it is in ftrata of Itone. A complete human /keleton, with
impofiible to fay what effe&s this caufe might have Britifli beads, chains, iron-rings, brafs bits of bridles,
produced. They might, befides, have been accumula* were dug up in a ftone-quarry near the Earl of Wid-
ted in clefts of rocks, in hollows, valleys, and caves ; drington’s feat at Blanknay in Lincolnfhire.—Human
and have been there confolidated by petrifa&ion and bones and armour, with Roman coin, fibulae, See.
the growth of calcareous matter over them. And that were found in a flone-pit in the park at Huftanton in
fomething fimilar to this aftually happens, we are very Norfolk, fuppofed to have been buried after a battle,
certain: for Mr Whitehurft informs us, that “the —In the mountains of Canne, half a league from Mea-
fprings of Matlock-bath in Derbyfhire, though ex- ftrick, were found the remains of a crocodile well pre-
tremely pellucid and friendly to the human conftitu- ferved in a ftratum of fand-ftone.—The remains of a
tion, are fteverthelefs plentifully faturated with calca- crocodile were alfo found in a ftratum of ftone at Blen-
reous matter, which readily adheres to vegetables and heim.—The beds of argillaceous ftone, &c. incum*
other fubftances immerfed in their ftreams; and thus, bent on coal, alfo contain a great variety of figured
by a conftant accretion, large maffes of ftone are gra- foffils reprefenting different parts of the vegetable crea-
dually formed. The banks on which the bath-houfes tion.” ^ ^
Hand, and likewife the buildings themfelves, are moftly From all thefe examples it is plain, that the lapide-The deluge
compofed of fuch materials.”—Now, had thefe waters feent power which the earth poffeffes is capable of in-may be fup-
direfted their coitrfe over a bed of (hells, through a crutting bodies with ftone to an unknown thicknefs. r,ofetJ thc
burying-place, or over a field of battle, it is evident In whatever fituation therefore we find thofe fofiil bo-f0f
that they would have inclofed a great number of (hells, dies, we have no reafon to fay that the deluge is not :.i animal
human and horfe bones, heads of lances, fwords, or ultimately the caufe of their being there ; becaufe its (ubftances.
even the more modern weapons of guns and piftols ; power in overfpreading the earth with them, in bury-
Vvhich, to a curious naturalift, might have furniftied ing them in it, or forcing them into clefts and caverns,
an argument for the antiquity of thefe latter wea- is altogether unknown : and before it is denied that
pons. If therefore we fee that bodies at this day the deluge could be the caufe of fuch appearances, it
may be fo ealily imbedded in ftone, why (hould we pre- is'neceffary to (how all that it really couldAo, which is
tend to fet bounds to the petrifaftions which may evidently impoflible j fo that here our fpeculations muft
have happened in the courfe of more than 4000 years? ultimately reft. I4^
a period far beyond the reach of our mod ancient hi* We (hall only add one other fa£t which muft cer- Of folfil
ftorits. tainly have taken place at the deluge. At that time human
It is not meant, by what we have juft now faid, to the world is generally thought to have been veryl,ones’
explain all the appearances of foflil (hells or bones from full of inhabitants. Thefe, as well as all the inferior
the deluge as a general caufe. This cannot be done animals, would naturally fly from the. approaching
unlefs we knew all the circumftances. The follow- danger. This would affemble them in great numbers
ing fafts, however, may be looked upon as authenti* in fuch places as appeared to afford fecurity; and here
cated. 1. That when the waters overwhelmed the they would all perifti together. This will account for.the
land, great numbers of marine animals were carried vaft heaps of bones found in certain parts of the world,
along with it. 2. That during its continuance moft in the rock of Gibraltar, Dalmatia, &c. and the natural
of thofe which have any locomotive power would petrifaftive power of the earth may account for their
choofe rather to dwell over land than in places which confolidation. The (laughters which mankind have made
had formerly been their refidence. 3. That while the of one another may indeed account for many of thefe
waters remained on the earth, all kinds of marine ani- appearances. When we read in hiftory of 40,000,
mals would breed over land in their natural way ; and 50,000, or loo,©oo men being killed in a battle, we
fuch as could not follow the waters in their retreat, never think of the fpace their bones would occupy
would be left to die on dryland, which muft have when thrown into a heap; neverthelefs, weareaffured
been the cafe particularly with (hell-filh. 4. Thefe that the bulk of thefe remains muft be very great,
impotent animals, which have little or no power of loco- Tamerlane, with an army of 800,000 men, filled up
motion, would by the preffure of a column of water the harbour of Smyrna by caufing each of his foldiers
four miles high be buried to depths unknown. 5. Af- throw one ftone into it; and when Marius defeated
ter the retreat of the waters, thofe which had been the Cimbri, the bones of the (lain were fo numerous,
lodged in hollows or clefts, or perhaps diffufed through that they were ufed for a long time as fences for vine-
the fubftance of many foft ftrata, might by fome pe- yards. Had thefe been colledted into one heap, and
trifying quality in the ftratum be fo confolidated along afterwards confolidated by petrifadlive matter, they
with it. as afterwards to form one entire rock. This would undoubtedly have occupied a very confiderable
is evident, not only from the example of the Matlock- fpace. What then muft have been the cafe, when
fprifigs, but more fo from that of the pins found in the every man, nay every other terreftrial creature, died
ftone at Red-Ruth in Cornwal, from the petrified flcull at once ? Taking all thefe things into confideration,
mentioned by Dr Plctt, and many others; of which it muft furprife us that the colleftions of foflil bones
we (hall mention the following from Mr Whitehurft.— are not more numerous than we find them.
“ The ftrata of limeftone in Derbyfliire, and in many Thus we fee, there is on the one hand no reafon for
other parts of England, abound with the exuviae of denying that the delude has been the caufe of all the
marine animals, or the imprefiions of them in the folid foflil appearances we perceive ; and on the other, that
Vol.VI. Part. I. Kk there
EAR
.Eatth. there is the flrongeft reafon for denying that the land
■ ■ ■ >r-—- vve inhabit-has been for a length of time at the bottom
Dr Hut t^le ^ea' DifmiffiQg therefore this part of Dr Hut¬
ton's sc- ton anc^ Whitehurft’s theories, we (hall now proceed
count of the to confider that of the former, where he inveftigates the
formation formation of the ftrata. Thefe, he. fays, could not
eonCdened3^ ^orme^ by aqueous folution. That they could not
be fo originally, we readily grant; but that they have
preferved themfelvcs from decay, transformed them-
145 felves into one another, and repaired their wafte by
His theory this means, is abfolutely certain. The DoAor indeed
b^anerTe" ^‘Ves UP 0wn argument > f°r be tells us, that “ if
rimen^of6 flbit can be produced by cryftallization from water or
Bergman’s, any aqueous folution, then may his affertions concern¬
ing the confolidation of the ftrata be denied.” But
Mr Bergman affures us, that be actually.did produce
flint by allowing a quantity of fluor acid to ftand for
two years on fome powdered quartz; and this is more
than any chemift can pretend to do by the violent heat
of fufion, to which Dr Hutton has recourfe on all oc-
cafions. We do not pretend, however, to fay, that
the different ftrata of earth have been formed original¬
ly by aqueous folution. For this we muft have tecourfe
to the power already mentioned, and for want of
which neither Dr Hutton’s theory nor any other can
fupport itfelf. But though the ftrata were originally
formed by Divine power, they are certainly preferved,
repaired, and changed by natural caufes ; of which a-
queous folution is a principal, though not the only
5 one.
Wood may The faid experiment of Mr Bergman’s entirely over-
bepenetra- throws the Doctor’s obje&ion (n° 39.) relating to the
ted b> penetrat;on 0f wood by filiceous or flinty matter. It
folutionte 01 Jbows, that the matter in queftion may be diffolved,
and in no very long time depofited in its proper form;
fo that had Mr Bergman inclofed a bit of wood in his
bottle yvhich produced the flint, there is no i-eafon to
doubt that it would have been fo penetrated by the
filiceous matter as to be completely fintified (to ufe Dr
l47 Hutton’s word) by the end of the two years.
Flints may The impoftbUity which our author talks of, of flinty
thus grow fubftances being found infulated in the midft of beds
of chalkeart°f cba^b, is likewife thus removed. But if vve view his
own account of the petrifaftion of wood by the a&ion
of melted flint, what mortal in his fenfes can give him
Extreme credit? It exceeds the power of a glafs-houfe furnace
abfurdity of to melt flint by itfelf: how is it pofiible, then, that
fuppofing the combuftible fubftance of wood fliould bear to be
"enetrated this dreadful fluid without being burnt ?
byrnehed The operation being performed under water, will not
flint. anfwer the purpofe: for wood maybe reduced to char¬
coal, by the heat of a burning-glafs, under water ; and
a red hot iron, thrown into a wooden veffel full of
water, will burn a hole in the bottom. Dr Black,
who mentions this circumftance in his Le&ures, very
juftly obferves, that the fleam which is produced keeps
off the water until the iron has produced its effedl.
Muft not the fame effedt take place at the bottom of
the fea, even grantirtg, what Dr Hutton never can
prove, that flint, by any degree of heat whatever, can
be reduced to fuch a ftate of tenuity as to be capable
of penetrating wood like an anatomical injedlion ? Here
indeed he may tell us, as on another occafion, that
7 Seen°46.the compreflien of the water is-But if
this be the cafe, how comes it to pafs, that not only
EAR
this infuperable comprefiion, but an additional one Earth,
(no lefs than the vaft loads of earth which compofe the —v——^
continents of Europe, Afia, Africa, and America), '49
has actually been overcome, and thefe immenfe trails
thrown up from the bottom of the ocean, by the force Doctor’s
of fire which could not confume a piece'of wood? hypothefis.
To fuppofe that, by any comp'reflion whatever, the . 'So
element of fire, when applied to a combuftible body, ,
fhould be prevented from deftroying its texture, is cerning fire
certainly without the leaft foundation ; and yet upon entirely un-
this and fimilar fuppofitions proceeds the whole of the reafonable.
Dodtor’s theory. He differs from thofe who maintain
the volcanic theory, in fuppofing- that fire may work
underground in fuch a manner as to perform none of
its common effedts, or indeed none but fuch as are
agreeable to his own hypothefis. Thus fire, working
at the bottom of the fea, or at an unknown depth
under it, ftiall not burn wood; it (hall not extricate
the fixed air from calcareous matter, but melt it fome-
times into one fubftance and fometimes into another ;
it {hall not diflipate the moft volatile fubftance, nor in
fliort perform any effedl which we ever faw performed
by fire : and all this, it feems, is demonftrable by the
mere infpedtion of fragments of ftones in a clofet,
without paying the leaft attention to the operations of
nature abroad.
Though it muft be very evident that a theory built His proofs
on fuch extravagant principles cannot fupport itfelf, from mine-
we muft ft ill take notice of the proofs he adduces from ral 5ryftall!-
the mineral cryftallizations, &c. On this fubjedt it gjg°g||Con'
may be obferved, that there are various ways by which
fubftances can be cryftallized or affume regular figures. 15a
1. The moft common is by folution in a large quantity Various
of water, from which the bodies are depofited by cool- wj'7s
ing, and form diftindt and regular cryftals. 2. Byftancesmay
folution in no greater quantity of boiling water than be cryftal-
will keep them fufpended; after which they are form- lized.
ed into large maffes, as is the cafe with alum. 3. By
flow evaporation, as is the cafe with vitriolated tartar
and fome other falls. 4. By eiflorefcence, when a fa-
line fluid is mixed with a quantity of earthy matter,
and kept moift for fome time. Of this we often have
an example in moift cellars, or other damp places,
where we {hall fee part of the walls covered with a fine,
downy, faline matter. In falt-butter alfo we fhall fre¬
quently fee the fame appearance; where the fait {hoots
into fmall fpiculas, though in the common way it cry-
ftallizes in cubes. 5. By fublimation, as in the cafe
of flowers of benzoin, of corrofive mercury, cinnabar,
fal ammoniac, orpiment, &c. &c. 6. By the meeting
of two fubftances in an aerial form, as alkaline and
fixed air. By the attradlion of fixed air from the at-
mofphere or otherwife, as is the cafe with alkaline
falts when long expofed to the common air, or for a
ftrorter time to a ftream of pure fixed air. 7. By pre¬
cipitation, as in the arbor Dianae and other metallic
vegetations. 8. By means of acids. Thus the refi-
duum of Glauber’s fpirit of nitre, if the diftillation
has been performed with an excefs of acid, will {hoot
into beautiful ramifications like branches of trees. 9.'By
fufion, as in regulus of antimony and other metals,
fulphur, &c.
Now of all thefe different ways by which cryftalliza¬
tion may be effedled, Dr Hutton has chofen only the
laft j and this he obftinately carries through the whole
fyftem
[ 258 ]
EAR
[ *59 1
EAR
Earth, fyftem of nature, whether reafonable or not. His ar- is always great plenty in the bowels of the earth;
w—"v gument againft any other mode is chiefly built upon and according to the quantity uniting itfelf with
_ *53 the infolubility of certain fubftances; but this argu- the difiblved calcareous earth, either chalky concre-
Dr Hut-  tl c :i j    *:  i i:„„ ....•11 u-  1 j tc r
u ment has failed in one very remarkable inftance, viz,
mem from that of flint, which has been produced by aqueous fo-
the infolu- lution. Another inftance he brings, n°42, of “ mar-
biUty of mor metallicum, confifting of terra ponderofa fatura-
ftaircc^ in- ted with vitriolic acid, a fubftance infoluble in water.”
fufficient. Now though this fubftance, when once it is formed,
iS4 may be termed abfolutely infoluble: yet the faft iscer-
Marmor • - • - ■ • - . .
tions or cryftalline bodies wdll be produced. If fire
were applied to this calcareous matter in order to fufe
it, an emiflion of the fixed air would be the certain
confequence ; and without this we have not the leaft
evidence that calcareous earth ever did or could un¬
dergo any fufion by heat.
With regard to the mineralization of metals by ful- Of the
metaUicum ta'n’ t^at ^ ma^ ^orme^ by aqueous folution and phur, as in the cafe of pyrites, we cannot pretend to formation
formed by cryftallization ; and we have done To by the following explain them particularly; though it was certainly £ ^ueou*
cryftalliza- procefs: Let terra ponderofa be formed into an hepar incumbent on the Do&or to have formed thefe bodies, folution.
tion, fulphuris by any of the common methods; diflblve or to have produced fomething like them, by fufion,
the mafs in water; filter the folution, and expofe it to before he determined that they were formed originally
the air in a veflel kept in a gentle warmth : the phlo- in this way. It is eafy, however, to fee how the calx
gifton of the fulphur will gradually fly off; the acid of a metal may meet with fulphur in the earth. We
attach itfelf to the earth ; and in a day or two a great know that fulphur is foluble by alkali," by terra pon-
quantity of fine cryftalline fpiculse will be formed, derofa, or by calcareous earth. By expoling this fo-
which are a true marmor metallicum. lution to fixed air, part of the fulphur is feparated,
Howbodies Thus we learn how many bodies, naturally infoluble, and may unite with the metallic earth, or any other
naturally may yet be formed by aqueous folution by reafon of thing with which it has an affinity. The cryftallizations
tjie folubility of their component parts. Sulphur is of fulphur artificially united with metals have not in-
ififoluble
fbrmed by foluble by calcareous earth and by terra ponderofa.
aqueous fo- and makes thefe fubftances foluble in much greater
lutioii. quantity than they naturally are. By the decompofi-
tion of the folution of terra ponderofa, marmor metal-
,56 licum is produced ; and by decompofing the other, fe-
Of the lenite or alabafter. This laft fubftance Dr Hutton has
of felemte.
the moift
way.
deed been examined; but before we affirm that a metal
mineralized by fufion with fulphur, we ought to per¬
form fomething like it artificially, which never has
been done. t6r
As to the invincible argument n°43, where our au- Formation
thor triumphantly challenges his adverfaries to flrow cinnabar
not thought proper to mention, though huge mafles of how petro-filex, pyrites, and cinnabar, can be difiblved
rock are compofed of it; and it is incapable of fufion in water; it may be replied, that Mr Bergman has de-
without being deftroyed. Its regular figures, however, cided the matter againft him with regard to the firft,
afford us a fine example of that fpecies of cryftalliza- by his' remarkable experiment of making flint : the
tion which proceeds from precipitation' or accretion, fecond is as yet undecided; for no chemift has been
The felenite is a fubftance very little foluble in water; able to make pyrites either by folution or fufion. The
yet by the perpetual depofition of fmall quantities, we third is likewife decided againft our theorift ; for Dr
fee' that beautiful and regular cryftals are formed: and Lewis has Ihown that cinnabar may be prepared by
hence we learn another important fadt, viz. that in folution of fulphur as well as in the dry way by fubli-
order to form thefe cryftals, it is not always neceffary mation. We have only to fuppofe therefore that a
that the whole of the fubftance ftiould be drflblved in calcareous folution of fulphur pervaded this mineral,
water at once, though this is the cafe with our artifi- while a number of particles of quickfilver were difperfed
cial cryftallizations. The largeft and moft tranfparent through it; in which cafe the latter, attracting the ful-
ftals formed cryftals, and even the moft infoluble in water, may phureous particles, would form the cinnabar in queftion. ,6j
ed accre™* have been formed by the continual accretion of cry- Our author’s argument (n°44) from metals being Of meta!*
tion. ftalline matter from an aqueous folution: and thus found in their perfeft ftate, is very inconcluiive. The f?und na
they may appear in any cavity whatever ; for as there mafs of native iron he fpeaks of, is by many thoughttlV£'
Fine cry-
is no mineral fubftance impermeable to water, it evi¬
dently follows that no cavities can be impermeable
158 to it.
Fluor (5 ar Among his other infoluble fubftances Dr Hutton
maybe mentions floor and calcareous fpar. But as we know
to be fa&itious; and as to the fmall bits of other metals
fometimes found native, they rather make againft him
than otherwife : for had they been melted, all the reft
of the matters around them muft have been melted al-
fo ; in which cafe the fuperior weight of the metals
formed b ^ J.*' no VVV A.uvyvv , Hi LJ1X. i iwi L1IC lllCLdlS
aqueous fo- lbat erne of the component parts of fluor is calcareous would have carried them to the bottom of the melted
lution, earth, naturally foluble in water, it is only neceflary to mafs, there to unite as in a common furnace. rg ,
fuppofe a calcareous water like that of Matlock to meet His arguments concerning bituminous bodies are e- Coals fUp.
with fluor acid ; when as great quantities of fluor would qually unfortunate with the reft. That coal is derived pofed te u
be produced as there are at prefent of calcareous from wood has been the opinion of very learned men, f‘,rtne(l
be
159
ftone.
And like- ^le fame thing may be faid of calcareous fpar.—
wife calca- We know that fixed air will precipitate calcareous
reous fpar. earth from water, or rediflbive it after it has been pre¬
cipitated, according to its quantity. The formation
of fpars, therefore, from calcareous matter diftblved in
water and fixed air, may eafily be underftood ; and w
particularly Dr Black. The argument, however, is ^bleV^
only this, that fometimes we fee coals with woody
fibres, plainly indicating their vegetable original. But
this would hold equally with regard to ftones; for we
often fee wood penetrated with ftony matter, while
its fibrous''texture ftill remains. In this cafe there¬
fore we might as well fuppofe that ftones are de-
know that there is no water which does not contain rived from wood as that coals are fo. A decifive
feme quantity of calcareous earth. Of fixed air there proof that coals are not produced by fufion, is.
EAR C 260 ] EAR
Earth • that a living toad has been taken out of the heart of been thrown up from the bottom of the feaby the force Earth.
' ~ a folid piece of coal. This is fimilar to the entomb- of fubterraneous fire, and others have been fwallowed ' 
Certainly ment °f the fifties calledpholades in the heart of Hones; up. But thefe appear to be merely the effe&s of vol-
not formed and as, in the latter cafe, we believe that the ftone canoes, which are common in many parts of the world;
by lufion. has concreted round the fifti, fo we have the fame rea- and we are not warranted to conclude, btcaufe we fee
fon to believe, in the former, that the coal had con-
folidated round the toad. All that we can fay there¬
fore is, that coal is formed by a natural, and not very
tedious procefs, unknown to us ; but that this pro-
cefs certainly is not fufion. His proof n° 47 is alto¬
gether inconclufive ; for we have already feen that
flinty fubftances and marmor metallicum may be pro-
duced by aqueous folution.
Pr Hut- Thus we have feen, that, contrary to our author’s
ton’s theory the'world has undoubtedly had a begin-
entirely er-( n-n^ . our jantj jias no1^ for ages, been the
bottom of the fea; that we may reafonably fuppofe
the deluge to have been the eaufe of all or moft of
the fofiil appearances of fhells, bones, &c. we meet
with ; that our author has erred in denying to aqueous
folution the effe&s which experience has fhown it
capable of producing, and in afcribing to fufion ef-
fedfs which experience doth not warrant; and that
his theory, far from having any foundation in che-
miftry, is diredtly contradicted by that fcience. It
would be tedious and difagreeable to proceed farther
in animadverting on a theory fo truly unphilofophical,
however elaborate and oftentatious in a difplay of facts :
we ftiall therefore content ourfelveswith taking notice of
jgg one other objedtion to his dodtrine, of which he himfelf
His method has been aware, with the anfwer he has given. The
of account- objedtion is, That there are fometimes found flinty and
inK f°r the cryftalline bodies containing water : It feems there-
taiYed in fi-fb*e a contradiction to fay that fuch were produced
liceous bo- by fufton. To this the Dodtor replies, “ It muft: not
dies. be here objedted, that there are frequently found fdi-
ceous cryftals and amethyfts containing water ; and
that it is impofiible to confine water even in melted
glafs. It is true, that here, at the furface of the
earth, melted glafs cannot, in ordinary circumftances,
be made to receive and inclofe condenfed water ; but
let us only fuppofe a fufficient degree of compreffion
in the body of melted glafs, and we can eafily imagine
it to receive and confine water as well as any other
fubftance. But if, even in our operations, water, by
means of compreffion, may be made to endure the heat
of red-hot iron without being converted into vapour,
what may not the power of nature be able to per-
, form ?”
Fins1! teft On this reply we ftiall only obferve, that the truth
of the truth of this hypothefis, as well as of all other parts of it,
of hi- hy- may eaiily he put to the trial by thofe who have any
pothefis. 0£ tjje£e cryftals ;n their pofleffion. Let one of them
be broken, and the water it contains examined. If
the cryftal has been formed by fufion at the bottom
of the fea, as Dr Hutton fuppofes, it will be fait; if
otherwife, frefti. As to his dodfrine concerning fub¬
terraneous heat and volcanoes, there will be occafion
No iuffi- t0 cou^er it under the article Volcano.
cient proof We muft now take into confideration thofe remark-
of extraor- able changes which are fuppofed to have taken place
d'I!ary on the globe, in fuch a manner as entirely to have al-
the fiirface tere<l its appearance. Thefe, however, do not appear
of the to have any folid foundation. Changes, no doubt,
earth. have, happened in particular parts; new iflands have.
a fmall volcanic ifland arife, and another fwallowed up,
that this has been the cafe with the whole habitable l6„
world.—An imperfedl theory hath indeed’been fug-Volcanic
gelled by Sir William Hamilton, Mr Brydone, and theory,
others, concerning the ufe of volcanoes and fubterra-
neous fires; from whence it might feem probable,
though they do not indeed fay fo in diredl terms, that
all the dry land was originally thrown up from the bot¬
tom of the fea by the force of thefe fires. 'Sir William
Hamilton, in his letter to Dr Maty, broaches this
theory in the following words. “ I am 4nyfelf con¬
vinced, that the whole circuit, fo far as I have exami¬
ned, within the boundaries marked in the map (ex¬
tending at leaft 50 Italian miles in length, and 30 in
breadth where broadeft), is wholly and totally the pro-
du&ion of fubterraneous fires; and that moft probably
the fea formerly reached the mountains that lie be¬
hind Capua and Caferta, and are a continuation of the
Apennines. If I may be allowed to compare fmail
things with great, I imagine the fubterraneous fires to
have worked in this country under the bottom of the
fea, as moles in a field, throwing up here and there a
hillock ; and that the matter thrown out of fome of
thefe hillocks formed into fettled volcanoes, filling up
the fpace between the one and the other, has compo-
fed this part of the continent, and many of the illands
adjoining.
“ From the obfervations I have made upon Mount
JEtna, Vefuvius, and the neighbourhood, I dare fay
that, after a careful examination, moft; mountains that
are, or have been, volcanoes, would be found to owe
their exiftence to fubterraneous fire ; the direct reverfe
of what I find the commonly received opinion. Na¬
ture, though varied, is certainly in general uniform in
her operations ; and I cannot conceive, that two fuch
confiderable volcanoes as -/Etna and Vefuvius, fhould
have been formed otherwife than every other confider¬
able volcano of the known world. I do not wonder
that fo little progrefs hath been made in the improve¬
ment of natural hiftory, and particularly in that branch
of it which regards the theory of the earth : Nature
acts flowly; it is difficult to catch her in the fadt.
“ From repeated obfervatious I have made in the
neighbourhood of Vefuvius, I am fure that no virgin
foil is to be found there ; and that all is comp hed of
different ftrata of erupted matter, even to a great depth
below the level of the fea. In ftiort, I have not any
doubt in my own mind but that this volcano took its
rife from the bottom of the fea; and as the whole plain
between Vefuvius imd the mountains behind Caferta,
which is the beft part of Campagna Felice, is (under
its good foil) compofed of burnt matter, I imagine
the fea to have waftied the feet of thofe mountains,
until the fubterraneous fires began to operate, at a pe¬
riod certainly of a moft; remote antiquity.
“ The foil of the Campagna Felice is very fertile ;
I faw the earth .opened in many places. The ftratum
of good foil was in general four or five feet thick ; un¬
der which was a deep ftratum of cinders, pumice, frag¬
ments of lava, and fuch burnt matter as abounds near
Mount
EAR r 261 1 EAR
Eirth. Mount Vefuvius and all volcanoes. The mountains at
v 1 the back of Caferta are mohly of a fort of limeftone,
and very different from thofe formed by fire ; though
Signior Van Vitelli, the celebrated architect, has afl'u-
red me, that in the cutting of the famous aqueduft of
Caferta through thefe mountains, he met with fome
foils that had evidently been formed by fubterraneous
fires. The high grounds which extend from Caftel-a-
Mare to the point of Minerva towards the ifland of
Caprea, and from the promontory that divides the bay
of Naples from that of Salerno, are of limeftone. The
plain of Sorrento, that is bounded by thefe high
grounds, beginning at the village of Vico, and enditfg
at that of Mafia, is wholly compofed of the fame fort
of tufa as that about Naples, except that the cinders
cr pumice-itones intermixed in it are larger than in
the Naples tufa. 1 conceive, then, that there has been
an explofion in this fpot from the bottom of-the fea.
This plain, as I have remarked to be the cafe with all
foils produced by fubterraneous fire, is extremely fer¬
tile ; whilft the ground about it, being of another na¬
ture, is not fo. The ifland of Caprea does not fliow
any figns of having been formed by fubterraneous fire,
but is of the fame nature as the high grounds laft men¬
tioned ; from whence it has been probably detached by
earthquakes, or the violence of the waves. Rovigli-
ano, an ifland, or rather a rock, in the bay of Caftel-
a-Mare, is likewife of limeflone, and feems to have be¬
longed to the original mountains in its neighbour¬
hood: in lome of thefe mountains alfo, there are petri¬
fied fifh and fofiile fhells, which 1 never have found in
the mountains which I fuppofe to have been formed
by explofion. Bracing however, in his account of the
eruption of J613, fays, that he found many forts of.
fea-fhells on Vefuvius after that eruption ; and P. Ig-
natio, in his account of the fame eruption, fays, that
he and his companions picked up many fhells likewife
at that time upon the mountain : this circumftance
would induce one to believe, that the water thrown
out of Vefuvius during that formidable eruption came
from the fea.”
Infuffici- This may ferve to fhow upon what grounds thevol-1
encycf the canic theory (lands: but though we fhould admit it in
volcanic Jts utmoft extent, the theory of the earth can receive
t eory. kut very little aflillance from it.. Sir W. Hamilton
himfelf does not fay that all the mountains have been
volcanoes, or that all the foil throughout the different
quarters o£ the world hath been thrown up from the
bottom of the fea. If, therefore, there remains but
one mountain in the whole, world which never was a
volcano, we (hall be as much difficulted to account for-
the produdlion of that one, as though there were ever
fo many; and at any rate our theory will be absolutely
ufeltfs, becaufe wliat will account for the origin of that
mountain, will alfo account for the origin of others. If
we go a flep beyond our author, and fay, that there
are no mountains whatever that Jiave not been origi¬
nally volcanoes, but that all the dry land is the pro-
duftion of iubterraneous fire, our difficulties are fo far
from being removed, that they are greatly increafed.
The lavas and volcanic affies, though in time they be¬
come covered with an exceedingly fertile foil, remain
abfolutely barren for a great number of years; infomuch
that, by the adopters of the •volcanic hypothefis, the
period at which M >fes fixes the creation is reckoned Earth,
by far too late to have given time for covering the " '■J.
many lavas of Italy and Sicily with the depth of earth
they juft now have upon them. The whole world
therefore muft have remained for many ages in a ftate
of abfolute fterility ; and by what means or in what
corner of the world vegetation firft began, remains
to be inquired into.
V/ithout entering further into the theories either of
Sir W. Hamilton or any other perfon, it is eafy to fee,
that all of them are infufficient to folve the difficulties ,^r
mentioned n° 11. It is common to account for the fphe- c cutrifugal
roidal figure of the earth, from the greater centrifugal ■ '< e not
force of the equatorial parts than of the polar ones ; rj ^ earth’s^
but this explication can by no means be deemed fuffi- fpheroidal.
cient. The globe we inhabit is compofed of two very figure,
different kinds of matter, earth and water. The for¬
mer has a very confiderable power of cohefion, befides
the gravitating power ; the latter has very little cohe¬
fion, and its parts may be feparated from each other
by whatever will overcome its weight. It follows, there¬
fore, that the folid parts of the earth, refilling, by
their cohefion, the centrifugal force more than the wa¬
ter, ought not to dilate fo much. The waters of the
ocean therefore ought, about the equator, to fwell up
and overflow the land ; and this they ought to do at
this prefent moment as much as at the firft creation.
That this ought to be the cafe, is evident from the phe¬
nomena of the tides. It is not to be doubted but that
the attraction of the moon affe£ls the folid earth as well
as the fea ; but becaufe of the greater cohefion of the
former, it cannot yield as the ocean does, and therefore
the waters are raifed to fome height above it. Mr
Whitehprft and others indeed folve this difficulty by
fuppofing the earth to have been originally fluid. But
this is arguing in a circle : for if wc defire them to-
prove this original fluidity, they will do it by the fphe¬
roidal figure of the earth; and if the caufe of the
fpheroidal figure is required, they refer us to the ori¬
ginal fluidity. See Whitehurji’s Inquiry.—The height
to which the waters would have covered the equatorial
parts by the centrifugal force, muft have been equal
to the depreffion at the poles ; which, according to
M. Buffon, is about 17 miles ; according to other ma¬
thematicians, 25 or 26 miles.
• The other difficulties are fo totally inexplicable,
that Buffon, who feems to exert himfelf as much as
poffible in order to remove.them,, is obliged at laft to
own, that the earth is in a perifhing Hate ; that the
hills will be levelled, and the ocean at laft cover the
whole face of the earth ; a prophecy which wears no»
very favourable afpe£l to the inhabitants of this globe.
—For thefe imaginations, however, there does notfeem
to be the fmalleft foundation in nature. The moun¬
tains have continued what they were, from the earlieft
accounts of time, without any figns of decay. Mount v .
iEtna, befides the wafte common to it with other moun¬
tains, .hath been exhaufling itfelf by throwing out in¬
credible quantities of-its own fubftance ; yet it flill
feems to be what it was called by Pindar 2200 years
ago, the pillar of heaven. It feems extremely probable, Natural
therefore, that there are powers in the fyftem of nature powers for-
which tend to pieferve, and are capable of ccunteradling '
thofe which tend to deilroy, the mountains ; and per-ta;en5m°Un'‘
ouetht n
to be adop
EAR [ 262 ] EAR
haps the late difcovery concerning the attraftion of der in which we fee it. The facred hiftorian finiply Earth.
' mountains may fome time or other throw fome light tells us, that God created the heavens and the earth 4
on the nature of thefe powers. See Mountain. that the heavens gave no light, and the earth was co-
The like may be faxd of the ifthmufes or narrow vered with water. He firft commanded the light to
necks of land which in fome parts of the world join fliine, then the air to take up what quantity of water
different countries together; fuch as the ifthmus of he thought proper for the purpofes of vegetation. Af-
Darien, of Suez, the Morea, See. Though the ocean ter this, the dry land was made to appear ; andthedif-
feems to beat on thefe with great violence, they are ferent powers of vegetation already taken notice of
never diminifhed in bulk, or walked away, as, accord- were given to it. Next the fun and moon were created
ing to Buffon’s theory, they ought to be. It is plain, as fubordinate agents, to divide the light from the dark-
therefore, that there is in nature fome power by which «e/}, Sec. rl'hen followed the formation of animals and
thefe narrow necks of land are preferred from the fury of man. 175
of the ocean ; for hiftory does not afford one inilance According to this account, it would appear, that Mofaic nc.
of any neck of land of this kind being broken down by what we call the laws of nature, were given to prefervecoun^ tbs
the fea.—It feems impoffible to folve the difficulties with the earth in that fhape which the Deity thought proper perfeAjy
regard to the flrata and fhells by any other means than to give it originally by his own power; and by no meanscjnliftent,
fuppofing, that there are in the terreflrial matter feveral to form it in any particular way, much lefs to put it out
diflindf powers, by which the ftrata of any particular of the form which he had already given it: and thus
kind are occafionally transformed into others ; and that the world, according to the beft accounts we have, is
the fhells and other marine bodies were originally de- very little altered in its appearance; and, according to
pofited on the furface by the deluge. The volcanic what we can judge, will continue unaltered for ever,
hypothefis, by which fome attempt to account for the unlefs the Creator thinks proper to interpofe in fuch a
appearance of thefe bodies, will in no fhape an- manner as to fuperfede all the laws he hath given it,
fwer the purpofe. By the explofions of a volcano, and change it into fome other form.
(hells, mud, fand, &c. might be indiferiminately thrown From fome obfervations of Sir W. Hamilton and o- Objection*
up, and fcattered irregularly about ; but we could never thers, objections have been drawn, as hath been already
find the large beds of (hells which are frequently to be mentioned, to the Mofaic chronology. Thefe objections 11 “'o*
met with of a confiderable extent in different parts of are in fubftance as follows. In pits, and other natu •
the earth. ral and artificial openings of the ground, in the neigh-
f With regard to any degree of certainty, it is fcarcely bourhood of Vefuvius and /Etna, feveral beds of lava
to be hoped for on this fubjedt. The common notion have been difeovered at confiderable depths below each
■ of the earth’s being originally a chaos, feems neither other. Thefe beds of lava in fome places are covered
to have a foundation in reafon, nor in the Mofaic ac- with fucceffive ftrata of vegetable mould. From this
count of the creation. It is furely inconfiflent with difpofition of materials, Sir William concludes that the
the wifdom aferibed to the Deity, to think that he world mull have been created at a much more remote
would create this vifible fyftem in confufion, and then period than is generally believed. I he different flra-
employ it to put itfelf in order. It feems more pro- ta of lava found below ground, he obferves, mull have
bable, that the earth was originally created with the proceeded from an equal number of eruptions from the
inequalities of furface we fee it have, and that the na- mountain ; and fuch of them as are covered with ve-
tural powers for preferving it were afterwards fuper- getable foil muff have remained at lead 1000 years on
added. Thus, according to Mofes, the firft natural the furface before they could acquire a foil fufficient for
agent created, or produced, by directing matter to move the purpofes of vegetation. Ten or twelve fucceffive
in a certain manner, was light. This, we know, was ab- flrata overlaid with foil have already been difeovered
folutely neceffary for the evaporation of the water which in the bowels of the earth ; and it has been flrongly
took place on the fecond day. Mofes tells us, that afferted, that, by digging deeper, many more might
the earth was originally covered with water: and we have been found'. Now, allowing 1000 years for each
fee a natural reafon why it fhould be fo ; namely, that flratum of lava, which the fupporters of this theory af-
the evaporation by the atmofphere might more eafdy firm to be too little, the antiquity of the earth cannot
take place. When this was done, there being then no be lefs than 12,000 years, which is more than double
more occafion for the waters in that diffufed date, they its age according to the Mofaic account,
were commanded to retire into the place appointed for The principal fadl in this theory is, that 1000 years
them, and thus formed the ocean. Whether this was are neceffary to the produdlion of a foil fuffieient for
done by the adtion of gravity then firfl taking place, the nourifhment and growth of vegetables upon volca-
or by any other means, we have it not in our power nic lavas. This notion-is confirmed by a conjedlure
to know, nor will our fpeculations on this fubjeft pro- of the Canonico Recupero, that dreams of lava in Si*
bably be attended with much benefit. We fee, how- cily have lain for centuries without acquiring a vege-
ever, that the Mofaic account of the creation is per- table mould ; and by/ome obfeure accounts, that thefe
fedlly confident with itfelf, and free from thofe diffi- lavas have proceeded from eruptions of iEtna above
eulties with which other fydems are clogged. It is 1000 years ago. The following confiderations, how-
impoffible to ffiow, how, by any natural power, a con- ever, will render this theory at lead extremely dubious. 177
fufed mafs of matter, fuch as the chaos of the ancient Sir William informs us, that fome lavas are very folid, Anfvvcred.
poets, of Drs Burnet and Woodward, the hollow globe and refill the operation of time much longer than an-
of Mr Hutchinfon, the comet of Mr Whidon, or the other kind, which, he fays, “ is farinaceous, the par-
vitrified matter of M. Buffon, could put itfelf in the or- tides feparating as they force their way out, jud. like
meal
EAR [ 263 ] EAR
Earth, meal coming from under the grindftones. A ftream
—v— of lava of this fort (he juftly obferves), being lefs
compaft, and containing more earthy particles, would
certainly be much fooner fit for vegetation than one
compofed of the more perfeft vitrified matter.” He
has not, however, ventured to determine whether thefe
lavas found below ground were of the former or latter
quality ; a circtimiiance which materially affefts the
juftneis of his calculation.
That foil gradually increafes by decayed vegetables,
and the fediment depofited by fnow and rain, is an un¬
deniable faft. The thicknefs or thinnefs of foil indi¬
cates a greater or lefs time of accumulation. But
"Sir William has not informed us of the dimenfions of
his fubterraneouS vegetable ftrata; a circumftance of
great moment in indituting a calculation of their dif¬
ferent eras.
Befides, eruptions of volcanoes are often accom¬
panied with incredible quantities of aihes, which fall
thick upon all the ground for many miles round ; in¬
tended by nature, it would appear, quickly to repair
the barrennefs occafioned by the lava. The muddy
water fometimes thrown out may co-operate power¬
fully with the alhes in producing the fame happy ef-
fe£t.
But Sir William has furnifhed us with fafts of a
more important nature. The town of Herculaneum
was deftroyed by an eruption in the 97th year of the
Chriftian era. There are evident marks, fays he,
that the matter of fix eruptions has taken its courfe
over Herculaneum ; for each of the fix ftrata of lava
is covered with a vein of good foil. Here we have
Sir William’s own authority for fix ftrata of good.foil,
accumulated in lefs than 1700 years; which, fuppofing
them to be all of equal thicknefs, inftead of tooo
years, leaves not 300 to the produdtion of each.
From the fame authority we learn, that the crater
on the top of the Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain,
which was thrown up by fubterraneous fire no far¬
ther back than the year 1538, i^now covered with
fhrubs.
There is net on record any eruption from the great
crater of Vefuvius from the year 1139 to 1631, a pe¬
riod of only 492 years. But Bracini, who defend¬
ed into it not long before the 1631, tells us, “ that
the crater was five miles in circumference, and about
1000 paces deep. Its fides were covered with brufh-
wood, and at the bottom there was a plain on which
cattle grazed. In the woody parts, boars frequently
harboured,” &c.
The correfpondence of thefe fadts, related by Sir
William himfelf, with his favourite notion that 1000
years are neceflary for the piodudlion of a vegetable
foil, we leave to the reader’s confideration ; and ihall
conclude with a few remarks of a different kind.
The appearance of a ftraium of lava below ground,
though not covered with vegetable foil, our author con-
fiders as demonftrative evidence, that fuch ftratum for¬
merly lay above the furface, and was thrown out by
an eruption. This inference, however, feems not al¬
together juft. Nothing, with propriety, receives the
denomination of an eruption, unlefs when lava or other
matter is vomited from the crater, or from fome new
, opening made in the mountain. But it deferves notice,
that, in the environs of volcanoes, earthquakes are fre¬
quent. That thefe violent concuffions are the genuine Earth,
produce of fubterraneous fire expanding itfelf in every'““■■'V""”
diredtion, and making ftrong efforts againft ever}' fub-
ftance which refifts the natural tendency of its courfe,
is a fadl that cannot admit of doubt. It is no lefs
certain, that thefe frequent concuflions fhake and diflo-
cate the internal parts of the earth. They cannot fail
to (hatter and difarrange the natural direction ©f the
original ftrata ; and, of courfe, they muft give rife to
many fubterraneous cavities and fiffures. The nearer
the great furnace, which confines the fury of the flames,
the greater and more frequent will be the cavities.
Every earthquake occafioned by a volcano is nothing
elfe than an effort of the burning matter to enlarge the
boundaries by which it is ufually limited. If the quan¬
tity of matter and degree of inflammation require a
fpace greatly fuperior to the internal cavities, an erup¬
tion above the furiace is an infallible confequence : but
when the quantity of matter, or the expanfive force
occafioned by the degree of inflammation, is infuffi-
cient to raife the lava to the top of the mountain, an
earthquake may be produced; and the lava, with¬
out ever appearing above the furface, may run be¬
low ground in plentiful ftreams, and fill up all the fub¬
terraneous cavities and channels. Thefe internal
ftrata of lava may often lie fo deep as to be below
the level of the fea. In this manner, we conceive it
to be not only poffible, but extremely probable, that
beds of lava, having no covering of vegetable foil, may
be found at great depths, although they never were
above the furface.
It is much more reafonable to conclude, that lavas
with a layer of foil were produced by eruptions, and
once lay above the furface, till covered by the opera¬
tion of time, or fubfequent ftreams from the mouth of
the volcano. But even in this cafe, the argument is
not altogether complete; for, as above remarked,
earthquakes, with which countries adjacent to volca¬
noes are perpetually infefted, often fink large trafts of
land to great depths.
The other parts of the theory of the earth regard
the fituation of the different parts of its furface with
refpeft to each other ; its annual motion round the fun
as a planet; its diurnal motion round its axis 5 and the
different ftrata whereof it is compofed, as far as it hath,
been hitherto found prafticable to penetrate into it;
for all which, fee the articles Geography, Astrono¬
my, Mines, Strata, &c.
Smell and Bath of the Earth. See Agriculture,
n° Jo.
Bread made of Earth. See Bread-
Earth-Flax. See Amianthus.
EARTii-Nuts, or Ground-Nuts, the roots of the Ara-
c h 1 s hypogaea of Linnaeus. They are compofed of
feveral fmall round bulbs or knobs; whence they were
termed by Dodonaeus, terra glandes or earth-nuts-
They are efteemed an excellent food by the Siberians.
In Holland likewife, they are fold in the markets and
ufed for food. The native country of this plant feema
to be Africa; though, at prefent, all the American
iettlements abound with it; but many perfons wh»
have refided in that country affirm that they were ori¬
ginally brought by the (laves from Africa. The plant
multiplies very faff in a warm country ; but being very
impatient of cold, it cannot be propagated in the open
6 ak
EAR [ 264 1 EAR
'si a r t!i, air in Srkain. TheTeeds mu ft therefore be planted in
Earth- a ^ot.^ed in the fpring of the year; and when the
. Weather proves warm, they may be expofed to the open
air by degrees. The branches of the plant trail upon
the ground; and the flowers, which are yellow, are
produced Angle upon long footftalks; and as foon as
the flower begins to decay, the germen is thruft un¬
der ground, where the pod is formed and ripened ; fo
that unlefs the ground is opened, they never appear;
the roots are annual, but the nuts or feeds fufficiently
flock the ground in a warm country where they are
not carefully taktm up.
EARTH-Nuts, or Pig-Nuts. See Bunium.
Earth-Pucerons, in natural hiftory, a name given
by authors to a fpecies of puceron very Angular in its
place §f abode. In the month of March, if the turf
be raifed in feveral places in any dry pafture, there will
be found, under fome parts of it, cluixers of ants ; and,
ort a farther fearch, it will be ufually found, that thefe
animals are gathered about fome pucerons of a pecu¬
liar fpecies. Thefe are large, and of a greyifli colour,
and are ufually found in the midft of the clufters of
ants.
The commcm abode of the feveral other fpecies of
pucerons is on the young branches or leaves of trees ;
as their only food is the fap or juice of vegetables, pro¬
bably thefe earth kinds draw out thofe juices from the
roots of the graffes, and other plants, in the fame man¬
ner that the others do from the other parts. The ants
that conduft us to thefe, are alfo our guides where to
And the greater part of the others the reafon of which
is, that as thefe creatures feed on the faccharine juices
of plants, they are evacuated from their bodies in a li¬
quid form, very little altered from their original ftate ;
and the ants, who love fuch food, And it ready prepa¬
red for them in the excrements which thefe little ani-
• Seemals are continually voiding *. It has been fuppofed
and Honey- by fome, that thefe were the common pucerons of other
*e'w' kinds, which had crept into the earth to preferve
themfelves from the rigour of the winter. But this
does not appear to be the cafe ; for they are ufually
met with in places very diftant from trees or plants,
on which they fltould be fuppofed before to have fed;
and it is very certain, that though many of thefe in-
fefts are killed by the cold, yet many efcape, and
are found very early in the Ipring, fucking the buds
of the peach-tree. There is no doubt of thefe crea¬
tures being in a feeding condition when under ground ;
becaufe otherwife the ants would have no tempta¬
tion to follow them : and it is equally certain, that
the feveral fpecies of the pucerons, like thofe of the
caterpillar kinds, have each their peculiar herbs on
which they feed, as many of them will die of hunger
rather than feed on any others; and it is not at all
likely, that thefe earth pucerons had been ufed to feed
on leaves of trees and plants, and had left that food for
the roots of grafs.
EARTH-Worms. See Lumbricus.
EARTHQUAKE, in natural hiftory, a fudden
and violent coaeuflion of the earth, generally attended
with ftrange noifes under-ground or in the air; often
deftroying whole cities at once, throwing down rocks,
altering the courfe of rivers, and producing the moft
terrible devaftations.
Though there is hardly any country known in which
N° 107. 4
(hocks of an earthquake have not at fome time or other Earth-
been felt, yet there are fome much more fubjeft to <luake.
them than others. It hath been obferved, that nor- v ~ '“'r
them countries In general are lefs fubject to earth- cotln
quakes than thofe Atuated near the equator, or in tries are
the fouthern latitudes ; but this does not hold univer-
fally. The illands of Japan, which are Atuated pret-to eirth-
ty far north, are neverthelefs exceedingly liable to^aatc,‘
thefe deftruftive phenomena. Iflands, in general, are
alfo more fubjedl to earthquakes than continents ; but
neither does this hold without exceptions. Some par¬
ticular parts of continents, and fome particular iflands,
are more fubjedf to them than others lying in the
neighbourhood, and differing very little from them in
external appearance. Thus, Portugal is more fubjedl
to earthquakes than Spain, and the latter much more
than France; Mexico and Peru more than the other
countries of America, and Jamaica more th~an the
other Caribbee illands. Earthquakes are frequent,
though not often violent, in Italy ; but in Sicily they
are often terribly deftrudtive. Alia Minor has been
remarkably fubjedt to them from the remoteft antiqui¬
ty ; and the city of Antioch in particular hath fuffered
more from earthquakes than any other in that country.
The fame phenomena are faid alfo to occur very fre¬
quently in the north-eaftern extremities of Afla, even
in very high latitudes. 3
Though there are no phenomena in nature more cal- Hiftory of
Culated to imprefs the human mind with terror, and t^1“r Ph<r*
confeque^tly to be well remembered and taken notice 'n"
of, than earthquakes ; yet the philofophy of them is but
lately arrived at any degree of perfedtion ; and even
at this day, the hiftory of earthquakes is very incom¬
plete. The deftrudlion occaAoned by them engroffes
the mind too much to admit of philofophical fpecula-
tions at the time they happen : the fame thing pre¬
vents the attentive conlideration of the alterations that
take place in the atmofphere after the earthquake is
over, and which might probably throw fome light oh
the caufes which produced it; and the fuddennefs of
its coming on prevents an exadt attention to thofe
flight appearances in the earth or air, which, if care¬
fully obferved, might ferve as war nings to avoid the de-
ftrudtion.—From what obfervations have been mhde,
however, the following phenomena may be deduced,
and reckoned pretty certain. 3
1. Where there are any volcanoes or burning moun- Account of
tains, earthquakes may reafonably be expected moretfie hen”4
frequently than in other countries. as-yetafcer-
2. If the volcano hath been for a long time quiet, atained.
violent earthquake is to be feared, £5° vice verfa. But to
this there are many exceptions.
3. Earthquakes are generally preceded by long
droughts; but they do not always come on as foon as
the drought ceafes.
4. They are alfo preceded by eleftrical appearances
in the air; fuch as the aurora borealis, falling ftars,
&c. : but this does not hold univerfally.
y. A fliort time before the (hock, the fea fwells up
and makes a great noife; fountains are troubled, and
fend forth muddy water; and the beads feem frighted,
as if fenflbleof an approaching calamity.
6. The air at the time of the (hock is generally calm
and ferene ; but afterwards commonly becomes obfcure
and cloudy.
7. The
EAR [ 265 1 EAR
Earth- 17. The fhock comes on with a rumbling noife, fome-
quakc. tJme? like that of carriages ; fometimes a rufhing noife
like wind, and fometimes explofions like the firing of-
cannon are heard. Sometimes the ground heaves per¬
pendicularly upwards, and fometimes rolls from fide to
fide.. Sometimes the fhock begins with a perpendicu¬
lar heave, after which the other kind of motion com¬
mences. A Angle fhock is but of very fhort duration,
the longeft fcarcely lafting a minute; but they fre¬
quently fucceed each other at fhort intervals for a con-
fiderable length of time.
8. During the fhock, chafms are made in the earth;
from which fometimes flames, but oftener great quan¬
tities of water, are difeharged. Flame and fmoke
• are alfo emitted from places of the earth where no
chafms can be perceived. Sometimes thefe chafms
are but fmall; but, in violent earthquakes, they are
frequently fo large, that whole cities fink down into
them at once.
9. The water of the ocean is affe&ed even more than
the dry-land. The fea fwells to a prodigious height;
much more than we could fuppofe it raifed by the mere
elevation of its bottom by the fhock. Sometimes it is
divided to a confiderable depth ; and great quantities of
air, flames, and fmoke, are difeharged from it. The like
irregular agitations happen to the waters of ponds,
lakes, and even rivers.
1 o. The fhock is felt at fea as well as on land. Ships
are affe&ed by a fudden flroke, as if they had run
aground or ftruck upon a rock.
11. The effedls of earthquakes are not confined to
one particular dillrift or country, but often extend to
very diftant regions; though no earthquake hath
yet been known extenfive enough to aflfedt the whole
globe at one time. In thofe places alfo where the
fhock is not felt on dry land, the irregular agitation
of the waters above mentioned is perceived very re-
4 markably.
Account of All thefe pofitions are verified by the accounts of
*uake^k' t^°^e earthquakes which have been particularly deferi-
Jamaica^n ^7 witnefles of the bed character. In 1692, an
<1692. earthquake happened in Jamaica, attended with almoft
all the terrible circumftances above mentioned. In two
minutes, it deftroyed the town of Port Royal, at that
time the capital of the ifland ; and funk the houfes
in a gulph 40 fathoms deep. It was attended with an
hollow rumbling noife like that of thunder : the ftreets
1 ofe like the waves of the fea ; firft lifting up the houfes,
and then immediately throwing them down into deep
pits. All the wells difeharged their waters with the
moft violent agitation. The fea burit over its1 bounds,
and deluged all that flood in its way. The fiffures of
the earth were in fome places fo great, that one of the
ftreets appeared twice as broad as formerly. In many
places it opened and clofed again ; and continued this
agitation for fome time. Of thefe openings, great
numbers might be feen at once. In fome of them, the
people were fwallowed up at once ; in others, the earth
caught them by the middle, and crufhed them to death;
while others, more fortunate, were fwallowed up in one
chafm, and thrown out alive by another. Other chafms
were large enough to fwallow up whole ftreets 5 and
others, ftill more formidable, fpouted up immenfe quan¬
tities of water, drowning fuch as the earthquake had
fpared. The whole was attended with flenches and
Vol.VI. Parti.
offenfive fmells, the noife of falling mountains at a di- Earth-
ftance, &c.; and the Iky, in a minute’s time, was turn-
ed dull and reddifh, like a glowing oven. Yet, as ^
great a fufferer as Port-Royal was, more houfes were
left handing therein than on the whole ifland befides.
Scarce a planting.-houfe, or fugar-houfe, was left
Handing in all Jamaica. A great part of them were
fwallowed up, houfes, people, trees, and all, in one
gap : in lieu of which, afterwards appeared great pools
of water; which, when dried up, left nothing but fand,
without any mark that ever tree or plant had grown
thereon. The fhock was fo violent, that it threw
people down on their knees or their faces as they
were running about for fhelter. Several houfes were
fhuffled fome yards out of their places, and yet conti¬
nued handing. One Hopkins had his plantation re¬
moved half a mile from the place where it flood, with¬
out any confiderable alteration. All the wells in the
ifland, as well as thofe of Port-Royal, from one fa¬
thom to fix orTeven deep, threw their water out at the
top with great violence. Above 12 miles from the fea,
the earth gaped and fpouted out, with a prodigious
force, vaft quantities of water into the air: yet the
greateft violences were among the mountains and rocks;
and it is a general opinion, that the nearer the moun¬
tains, the greater the fhock ; and that the caufe there¬
of lay among them. Moll of the rivers were flopped
up for 24 hours by the falling of the mountains ; till
fwelling up, they made themfelves new tracks and
channels; tearing up, in their paflage, trees, &c. Af¬
ter the great fhock, thofe people who efcaped got
on board fhips in the harbour, where many continued
above two months; the fhocks all that time being fo
violent, and coming fo thick, fometimes two or three
in an hour, accompanied with frightful noifes like a
rufhing wand, or a hollow rumbling thunder, with
brimflone-blails, that they duril not come afhore. The
confequence of the earthquake was a general ficknefs,
from the noifome vapours belched forth, which fwept
away above 3000 perfons. s
A ftill more terrible account, if poffible, is that gi-Of the
ven by Kircher, of the earthquake which happened in earthq:;afte
Calabria in the year 1638. This inflance is an excep-!n ^al*bn*
tion to the fecond general pofition above laid down. In m 1 •* ’
Italy, there had been an eruption of Mount Vefuvius
five years before ; and in Sicily there had been an
eruption of ALtna only two years before this earth¬
quake. The event, however, plainly fhowed, that the
caufe of the earthquake, whatever it was, had a con¬
nection not only with Mount jEtna, which lies in the
neighbourhood, but alfo with the volcano of Stromboli,
which is 60 miles diflant. “ On the 24th of March
(fays Kircher), w7e lanched (in a fmall boat) from the
harbour of Meffina in Sicily, and arrived the fame day
at the promontory of Pelorus. Our deftination was
for the city of Euphemia in Calabria ; but on account
of the weather, we were obliged to continue three days
at Pelorus. At length, wearied with the delay, we
refolved to profecute our voyage; and although the
fea feemed more than ufually agitated, yet we ventu¬
red forward. The gulph of Charybdis, which we ap¬
proached, feemed whirled round in fuch a manner as
to form a vaft hollow, verging to a point in the centre.
Proceeding onward, and turning my eyes to Mount
iEtna, I faw it call forth large volumes of fmoke, of
L 1 moun-
EAR [ 266 ] EAR
Earth- mountainous fize, which entirely covered the ifland,
quake. anj blotted out even the (hores from my view. This,
'*~~J together with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureoua
ftench, which was ilrongly perceived, filled me with
apprehenfions that fome more dreadful calamity was
impending. The fea itfelf feemed to wear a very un-
ufual appearance ; thofe who have feen a lake in a vio¬
lent fhower of rain all covered over with bubbles, will
have fome idea of its agitations. My furprife was ftill
increafed by the calmnefs and ferenity of the weather ;
not a breeze, not a cloud, which might be fuppofed to
put all nature thus into motion. I therefore warned
my companion, that an earthquake was approaching;
and, after fome time, making for the fhore with all
poffible diligence, we landed at Tropasa. But we had
fcarce arrived at the Jefuits college in that city, when
our ears were ftunned with an horrid found, refembling
that of an infinite number of chariots driven fiercely
forward, the wheels rattling and the thongs cracking.
Soon after this, a molt dreadful earthquake enfued ; fo
that the whole track upon which we flood feemed to
vibrate, as if we were in the fcale of a balance that con¬
tinued waving. This motion, however, foon.grew
more violent; and being no longer able to keep
my legs, I was thrown prollrate upon the ground.
After fome time, finding that I remained unhurt
amidfl the general concuflion, I refolved to venture for
fafety; and running as faft as I could, reached the
fhore. I did not fearch long here, till I found the
boat in which I had landed, and my companions alfo.
Leaving this feat of defolation, we profecuted our voy¬
age along the coaft ; and the next day came to Ro-
chetta, where we landed, although the earth ftill con¬
tinued in violent agitations. But we were fcarce ar¬
rived at our inn, when we were once more obliged to
return to our boat; and in about half an hour we faw
the greateft part of the town, and the inn at which we
had fet up, dafhed to the ground, and burying all its
inhabitants beneath its ruins. Proceeding onward in
our little veflel, we at length landed at Lopizium, a
caftle mid-way between Tropsea and Euphemia the
city to which we were bound. Here, wherever I turn¬
ed my eyes, nothing but fcenes of ruin and horror ap¬
peared ; towns and caftles levelled to the ground ;
Stromboli, though at 60 miles diftance, belching forth
flames in an unufual manner, and with a noife which
I could diftinftly hear. But my attention was quickly
turned from more remote to contiguous danger. The
rumbling found of an approaching earthquake, which
by this time wc were grown acquainted with, alarmed
us for the confequences. It every moment feemed to
grow louder, and to approach more near. The place
on which we flood now began to fhake moll dreadful¬
ly ; fo that, being unable to ftand, my companions and
I caught hold of whatever fhrub grew next us, and
fupported ouvfelves in that manner. After fome time,
the violent paroxyfm ceafing, we again flood up, in
order to profecute our voyage to Euphemia, which lay
within fight. In the mean time, while we were pre¬
paring for this purpofe, I turned my eyes towards the
city; but could fee only a frightful dark cloud, that
feemed to reft upon the place. This the more fur-
prifed us, as the weather was fo very ferene. We wait¬
ed, therefore, till the cloud was paffed away : then
turning to look for the city, it was totally funk.; and
nothing but a difmal and putrid lake was to be feen Earth-
where it flood.” quake.
In 1693 an earthquake happened in Sicily, which
may juftly be accounted one of the moft terrible of0f tlje
which we have any account. It fliook the whole earthquake
ifland : and not only that, but Naples and Malta fha-in Sicily in
red in the fhock. It was impofiible for any body in i693-
this country to keep on their legs on the dancing
earth ; nay, thofe that lay on the ground were toffed
from fide to fide as on a rolling billow: high walls
leaped from their foundations feveral paces, &c. The
mifchief it did is amazing; almoft all the buildings in
the countries were thrown down. Fifty-four cities and
towns, befide an incredible number of villages, were ei¬
ther deftroyed or greatly damaged. We fhallonly in-
flance the fate of Catania, one of the moft famous, an¬
cient, and flourilhing cities in the kingdom ; the refi-
dence of feveral monarchs, and an univerfity. This
once famous city had the greateft fharein the tragedy.
Father Anthon. Serrovita, being on his way thither,
and at the diftance of a few miles, obferved a black
cloud like night hovering over the city; and there a-
rofe from the mouth of Montgibello great fpires of
flame, which fpread all around. The fea all of a fud-
den began to roar and rife in billows; and there was
a blow, as if all the artillery in the world had been at
once difcharged. The birds flew about aftonifhed ;
the cattle in the fields ran crying, &c. His and his
companions horfes flopped fhort, trembling; fo that
they were forced to alight. They were no fooner off,
but they were lifted from the ground above two palms;
when cafling his eyes towards Catania, he with amaze¬
ment faw nothing but a thick cloud of dull in the air.
This was the fcene of their calamity; for of the mag¬
nificent Catania, there was not the leaft footftep to be
feen. S. Bonajuttis affures us, that of 18900 inhabi¬
tants, 18000 perifhed therein. ^
The great earthquake, however, which happened on Phenomena
the 1 ft of November 1755, affords the cleareit example of the grtilt
of all the phenomena above mentioned; having been Novem^i6*
felt violently in many places both on land and at fea, i7s-.
and extended its effedls to the waters in many other g
places where the fhocks were not perceived. At Lifbon At Lifbon.
in Portugal its effects were moft fevere. In 1750,
there had been a fenfible trembling of the earth felt in
this city: for four years afterwards, there had been an
exceffive drought; infomuch that fome fprings, former¬
ly very plentiful of water, were dried and totally loft.
The predominant winds were north and north-eail, ac¬
companied with various, though very fmall, tremors of
the earth. The year 1755 proved very wet and rainy;
the fummer cooler than ufual; and for 40 days before
the earthquake, the weather was clear, but not remark¬
ably fo. The laft day of Oftober, the fun was obfcu*
red, with a remarkable gioominefs in the atmofphere. .
The firft of November, early in the morning, a thick
fog arofe, which was foon dilfipated by the heat of the;
fun; no wind was ftirring; the fea was calm; and the
weather as warm as in June or July in this country. At.
35 minutes after nine, without the leaft warning, ex¬
cept a rumbling noife not unlike the artificial thunder
in our theatres, a moft dreadful earthquake {hook, by.
{hort but quick vibrations, the foundations of all the
city, fo that many buildings inflantly fell. Then, with,
a fcarce perceptible paufe, the nature of the motion.
was
EAR [ 267 ] EAR
Earth- was changed, and the houfes were toffed from fide to
quake. a motion like that of a waggon violently
v driven over rough Hones. This fecond (hock laid al-
moft the whole city in ruins, with prodigious daughter
of the people. The earthquake lafted in all about fix
minutes. At the moment of its beginning, fome per-
fons on the river, near a mile from the city, heard their
boat make a noife as if it had run aground, though
they were then in deep water; and at the fame time
they faw the houfes falling on both fides of the river.
The bed of the river Tagus was in many places raifed
to its furface. Ships were driven from their anchors,
and jollied together with great violence ; nor did their
mailers know whether they were afloat or aground.
A large new quay funk to an unfathomable depth, with
feveral hundreds of people who were upon it; nor was
one of the dead bodies ever found. The bar was at
firll feen dry from Ihore to Ihore: but fuddenly the fea
came rolling in like a mountain; and about Belem
Caftle the water rofe 50 feet almoll in an inltant.
About noon there was another Ihock ; when the walls
of feveral houfes that yet remained wer^feen to open
from top to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, and
afterwards clofed again fo exadlly that fcarce any mark
q of the injury was left.
At Colares. At Colares, about 20 miles from Lifbon, and two
miles from the fea, on the lalt day of Odtober, the wea¬
ther was clear, and uncommonly warm for the feafon.
About four o’clock in the afternoon there arofe a fog,
which came from the fea, and covered the valleys; a
thing very unufual at that feafon of the year. Soon
after, the wind changing to the call, the fog returned
to the fea, collecting itfelf, and becoming exceeding
thick. As the fog retired, the fea rofe with a prodi¬
gious roaring. The firll of November, the day broke
with a ferene Iky, the wind continuing at call; but
about nine o’clock the fun began to grow dim ; and
about half an hour after was heard a rumbling noife
like that of chariots, which increafed to fuch a degree,
that it became equal to the explofions of the largell
cannon. Immediately a Ihock of an earthquake was
felt, which was quickly fucceeded by a fecond and
third ; and at the fame time feveral light flames of fire
iffued from the mountains, refembling the kindling of
charcoal. In thefe three Ihocks, the walls of the build¬
ings moved from call to well. In another fituation,
from whence the fea-coall could be difcovered, there
ilfued from one of the hills called the Fojo a great
quantity of fmoke, very thick, but not very black.
This Hill increafed with the fourth Ihock, and after¬
wards continued to ifl'ue in a greater or lefs degree. Jull
as the fubterraneous rumblings were heard, the fmoke
was obferved to burll forth at the Fojo; and the quan¬
tity of fmoke was always proportioned to the noife.
On vifiting the place from whence the fmoke was feen
10 to arife, no figns of fire could be perceived near it.
At Oporto. At Oporto (near the mouth of the river Douro), the
earthquake began about 40 minutes pall nine. The
Hey was very lerene; when, a dreadful hollow noife like
thunder, or the rattling of coaches at a dillance, was
heard, and almoll at the fame inllant the earth began
to fhake. In the fpace of a minute or two, the river
rofe and fell five or fix feet, and continued to do fo for
four hours. It ran up at firll with fo much violence,
that it broke a Ihip’s hawfer. In fome parts the riter
opened, and feemed to difcharge vail quantities of air; Earth*
and the agitation in the fea was fo great about a league ^ualte-
beyond the bar, that air was fuppofed to have been '
difcharged there alfo. 1(
St Ube’s, a fea-port town about 20 miles fouth of AtStUbe’s.
Lilbon, was entirely fwallowed up by the repeated
Ihocks and the vail furf of the fea. Huge pieces of rock
were detached at the fame time from the promontory at
the well end of the town, which confills of a chain of
mountains containing fine jafper of dilferent colours. Ia
The fame earthquake was felt all over Spain, except At Aya*
in Catalonia, Arragon, and Valencia.—At Ayamonte 'nor?te *n
(near where the Guadiana falls into the Bay of Cadiz
a little before x o o’clock on the firll of November, the
earthquake was felt; having been immediately pre¬
ceded by a hollow nllhing noife. Here the Ihocks
continued for 14 or 15 minutes, damaged almoll all the
buildings, throwing down fome, and leaving others ir¬
reparably lhattered. In little more than half an hour
after, the fea and river, with all the canals, overflowed
their banks with great violence, laying under water all
the coalts' of the illands a'djacent to the city and its
neighbourhood, and flowing into the very llreets. The
water came on in vail black mountains, white with foam
at the top, and demolilhed more than one half of a tower
at the bar named De Cana/a. In the adjacent llrands
every thing was irrecoverably loft; for all that was over¬
flowed funk, and the beach became a fea, without the
leaft refemblance of what it was before. Many perfons
perilhed ; for although they got aboard fome velfels,
yet part of thefe foundered ; and others being forced
out to fea, the unhappy palfengers were fo terrified,
that they threw themfelves overboard. The day was
ferene, and not a breath of wind ftirring. ^
At Cadiz, fome minutes after nine in the morning, At Cadiz,
the earthquake began, and lafted about five minutes.
The water of the cillerns under ground walhed back¬
wards and forwards, fo that a great froth arofe. At
ten minutes after eleven, a wave was feen coming from
the fea, at eight miles diltance, at leaft 60 feet higher
than ufual. It dalhed againlt the weft part of the
town, which is very rocky. Though thefe rocks
broke a good deal of its force, it at lall came upon the
city walls, beat in the breaft-work, and carried pieces
of the building of eight or ten ton weight to the di*
fiance of 40 or 50 yards.—When the wave was gone,
fome parts that are deep at low water, were left quite
dry; for the water returned with the fame violence with
which it came. At half an hour after 11 came a fecond
wave, and after that four other remarkable ones; the fir ft
at ten minutes before twelve; the fecond, half an hour
before one; the third, ten minutes after one ; and the
fourth, ten minutes before two. Similar waves, but
fmaller, and gradually lelfening, continued with uncer¬
tain intervals till the evening.
At Gibraltar, the earthquake was not felt till after At (jfbra!-
ten. It began with a tremulous motion of the earth, W-
which lafted about half a minute. Then followed a
violent Ihock; after that, a trembling of the earth for
five or fix feconds; then another Ihock not fo violent
as the firft, which went off gradually as it began. The
whole lafted about two minutes. Some of the guns on
the battery were feen to rife, others to fink, the earth
having an undulating motion. Moil people were feized
with giddinefs and licknefs, and fome fell down; others
I* 1 2 were
EAR [
Earth- xvere ftupined; and many that were walking or riding
felt no motion in the earth, but were lick. The fea
~v "" rofe fix feet every 15 minutes; and then fell fo low, that
boats and all the fmall craft near the Ihore were left a-
ground, as were alfo numbers of fmall fifh. The flux
and reflux lafted till next morning, having decreafed
15 gradually from two in the afternoon.
At Madrid, At Madrid the earthquake came on at the fame time
Maiajja, as at Q;braltar, and lafted about fix minutes. At firft
every body thought they were feized with a fwimmrng
in their heads; and afterwards, that the houfes were
falling. It was not felt in coaches, nor by thofe who
walked on foot, except very flightly ; and no accident
happened, except that two lads were killed by the fall
of a ftone-crofs from the porch of a church.
Malaga (a fea-port on the Mediterranean) felt a vio-
268 ] EAR
felt the floor immediately to move with a tremulous
motion, vibrating very quickly. The (hock continued
more than a minute; during which fpace, the vibra- ’
tions, though continual, were weakened and increafed
in force twice very fenfibly. The increafe after the
firft remiflion of the (hock was the moft intenfe. The
noife in the air accompanied the (hock during the-whole
of its continuance, and lafted fome feconds after the
motion of the earth had ceafed ; dying away like a
peal of diftant thunder rolling through the air. At
three quarters paft eleven, the fea, which was quite
calm, it being a fine day, and no wind ftirring, re¬
tired fuddenly fome paces; then rifing with a great
fwell without the leaft noife, and as fuddenly advan¬
cing, overflowed the Ihore, and entered the city. It
rofe 15 feet perpendicular above the high-water mark.
Earth¬
quake.
Jentlhock; the bells rung in the fteeples; the water of although the tide, which flows there feven feet, was
a well overflowed, and as fuddenly retired.
Saint Lucar (at the mouth of the Guadalquivir)
was*violently (hocked, and the fea broke in and did a
great deal of mifchief.
At Seville (16 leagues above the mouth of the Gua¬
dalquivir) feveral houfes were fliaken down; the famous
tower of the cathedral called A? Giralda opened in the
four fides ; and the waters were fo violently agitated,
that all the veffels in the river were driven aftiore.
At Arz lla In Africa, the earthquake was felt almoft as feverely
then at half ebb. The water immediately receded; and
after having fludluated four or five times between high
and low water mark, it fubfided, and the fea remain¬
ed calm as before. In the northern part of the ifland
the inundation was more violent, the fea there re¬
tiring above too paces at firft, and fuddenly returning,
overflowed the (hofe, forcing open doors, breaking
down the walls of feveral magazines and ftorehoufes,
leaving great quantities of fi(h afliore and in the ftreets
of the village of Machico. All this was the effect of
in Africa. as Jt ]lacj j,een ;n Europe. Great part of the town of one rifing of the fea, for it never afterwards flowed
Algiers was deftroyed. At Arzilla (a town in the king¬
dom of Fez), about ten in the morning, the fea fud¬
denly rofe with fuch impetuofity, that it lifted up a
veffel in the bay, and dropped it with fuch force on the
knd, that it was broke to pieces; and a boat was found ceptible.
high enough to reach the high-water mark. It con¬
tinued, however, to fluctuate here much longer be¬
fore it fubfided than at Funchal; and in fome places
farther to the weft^Vard, it was hardly, if it all, per-
two mulket-fhot within land from the fea. At Fez and
Mequinez, great numbers of houfes fell down, and a
multitude of people were buried in the ruins.
At Morocco, by the falling down of a great num-
Thefe were the phenomena with which this remark¬
able earthquake was attended in thofe places where it
was violent. The effedls of it, however, reached to-
an immenfe diftance ; and were perceived chiefly by the
ber of houfes, many people loft their lives: and about agitations of the waters, or fome flight motion of the
At other
places
eight leagues from the city the earth opened and
{wallowed tip a village with all the inhabitants, who
were known by the name of the Sons of Befumba, to the
number of about 8000 or 10,000 perfons, together with
all their cattle, &c.; and, foon after, the earth clofed
again in the fame manner as before.
At Salle, a great deal of damage was done. Near
earth. The . utmoft boundaries of this earthquake to
the fouth are unknown; the barbarity of the African
nations rendering it impoflible to procure any intelli¬
gence from them, except where the effe&s were dread¬
ful. On the north, however, we are affured, that it£g-e^°0f
reached as far as Norway and Sweden. In the former, it in Nor-
the waters of feveral rivers and lakes were violently way and
third part of the houfes were overthrown; the waters agitated. In the latter, (hocks were felt in feveralSv're^en"
the African Jnto the city with great rapidity, and left behind
them great quantities of filh.
At Tangier, the earthquake began at ten in the
morning, and lafted 10 or 12 minutes. The fea came
provinces, and all the rivers and lakes were ftrongly-
agitated, efpecially in Dalecarlia. The river Dala
fuddenly overflowed its banks, and as fuddenly re¬
tired. At the fame time a lake at the diftance of a
up to the walls (a thing never heard of before) ; and league from it, and which had no manner of commu-
went down immediately with the fame rapidity with
which it arofe, leaving a great quantity of filh behind
it. Thefe commotions were repeated 18 times, and
lafted till fix in the evening.
At Tetuan, the earthquake began at the fame
time it did at Tangier, but lafted only feven or eight
minutes. There were three (hocks fo extremely vio¬
lent, that it was feared the whole city would be de-
ftroyed.
In the ifland 1° the city of Funchal, in the ifland of Madeira, a
efMadeira, (hock of this earthquake was firft perceived at 38 mi¬
nutes paft nine in the morning. It was preceded by a
rumbling noife in the air, like that of empty carriages
palling haftily over a ftone pavement. The obferver
nication with it, bubbled up with great violence. At
Fahlun, a town in Dalecarlia, feveral ftrong (hocks
were felt. zr
In many places of. Germany the effe&s of the earth-In Ger-
quake were very perceptible. Throughout the duchy
of Holftein, the waters were violently agitated, parti¬
cularly thofe of the Elbe and Trave. In Branden¬
burg, the water of a lake called LUfec, ebbed and
flowed fix times in half an hour, with a dreadful noife,
the weather being then perfectly calm. The fame agi¬
tation was obferved in the waters of the lakes called
Muplgnjl and Net%o; but at this laft place they alfo
emitted an intolerable ftench.. zz
In Holland, the agitations were more remarkable, in Holland.
At
In Italy and
At Anti,
gua and
Uarbadoes.
EAR [ 269 1 EAR
At AJphen on the Rhine between Leyden and Woer-
den, in the afternoon of the firft of November, the
waters were agitated to fuch a violent degree, that
buoys were broken from their chains, large veflels
fnapped their cables, fmaller ones were thrown out of
the water upon the land, and others lying on land were
fet afloat. At Amfterdam, about eleven in the fore¬
noon, the air being perfeAly calm, the waters were
fuddenly agitated in their canals, fo that feveral boats
broke loofe ; chandeliers were obferved to vibrate in
the churches; but no motion of the earth, or concuf-
fion of any building, was obferved. At Haerlem, in
the forenoon, for near four minutes together, not only
the water in the rivers, canals, &c. but alfo all kinds
of fluids in fmaller quantities, as in coolers, tubs, backs,
&c. were furprifingly agitated, and dafhed over the
fides, though no motion was perceptible in the vefiels
themfelves. In thefe fmall quantities alfo the fluid ap¬
parently afcended prior to its turbulent motion; and in
many places, even the rivers and canals rofe 12 inches
perpendicular. At Leyden, between half an hour af¬
ter 10 and 11 in the forenoon, the waters rofe fuddea-
ly in fome of the canals, and made feveral very fenilble
undulations, fo that the boats were ftrongly agitated.
The fame motion wgs perceived in the water of the
backs of two brew-houfes.
Round the ifland of Corfica, the fea was violently
agitated, and molt of the rivers of the ifland overflow¬
ed'their banks.— In the city of Milan in Italy, and
throughout that diftrid, fhocks were felt. At Turin
in Savoy, there was felt a very violent fhock.
In Switzerland, many rivers turned fuddenly muddy
without rain. The lake of Neufchatel fwelled to the
height of near two feet above its natural level for the
fpace of a few hours. An agitation was alfo perceived
in the waters of the lake of Zurich.
At the ifland of Antigua, there was fuch-a fea with¬
out the bar as had not been known in the memory of
man; and after it, all the water at the wharfs, which
ufed to be fix feet deep, was not two inches.—At Bar-
badoes, about two in the afternoon, the fea ebbed.and
flowed in a furprifing manner. It ran over the wharfs
and ftreets into the houfes, and continued thus ebbing
and flowing till ten at night.
The agitation of- the waters was perceived in great
numbers of places in Great Britain and Ireland.—
Accounts of the moft remarkable of them follow. At
Barlborough in Derbylhire, between 11 and 12 in.the
forenoon,, in a boat-houfe on the weft fide of a large
body of water called Pit ley Dam, fuppofed to cover at
leaft 30 acres of land, was heard a furprifing and ter¬
rible noife; a large fwell of water came in a, current
{fom the fouth, and rofe two feet on the floped dam-
head at the. north end of the water. It then fubfided;.
but returned again immediately, though with lefs vio¬
lence. The water was thus agitated for three quar¬
ters of an hour; but the current grew every time
weaker and weaker, till at laft it entirely ceafed.
At Bulbridge in Surrey, at half an hour after ten
in the morning, the weather being remarkably ftill,
without the leaft wind, in a canal near 700 feet Idng
and 58 feet broad, with a fmall fpring conftantly run¬
ning through it, a very unufual noife was heard at the
call end, and the water there obferved to be in great
agitation. It railed itfelf in a heap or ridge in the
middle ; and this heap extended lengthwife about 30 Earth-
yards, riling between two or three feet above the ufual <ljak-e-
level. After this, the ridge heeled or vibrated to- v ~”i
wards the north fide of the canal with great force, and
flowed above eight feet over the grafs walk on that
fide. On its return back into the canal, it again ridged
in the middle, and then heeled with yet greater force
to the fouth fide, and flowed over its grafs walk. Du¬
ring this latter motion, the bottom on the north fide
was left dry for feveral feet. This appearance lafted
for about a quarter of an hour, after which the water
became fmooth and quiet as before. During the wliole
time, the fand at the bottom was thrown up and mixed
with the water ; and there was a continual noife like
that of water turning a mill.
At Cobham in Surrey, between to and 11 o’clock,
a perfon was watering a horfe at a pond fed by fprings.
Whilft the animal was drinking, the water fuddenly
ran away from him, and moved towards the fouth-
with fueh fwiftnefs, that the bottom of the pond
was left bare. If returned again with fuch impetuo-
fity, that the man leaped backwards to fecure him-
felf from its fudden approach. The ducks were alarm¬
ed at the firft agitation, and inftantly flew all out of
the pond.
At Dunftall in Suffolk, the water of a pond rofe
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid,
and fell down like a water-fpout. Other ponds in the
neighbourhood had a fmooth flux and reflux from one
end to the other.
Near the city of Durham, about half an hour after
ten, a gardener was alarmed by a fudden ruftiing noife
from a pond, as if the head of the pond had been bro¬
ken down: when cafting his eye on the water, he faw
it gradually rife up, without any flu&uating motion,
till it reached a grate which flood fome inches higher
than the common water level. After this it fubfided,
and then fwelled again ; thus continuing to rife and
fall during the fpace of fix or feven minutes, makino-,
four or five returns in the fpace of one minute. Thq
pond was about 40 yards long and lobroad.
At Earfy Court, Berks, about 11 o’clock, as a gar¬
dener was handing by a fifti pond, he felt a violent trem¬
bling of the earth, whiejh lafted about a-minute. Imme¬
diately after, he obferved a motion of-the water from the
fouth- to the north end of the pond, leaving the bot¬
tom at the fouth end altogether dry for about fix feet.
It then returned, and flowed at the fouth end, rifing
three feet up the flbpe bank.; and immediately after re^
turned to the north bank, rifing there .alfo about three
feet. In the time between the flux and reflux, the wa¬
ter fwelled up in the middle of the pond, collected in a
ridge about 20 inches higher than the level on each
fide, and boiled like a pot. This agitation from^fouth
to north lafted about four minutes.
At Eaton-bridge, Kent, in a pond about an acre in
fize, a dead calm, and no wind ftirring, fome perfons
heard a noife, and imagining foraething had been
tumbling in, ran to fee what was the matter. On
their arrival at the. pond, to their furprife they faw the
water open in the middle, fo that they could fee a poit
a good way down, almoft to the bottom. The water
in the mean time dalhed up over a bank two feet high,
and perpendicular to the pond. This was repeated fe¬
veral times with a gr,eat noife.
5
At
EAR [ 270 1 EAR
Earth- At Eyam-bridge, Derbyfhire (in the Peak), the
quake overfeer of the lead-mines fitting in his writing-room
about 11 o’clock, felt a fudden (hock, which very fen-
fibly raifed him up in his chair, and caufed feveral
pieces of plafter to drop from the fides of the room.
The roof was fo violently (haken, that he imagined the
engine (haft had been falling in. Upon this he imme¬
diately ran to fee what was the matter, but found every
thing in perfedt fafety.—At this time two miners were
employed in carting, or drawing along the drifts of the
mines, the ore and other materials to be raifed up at
the (hafts. The drift in which they were working was
about 120 yards deep, and the fpace from one end to
the other 50 yards or upwards. The miner at the end
of the drift had juft loaded his cart, and was drawing
it along; but he was fuddenly furprifed by a (hock,
which fo terrified him, that he immediately quitted his
employment, and ran to the weft end of the drift to
his partner, who was no lefs terrified than himfelf.
They durft not attempt to climb the (haft, left that
fhould be running in upon them : but while they were
confulting what means they (hould take for their fafe¬
ty, - they were furprifed by a fecond (hock more vio¬
lent than the firft ; which frightened them fo much,
that they both ran precipitately to the other end of the
drift. They then went down to another miner who
worked about x 2 yards below them. He told them
that the violence of the fecond (hock had been fo great,
that it caufed the rocks to grind upon one another.
His account was interrupted by a third (hock, which,
after an interval of four or five minutes, was fucceeded
by a fourth ; and, about the fame fpace of time after,
by a fifth ; none of which were fo violent as the fe¬
cond. They heard, after every (hock, a loud rum¬
bling in the bowels of the earth, which continued a-
bout half a minute, gradually decreafing, or feeming
to remove, to a greater diftance.
At Shireburn caftle, Oxfordfhire, at a little after
ten in the morning, a very ftrange motion was obfer-
ved in the water of a moat which encompaffes the houfe.
There was a pretty thick fog, not a breath of air, and
the furface of the water all over the moat as fmooth as
a looking-glafs, except at one corner, where it flowed
into the (hore, and retired again fucceflively, in a fur-
prifing manner. In what manner it began to move is
uncertain, as nobody obferved the beginning of its
motion. The flux and reflux, when feen, were quite
regular. Every flood began gently; its velocity in-
creafed by degrees, when at laft it ruflied in with great
impetuofity, till it had attained its full height. Ha¬
ving remained for a little time ftationary, it then re¬
tired, ebbing gently at firft, but afterwards finking a-
way with great fwiftnefs. At every flux, the whole
body of water feemed to be violently thrown againft
the bank; but neither during the time of the flux nor
that of the reflux, did there appear even the lead
wrinkle of a wave on the other parts of the moat. Lord
Vifcount Parker, who had obferved this motion, be¬
ing defirous to know whether it was univerfal over
the moat, fent a perfon to the other corner of it, at
the fame time that he himfelf ftood about 25 yards
from him, to examine whether the water moved there
or not. Pie could perceive no motion there, or hard¬
ly any : but another, who went to the north-eaft cor¬
ner of the moat, diagonally oppofite to his lordflxip,
found it as confiderable there as where he was. His Earth-
lordihip imagining, that in all probability the water at quake.
the corner diagonally oppofitd to where he was wouldv—^
fink as that by him rofe, he-ordered the perfon to fig-
nify by calling out, when the water by him began to
fink, and when to rife. This he did; but, to his
lordfhip’s great furprife, immediately after the wa¬
ter began to rife at his own end, he heard his voice
calling that it began to rife with him alfo; and in
the fame manner he heard that it was finking at his
end, foon after he perceived it to fink by himfelf. A
pond juft below was agitated in a fimilar manner;
but the rifings and finkings of it happened at diffe¬
rent times from thofe at the pond where lord Parker
ftood.
At White Rock in Glamorganftiire, about two
hours ebb of the tide, and near three quarters after
fix in the evening, a vaft quantity of water ruflied up
with a prodigious noife ; floated two large veflels, the
lead of them above 200 tons; broke their moorings,
drove them acrofe the river, and had like to have over-
fet them. The whole rife and fall of this extraordi¬
nary body of water did not laft above ten minutes, nor
was it felt in any other part of the river, fo that it
feemed to have guftied out of the earth at that place.
At Loch Lomond in Scotland, about half an hour In Scot-
after nine in the morning, all of a fudden, without the'and.
lead guft of wind, the water rofe againft its banks
with great rapidity, but immediately fubfided, till it
was as low in appearance as any body then prefent had
ever feen it in the greateft fummer-drought. Inftantly
it returned towards the (hore, and in five minutes time
rofe again as high as before. The agitation continued
at the fame rate till 15 minutes after ten the fame
morning; taking five minutes to rife, and as many to
fubfide. From 15 minutes after 10 till 11, the height
of every rife came fomewhat (hort of that immediately
preceding, taking five minutes to flovV, and as many
to ebb, till the water was entirely fettled. The great-
eft perpendicular height of this fwell was two feet four
inches. A ftill more remarkable phenomenon attend¬
ing the earthquake in this lake was, that a large (tone
lying at fome diftance from (hore, but in fuch (hallow
water that it could eafily be feen, was forced out of its
place in the lake upon dry land, leaving a deep furrow
in the ground all along the way in which it had moved.
In Loch Nefs, about half an hour after nine, a
very great agitation was obferved in the water. A-
bout ten the river Oich, which runs on the north fide
of Fort Auguftus, into the head of the lech, was ob¬
ferved to fwell very much, and run upwards from the
loch with a pretty high wave, about two or three feet
higher than the ordinary furface. The motion of the
wave was againft the wind, and it proceeded rapidly
for about 200 yards up the river. It then broke on
a (hallow, and flowed three or four feet on the banks,
after which it returned gently to the loch. It con¬
tinued ebbing and flowing in this manner for about an
hour, without any fuch remarkable waves as the firft;
but about x x o’clock, a wave higher than any of the
reft came up, and broke with fo much force on the low
ground on the north fide of the river, that it run upon
the grafs upwards of 30 feet from the river’s bank. 47
At Kinfale, between two and three in the afternoon, in Ireland,
the weather being very calm, and the tide near full, a
large
EAR
[
Earth¬
quake.
Its effe&s
on fprings
large body of water fuddenly poured into the harbour
with fuch rapidity,that it broke the cablesof two floops,
* each moored with two anchors, and of feveral boats ly¬
ing between Sicily pnd the town. But juft at the time
that a great deal of mifchief was apprehended by all
the veffels running foul of each other, an eddy whirl¬
ed them round feveral times, and then hurried them
back again with the fame rapidity as before. This
was feveral times repeated ; and while the current
rufhed up at one fide of the harbour, it poured down
with equal violence at the other. A veflel that lay all
this time in the pool did not feem to be any ways af¬
fected by it; nor was the violence of the currents
much perceived in the deeper parts of the harbour, but
raged with moft violence on the flats. The bottom
of the harbour, which is muddy, was much altered;
the mud being waflied from fome places, and depo-
fited in others. The perpendicular rife of the water
at one quay was meafured, and found to be five feet
and an half; and is faid to have been much higher at
another, where it overflowed, and poured into the
market-place with fuch rapidity, that fome people who
were on the quay immediately ran off, and yet could
not prevent themfelves from being overtaken and im-
merfed knee-deep in the water. The agitations ex-
teiided feveral miles up the river; but, as in the har¬
bour, were moft perceived in the fiialloweft places.
The fucceffive rifings and fallings of the w'ater conti¬
nued about ten minutes, and then the tide returned
to its natural courfe. Between fix and feven in the
evening, the water rofe again, though not with fo
great violence as before, and it continued to ebb and
flow alternately till three in the morning. The wa¬
ters did not rife gradually at firft ; but, with a hollow
and horrid noife, rufhed in like a deluge, rifing fix or
feven feet in a minute, and as fuddenly fubfiding. They
were as thick as puddle, very black, and flank into¬
lerably.— From different accounts it appeared, that
the water was affeCled in a fimilar manner all along the
coaft to the weftward of Kinfale.
. In France, fnocks were perceived in feveral places ;
as at Bayonne, Bourdeaux, and Lyons. Commotions
of the waters alfo were obferved at Angoulefme, Ble-
ville, Havre de Grace, &c. but not attended with the
remarkable circumftances above mentioned.
Thefe are the moft ftriking'phenomena with which
. the earthquake of Nov. i. 1755 was attended on the
j: furface of the earth. Thofe which happened below
' ground cannot be known but by the changes obferved
in fprings, &c. which were in many places very re¬
markable;—At Colares, on the afternoon of the 31ft
of October, the water of a fountain was greatly de-
creafed: oh the morning of the firft of November it
ran very muddy; and, after the earthquake, returned
to its ufual ftate both as to quantity and clearnefs. On
the hills, numbers of rocks were fplit;- and there were
feveral rents in the ground, but none confiderable. In
fome places where formerly there had been no water,
fprings burft forth, which continued to run.—Some
of the largeft mountains in Portugal were impetuoufly
fhaken as it were from their foundation; moft of them
opened at their fummits, fplit and rent in a wonderful
manner, and huge maffes of them were thrown down
into the fubjacent valleys.—From the rock called Pe-
dta de Alvidar> near the hill Fojo, a- kind of parapet
71 ] EAR
was broken off, which was thrown up from its foun- .Earth-
dation in the f«a.—At Varge, on the river Macaas, quake' ,
at the time of the earthquake, many fprings of water v
burft forth, fome fpouted to the height of 18 or 20
feet, throwing up fand of various colours, which re¬
mained on the ground. A mountainous point, feven
or eight leagues from St Ube’s, cleft afunder, and
threw off feveral vaft maffes of rock.—In Barbary, a
large hill was rent in two; the two halves fell different
ways, and buried two large towns. In another place,
a mountain burft open, and a ftream iffued from it as
red as blood. At Tangier, all the fountains were
dried up, fo that there was no water to be had till
night.—A very remarkable change was obferved on
the medicinal waters of Toplitz, a village in Bohe¬
mia famous for its baths. Thefe waters were difco-
vered in the year 762 ; from which time the principal
fpring of them had conftantly thrown out hot water
in the fame quantity, and of the fame quality. On the
morning of the earthquake, between 11 and 12 in the
forenoon, the principal fpring call forth fuch a quan¬
tity of water, that in the fpace of half an hour all the
baths ran over. About half an hour before this great
increafe of the water, the fpring flowed turbid and
muddy ; then having flopped entirely for a minute, it
broke forth again with prodigious violence, driving be¬
fore it a confiderable quantity of reddifti ochre. After
this it became clear, and flowed as pure as before. It
ftill continues to do fo; but the water is in greater
quantity, and hotter, than before the earthquake. At
Angoulefme in France, a fubterraneous noife like thun¬
der was heard ; and prefently after the earth opened,
and difcharged a torrent of water mixed with red fand.
Moft of the fprings in the neighbourhood funk in fuch a
manner, that for fome time they were thought to be
quite dry. In Britain, no confiderable alteration was
obferved in the earth, except that, near the lead mine
above mentioned in Derbylhire, a cleft was obferved
about a foot deep, fix inches wide, and 150 yards in
length. 30
At fea, the ftiocks of this earthquake were felt moft Effe&s off
violently. Off St Lucar, the captain of the Nancy the earth-
frigate felt his ftiip fo violently fliaken, that he thought at
flie had ftruck the ground; but, on heaving the lead, a*
found he was in a great depth of water. Captain Clark
from-Denia, in N. Lat. 36. 24. between-nine and ten in
the morning, had his fhip flraken and ftrained as if ftie
had ftruck upon a rock, fo that the feams of the deck
opened, and the compafs was overturned in the bi-
nacle. The mailer ol a veffel bound to the American
illands, being in N. Lat. 250, W. Long. 40°, and wri¬
ting in his cabin, heard a violent noife, as he imagi¬
ned, in the fteerage; and while he was alking what
the matter was, the Ihip was put into a ftrange agita¬
tion, and feemed as if Ihe had been fuddenly jerked up
and fufpended by a rope faftened to the mail-head.
He immediately llarted up with great terror and a-
ftonifhment ; and looking out at the cabin-window,,
faw land, as he took it to be, at the diftance of about
a mile. But, coming upon the deck, the land was
no more to be feen, but he perceived a violent current-
crofs the Ihip’s way to the leeward. In about a mi¬
nute, this current returned with great impetuofity, and1,
at a league’s diftance he faw three craggy-pointed
rocks throwing up. water of various colours refembling
flare—
EAR [ 272 ] EAR
fire. This phenomenon, in about two minutes, end- ift of March; that from the lirft fhock of the 5th of Earth-,
ed in a black cloud, which afcended very heavily. Af- February, the earth had been in a continual tremor; ‘lat¬
ter it had rifen above the horizon, no rocks were to and that the (hocks were more fenfibly felt at times in \r~—
be feen ; though the cloud, ftill afcending, was long fome parts of the affli&ed provinces than at others ;
that the motion of the earth had been either whirling
like a vortex, horizontal, or by pulfations, or by beat¬
ings from the bottom upwards. This variety of mo¬
tions increafed the apprehenfions of themiferable inha¬
bitants, whoexpe&ed every moment that theearth would
vifible, the weather being extremely clear.—Between
nine and ten id the morning, another fhip, 40 leagues
weft of St Vincent, was fo ftrongly agitated, that the
anchors, which were lalhed, bounced up, and the men
were thrown a foot and an half perpendicularly up from
the deck. Immediately after this, the ihip funk in' open under their feet, and fwallow them up. It was
the water as low as the main chains. The lead Ihow- faid alfo that the rains had been continued and violent,
ed.a great depth of water, and the line was tinged of frequently accompanied with irregular and furious gufts
a yellow colour and fmelt of fulphur. The fhock laft- of wind ; and that from all thefe caufes, the face of
ed about ten minutes, but they felt fmaller ones for that part of Calabria comprehended between the 38th
51 the fpace of 24 hours.
•Of the Such were the phenomena of this very remarkable
•In Calabria8and deftruaivc earthquake, which extended over a tracft
of at lead four millions of fquare miles. The earth¬
quakes, however, which in the year 1783 ruined a
great part of Italy and Sicily, tho’ much more confined
in their extent, feem to have been not at all inferior in
violence. Sir William Hamilton, who wrote a parti¬
cular account of their effe&s, informs us, that “ if,
a map of Italy, and with your compafs
Italian miles you were to meafure off
fixing the central point in the city of Oppido (which
feemed to.be the fpot where the earthquake had exert-
,ed its greateft force) form a circle (the radii of which
will be 22 miles), you will then include all the towns,
villages, &c. that have been utterly ruined, and the
Sir Wil¬
liam Ha¬
milton’s
account of
and 39th degrees was entirely altered, particularly on
the weftern fide of the mountains above mentioned :
that many openings and cracks had been made in thofe
parts ; fome hills had been much lowered, and others
entirely fwallowed up ; deep chaims had been made,
by which many roads were rendered impaffable ; huge
mountains were faid to have been fplit afunder, and the
parts of them driven to a confidefable diftance ; deep
valleys to have been filled up by the concourfe of the
the fcale of mountains which formed them before ; the courfe of
and then, rivers altered ; many fprings of water dried up, and
new ones formed in their place, See. A lingular phe¬
nomenon was faid to have been obferved at Laureana in
Calabria Ultra ; viz. that two whole tenements, with
large plantations of olive and mulberry trees, fituated
in a valley perfedlly level, had been detached by the
fpots where the greateft mortality happened, and where earthquake, andtranfplanted, with the trees ftill remain-
there have been the moft vifible alterations on the face
of the earth : then extend your compafs on the fame
fcale to 72 miles, preferving the fame centre, and
form another circle, you will include the whole coun¬
try that has any mark of having been affe&ed by the
ing in their places, to the diftance of about a mile from
their firtl lituations; and that from the fpot on which
they formerly flood, hot water had fprung up to a
cenfiderable height, mixed with fand of a ferruginous
nature : that near this place alfo fome countrymen and
earthquake. A gradation was plainly obferved in the Ihepherds had been fwallowed up, with their teams of
damage done to the buildings, as alfo in the degree of oxen, and their flocks of goats and (heep. The num-
mortality, in proportion as the countries were more or ,''n' "’'’D «♦ ■ v'"‘- c:- U;:|
lefs diftant from this fuppofed centre of the evil.” Ano¬
ther circumftance was particularly remarked, and in
which this earthquake differed very confiderably from
others, viz. that if two towns were fituated at an equal
diftance from this centre, one on the hill, the other
on the plain or in a bottom, the latter always fuffered
more by the Ihocks of the earthquakes than the for¬
mer.
From the moft authentic reports .and accounts recei-
ber of lives loft was eftimated at 32,367; but Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton is of opinion, that, including ftrangers,
it could not be lefs than 40,000.
The fate of the inhabitants of Scilla-was extremely Fate of the
affedling. On the firft (hock of the earthquake Fe- ir.hf1f.^nts
bruary 5th, they had fled along with their prince to the of acl ’
fea-fliore, where they' hoped for fafety ; but in-the
night-time a furious w-tive (faid to have been boiling
hot, and by which many people were alleged to have
been fealded) overflowed the land for three miles,
 j_.   j fweeping off in its return 2473 of the inhabitants, a-
learned, that the part of Calabria which had been moft mong whom was the prince himfelf, who were at that
affe&ed by this heavy calamity, is that comprehended time either on the ftrand or in boats near the fliore. ^
between the 38th and 39th degree of latitude: that the But the moft Angular of all the phenomena enumerated a hill re-
greateft force of the earthquake feemed to have exerted in thefe accounts was, that a hill, about 500 palms in moves from
itfelf from the foot of thofe mountains of the Apennines height, and 1300 in circumference at its bafis, jumpedit9 Place-
called the Monte Dijo, Monte Sacro, and Monte Cau- to the diftance of about four miles from the place where
lene, extending weftward to the Tyrrhene fea : that it formerly flood. At the fame time the hill on which
the towns, villages, and farm-houfes neareft thefe moun- the town of Oppido flood, which extended about three
tains, fituated either on the hills or the plain, were to- miles, parted in two; and as its fituation was be-
tally ruined by the (hock of the 5th of February about tween two rivers, both of thefe were of courfe ftop-
■noon : that as the towns and villages were at a greater ped up ; two great lakes were formed, and by their ^
diftance from this centre, the damage they received continual increafe threatened to Infedt the air by their Authenti-
was lefs confiderable ; but that even thefe more diftant noxious exhalations. city of thefe
towns had been greatly damaged by the fubfequent Such were the accounts at firft propagated and uni-accounts
-{hocks of the earthquakes, and effedlually by thofe of verfally believed; but Sir William Hamilton, who made
the 7th, 26th, and 2 8th of February, and that of the a tour through the ruined country that fame year, j^ni
N 5 10 7. ’ • found mi ton.
EAR [ 273. 1 EAR
found that, though the effects in general were very which had been tr.ore or lefs mined according to their Ea-di
dreadful, Hill there had been fome exaggeration in fe- vicinity to the plait}. The town of Mileto, Handing in ;
“ bottom, was totally ruined, not a houfe being left “
Lebfmoke of March. Here he was affured, that the volcano of Sicily and the fummit of Mount Etna, which then
veral particulars. He let fail, for the purpofe of ma¬
king this tour, on the 2d of May, for Naples, andfoon
landed on the coaft. of Calabria Citra. The firft ap¬
pearances of the earthquake were obferved at Cedraro ;
fome of the principal inhabitants of that city having
quitted their habitations, though Sir William could
not perceive that any damage had been done. At St
Lucido, the baron’s palace and the church fteeple had
fuffered, and moll of the inhabitants were in barracks;
but wifhing to come as foon as pofiible to the centre
of thatfcene of defoldtion,die fet fail again, and landed
on the 6th of May at the town of Pizzo in Calabria
Ultra. This town is fituated on a volcanic tufa, and
had been greatly damaged by the earthquake of Fe¬
bruary 5th, but completely ruined by that of the 28th
Handing. At fome dillance he faw Soriano, and the trident
noble Dominican convent, a heap of ruins. In this f,n the high
day’s journey, he obferves, that all habitations fituated grounds i
upon high grounds, the foil of which is a gritty fand-than 0:1 t!ic
Hone, fomewhat like a granite, but without the con- plain‘
fiHence, had fuffered lefs than thofe fituated on the
plain ; the latter being univerfally levelled with the
ground. The foil of the plain is a fandy clay, white,
red, and brown ; but the white prevails moH, and is
full of marine Hiells, particularly fcollops. It is inter¬
fered in many parts by rivers and torrents, which
have produced wide and deep ravines all over the coun¬
try. PaHing through the ruined town of St Pietro, in
his way to Rofarno, our author had a diHant view of
than ufual Stromboli, which is oppofite, and in full view of the
enutred by town> though diHant about 50 miles, had fmoked lefs
during the an<^ thrown up a fmaller quantity of inflamed matter
earth- during the earthquakes than it had done for fome years
quakes. before ; and that flight (hocks Hill continued to be felt.
Sir William had foon a convincing proof that this laR
information was true ; for, fleeping that night in his
boat, (called a Maltefe Speronara), he was awakened
with a fmart Ihock, which feemed to lift up the bot¬
tom of the boat, but was not attended with any fub-
terraneous noife.
From Pizzo he pafled through a moH beautiful
country to Monteleone. This town, anciently call¬
ed V'ibo Valentia, is finely fituated on a hill, over¬
looking the fea and the fine rich plains through which
he had jufl pafled ; v/hich are bounded by the Apen-
fent forth a confiderable fmoke. JuH before his a
val at Rofarno, he pafied over a fwampy plain, in many
parts of which he was fliown fmall hollows in the earth,
of the (hape of an inverted cone. They were covered Conical
with fand, as was the foil near them. Fie was inform- openings
ed, that during the earthquake of the 5th of Febru- made in
ary, a fountain of water, mixed with fand, had been
driven up from each of thefe fpots to a confiderable fyomed up
height. Here he fpoke to a peafant who had been an water du-
eye-witnefs, and was even covered with the water and rir-K the
fand ; but he aflured him, that it was not hot, as had
been reprefented. Before this appearance, he faid, the R;vets
river was dry ; but foon after returned and overflowed dried up for
its banks. He afterwards found, that the fame pheno- a fl>°rt
menon had been conflant with refpeft to all other ri- tIme•
vers in the plain, during the dreadful (hock of the 5th
nines, and crowned by Afpramonte the higheH of of February. This phenomenon, our author thinks,
'Tn'   r' —1- may be eafily explained by fuppofing the firfl impulfeaccounted
of the earthquake to have come from the bottom up- fur.
wards, which all the inhabitants of the plain attefled to
be faiH ; the furface of the plain fuddenly rifing, the
rivers, which are not deep, would naturally difappear,
and the plain returning with violence to its former
level, the rivers muH naturally have returned and over¬
flowed, as the Hidden deprellion of the boggy grounds
would as naturally force out the water that lay hid un¬
der their furface. It was obferved in the other parts
where this phenomenon had been exhibited, that the
ground was always low and rulhy. Between this place A 44
and Rofarno they palled the river Meflano or Metau- an^lTof a
ro (which is near the town above mentioned) on a bridge on
flrong timber-bridge, 700 palms long, lately built bythe
the duke of Monteleone. From the cracks made inro-
the banks and in the bed of the river by the earth¬
quake, it was quite feparated in one part; and the le¬
vel on which the piers were placed having been vari-
oufly altered, the bridge had taken an undulated form,
fo that the rail on each fide was curioufly fcolloped;
but the feparated parts having been joined again, it was
then paflable. Our author was alfo informed, that at
the time of the earthquake the river was perfe&ly dry
for fome feconds, and then returned with violence and
them all. They were formerly interfperfed with
towns and villages; but at that time all of them lay in
ruins. Monteleone fuffered little on the 5th of Febru-
ary, but was greatly damaged on the 28th of March.
Manner in Here every one agreed, that the (hocks of the earth-
which the quake feemed to come with a rumbling noife from the
at°Mona"1e we^war^ * beginning ufually with the horizontal mo-
kone?nte" anc* encbng the vorticofe, by which laff the
greateH part of the buildings in this province were de-
ftroyed. It was a general obfervation alfo, that before
a flrock the clouds feemed to be Hill and motionlefs,
and that immediately after a heavy Ihower of rain a
Ihock quickly followed. Here Sir William had an op-
?? portunity of feeing many people who had been thrown
Their ex- down by the violence of the (hocks. Several peafants
ceffive vio- told him, that the motion of the earth was fo violent,
Irncc. that the heads of the largeff trees almoH touched the
ground from fide to fide ; that during a (hock, the
horfes and oxen extended their legs wide afunder, that
they might not be thrown down; and that they gave
evident figns of being fenfible of the approach of each
(hock. “ I myfelf (fays he) have obferved, that in
thofe parts which have fuffered moH by earthquakes,
the braying of an afs, the neighing of a horfe, or the
cackling of a goofe, always drove people out of their
barracks, and was the occafion t '
and Ave-marias being repeated, in expe&ation of a
fhock.”
From Monteleone our author defcended into the
plain, having paffed through many towns and villages
Vol. VI. Part I.
barracks, and was the occafion of many Pater-noflers overflowed ; and that the bridge undulated in a moft
a,,- u.: j : r . extraordinary manner. By the earthquake in the
plain, our author underflands the (hock of the 5th of
February, which did fo much damage without giving
any previous notice.
M m The
Mm
EAR
[ 274 ]
EAR
The town of Rofarno, with the duke of Montel-
leone's palace there, was entirely ruined j but the walls
remained about fix feet high, and were at that time
fitting up. as barracks. The only building that re¬
mained unhurt at Rofarno was the town gaol, in which
of white duft like fmoke, the natural effcft of the
crufhing of the buildings and the mortar flying off.
The town of Cafal Nuova was fo effectually de-
ftroyed by this dreadful fliock, that neither veftige of
houfe or ftreet remained, but all lay in one confufed
were three notorious villains, who would probably heap of ruins. Caltillace and Milicufco, which our
have loft their lives if they had remained at liberty.
From Rofarno Sir William proceeded to Laureana,
tion of the where he was conducted to the place where two
change of tenements were faid to have exchanged fituations.
This fa£t, which at the firft relation appeared fo in¬
credible, Sir William affures us was true, and very
eafily accounted for. Thefe tenements were fituated
in a valley furrounded by high grounds; and the fur-
Explana-
placi
t wo tene¬
ments of
Isnd.
bare fpot which the tenements had quitted. Their
courfe down the valley was fufficiently rapid to prove
that it had not been a perfeCt level as wasreprefented.
The earthquake, he fuppofes, had opened fome depo-
fitories of rain-water in the clay-hills which furround
the valley; which water, mixed with the loofe foil,
taking its courfe fuddenly through the undermined
furface, lifting it up with the large olive and mulberry
.f
a Nuo-
iplain-
luthor next vifited, were both in the fame fituation.
Terra Nuova, fituated in the fame plain, ftood between
two rivers, which, with the torrents from the moun¬
tains, had, in the courfe of ages, cut deep and wide
chafms in the Toft fandy clay foil of which it is com-
pofed. At Terra Nuova the ravine or chafm is not
lefs than 500 feet deep, and three quarters of a mile 5°
broad. Here the accounts of the earthquake were i^iTof
face of the earth, which was removed, had probably confufed, by not having the fituation of the place and 'he
been undermined by little rivulets which come from the nature of the foil explained. It was faid, that a townTer
mountains, and were then plainly difcerhible on the had been thrown a mile from the place on which itv®c
' ftood, without mentioning a word of the ravine ; that6 *
woods and corn-fields had been removed in the fame
manner, “ when in truth (fays our author) it was but
upon a large fcale, what we fee every day upon a fmall-
er; when pieces of the fides of hollow ways, having
been undermined by rain waters, are detached by their
own weight. Here, from the great depth of the ra¬
vine, and the violent motion of the earth, two huge
trees, and a thatched cottage, floated the whole piece portions of the latter, on which a great part of the
of ground, with all its vegetation, about a mile down town ftood, which confifted of fome hundred houfes,
the valley, where it then ftood with moft of the trees had been detached into the ravine, and nearly acrofs
erecl. Thefe two tenements were about a mile long it, at about the diftance of half a mile from the place
and half a mile broad. In the neighbourhood were where they formerly ftood ; and what is very extra-
feveral cracks, none of them above a foot wide ; but ordinary, many of the inhabitants who had taken this Extraordi-
. our author was affured, that during the earthquake Angular leap in their houfes, were neverthelefs dug out nary efcape
wide during 0penecl wj(Je, and fwallowed up an ox with alive, and fome unhurt.” Our author’s guide there,of fome of
quakelnd near too goats. In the above mentioned valley he who was both a prieft and phyfician, having been buried
afterwards faw the fame fort of hollows in the form of inverted in the ruins of his houfe by the firft fhock, was blown a 3‘
clofed. cones, out of which he had been affured that hot wa- out of it and delivered by the fecond, which immediately
ter mixed with fand iffued during the earthquakes as followed the firft ; and there were many well attefted
at Rcfarno; but, on proper inquiry, no perfon was inftances of the fame thing having happened in diffe-
46
Cracks in
the earth
opened
rent parts of Calabria. At Terra Nuova, however,
only 400 out of 1600 inhabitants were left alive.
In other parts of the plain, fituated near the ravine, Great*
and near the town of Terra Nuova, our author faw trails of
many acres of land, with trees and corn-fields, thatlancl nio-
had been detached into the ravine, frequently without ^r^rom
having been overturned ; fo that the crops were grow- places,
ing as well as if they had been planted there. Other :
fuch pieces were lying in the bottom in an inclined fi¬
tuation ; and others again that had been quite over¬
turned. In one place, two of thefe immenfe pieces of
ter thrown found who could pofitively declare that the water had
up by the really been hot. Some of the fand which was thrown
earth. Up ha(j a ferruginous appearance, and feemed to have
been a died upon by fire. It was faid alfo, that, when
frelh, this fand had the fmell of fulphur ; but this our
author could not perceive.
All the in- Palling through the fame beautiful country to the
habitants of town of Poliftene, he did not perceive a Angle houfe
feveral {landing. “ I travelled (fays he) four days in the
towns bu- piajn> the midft of fuch mifery as cannot be de-
kftan" in' fcribed. The force of the earthquake there was fo
the ruins of great, that all the inhabitants of the towns were bu- land having been detached, oppofite to one another
their r;ed} abve or dead, in the ruins of their houfes in an in- had filled the valley, and flopped the courfe of th
houfes. flant. The town of Poliftene was large, but ill fitu- river, the waters of which were forming a great lake
ated between two rivers that were fubjedt to overflow. “ and this (fays our author) is the true ftate of wha
Two thoufand one hundred, out of 6000, loft their the accounts mention of mountains that had. walked
lives here on the fatal 5th of February.” At Cafal and joined together, flopped the courfe of a river, and
Nuova, the princefs Gerace Grimaldi, with 4000 of formed a lake.”
her fubje&s, perifhed on the fame day by the explo- At the moment of the earthquake the river difap
Houfes of fi°n 5 for fuch it appears to have been. Some who peared as at Rofarno ; and returning foon after, over-
cafal Nuo- had been dug alive out of the ruins, told our author, flowed the bottom of the ravine about three feet in
va lifted at that they had felt their houfes fairly lifted up, without depth; fo that the poor people who had been thrown
cnee from having the lead previous notice. An inhabitant of with their houfes into the ravine from the top of it,
their foun- £.^1 Nuova was at that moment on a hill overlook- and had efcaped with broken bones, were now in dan-
* IOn' ing the plain ; when, feeling the ftiock, and turning ger of being drowned. Our author was affured, that
ro,und, inftead.of the town he faw only a thick cloud the water was fait like that of the fea; but this eir-
3. cumftanci
EAR [ 275 ] EAR
Earth- eumftance feemed to want confirmation. The fame
, caufe, however, given for the fudden difappeating of
v the river Metauro at Rofarno will account for the like
phenomenon here, and in every part of the country
where the rivers were dried up at the moment of the
earthquake.
The whole town of Mollochi di Sotto was likewife
detached into the ravine, and a vineyard of many acres
lay near it in the bottom in perfeft order, but in an in¬
clined fituation. There was a foot-path through this
S3 vineyard which had a lingular effect in its then im-
1 llsraifed Pra(^‘ca^e fituation. Some water-mills which were
up to an on ^ie river, being jammed between two fuch detached
elevated ft- pieces as above defcribed, were lifted up by them, and
tuatiou. were then to be feen on an elevated fituation many
feet above the level of the river.
Rifing of feveral Parts of the plain, the foil, with timber-
the ground trees and crops of corn, confiding of many acres, had
in fome funk eight and ten feet below the level of the plain, and
places, and r;fen as Jn otber places. To explain this, it is
othe'sf cx- neeeffary to remember, that the foil of the plain is a
plained. clay mixed with fand, which is eafily moulded into
any fhape. In the plain, near the fpots where the
above mentioned pieces had been detached into the ra¬
vine, there were feveral parallel cracks ; fo that, had
the violence of the earthquake continued, thefe pieces
Crac\s in w°uld alfo probably have followed. It was conftantly
the earth, remarked by our author, that near every ravine or
why gene- hollow way, the parts of the plain adjoining were full
*^tr'armecl of large parallel cracks. The earth rocking from fide
vines. t0 ^lc^e> and being fupported only on one fide, accounts
very well for this circumtlance.
From Terra Nuova our author continued his jour¬
ney to Oppido. This city Hands on a mountain of a
ferruginous fort of gritty Hone, unlike the clay foil of
its neighbourhood ; and is furrounded by two rivers in
a ravine deeper and broader than that at Terra Nuova.
Splitting oflnftead of the mountain on which this city Hands ba¬
the muun- ving fplit, as was reported, and by its fall Hopped up
pflo ex^" t^e cour^e rivers, it was, as at Terra Nuova, huge
pkined. pieces of the plain* on the edge of the ravine, that had
been 'detached into it, had nearly filled it up, and
Hopped the courfe of the rivers, the waters of which
were then forming two great lakes. Part of the rock
on which the city Hood Was indeed alfo detached,
with feveral houfes, into the ravine: “ But that (fays
our author) is a trilling circumHance in comparifon
of the very great tratts of land with plantations of
vines and olive? which had been detached from one fide
57 of the ravine to the other, though the diHance is more
A country- than half a mile. It is well attefled, that a country-
tachecfwithrnan, who was ploughing his field in this neighbour-
r. great hood with a pair of oxen, was tranfported with his
trait of field and team clear, from one fide of a ravine to the
land acrofs other, and that neither he nor his oxen were hurt,
a ravin... Having walked over the ruins of Oppido (fays
our author), I defcended into the ravine, and examined
carefully the whole of it. Here I faw indeed the
wonderful force of the earthquake, which has pro-
dttced exadUy the fame effefts as thofe defcribed in
Mountains t^le ravine at Terra Nuova, but on a fcale infinitely
and lakes greater. The enormous mafles of the plain, detached
formed by from each fide of the ravine, lie fometimes in confufed
quakes?*1' ^eaPs» form‘ng real mountains, and having Hopped
the cottrfe of two rivers (one of which is Very cori- Earth,
fiderable), great lakes are already formed ; and if not
alfiHed by nature or art, fo as to give the rivers their
due courfe, mull infallibly be the caufe of a general
infeftion in the neighbourhood. Sometimes I met
with a detached piece of the furface of the plain (of
many acres in extent) with the large oaks and olive-
trees, with corn or lupins under them, growing as well
and in as good order at the bottom of the ravine as
their companions from whence they were feparated do
on their native foil, at lead 500 feet higher, and at the
diHance of about three quarters of a mile. I met with
whole vineyards in the fame order in the bottom that
had likewife taken the fame journey. As the banks OM.JS|a
of the ravine from whence thefe pieces came are uowt;onson ^
bare and perpendicular, I perceived that the upper foil of the
foil was a reddifh earth, and the under one a fan-‘ktached
dy white clay, very cohipaft, and like a foft Hone. ^
The impulfe thefe huge maffes received, either from the the efjfe&s
violent motion of the earth alone, or that afiiHed with nf the
the additional one of the volcanic exhalations fet at (hock upon
liberty, feems to have a&ed with greater force on thetliem*
lower and more compact Hratum than on the upper
cultivated cruH: for I conHantly obferved, where
thefe cultivated lands lay, the under Hratum of com-
patt clay had been driven fome hundred yards farther,
and lay in confufed blocks ; and, as I obferved, many
of thefe blocks were in a cubical form. The under
foil, having had a greater impulfe, and leaving the up¬
per in its flight, naturally accounts for the order in
which the trees, vineyards, and vegetation fell, and re¬
main at prefent in the bottom of the ravine.
“ In another part of the bottom of the ravine there
is a mountain compofed of the fame clay foil, and
which was probably a piece of the plain detached by
an earthquake at fome former period : it is about 250 gQ
feet high, and 400 feet diameter at its bafis. This Removal of
mountain, as is well atteHed, has travelled down the the hill ac-
ravine near four miles; having been put in motion byc.oullte^
the earthquake of the 5th of February. The abun-lor'
dance of rain which fell at that time, the great weight
of the frefli detached pieces of the plain which I faw
heaped up at the back of it, the nature of the foil of
w'hich it is compofed, and particularly its fituation on
a declivity, accounts well for this phenomenon; where¬
as the reports which came to Naples of a mountain
having leaped four miles, had rather the appearance of
a miracle. I found fome fingle timber-trees alfo with
a lump of their native foil at their roots, Handing up¬
right in the bottom of the ravine, and which had been
detached from the bottom of the plain above mention-
ed. I obferved alfo, that many confufed heaps of the ^ts
loofe foil, detached by the earthquake from the plains run i;]te a
on each fide of the ravine, had aftually run likeavolcanic volcanic
lava (having probably been afliHed by the heavy rain), lava,
and produced many effe&s much refembling thofe of
lava during their courfe down a great part of the ra¬
vine. At Santa CiiHina, near Oppido, the like phe¬
nomena have been exhibited, and the great force of
the earthquake of the 5th of February feems to have
been exerted on thefe parts, and at Cafal Nuova, and
Terra Nuova.”
From Oppido Sir William proceeded to the towns
of Seminara and Palmi. The former, being fituated
Mm^ . - - higher.
EAR [ 276 ] EAR
Earth higher up, had fuffered lefs than Palnxi which flood
quake. nearer fea> Fourteen hundred lives were loft at
this place, and fome Angular circumftances occurred.
The town being a great market for oil, there were
upwards of 4000 barrels of that liquid in it at the
time of its deftruftion; fo that by the breaking of thefe
barrels and jars, a rivulet of oil ran from the ruins for
many hours into the fea. Here our author was in¬
formed by the perfon who condufted him, that he
had been buried in the ruins of his houfe by the Arfl
Ihock; and that after the fecond, which followed imme¬
diately, he found himfelf fitting aftride a beam at leaft
15 feet high in the air. After Sir William’s departure
from Palmi, in going through one of the narrow pafles
among the mountains of Bagnara and Solano, he felt
a very fmart fliock of an earthquake attended with a
loud explofion like that of fpringing a mine ; but for¬
tunately it did not detach afly rocks or trees from the
high mountains which hung over their heads. In this
country he was aflured by feveral flfliermen, that du-
Fire ifluingring the earthquake on the 5th of February, at night,
earth fiT ^ ^ WaS ^0t’ anC^ t^at t^ie^ ^3VV ^re ^ue ^rom the
pofe l to be earth in many parts. This laft circumftance was fre-
electric. quently repeated in different parts of the plain, fo that
there feems to remain no doubt of its authenticity.
The idea of Sir William Hamilton is, that “ the ex¬
halations wdiich iffued during the violent commotions
of the earth were full of ele&rical Are ; juft as the
fmoke of volanoes conftantly is during violent erup¬
tions : for I faw no mark (fays he), in any part of my
journey, of any volcanic matter having iffued from the
Affures of the earth ; and I am convinced that the
whole has been done by vapours and exhalations only.
The ftrft fhock felt at this place, as I was affured, was
lateral, and then vorticofe, and exceedingly violent;
but what they call violent here mult have been nothing
in comparifon of what was felt in the plain of Cafa
Nuova, Poliftene, Palmi, Terra Nuova, Oppido, &c.
&c. where all agreed that the violence of the fatal
Ihock of February was inftantaneous, without warning,
and from the bottom upwards.”
At Reggio the fliock had been much lefs violent
than in the places hitherto viflted by our author; and
“ though there w>as not a houfe in it inhabited or ha¬
bitable, yet (fays he) after having been feveral days in
the plain, where every building is levelled with the
ground, a houfe with a roof, or a church with a
fteeple, was to me a new and refrefliing object.” In
this place he had an account from the archbilhop of
the earthquakes of 1770 and 1780, which obliged the
inhabitants, in number 16,400, to encamp or remain
. in barracks for'feveral. months, without having done
Bruce ani- any confiderable damage to the town. Fie was in-
malsfen- formed alfo, that all animals and birds are in a greater
Able of the or Itffer degree much more fenflble of an approaching
earth’aC “ihock. of an earthquake than any human being; but
quakes. that geefe, above all, feem to be the fooneft and moft
alarmed at the approach of a. fhock: if in the water,
they quit it immediately; and there are no means of
driving, them into it for fome time after. The fhock
which damaged Reggio came on gently, fo that the
people had time to make their efcape, and only 126
Were kil^d ;. but in the plain, this fhock was as inftan-
fcmeous as it was violent and deftru&ive.
On t^ie 14th;of May, Sir William Hamilton having
62
ftance cf a
rivulet of
oil by the
breaking
of the vef-
felsin Pal-
mi.
63
A fhock
with an
explofion
felt by Sir
William
Hamilton.
64
taken leave of Reggio, fet fail for Meflina, which he Earth-
vilited next morning; and found that the fhock, tho’ <fuake‘
very violent there, had been far inferior to what he v_
had feen the effects of in other places. Many houfes, jarthqua]£e
even in the lower part of the town, were ftanding, and iefs violent
fome little damaged ; but in the upper and more ele- at Meflina.
vated fituations, the earthquakes feemed to have fcarce jhan in
had any effeft. “ A ftrong inftance (fays our author) ta
of this is, that the convent of Santa Barbara, and that
called the Novitiato de Gefniti, both on an elevated li-
tuation, have not a crack in them; and that the clock
of the latter has not been deranged in the leaft by the
earthquakes, which have afflitted this country for
four months pait, and which Hill continue in fome
deSree-” . . . . 67
Notwithftanding this comparative mildnefs, how- Efe#, 0f&
ever, the fhock at Meflina had been very terrible. All there,
the beautiful front of the palazzate, which extended
in very lofty uniform buildings, in the fhape of a cref-
cent, had been in fome parts totally ruined, in others
lefs; and there were cracks in the earth of the quay,
a part of which had funk above a foot below £he level
of the fea. Thefe cracks were probably occafioned
by the horizontal motion of the earth in the fame
manner as the pieces of the plain were detached into
the ravines at Oppido and Terra Nuova ; for the fea
at the edge of the quay is fo very deep, that the largeit
ftrips can lie along fide. The earth, therefore, in its
violent commotion, wanting fupport on that Ade next
the fea, began to crack and feparate; and as where
there is one crack there are generally others lefs con-
Aderable in lines parallel to the Arft, our author fup-
pofes, that the great damage done to the houfes near-
eft the quay was owing to fuch cracks below their
foundations. It is faid, that during the earthquake
Are had been £een to iffue from the cracks of the quay;
but our author is perfuaded that this, as in other
cafes, was only a vapour charged with electrical Are
or a kind of inflammable air. Here alfo he was in¬
formed, that the ftrock of the 5th of February had
been from the bottom upwards; but the fubfequent
ones generally horizontal or vorticofe. A remarkable
circumftance was obferved at MelAna, and through the
whole coaft of Calabria, which had been moft affected ^
by the earthquake, viz. that a fmall Alh called cicirelli, Remark_
refembling the Englifh white bait, but larger, and able cir-
which ufually lie at the bottom of the fea buried in cumftance
the fand, had, ever after the commencement of the
earthquakes to the time this account was written, con-fJUajj
tinued to be taken near the furface, and that in fuch
abundance as to be common food for the pooreft fort
of people; whereas before the earthquakes this fiftr.
was rare, and reckoned among the greateft delicacies.,
Fiflr of all kinds alfo were taken in greater abundance
on thefe coafts after the commencement of the earth¬
quakes than before; which our author fuppofes to have
been occafroned either by the volcanic matter having
heated the bottom of the fea, or that the continual
tremor of the earth had forced them out of their re¬
treats. At Meffina our author was likewife informed,
that on the 5th of February, and for three days fol- naryboiling
lowing, the fea about a quarter of a mile from the ci- of the fea 5
tadel rofe and boiled in an extraordinary manner, and near Met-
with a moft horrid and alarming noife; the water in “na‘
other parts of the ftrait being perfectly calm. “ This
(fay3
EAR [ 277 j EAR
Earth- (fays our author) feems to point out exhalations or
quake, eruptions from cracks at the bottom of the fea, which
* may very probably have happened during the violence -
of the earthquakes ; all of which I am convinced have
here a volcanic origin."
Account of The next inquiry made by this curious traveller was
the great concerning the great wave which occafioned fuch de-
? n,e which ftruftion at Scilla, as has already been related. Having
the inhabi- kft Meffina on the 17th of May, he proceeded in his
rants of boat to the entrance of the Faro, where he met with a
Scilla. prieft who had been there on the night between the
5th and 6th of February, when the wave pafTed over
that point of land. Here it carried off boats with 24
people, tore up trees by the roots, and left a confider-
able quantity of filh behind it. This pried: had him-
felf been covered by the wave, and w ith difficulty faved
The water his life. He at firft faid the wmter was hot; but on
was not hot being prefled with other queftions, it amounted to no
as had been more than that the water was as warm as it ufually is
rcporte . jn fummer. The wave, he faid, rofe to a great height,
and came on with noife and fuch rapidity that it was
impoffible to efcape.
On croffing over to Scilla, Sir William was perfe&ly
fatisfied concerning the nature of this formidable wave,
and found that the following was the true ilate of the
fadt: " The prince of Scilla having remarked, that
during the firll horrid ftiock, which happened about
noon the 5th of February, part of a.rock near Scilla
had been detached into the fea ; and fearing that the
rock of Scilla, on which his town and caftle are fitu-
ated, might alfo be detached, he thought it fafer to
prepare boats, and retire to a little port or beach feated
7* at the foot of it, and likewife furrounded by rocks.
This wave tjje feconc} fhock of the earthquake about mid-
a^mounuin n'ght, having detached a whole mountain much higher
fating into than that of Scilla, fituated between the latter and
the fea. Torre del Cavallo, it fell into the fea with fuch vio¬
lence as to raife the fatal wave above mentioned. This
having broken on the point of land called Punto del
Faro, in the manner already related, inftantly returned
with great noife and celerity ufron the beach, where
the unfortunate prince and his fubjecls had taken re¬
fuge, and either dalhed them with their boats and
efFedts againft the rocks, or whirled them into the fea.
Thofe who had efcaped the firil and greateft wave,
were carried off by a fecond and third lefs confider-
able, but which immediately followed the firft. Our
author fpoke with many who had been involved in that
wave, and violently hurt by it; but all of them agreed
in aflerting that the water was not hot.
Conieiture The earthquakes were not perfeftly fettled even
concerning in 1784, when Sir William Hamilton wrote the
a volcanic account of the Hate of Vefuvius, &e. to the Roy-
the'bottom* al Society. In a poftfcript to that let ter he adds
efVie fea? l^e Showing confirmation of his ccnje&ure, that
the volcanic matter, which he fuppofed to have oc¬
cafioned the earthquakes, had vented itfelf at the
bottom of the fea betwixt Calabria and Sicily. “ The
pilot of one of his Sicilian majelty’s fciabecques ha¬
ving fome time after the earthquakes call anchor off
the point of Palizzi, where he had often anchored in
25 fathom water, found no bottom till he came to 65;
and having founded for two miles out at fea towards
the point of Sgartivento in Calabria, he ftill found the
fame confiderable alteration in the depth. The in- Earth-
habitants of Palizzi likewife declare, that during the ,
great earthquake on the 5th of February 1783, the ' '
fea had boiled and frothed up tremendoufly off their
point." _ _ u
To explain the phenomena of earthquakes, vari- Hypothcfes
ous hypothefes have been invented. Till lately, the concerning
hypothefes of modern philofophers were mucli the t^e
fame with thofe of the ancients. Anaxagoras fup-^^
pofed the caufe of earthquakes to be fubterraneous ’
clouds burfting out into lightning, which fliook the
vaults that confined them. Others imagined, that
the arches, which had been weakened by continual
fubterraneous fires, at length fell in. Others derived
thefe accidents from the rarefied fleam of waters, heat¬
ed by fome neighbouring fires ; and fome,. among
whom was Epicurus, and feveral of the Peripatetic
fchool, afcribed thefe terrible accidents to the ignition
of certain inflammable exhalations.
This laft hypothefis has been adopted by many of
the moft celebrated moderns, as Gaffendus, Kircher,
Schottus, Varenius, DesCartes, Du Hamel, Honorius,
Fabri, &c. The philofopher lafl mentioned indeed
fuppofed, that waters prodigioufly rarefied by heat
might fometimes occafion earthquakes. The others-
fuppofed, as their hypothefis neceffarily requires, that
there are many and vaft cavities underground which
have a communication with one another: fome of
which abound with waters; others with vapours and
exhalations, arifing from inflammable fubftances, as
nitre, bitumen, fulphur, 8tc. Thefe combuftible ex¬
halations they fuppofed to be kindled by a fubterra¬
neous fpark, or by fome a drive flame gliding through
a narrow fiffure from without, or by the fermentation
of fome mixture ; and when this happened, they muft
neceflarily produce pulfes, tremors, and ruptures at the
furface, according to the number and diverfity of the
cavities, and the quantity and adivity of the inflam¬
mable matter. This hypothefis is illuftrated by a va¬
riety of ‘ experiments, fuch as mixtures of iron-filings
and brimftone buried in the earth, gun-powder con¬
fined in pits, &c. by all which a lhaking of the earth
will be produced. 75
Dr Woodward fuggefts- another hypothefis. He Hypothefis-
fuppofes that the fubterraneous heat or fire, which ‘J Woodward1
continually elevating water out of the abyfs, which,
according to him, occupies the centre of the earth, to
furnifh rain, dew, fprings, and. rivers,, may be flopped
in fome particular part. When this obftrudion hap¬
pens, the heat caufes a great fweiling. and commotion
in the waters of the abyfs; and at the fame time, ma¬
king the like effort againft the fuperincumbent earth,
that agitation and concuffion of it. is occafioned. which
we call an earthquake.
Mr Amontons of the Royal Academy of Sciences of jvfr 4^.
fuggefts an hypothefis entirely different from any ofmantons.
the above 'mentioned ones. According to the recei¬
ved philofophical princiffts, which fuppofe the atmo—
fphcre to be about 45 miles-high, and that the denfi-
ty of the air increafes in proportion. to the abfolute
height of the fuperincumbent column ©f fluid; it is
ftiown, that at the depth of 43,528 fathoms below the
furface of the earth, air is but one-fourth lighter than
mercury. Now, this depth of 43,528 fathoms, is-
EAR r 278 ] E A R
'Esnh- only a 74th part of the fet«iduimeter of the earth ;
, .quake. an(J tjje va(^ {phere beyond this depth, in diameter
* 6,451,538 fathoms, may probably be only filled with
air; which will be here greatly condenfed, and much
heavier than the heavieft bodies we know of in nature.
But it is found by experiment, that the more air is
comprefied, the more does the fame degree of heat in-
cr£afe its fpring, and the more capable does it render
it-of a violent effedt; and that, for inftance, the de¬
gree of heat of boiling water increafes the fpring of
the air above what it has in its natural ftate, in our
climate, by a quantity equal to a third of the weight
wherewith it is prefied. Whence we may conclude,
that a. degree of heat, which on the furface of the
earth will only have a moderate effedt, may be capable
of a very violent one below. And as we are afTured,
that there are in nature degrees of heat much more
confiderable than that of boiling water, it is very pof-
fible there may be fome, whofe violence, further afiift-
ed by the exceeding weight of the air, may be more
than fufficient to break and overturn this folid orb of
43,528 fathoms; whofe weight, compared to that of
the included air, would be but a trifle.
AU thefe Though none of thefe hypothefes were fufficient for
hypothefes explaining the phenomena of earthquakes in a fatisfac-
reje&ed by tory manner, one or other of them continued to be
■Dr Stake- adopted by almofl all philofophcrs till the year 1749.
In the month of March that year, an earthquake was
felt at London and feveral other places in Britain.
Lr Stukely, who had been much engaged in eledtrical
experiments, began to fufpedl that phenomena of this
kind ought to be attributed not to vapours or fermen¬
tations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to
eledfricity. In a paper publifhed by him on this fub-
jedf, he rejedfs all the above mentioned hypothefes for
the following reafons.
1. That there is no evidence of any remarkable ca¬
vernous ftrudture of the earth ; but that, on the con¬
trary, there is rather reafon to prefume that it is in a
great meafure folid, fo as to leave little room for inter¬
nal changes and fermentations within its fubftance ;
nor do coal-pits, he fays, when on fire, ever produce
any thing refembling an earthquake.
2. In the earthquake at London, in March 1749,
there was no fuch thing as fire, vapour, fmoke, fmell,
or an eruption of any kind obferved, though the fhock
affedied a circuit of 30 miles in diameter. This confi-
deration alone of the extent of furface fhaken by an
earthquake, he thought fufficient to overthrow the
fuppofition of its being owing to the expanfion of any
fubterraneous vapours. For as fmall fire-balls burfling
in the air propagate a fulphureous fmell to the diltance
of feveral miles, it cannot be fuppofed, that fo immenfe
a force acting inftantaneoufly on that compafs of ground
fhould never break the furface of it, nor become dif-
coverable either to the fight or the fmell: befides, that
the operation of fuch a fermentation would be many
days in continuance, and tlrc evaporation of fo much
inflammable matter would require alongfpace of time.
That fuch an effedt, therefore, fhould be produced in¬
ftantaneoufly, can be accounted for by eledlrieity only;
which acknowledges no fenfible tranlition of time, no
bounds.
3. If vapours and iubterraneous fermentations, ex-
plofions and eruptions, were the caufe of earthquakes, Earth-
they would abfolutely ruin the whole fyftem of fprings qaakc. ^
and fountains, wherever they had once been; which is v
contrary to fadl, even when they have been frequently
repeated. Even in the earthquake in Alia Minor,
A. D. 17, which deftroyed 13 great cities, and fliook
a mafs of earth 300 miles in diameter, nothing fuftered
but the cities; neither the fprings nor the face of the
country being injured, which indeed remains the fame
to this day.
4. That any fubterraneous power fufficient to move
30 miles in diameter, as in the earthquake which hap¬
pened at London, mull be lodged at lead 15 or 20
miles below the furface; and therefore muft move an
inverted cone of folid earth, the bafe of which is 30
miles in diameter, and the axis 15-or 20; an effect
impoffible to any natural power whatever, except
electricity. So in Afia Minor, fuch a cone mull
have been 300 miles in the diameter of the bafe, and
200 in the axis ; which not all the gun powder that
has been made fince the invention of it, much lefs any
vapours generated fo far below the furface, could pof-
fibly effect.
5. A fubterraneous explofion will not account for
the manner in which fhips, far from land, are affeCted
during an earthquake; which feem as if they ftruck
upon a rock, or as if fomething thumped againft their
bottoms. Even the fifhes are affected. A fubterra¬
neous explofion would only produce a gradual fwell, and
not give fo quick an impulfe to the water as would make
it feel like a ftone. g
From comparing thefe circumftances, the Doftor hp method
fays, he had always thought that an earthquake was aofaccount-
fhock of the fame kind as thofe which commonly occur inK f°t
in electrical experiments. And this hypothefis waseart^'
confirmed by the phenomena attending earthquakes ; ‘l11'*1163,
particularly thofe of 1749 and 1750, which gave rife
to his publication.
The weather, for five or fix months before, had
been uncommonly warm ; the wind fouth and fouth-
weft, without rain; fo that the earth mull have been in
a Hate peculiarly ready for an eleCtrical ftiock. The
flat country of Lincolnfhire had been under an exceed--
ing great drought. The uncommonnefs of the firit of
thefe circumftances, he remarks, is the reafon why
earthquakes are lefs frequently experienced in the
northern than in the fouthern regions of the world,
where the warmth and drynefs of the air, fo neceffary
to eleftricity, are more ufual: And the latter ftiows
how fit the dry furface was for an electrical vibration;
and (which is of great importance) that earthquakes
reach but little below the furface of the earth.
Before the earthquake at London, all vegetables
had been uncommonly forward. And eleCtricity is
well known to quicken vegetation. The aurora bo¬
realis had been frequent about that time ; and juft be¬
fore the earthquake, had been twice repeated in fuch
colours as had never been feen before. It had alfo re¬
moved foutherly, contrary to what is common in Eng¬
land ; fo that the Italians, and thofe among whom
earthquakes were frequent, adtually foretold the earth¬
quake. The year had been remarkable for fire-balls,
lightning, and corufcations; and thefe arc rightly
judged to be meteors of an ele&rical nature.
In
EAR [279-1 EAR
Earth- Jn thefe clrcumftances of the earth and air, nothing,
■ qllakg- .he fays, is wanting to produce an earthquake, but
” v the touch of fome non-eleftric body ; which mull ne-
cefFarily be had ab extra from the region of the air
or atmofphere. Hence he infers, that if a non-eledlric
doud difcharge its contents upon any part of the earth,
in that highly ele&rical Hate, an earthquake mull ne-
celfarily enfue. As the difcharge from an excited tube
produces a commotion in the human body, fo the dif¬
charge of ele&ric matter from the compafs of many
miles of folid earth mull needs be an earthquake; and
the fnap from the contadl, the horrid uncouth noife
attending it.
The l)o£lor had been informed by thofe who were
up and abroad the night preceding the earthquake,
and early in the morning, that corufcations in the air
were extremely frequent; and that a little before the
earthquake, a large and black cloud fuddenly covered
the atmofphere, which probably occafioned the Ihock
by the difcharge of a Ihower.
A found was obferved to roll from the Thames to¬
wards Temple Bar before the houfes ceafed to nod-,
juft as the electrical, fnap precedes the Ihock. This
noife (which generally precedes earthquakes) the Doc¬
tor thought could be accounted for only on eledlrical
principles: for, in a fubterraneous eruption, the diredl
contrary would happen.
The flames and fulphureous fmells, which are fome-
times obferved in earthquakes, might, he thought, be
more eafdy accounted for, on the fuppofition of their
being eleftrical phenomena, than from their being oc-
cafiohed by eruptions from the bowels of the earth.
So alfo the fuddertnefs and expedition of the con-
culEon, it being felt at the fame inftant over fuch
a- large furface, and the little damage alfo which
earthquakes generally occalion ; fufiiciently point out
what fort of a motion it is : not a convulfion of the
bowels of the earth; but an uniform vibration along its
furface, like that of a mufical ftring, or a glafs when
rubbed on the edge with one’s finger.
The circumftance of earthquakes chiefly affe&ing
the fea-coaft, places along rivers (and, adds Do&or
Prieftley, eminences), is a farther argument of their
being ele&rieal phenomena. This is illuftrated by a
particular account of the dire&ion in which the earth-
quake was conveyed.
The laft argument he ufes is taken from the effe&s
which it had on perfons of weak conftitutions, who
were, for a day or two after it happened, troubled
with pains in the back, rheumatifms, hyfterics, and
nervous diforders ; juft in the fame manner as they-
would have been after an aflual eledlrification: to fome
thefe diforders proved fatal.
As to the manner in which the earth and atmo-
- fphere are put into this ftate, which prepares them to
receive fuch a ftiock, and whence -the ele&ric matter
comes; the Do&or does not pretend to determine
but thinks it ars difficult to be accounted for as mag-
netifm, gravitation, and many other fecrets of na-
79 ture-
Hypothcfis The fame hypotbefis was advanced by Signior
of S. Becca- Beccaria, without knowing any thing of Dr Stukeley’s
*ia» difcoveries. But this learned Italian imagined the
elcftiic matter which occafions earthquakes to be
lodged deep in the bowels of the earth, agreeably to Earth.-
his hypothefis concerning lightning. quake.
Now, as it appears that the quantity of eledlric 'r~“
matter in the fimpleft thunder-ftorms is fo inconceivably
great, that it is impoffible to be contained by any
cloud or number of clouds; and as, during the progrefs
of a thunder-ftorm which he obferved, though the
lightning frequently ftruck to the earth,,the fame
clouds were the next moment ready to make a ftill
greater difcharge; it was evident, that they mull have
received at one place, the moment a difcharge was
made from them in another. Let us fuppofe thefe
clouds ever fo great, if the lightning proceeded only
from them, the quantity mull be leffened by every dif¬
charge ; and no recruits that any new clouds might
bring can bear any proportion to the difcharge which
mull enfue from the collifion of fo great a number as
combine to form a thunder-ftorm. It feems therefore
moll likely, that the eledlric matter is continually
darting from the clouds in one place, at the fame time
that it is difeharged from the earth in another; and,
confequently, that the clouds ferve as conductors to
convey the eledlric fluid from thofe places of the
earth which are overloaded with it, to thofe which are
exhaufted.
This theory being admitted, there will, he thinks,
be little difficulty in attributing earthquakes to the fame
caufe. For if the equilibrium of the eledlric matter
be by any means loft in the bowels of the earth; fo
that the bell method of reftoring it fliall be by the fluid
burfting into the air, and traverfing feveral miles of
the atmofphere, to come at the place where it is want¬
ed ; it may be eafily imagined, that violent concuf-
fions will be given to the earth by the fudden paflage
of fo powerful an agent. This, in his opinion, was
confirmed by the flafhes of light, exaftly refembling
lightning, which have been frequently 'feen to ruffi
from the top of MountVefuvius, at the time that afties
and other light matters have been carried out of it in¬
to the air, and difperfed uniformly over a large tradl
of country. And it is well known, that volcanoes
have a near connedlion with earthquakes.
A rumbling noife like thunder, and flafhes of light
rifing from the ground, have been generally obferved
to attend earthquakes. And lightning itfelf has been
known to be attended with fmall fhakings of the earth.
So alfo ignes fatui, in mines, he looked upon as an ar¬
gument that the dearie fluid was fometimes colleaed
in the bowels of the earth.
Dr Prieftley, in his Hiftory of EleaHcity, obferves ,
upon thefe theories, that a more probable hypothefisPncl - ^
may perhaps be formed out of both of them. “ Sup-
pofe (fays he) the dearie matter to be, fome way or
other, accumulated on one part of the furface of the
earth, and on account of the drynefs of the feafon not
eafily to diffufe itfelf; it may, as Signior Beccaria
fuppofes, force its way into the higher regions of the
air, forming clouds in its paffage out of the vapours
which float in the atmofphere, and oceafion a fudden
{bower, which may further promote the paflage of the
fluid. The whole furfaee, thus unloaded, will receive
a concuffion, like any other conducing fubftance, on
parting with, or receiving a quantity of the eledlric
fluid. The. ruftiing noife will likewife fweep over the
wkulet.-
EAR r 280 1 EAR
Earth- whole extent of the country. _ And upon this fuppo-
, fjtion alfo, the fluid, in its diicharge from the country,
* “' will naturally follow the courfe of the rivers, and alfo
take the advantage of any eminences to facilitate its
afcent into the higher regions of the air.”
The Doctor, making experiments with a battery
on the paffage of the electrical fluid over different con¬
ducing fubftances, and, among thefe, over water ;—
and remarking a refemblance between its paffage over
the furface of the water, and that which Dr Stukeley
•fuppofed to fweep the furface of the earth, when a
confiderable quantity of it is difcharged to the clouds
during an earthquake; immediately fufpeCed that the
water over which it pafled, and which was vilibly
thrown into a tremulous motion, mull receive a con-
cuflion refembling that which is given to the waves of
the fea on fuch an occafion.
To try this, he himfelf and others prefent put their
hands into the water at the time that the eleCrical
flafli pafled over its furface; and they felt a fudden con-
cufllon given to them, exaCly like that which is fup¬
pofed to affecf fhips at fea during an earthquake. This
percuflion was felt in various parts of the water, but
was ftrongefl near the place where the explofion was
made. The fame experiment, with a little variation,
being afterwards made with a Angle jar, at fome di-
Itance below the furface of the water, produced the
like effeC, though in a weaker degree. “ This flmi-
larity in the effeC (the Do&or obferves) is a confl-
derable evidence of a flmilarity in the caufe.
“ Pleafed with this refemblance of the earthquake
(fays he), I endeavoured to imitate that great natural
phenomenon in other refpeCs : and it being frofty
weather, I took a plate of ice, and placed two flicks
about three inches high on their ends, fo that they
would juft ftand with eafe; and upon another part of
the ice I placed a bottle, from the cork of which was
fufpended a brafs ball with a fine thread. Then,
making the eleCrical flafti pafs over the furface of
the ice, which it did with a very loud report, the
nearer pillar fell down, while the more remote flood;
and the ball which had hung nearly ftill, immediately
began to make vibrations about an inch in length, and
nearly in a right line from the plaCe of the flalh.
“ I afterwards diverfified this apparatus, erefting
more pillars, and fufpending more pendulums, &c.
fometimes upon bladders ftretched on the mouth of
open veflels, and at other times on wet boards fwim-
ming in a veflel of water. This laft method feemed
to anfwer the bed of any : for the board reprefenting
the earth, and the water the fea, the phenomena of
them both during an earthquake may be imitated at
the fame time; pillars, &c. being ere&ed on the board,
and the eledftric flafti being made to pafs either over
81 the board, over the water, or over them both.”
Deficiency Thefe three hypothefes concerning the caufe of
hypothefes earth<luakes» though fomewhat differing from one an-
^ ' other, yet agree in the main ; but if a particular dilu¬
tion of the phenomena is required, every one of them
will be found deficient.
If, according to Dr Stukeley’s hypothefis, the elec¬
tric matter is lodged only on the furface of the earth,
or but at a fmall depth below, how are we to account
for thofe violent effe&s which often take place in the
bowels of the earth ? In the earthquake at Lilbon, a
N° 107.
large/juay funk to an unfathomable depth. We [are Earthr
certain that the caufe of the earthquake miift have <lu'ak<-‘
been below this depth, however great it was, and have » 1''
opened the earth for an immenfe way downwards. At
the fame time an hill in Barbary clave afunder, and the
two halves of it fell different ways. This ftiows, that
the caufe of the earthquake operated not on the fur¬
face of the hill, but on the folid foundation and con¬
tents of it;-nor can it be explained by any fuperficial
adtion whatever. From what the miners at Eyam
bridge in Derbyftiire obferved, it is alfo evident, that
the (hock was felt at the depth of 396 feet below
the furface of the ground more than at the furface
itfelf; and confequently there is all the reafon in the
world to think that the caufe lay at a depth vaftly
greater.
Again, though the earthquake at "London was fup¬
pofed to begin with a black cloud and fhower ; yet in
that of 1755, the effefts of which were incomparably
greater, the air was calm and ferene almoft in every
place where it was felt. It doth not appear that there
is at any time a confiderable difference between the e-
ledtricity of the atmofphere and that of the earth, or
indeed that there can be fo. For if the earth is e-
ledtrilied plus and the atmofphere minus, there are in¬
numerable points on the furface of the earth which
muft be imperceptibly drawing off the fuperfluous e-
ledtric matter into the air. The vapours alfo, with
which the atmofphere abounds, would always be ready
in the fame fervice ; and thus thunder and lightning
might indeed fometimes be produced, but not earth¬
quakes. But laftly, neither the air nor the earth does
always ftiow any remarkable figns of ele&ricky before
earthquakes happen. For, the fummer before the
earthquake at Manchefter in 1777, there had fcarce
been any thunder, lightning, or other figns of eleftri-
city in the atmofphere, and vegetation had been ex¬
tremely backward; and, according to the beft accounfs,
the weather continued remarkably fine.
For thefe reafons, Dr Stukeley’s hypothefis feems
not to be fatisfa&ory. That of Signior Beccaria is not
indeed liable to the above mentioned objections ; but
feems highly improbable on another account. The
atmofphere is known to be a fubftance through which
the eledxic matter makes its way with the utmoft dif¬
ficulty. It is a vaftly worfe condu&or than water or
than moift earth. If therefore the equilibrium of this
fluid is loft in the bowels of the earth, it is impofiible
to give a reafon why it ftrould not rather go to the
places where it is wanted through the earth itfelf, than
through the atmofphere. Befides, if this was the cafe,
the fhock of an earthquake could only be felt at thofe
places where the electric fluid iffued from, the earth,
and where it entered. All the intermediate places
ought to be free from any ftiock, and to be fenfible
only of a violent concuflion in the atmofphere ; but of
this we have no example in any hiftory of earthquakes
whatever.
Dr Prieftley’s hypothefis is liable to the fame objec¬
tions with that of Dr Stukeley; for any fuperficial
operation will never account for thofe effeCls above men¬
tioned, which take place at great depths below the fur¬
face. His experiment cannot be admitted as any way
conclufive with regard to the caufe of earthquakes,
bccaufe no quantity of ele&ric fire is feen to pafs over
3 the
EAR [28
Earth- the earth and fea, like the fla(h attending the explo-
quake. (*lon 0f an eledlric battery ; and the force of his earth-
quake (being but juft able to throw down a ftick that
could hardly ftand by itfelf) feems by far too little.
The utmoft force of eledtricity which man can raife, is
indeed very trifling, when compared with the great
operations of nature : but it is certain, that the force
of an ele&ric battery is by no means contemptible; and
was its whole power to be employed in prqducing an
imitation of an earthquake, it certainly would do much
more than throw down a fmall ftick. The bad fuccefs
of this experiment therefore Jhows, that the Doftor’s
theory is erroneous : for almoft the whole of his elec¬
tric power wasfpent another way; and we cannot fup-
pofe that any confiderable part of the force which pro¬
duces earthquakes is fpent any other way than in the
g4 very produftion of the earthquake itfelf.
Principles If it is attempted to give an explanation of the phe-
on which nomena of earthquakes, which fliall be free from the
the pheno- objections above mentioned, and from all others, it
beTxplam- w>h he neceflary, in the firft place, to confider thofe
ed. parts of the fyftem of nature which feem to be moft
affeCted during the terrible phenomena we treat of.
Thefe parts are, the air, thefolid earth, and the water.
Of thefe the two former are eleCtrics per fe; the latter is
* See EUc- a conductor, though a bad one *. Hence it follows,
treaty. i. That in proportion to the quantity of earth which
is mixed with any quantity of water, that mixture will
approach nearer to the nature of an eleCtric per fe, and
vice verfa.
2. It alfo follows, that whatever quantity of eleCtri-
city is communicated to the folid earth, will be quick¬
ly taken off from it by the water which is mixed with
it, in the fame manner that the eleCtric matter is
carried off from an excited globe by a metallic con¬
ductor.
3. The whole earth is moift, and therefore in fome
degree a conduCtor. Neverthelefs, as earth of all
kinds, when perfectly dry, is found to be an eleCtric
capable of receiving a charge like glafs, it is therefore
pollible, that the eleCtric power of the earth may be
excited to fuch a degree, that the moifture of the fo¬
lid parts cannot eaiily contain the quantity of eleCtri-
city communicated.
4. In this cafe, the earth muft either give undoubt¬
ed figns of its being excited in the fame manner that
other excited eleCtrics do, or the eleCtricity muft be
difeharged fomewhere elfe.
5. To receive any fuperfluous quantity of eleCIric
matter that may be communicated to the folid earth,
the waters of the ocean are always ready. Thefe, be¬
ing a much better cenduftor than earth, muft be a
principal mean of preferving the equilibrium of elec¬
tricity in the different parts of the earth; and hence
we fee a natural reafon why the waters of the ocean
ftiould cover fo large a proportion of the globe as they
are known to do. See Ocean.
6. It is known, that fire is alfo a conductor of elec¬
tricity. . Therefore, wherever a quantity of eleftric
matter is collefted in any part of the folid earth, if it
can neither be conveniently received by the moifture
which the earth naturally contains, nor by the ocean
in its neighbourhood, it will difeharge itfelf by any
volcano that happens to be in an adfive ftate, xtear the
place where that colkaion of ele&ric matter is.
Voi. VI. Part I.
i T EAR
7. It is alfo found, that the eleftric fluid, being vio¬
lently refilled by the fuperincumbent atmofphere, hath
always a tendency to difeharge itfelf in thofe places
where that refiftance is leaft. The tops of high
mountains, therefore, where the weight of the atmo-
fphere is greatly diminilhed, will alfo afford a ready
paffage for the eledfric fluid when it is colledled in very
great quantity in the bowels of the earth.
8. If, from fome natural caufes, the eledlric matter
fhall happen to be colledted in the bowels of the earth
in any particular place, and at the fame time fuch ob-
ftacles are thrown in its way, that it can neither dif¬
eharge itfelf into the ocean, nor into the atmofphere
by the tops of high mountains, nor by the more open
paffages of volcanoes ; the moft terrible confequences
muft enfue: the matter being pent up, and the caufe
by which it is colledled continuing ftill to adt, its im-
pulfe becomes at laft irrefiftible. It then flies againft
every obftacle with inconceivable violence. It breaks
out in all thofe places where there is the leaft refift¬
ance, and therefore the Ihock is diredled a great num¬
ber of different ways at once. Houfes, lleeples, trees,
&c. by their height take off fome what of the preffure
of the atmofphere ; and therefore the eledlric matter
flies againft them very violently. The houfes and o-
ther buildings being bad condudlors, are thrown down;
the trees affording a readier paffage to the fluid are not
hurt, though even they alfo are fometimes fplit. The
height of the mountains renders them the objedls of the
deftrudtive force of this fluid much more than any
buildings whatever. Hence they are often rent, and
rocks thrown down from them. The water contained
in the folid parts of the earth, being a condudlor of
eledlricity, becomes overloaded with it; and when it
can receive no more, is forced to yield to the impulfe
of the reft, and therefore is thrown out of the earth
in great quantities. For the fame reafon, the waters
on the furface of the earth are moft violently agita¬
ted. The fmall quantities contained in wells are thrown
out at the tops of them : The rivers and lakes, which
contain too great a quantity of water to be thrown
off from the earth, rife in billows: The ocean itfelf,
receiving more eledlric matter than can be immediately
difperfed through the whole body of water, or eva¬
porate into the atmofphere, retreats from the land, and
is raifed in vaft mountains. The folid earth, being
unable either to conduft the fluid quietly to thofe
parts where it is wanted, or to retain it, is violently
ftiaken or rent in multitudes of places; and this not
only on the furface, but to great depths. . The elec¬
tricity being now in fome meafure difeharged from the
earth, the ocean rufhes forward with fury to difeharge
in its turn the excefs of eledlric matter it juft before
received from the earth. If there are volcanoes in the
neighbourhood, the violent difeharge of eledlricity is
fure to manifeft itfelf by fetting them in a flame ; and
thus, till the equilibrium is reftored, all nature feems
to be threatened with diffolution. —Even in thofe pla¬
ces where the force of the eledlric fluid is not able to
fhake the folid parts of the earth, itmanifefts its power
by agitating the waters in the manner above deferibed.
Water being a much better condudlor of eledlricity
than earth, this fubtile fluid, as foon as it can get out
from the folid earth, flies to the water. The confe-
quence is, that the water immediately fwells up, and
N a 'is
EAR [ 282
is attracted by whatever part of the earth has lefs elec¬
tricity than itfelf. Hence thofe ftrange irregular mo¬
tions of the waters in different places, fo particularly
©bferved at the time of the earthquake at Lifbon; and
which it feems impoffible to account for from any o-
ther caufe than an immediate difcharge of eleffric mat¬
ter from the earth into them.
9. As it is impoffible that any part of the earth can
be electrified without communicating a proportionable
(hare of eleftricity to the animals that live upon it, and
have a conftant communication with it, it thence fol¬
lows, that there can be no confiderable commotion in
the eleftric matter lodged in the bowels of the earth,
without affefting that which is contained in the bodies
of the animals. Hence the brutes, who feem to be
more fenfible of fuch commotions than we, run about,
and fhow figns of fear, before the earthquake comes
on; and hence the giddinefs, ficknefs, &c. which the
human race are fubje£t to during the time of the fhock,
even though they do not feel it, as was the cafe at
Gibraltar.
10. As the atmofphere hath a communication with
the earth, it is fcarce to be fuppofed that.the earth
] EAR
charged, into the atmofphere, cannot return to the Eanh-
fouth without firft going north, and rifmg up into the quake.
higher regions.  
In the earthquakes in Calabria, in the year 178?, 83
there were fome circumftances which feem ^ Circum-
.    ta miktate ftances in
again ft the theory juft noW laid down. The moft re- the earth-
markable of thefe is their attacking the places fituated quakes of
on the plain much more than thofe which flood on the '783feem-
higher grounds. This is particularly infilled upon by
Sir William Hamilton. “ If two towns (fays he) theory. **
were fituated at an equal diltance from the centre (of
the force of the earthquake), the one on a hill, the
other on the plain or in a bottom, the latter always
fuffered greatly more from the Ihocks of the earthquake
than the former; a fufficient proof to me of the caufe
coming from beneath, as this mutt naturally have been
produ&ive of fuch an effedt. And I have reafon to
believe, that the bottom of the fea, being Hill nearer
the volcanic caufe, would be found, if it could be ieen,
to have fuffered Hill more than the plain itfelf: but the
philofbphers, who do not eafily abandon their ancient
fyftems, make the prefent earthquakes to proceed from
the high mountains of the Apennines that divide Ca- This earth*
for any length of time, contain a confiderable quanti- labria Ultra, fuch as the Monte Dejo, Monte Caulone, quaketefs *
ty of eledlric matter, without communicating to the
atmofphere a proportionable quantity. Before an
earthquake, therefore, we muff fuppofe the eledlricity
of the earth and air to be in perfeift equilibrio. Hence
the weather is ferene, there is no wind, nor any other
iign in the atmofphere, of the terrible cataftrophe that
is about to enfue. But the moment the difcharge is
made from the earth, the equilibrium between the ter-
reftrial and atmofpherical electricity is broken; the air
either begins tb receive the fluid from the earth, or
the earth from the air. As there is not then time for
the collection of thunder-clouds by which the elec¬
tricity may be brought down in fudden flafhes of light¬
ning, the fluid breaks through the fubftance of the air
itfelf with difmal and horrid noifes, which always ac¬
company an earthquake. That this is the cafe, feems
highly probable from an experiment of M. de Romas,
when, having brought down a vaft quantity of elec¬
tric matter from the clouds by means of a kite, he
heard the noife it made in the air, like the con¬
tinual blowing of a fmall forge bellows. In general,
a confiderable change of weather takes place at the
time of an earthquake, though not always. In the
earthquake which happened in England in 1777, there
was no remarkable change of weather there; but, foon
after, there was a great deal of thunder and lightning
in the fouthern parts of Scotland: which feems to
and Afpramonte. 1 would alk them this fimple que- violent a
ftion, Did the Eolian or Lipari iflands (all which rofemon>r •Iie
undoubtedly from the bottom of the lea by volcanic mountain
explofions, at different and perhaps very diftant pe- than elfe-
riods) owe their birth to the Apennines in Calabria, where,
or to veins of minerals in the bowels of the earth and
under the bottom of the fea ? Stromboli, an aClive vol¬
cano, and probably the youngeft of thofe illands, is
not above 50 miles from thofe parts of Calabria that
have fuffered moft by the late earthquakes. The ver¬
tical Ihocks, or, in other words, thofe whofe impulfe
was from the bottom upwards, have been the moft de-
ftrudlive to the unhappy towns in the plain. Did they
proceed from Monte Dejo, Monte Caulone, or Afpra- g-
monte ? In fhort, the idea I have of the prefent local Sir William
earthquakes is, that they have been caufed by the fame Hamilton’s
kind of matter that gave birth to the Eolian iflands; °iinion
that perhaps an opening may have been made at the"16”1”6'
bottom of the fea, and moft probably between Strom¬
boli and Calabria Ultra ; for from that quarter all aoree
that the fubterraneous noifes feem to have proceeded
and that the foundation of a new ifland or volcano may
have been laid, though it may be ages, which to na¬
ture are but moments, before it is completed and ap¬
pears above the furface of the fea. Perhaps,, too, the
whole deftrudlion I have been deferibing may have pro¬
ceeded Amply from the exhalations of confined vapours
indicate, that the deftric fluid difeharged from the generated by the fermentation of fuch minerals as pro¬
earth in England had taken its courfe northward, and
produced the phenomena before mentioned in Scot¬
land. The fame obfervation may likewife be made
with regard to 1789, when there were flight Ihocks of lid grounds around it.”
duce volcanoes, which have efcaped where they meet,
with the leaft refiftance, andmuft naturally, in a great¬
er degree, have affedled the plain than the high and fo-
a earthquake both in England and Scotland. That
in England being the firft, was followed by an un-
eommon Frequency of thunder and lightning in. the
fouthern parts of Scotland; by reafon. of the progrefs
ef the ele£lric matter northward after it was difeharged
into the atmofphere: but the Ihocks which happened
In a memoir on this earthquake by M. Dolomieu, Ele&ricity
that author endeavours to exclude eleilricity from,ha-denied by
ving had any fhare in the matter. “ The fea (fays he), D<>,°-
during the earthquakes of 1783, had little Ihare in the™^®
fhocks of the mainland. The mafs of water expe-fhare in the
rienced no general movement of fluctuation or ofcilla- production.
the northern part of Scotland (viz. about Crief in tion ; the waves did not rife above their ordinary 11-eart^*
:_i: n.: %  . ,1 .. j. ^  _• l. r r-r- quakes*.
Stirlingfhire) were not followed by any thunder to the
fouthward; , becaufe the electric matter, though dif-
mits. Thofe which, on the night of the 5th of Fe-quake5*'
bruary, beat againft the coaft of Scilla, and winch af-
4, towards.
EAR C 283 ] EAR
87
mofphere
terwards covered the point of the Faro of Meffina,
were only the effefts of a particular caufe. The fall
of a mountain into the fea raifed the waters, which re¬
ceived an undulating motion, as happens always in fi-
milar cafes. The undulation reached from the point
of Sicily beyond the Cape of Rofacolmo, extending
in length along the coaft which runs to the fouth ; but
always with a decreafe in elevation as it was more re¬
mote from Sicily. Whatever inquiries the author has
made, he has not been able to difeover, in all the de¬
tails which have been given him, any proofs of the ex-
iftence of ele&rical phenomena : no fpark, no difen-
gagement of the eleftrical fluid, which the Neapoli¬
tan naturalifts wiflt to affign as the caufe of earth¬
quakes.
Of theftate “ The Hate of the atmofphere was not the fame in
of the at- the whole range of earthquakes. While the tempefts
and the rain feemed to have confpired with them for
the deftruftion of Meffina, the interior part of Cala¬
bria enjoyed very fine weather. A little rain fell in the
plain in the morning of the yth of February; but the
fley wras clear dusing the reft of the day. This month
and that of March were not only pretty ferene, but
likewife warm. There were fome ftorms and rain;
but they were the natural attendants of the feafon.
“ The moving force feems to have refided under
Calabria itfelf, fince the fea which furrounds it had no
(hare in the ofcillations or vibrations of the continent.
This force feems alfo to have advanced along the ridge
of the Apennines in afeending from the fouth to the
north. But what power in nature is capable of pro¬
ducing fuch effects ? I exclude ele&ricity, which can¬
not accumulate continually during the courfe of a year,
in a country furrounded with water, where every thing
confpires to place this fluid in equilibrio. Fire remains
to be confidered. This element, by afting dire&ly
upon the folids, can only dilate them ; then their ex¬
pansion is progreffive, and cannot produce violent and
inftantaneous movements. When fire afts upon fluids,
fuch as air and water, it gives them an aftonifhing ex-
panfion ; and we know that then their elaftic force is
capable of overcoming the greateft refiftances. Thefe
appear the only means which nature could employ to
operate the effe&s we fpeak of; but in all Calabria
thei-e is no veftige of a volcano ; nothing to point out
any interior combuftion ; no fire concealed in the centre
of mountains, or under their bafe ; a fire which could
not exift without fome external figns. The vapours
dilated, the air rarefied by a heat conftantly adlive,
muft have efcaped through fome of the crevices or
clefts formed in the foil; they muft. there have formed
currents. Both flame and fmoke muft have iffued by
fome one or other of thefe paffages. Thefe once open¬
ed, the preflure would have ceafed ; the force npt meet¬
ing with any more refiftance, would have loft its effedt;
and the earthquakes could have no longer continued.
None of thefe phenomena took place : we muft then
renounce the fuppofition of a combuftion adling di-
redfly under Calabria. Let us fee if having recourfe
to a fire at fome diftapee from this province, and adl-
ing upon it only as an occafional caufe, we fhall be able
to explain all the phenomena which have accompanied
the fliocks. Let us take for example jEtna in Sicily,
and fuppofe large cavities under the mountains of Ca¬
labria ; a fuppofition which cannot be refufed. It is cer-
Slibterra-
neous fire
fupjmfed
to be the
caufe.
tain that immenfe fubterraneous cavities do exift, fimee Earth-
iEtna, in elevating itfelf by the accumulation of its ^ualte- ,
explofions, muft leave in the heart of the earth cavi¬
ties proportioned to the greatnefs of the mafs. 89
“ The autumn of 1782 and the winter of 1783.Whence a
were very rainy. The interior waters, augmented by^^'j^f
thofe of the furface, may have run into thofe caverns ficient to
which form the focus of JEtna.: there they muft have produce
been converted into vapour capable of the higheft de-^fhe®^*
gree of expanfion, and muft have prefled forcibly ™rqyg,j6
againft every thing which oppofed their dilatation. If
they found canals to condudl them into the cavities of
Calabria, they could not fail to occafion there all the
calamities of which I have given the defeription.
“ If the firft cavity is feparated from the fecond by
a wall (fo to fpeak) or fome flight divifion, and this
reparation is broken down by the force of the elaftic
vapour, the whole force wall aft againft the bottom
and fides of the fecond. The focus of the fhocks will
appear to have changed place, and become weaker in
the fpace which was agitated moft violently by the firft
earthquake.
“ The plain, which was undoubtedly the moft flen-
der part of the vault, yielded moft eafily. The city
of Meffina, placed upon low ground, experienced a
(hock which the buildings on higher grounds did not.
The moving force ceafed at once as fuddenly as it aft-
ed violently. When, at the periods of the 7th of Fe¬
bruary and the 28th of March, the focus appeared
changed, the plain fcarce fuffered any thing. The
fubterraneous noife, which preceded and accompanied
the (hocks, appeared always to come from the fouth-
weft, in the direftion of Meffina. It feemed like
thunder under ground, which refounded beneath vaults.
“ If iEtna, then, has been the occafional caufe of
the earthquakes, it has alfo prepared, for fome time, the
misfortunes of Calabria, by gradually opening a paf-
fage along the coaft of Sicily to the foot of the Nep¬
tunian mountains: for drfring the earthquakes of 1780,
which difturbed Meffina the whole fummer, they felt,
the whole length of that coaft, from Taormina even to
the Faro, confiderable fliocks ; but near the village of
Alii and Fiume de Nifi, which are fituated about the
middle of that line, (hocks fo violent were experienced,
that they dreaded left the mouth of a volcano (hould
open. Each (hock refembled the effort of a mine that
had not (Length to make an explofion. It appears,
that then the volcano opened a free paffage for the ex¬
panfion of its vapours, and that they have fince circu¬
lated without reftraint; fince in the year 1783 the
earthquake was almoft nothing upon that part of Sicily,
at the time that Meffina buried under its ruins the half
of its inhabitants.”
On this theory it is firft to be obferved, that there nifagree-
is a confiderable difagreement in points of fact betwixt ment with
M. Dolomieu and Sir William Hamilton. The for- regard to
mer could find no account of any fpark or other elec-
trical phenomenon : the latter, on the contrary, was
affured that flames had often been feen to iffue from and Sir
the earth ; and .thefe he exprefsly attributes to a va- William
pour charged with declricalfire. M. Dolomieu takes H"rn‘lt0D’
little notice of the rains that fell ; while Sir William
Hamilton attributes to them feveral of thofe difrup-
tions of the earth, which, without them, would have
feemed very extraordinary. The latter likewife informs
N n 2 us»
E A R
t 284 ]
EAR
way he pleafes: the greater their bulk, the more will
he be embarraffed; for thus the fteam would have room
Earth- u3, that before a ihock the clouds remained rootionlefs ;
. qualce- and that, after a heavy fliower of rain, a fmart {hock
followed. Thefe were phenomena that {bowed fome to circulate ; and far from producing thofe dreadful
Proofs of connexion between what paffed in the earth and in the convulfions, muft have returned quietly into water,
elc&ricity atmofphere: but betwixt thefe two there is no agent without being able to ftir the earth in the leaft.
feeing con- that we know of excepting eleftricity, at leaft there
eerned.
effe&s by communication between the one and the
M Dolo- other. The moft enthufiaftic imagination cannot ftip-
hy- pofe that huge cauldrons of boiling water under Mount
pothdi 01- ffeould make the clouds Hand (till over Calabria;
and the quick fucceflion of the {hock to an heavy {how-
Tr 96
„ Companion
uld appear indeed, that the power of aqueous fteam between
is none of fufficient ftrength to produce any violent is very much over-rated both by M. Dolomieu and o- volcanoes
ther writers. An anonymous author in the Jourria}*"(i’.^e*mr‘
dt Phyfique for Auguft 1785, has drawn a compari-cnsinc3'
fon between volcanoes and fteam-engines; and expref-
fes his furprife that nobody has taken notice of it foon-
A fteam-engine (fays he), conftfts of a cal-
er of rain Ihowed that the caufe, whatever it was, lay dron or boiler, covered with a lid, having an openiui
in the ground on which the rain fell, and that it could
be put in adiion by what affedied the furface of the
ground. But the caufe of earthquakes appears, from
the fadls related n° 25, to lie at a greater depth in the
earth than 396 feet ; but no {bower of rain could af-
the middle, to which is fitted an hollow cylinder,
See. The boiler is fet over a fire, and from the wa¬
ter in it rifes a vapour, the expaniive force of which
raifes the pifton of the machine. The adiion of the
vapour is afterwards inftantaneoufiy annihilated by 3
fedt the earth to this depth unlefs by making fome al- jet of cold water into the cylinder through a hole, when
teration in its eledlricity. Thefe phenomena, which
M. Dolomieu has overlooked, evidently ftiowthat elec¬
tricity was concerned in this earthquake as well as
^ others.
Of the fore- Another circumftance, which M. Dolomieu himfelf
knowledge mentions, is a fufficient proof of eledlricity being con-
arfimals had cerne<^» an(^ that is the prefentiment which animals had
cf the{liock.°f hs approach. “ The prefentiment of animals (fays
he) at the approach of earthquakes, is a fingular phe¬
nomenon, and which cannot fail to furprife us fo much
the more, as we know not by what organs it is com¬
municated to them. Every fpectes of animals experi¬
ences it, efpecially dogs, geefe, and poultry. The
bowlings of the dogs in the ftreets of Meffina were fo
the weight of the atmofphere takes place, forces down
the pifton, and confequently raifes the water in the.
pump.
“ It is known that vapour occupies a fpace 15,000
or 16,000 times greater than the bulk of the water
which produced it; hence it follows, that the fmaller
the fpace is in which it is contained, the force of its
expanfion will be the greater. It has fometimes hap¬
pened, that vapour, in a fteam-engine, not having fuf¬
ficient play, has burft the veffels in which it was con¬
tained, deftroyed the building, and thrown the {tones
and boiling water to a great diftance. It is now fur-
nilhed with holes, by which the quantity of water
be afeertained, and with a valve which gives way
loud, that orders vyere iffued to kill them.” Now, we when the vapour is fuperabundant. When the vapour
know that many animals have a prefentiment of a iffues by this valve, it itrikes the air with fuch force
change of weather; which may happen either from a as to occafion a very loud biffing noife. The force of
change of the denfity of the atmofphere, or from fome vapour fufficient for railing a pifton of a given diame-
alteration in its eleftricity : but fteam pent up in the ter is equal to the weight of a column of water 22
u—‘t'- -—-t- —i* ^ feet in height, and of a bafe equal to the pifton ; fo
that, fuppofe a cubic foot of water to weigh 70
pounds, and the pifton to be a foot fquare, the force
of the vapour fufficient for raiiing it will be 1540
bowels of the earth could affeft no animal until it be¬
gan to exert its effedls. Sir William Hamilton like-
wife informs us, that geefe feemed more affe&ed by this
caufe when in the water than out of it; which may
eafily be explained upon eleftrical principles, but not pounds; an agent fo powerful, that hardly any thing
1-'~a —* ‘l’-' —    f'— elfe in nature can be compared with it.
“ Now if we recoiled the deferiptions of volcanoes, v0icanoes,
their eruptions, the earthquakes and hiffing noifesearth-
which fometimes precede or accompany them; the quakes, &c.
ftones of different forts, boiling water, fulphur, and ** lowing
by arguing from things unkown to what we fee; but bitumens which they difeharge; if we hear of rocks t0
thrown to the diftance of feven or eight miles from
the mouth of the volcano; clouds of allies, and tor¬
rents of lava, feas overflowing, rivers left dry, &c. &c.
we will find, all thefe the effeds of great natural fteam-
engines: that is to fay, they are produced by maffes
of combuftible matter fet on fire by fermentation, pla¬
ced in the neighbourhood of caverns filled with the
waters of the fea, of rivers or lakes. W^e cannot doubt
that the interior parts of the earth are hollowed out
into numberlefs caverns that extend in different direc¬
tions, and to various depths; and that mountains and
other inequalities, and the buildings raifed by men,
1.1 1*1   • ~    1,/A 1.
at all, at leaft not without the moft extravagant flip-
pofitions, by fteam pent up in caverns nobody knows
where.
-roncons Again, it is evident that Mr Dolomieu’s hypothe-
method of **IS is fupported in the worft manner imaginable, viz.
arguing .
purfued by the true method of argument always is from what
M. Dolo- pee to tb;ngS unknown. By this unhappy error he
9'5 has made choice of caufes which cannot poffibly an-
The earth- fwer the purpofe. Let any quantity of water we pleafe
quakes fee poured into the focus of mount A-tna; nay, let the
beoccafton-^ea break into it: the confequence could only
ed by water have been what happened in 1755, viz. not an earth-
poured in- quake in Calabria, but a vaft effufion of boiling wa-
tCr ^r°m t^ie t0P t^ie mounta'n itfelf. Nature here
made the experiment; and we have no reafon to ima¬
gine that any other confequence would have followed,
though it had been repeated ever fo often. Our au¬
thor feems alio to have forgot, that aqueous fteam is are merely the lid or covering, more or lefs thick, of
capable of condenfation, and that when it is admitted thefe caverns, which vary in ffiape, and in the mate-
into a cold place it inftantly lofes its expanfive power, rials of which they are compofed. Places therefore
Let us fuppofe caverns upon caverns extended in any covered with buildings and mountains, are more lia¬
ble
EAR [ 285 ] EAR
Earth, ble to earthquakes, becaufe they are lefs able to give
, qnakc. way tQ tjie ^ock : and the farther places are diftant
' ~v from volcanoes, the lefs they have to fear from earth¬
quakes ; becaufe the vapour having room to expand
itfelf by the ramifications of the fubterraneous pafia-
ges, the Ihocks will be lefs violent and lefs frequent.
It is this which, in all probability, has hitherto faved
Naples.
“ Now, let it net be faid, that we have miftaken
the caufe of earthquakes: for if, on the one hand, we
attentively coniider the fte&m-engine and its effefts,
and on the other, obferve volcanoes always in the
neighbourhood of water, we will be convinced, that
they differ in nothing from that machine, but becaufe
this is under the command and direction of art. The
difappearance and formation of iflands and mountains
may be explained from the finking in of caverns, or
from their being lifted up by the force of vapour.—
Laflly, thofe vapours which, in the year 1783, co¬
vered at the fame time, and almofl during four months,
a part of Europe, Alia, and Africa, were probably
vapour efcaped from thofe great internal caverns, heat¬
ed by a fufficient quantity of eombuftible matters, fet
on fire by fermentation in the great chemical labora¬
tories in the bowels of the earth. In certain dillricts
of Burgundy, thefe vapours were found to be hot, for
they dried up and deftroyed the grapes.’1
This hypo- - That the power of fteam-engines is very great, there
ti ers urtcr-is no doubt ; but all that we fee them ufually perform,
ly mfuffi- js UttE more than merely overcoming the preffure of
the atmofphere on the pifton of the cylinder. Now
this preffure is equally ftrong over the whole furfAe
of the earth t fo that before the ground could be fha-
ken in the fmalleft degree, the whole preffure of the
99 atmofphere incumbent upon it muff be removed. But
^ WC beS*n to 171 abe any calculations with regard even
the atmo- to tb's force, which muft be removed as a prelimina-
fphere to be ry, we' fhall find it to be inconceivably great. A fquare
overcome mile contains 27,878,400 fquare feet; and upon each
eart^uAe tbe^e tbe Preffure is 2160 pounds. The atmofphe-
can take' "0 rlca^ Prt'flure on a fquare mile is the product of thefe
place. two numbers, or 60,217,344,000 pounds; but the
great earthquake of 1755 fhook no lefs than 4.000,000
of fquare miles of the earth; and therefore muft. in the
firft place have overcome a preflure of more than
240,000 millions of millions of pounds and after all
■ this, it had ftill a much greater obftacle, viz. the im-
menfe weight and cohefion of the earth itfelf. Dr
•Seen0;;. Stukely* has calculated, that no conceivable quantity
of gunpowder could have moved the earth fnaken by
the earthquake in Afia Minor, which, affected a circle
of 300 miles diameter: but the earthquake of 1755
muft have required not only a much greater power to
move the earth, as affecting a furface much greater than
that of a circle30omiles in diameter, but alfo the atmo-
. fpherical preffure above mentioned, which does not enter
into the Doctor’s calculation. There cannot therefore
be any conceivable quantity of water,, of fire, or of fleam
in the bowels of the earth, fufficient to produce fuch ef-
fedts; nor is there any power in nature to which we can
joo Wj'tb tbe fmalleft probability attribute them, electricity
Power of alone excepted. Calculations have indeed been made,
fleam ge- that the force of fleam is 28 times greater than that
nerally 0f gunpowder : but this feems only to be in one par-
over-, ated. ticuiar cafe, viz. when water is thrown upon melted
copper; which cannot poffibly take place in the bowels Earth-
of the earth. In other cafes water explodes with much <luake.
lefs violence ; and, when thrown upon melted glafs, "
does not explode at all. The very violent effedis of Explofion
water when thrown upon copper in fufion, therefore, of water
moft probably are to be attributed to a decompofition °f wfib c°FFes
the water, one part of it being united to the calx of rccafioiie 1
the metal, and the other fuddenly converted into an by a de-
aerial vapour; the inftantaneous produdh'on and rare-romp..11-
fadlion of which feems in moft cafes to be the caufe tl0n'
of explofion *. The Ample preffure of fleam, and the * See
hurtling of a veffel by it when long continued, cannot/’^"*
at all be introduced as a parallel cafe, nor are the ef-
fedts in any degree fimilar; becaufe we cannot imagine
folid metallic vefiels in the bowels of the earth to con¬
fine the fleam till it acquired fuch ftrength. At all
events the fleam muft have penetrated the loofe earth,
•which it could not fail to meet with in many places,
loofened it, and condenfed itfelf; and if any perfon will
cover a fleam engine with ftones and rubbifh inflead
of a clofe lid, he will certainly find this to be the
cafe. _ _ _ 10*
The only power with which we are acquainted, and Of the lifts-
which is capable of producing earthquakes, then, be-ol earth¬
ing that of the eledfrical fluid, it only remains to con- es’
fider what ufes they may be thought to anfwer in the
fyitem of nature. As they are the effedls of the very
bigheft natural power, it cannot be fuppofed that they
are produced merely for the purpofes of deftrudlion ;
and, on the other hand, as they certainly do a great
deal of mifehief, it feems as difficult to affign any be- ra
nevolent purpofe they can anfwer. It is very gene- They c'm.
rally fuppofed, indeed, that earthquakes are the means not be the
by which Nature raifes mountains and land from the rnfai s of
bottom of the fea ;, but this can never be admitted, mouiuain-
We have many inflanc.es of mountains being fwallowed " '
up and loft by earthquakes, but not a fingle well attefted
one of a mountain being railed by them; and even when
volcanoes are taken into the account, by which fome
mountains and illands have certainly been raiCed, the
balance appears againft them, and more land feems
to have been funk by them than ever was raifed *. It * Sce
feems moft probable therefore that earthquakes are ac-
cidental, and that the mifehief they do is only to pre¬
vent a greater evil. This we fee takes place through?
out the whole fyftem of nature. Thunder and light¬
ning, violent rains, ftorms of wind, &c. are all pro?
dutflive of much damage on certain occafions ; but vve
by no means fuppofe thefe phenomena to take place
merely for cleftruction; and therefore we name fuch ef-
fects accidents. To the fame account, though on. a larger Are^robai
fcale, muft we place earthquakes; and it only now re- b!y acci-
mains to confider what are the difafters ftill more ter- dental cir-
rible than earthquakes which we ffiould have occafion
to- dread, did they not interpofe to prevent them. greaterevrfs
■ Thefe evils are naturally to be dreaded from any are prevent-
general commotion of the electric fluid difperfed thro’ ed.
the whole globe of earth. That it does pervade it to
the centre, is what we can have no reafon to doubt;
but in the internal parts it feems to lie dormant, or to
be employed in operations which never manifeft them?
(elves to us. Towards the furface it is mauifeftly fet
in, motion by the light of the fun;, which, as proved,
under the article Electricity, and in various othejr-
parts of this work, is the very fame fluid. This pro-
6 duces-.
lo6
Dreadful
confequen-
ces of an
univerfal
commorion
in the elec-
Why this
can never
take place.
108
Progrefs of
the eledtric
matter dif-
ternihlc
after the
earthquake
in Calabria.
109
©coafions
violent
eruptions
of fire in
Greenland
and Iceland.
Violent
. thunder-
ftorms
throughout
all Europe.
Appears in
the great
meteor of
X783*
EAR [ 286 1 EAR
duces a conftant current through the bowels of the was the very fame quantity of ele&ric matter that had Earth,
earth from the equator towards the poles ; for as the raifed fuch horrid commotions in the earth and atmo- fiuake-
equatorial parts abforb more of the light than thofe fphere, returning thro’ the higher fpaces to the fouth
farther fouth or north, it mull naturally be driven out from whence it had originally proceeded.
in the northern and fouthern regions in proportion to Before we difmifs this article, it may ftill be necef- Why earth-
the quantity abforbed at the equator. In what man- fary to obviate an obje&ion which may be railed from quakes do
ner earthquakes are then produced by it, has already what is faid under the article Lightning. It ispot happen
been explained at length. They are the Ihocks oc- there Ihown, that in the time of a thunder ftorm, the ^ Sunder
calioned by its palling in great quantity from one parts of the earth which lie dire&ly under the cloud florins"
place where it is preffed and confined, to another are divided for fome fpace downward into alternate
from which it has a free paflage; or from a part of zones pofitively and negatively electrified; that the
the earth pofitively eleftrified, to one that is negatively lightning from the cloud Itrikes not the uppermoft
fo. Let us fuppofe, however, that fuch obftru&ions ftratum directly, but only as it is impolfible to avoid it
are thrown in its way, that it cannot get out of the becaufe it lies betwixt the cloud and the zone by which
earth by any paffage. The confequence of this mull the eleftric matter is attracted. It may then be afked,
very foon be, that the motion of the light acting upon Why an earthquake is not produced by the difchargc
the equatorial parts would be propagated through the of thefe two oppofite electricities into one another di¬
whole globe ; and this would be productive of confe- reCtly, without the production of any thunder ? Here,
quences much more terrible than any we can conceive, however, we mull obferve, that the eleCtricity is ori-
We fee that by fetting it in motion in a fmall part of ginally accumulated in the atmofphere, where the va-
the atmofphere or of the earth, the molt violent effeCts pours ferve as conductors, and the furrounding air and
enfue ; but Ihould this tremendous fluid be obliged upper furface of the earth being eleCtrified the fame
to put forth all its Jlrength, the earth mult be fhaken way, prevent the eleCtric matter from filently dif-
from the centre. Inftead of plantations and little hills charging itfelf, by infulating the clouds in the fame
removed from their places, as in Calabria, it is more manner that the conductor of a machine is infulated by
than probable that the largeft illands and continents the eleCtric fubftance on which it Hands. The flalh
would be detached from their bafes, or perhaps an uni- of lightning mult therefore burft out from thefe con-
verfal diflblution enfue. Happily, however, fuch an duCtors in the very fame manner that a fpark proceeds
effeCt never can take place, becaufe the eleCtric mat- from the prime conductor of an eleCtrical machine, ra¬
ter always vents itfelf by the fuperficial parts ; for the ther than from the globe or atmofphere next to it,
depths to which even the caufes of earthquakes and though both of them are undoubtedly very highly elec-
volcanoes defcend, are undoubtedly fuperficial in com- trifled at the time the machine is fet in motion. At
parifon of the valt thicknefs of the body of the earth the fame time it mud be coniidered, that this conti-
itfelf. The great bulk of eleCtric fluid therefore lies nual flaihing of the atmofpherical eleCtricity towards
quietly in the central parts; and is never moved by the the earth, prevents any very high degree of it from
commotions of that which lies on the furface, any accumulating in either of the terreftrial zones already
more than the water at the bottom of the ocean is mentioned, fo as to produce any difcharge between
moved by the florins which ruffle the upper part. them, which would indeed produce a fhock of an earth-
In the earthquakes in Calabria, the progrefs of the quake.
eleCtric matter northward might be traced both thro’ From an unhappy accident which happened in 1785, Of eleClri-
the bowels of the earth and through the atmofphere. related by Mr Brydone in the Phil. Tranf. for that year, cal explo-
The great fhocks happened in the month of February, we learn, that though in a thunder ftorm the atmo-fions.Pro'
but continued more or lefs through the whole fum- fpherical eleCtricity and that of the earth are the fame, from'the
mer. It was obferved that Stromboli fmoked lefs than yet at fome dittance there is a difference betwixt them, earth. C
ufual, and no particular eruption happened either of and difcharges are made from the one to the other.
./Etna or Vefuvius. This (bowed that the eleCtric The accident alluded to was the deftruCtion of a man A fatlt ac-
matter was going fomewhere elfe; nor was it long of and two horfes by an eleCtrical explofion from the cident by
difcovering the courfe it had taken. In the beginning earth in the time of a thunder ftorm. At the place one of thein
offummera violent volcanic eruption took place in where the explolion happened, there was an interval fg^0Unte<i
Greenland ; its extent and power, however, were not of 25 or 30 feconds betwixt the flafh and the clap of
known ; but in the beginning of June a volcanic earth- thunder, fo that it muft have been at the diftance of
quake commenced in Iceland, and continued for eleven between five and fix miles; the great explofion fudden-
days without intermiflion. This was followed by the ly buvft out from the fpot over which the cart-wheels
moft extraordinary effufion of lava recorded in hiftory, paffed to which the horfes were yoked, partially melt-
which continued till the 12th of Auguft. All this ed the iron of the wheels, killed the man who fat on the
time there were violent and numerous thunder ftortns, fore-part of the cart, and tore his clothes almoft to pieces,
firft in the fouthern and then in the more northerly Twocircularholesofaboutaoinchesdiameterwere made
parts of Europe; the air was covered with a never- in the ground, and the earth and ftones fcattered about;
ceafing haze, not of a moift nature, as our author in but no fire was perceived. About an hour before the
the Journal de Phyfique fuppofes, and which he ab- explofion, fome fifhermen were caught in a violent
furdly fays dried the grapes in Burgundy, but plainly whirlwind, which felt hot and fultry. A lamb was
of fome other kind, and which prevented the light of killed by another explofion about a quarter of an hour
the fun from having its ufual effect. Six days after before the great one, and a woman received a Violent
the immenfe volcanic eruption in Iceland had ceafed, ftroke on the foot without being able to tell whence
the great meteor made its appearance, which no doubt it proceeded. At the time the lamb was killed, the
fhepherd
EAR [ 287 ]
fliepherd faid he felt a fenfation as if fire had paffed through fome other,
over his face.
By thefe explofions, particularly the great one, the
equilibrium of ele&ricity in the atmofphere was in-
ftantly reftored, and the clouds forthwith began to fe-
parate. The reafon of this is explained under the
article Lightning; here it is fufficient to obferve,
that where there is a difference between the ele&ricity
^fhere t^ie atmofphere and that of the eai‘th, an earthquake
' cannot happen. Thofe eleftrical explofions experi¬
mentally demonftrate the truth of what is argued from
the principles of eledtricity, n° 82, viz., that juft; before
an earthquake ■ there is a perfect equilibrium between
the electricity of the atmofphere and that of the far-
ard that of face of the earth. When this equilibrium is broken,
the earth, the earth difcharges its fuperfluous quantity either
filently, by means of trees, grafs, &c. or fometimes by
Earth¬
quakes
rence be¬
twixt the
ele&ricity
of the at-
ofphere
E A S
Hence, if the define matter
defeends from the air into one place of the earth, it
muft neceffarily afeend from the earth into the air in
fome other place. There muft be therefore a continual
current of electricity through the bowels of the earth,
beginning at the equator, and extending northward
and fouthward to both poles. While this current has
a free paffage from the earth in the northern and fouth-
ern regions, ever)'thing goes on quietly; and whatever
ftorms may happen in the atmofphere, the folid earth
cannot be affefted. Innumerable circumftances, how¬
ever, may tend to hinder this difeharge, and confequent-
ly to accumulate the elefiric matter in particular places.
One very obvious caufe of this kind, is an exceffive froft
taking place in any part of the earth whence the elec¬
tric matter was wont to be difeharged. This renders
the air itfelf fo define, that it cannot receive the fluid;
neral condufior, there cannot be any general difeharge
of the whole at once. The Angular cafe of the great
difeharge in 1785 was owing only to the accidental
prefence of a good condufior, viz. the iron of the
cart-wheels palling over the fpot where the define
matter happened to be collefied in great quantity.
Had not this taken place, it is poffible that a fire¬
ball might have rifen from the earth; for the explofion
produced effefis extremely fimilar to thofe of the
* See Light- burfting of fire-balls*: but ftill this could have no ef-
n>ng and fefi in producing any Ihock of an earthquake; becaufe
Meteors. the latter would have required a general' difeharge be¬
twixt two great ftrata of earth, where there cannot be
i»6 an5r condufior to make partial ones.
Conical In the time of earthquakes, however, there are un¬
hollows in doubtedly many fuch elefirical difcharges from the
eart*1’ earth as thofe juft mentioned ; and they are moft pro-
Kir'williani hably the caufe of thofe conical hollows obferved by
" Sir William Hamilton. When water is abundant in
any part bf the earth, it ferves ;
fome quantity of the elefiricity, and that fluid is
lently thrown out into the air: but where there is a
deficiency of water, the fire breaks forth in its proper
form with loud .explofions, as was obferved ; as well as
the water fpouts in Calabria in the year 1783. That
year alfo the quantity of elefit ic matter difeharged by
the earth into the air was manifeft by the vaft number
of thunder ftorms which immediately followed them.
No fire was obferved at the time of the explofion
which put an end to the thunder-ftorm above mention¬
ed ; but. this muft have arifen partly from its happen¬
ing in the day-time, and partly from the elefiric
matter having fo many condufiors to fpend its force
upon.
Ultimate Having thus explained all the phenomena attending
caufe of all earthquakes, it remains only to ftiow by what means
the pheno- the equilibrium of elefiricity can be broken in the
mena., bowels of the earth in fuch a manner as to produce thefe
phenomena. The ultimate caufe of this is mentioned un--
der the article Aurora Borealis, n1? 5. It is there
fhown, that the warmth- of the fun muft neceffarily
condufior for means of the water with which it abounds ?—To ob-
bring down to the earth much greater quantities of flalhes from the knob of an elefirified bottle prognofti-
eleCtric matter in the rporions within th<* trnnif-s than cate a difeharore of all the ele^rici’Mr
in the northern and fouthern climates. It is impoflible,
as is there alfo obferved, that there can be a perpetual
accumulation of eleftricity in one part of the earth,
Befides the earthquakes above deferibed, of which the
caufe feems to depend entirely on a collefiron of elec*
trie matter in the bowels of the earth, there are others
Earth*
quake.
explofions in different places ; but as there is no ge- at the fame time that the water on the furface of the
earth, being hard frozen, becomes elefiric alfo, and in¬
capable of condufting. Very dry feafons likewife con¬
tribute to produce the fame effefi; and thus the accu¬
mulation of elefiricity in the warmer climates becomes
prodigioufly great. Hence perhaps we have fome rea¬
fon to conclude, that the exceffive cold which pre¬
vailed over all Europe in 1782 was a principal caufe
of the earthquakes in 1783.
It muft, however, be obferved, that with regard to the
operations of nature we cannot always reafon analogi¬
cally from our elefiric experiments. If a quantity of
elefiricity is collefied in any fubftance by artificial
means, that quantity is taken off in a moment by the
touch of any metallic fubftance or other good con¬
dufior. As the whole earth, therefore, is filled with
a condufiing fubftance, namely water, it may very na*
turally be alked, Why does not the fuperfluous quantity
of define matter collefied in one place, immediately
difperfe itfelf through all other parts of the earth by
viate this difficulty, however, it needs only be remem¬
bered, that as the earth is quite full of elefiric matter
all round, no quantity can enter any particular part
without being refilled by the reft which is diffufed
through the whole globe. This refiftance will be pro¬
portioned to the facility with which it can efcape at
other places ; and this it never can do, unlefs the earth
is in a proper condition for emitting, and the atmo¬
fphere for receiving, it. The preffure, therefore, upon
the accumulated quantity of elefiric matter foon be¬
comes exceedingly great,. and its difpofition to burft
out with violence is every day inereafed. At laft, as
the fun. ftill continues to occafion the defeent of more
and more of the elefiric fluid, that particular part of
the earth becomes fully charged. The confequence of
this is, that the waters of fountains become foul; the
elefiric matter being lodged in great quantity in the.
water, forces it into unufual agitations, by which the
earth is mixed with it. The ocean, for the fame reafon,
is railed in huge billows, &c.; and thefe appearance*
prognofticate the ffiock, in the fame manner that flight
ttnlefs there is a paffage for it into the atmofphere frequently felt in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, s
which
E A S [ 288
which are plainly owing to the efforts of the burning
matter to difcharge itfelf. Thefe, however, are but
flight, and feldom extend to any confiderable diftance
from the burning mountain. For a particular account
of them, fee the article Volcano.
EASEL pieces, among painters, fuch fmaller pie¬
ces, either portraits or landfcapes, as are painted on
the eafel, i. e. the frame whereon the canvas is laid..—
They are thus called, to diftinguiflr them from larger
pictures drawn on walls, cielings, &c.
EASEMENT, in law, a privilege or convenience
which one neighbour has of another, whether by char¬
ter or prefcription, without profit: fuch are a way
through his lands, a fink, or the like. Thefe, in many
cafes, may be claimed.
EASING, in the fea-language, fignifies the flacken-
ing a rope or the like. Thus, to eafe the bow-line or
fheet, is to let them go flacker; to eafe the helm, is to
let the (hip go more large, more before the wind, or
•more larboard.
EAST, one of the four cardinal points of the world;
•being that point of the horizon where the fun is feen
to rife when in the equinodlial.
1 The word eajl is Saxon. In Italy, and throughout
the Mediterranean, the eaft wind is called the levante:
in Greek, and ctrvuoTnt, becaufe it comes from
the fide of the fun, «*•’ »*•<« ; in Latin, eunis.
EASTER, a feftival of the Chriftian church, obfer-
ved in memory of our Saviour’s refurrettion.
The Greeks call it pafga, the Latins/a/cZizr, an He¬
brew word t\gn\{yingpaj[age, applied to the Jewifh feaft
of the paffover. It is called eajler in Englifh, from the
goddefs Eoltre, worfhipped by the Saxons with peculiar
ceremonies in the month of April.
The Afiatic churches kept their eafler upon the very
fame day the Jews obferved their paffover, and others
on the firft Sunday after the firft full moon in the new
year. This controverfy was determined in the council
of Nice; when it was ordained that eafter fliould be
kept upon one and the fame day, which fliould always
be a Sunday, in all Chriftian churches in the world.
For the method of finding eafter by calculation, fee
Ghronology, n° 31.
Piaster. IJlancI, an ifland in the South Sea, lying in
N. Lat. 27. 5. W. Long. 109. 46. It is thoughtto
have been firft difcovered in 1686 by one Davis an
Fngliftiman, who called it Davis's Land. It was next
vifited by Commodore Roggewein, a Dutchman, in
1722; who gave it the name of Eajler IJland, and
publifiied many fabulous accounts concerning the coun¬
try and its inhabitants. It was alfo vifited by a Spa-
nilh ftiip in 1770, the captain of which gave it the
name of St Carlos. The only authentic accounts 'of
this ifland, however, which have yet appeared, are thofe
publifhed by Captain Cook and Mr Forfter, who vifi¬
ted it in the month of March 1774.—According to
thefe accounts, the ifland is about 10 or 12 leagues in
circumference, and of a triangular figure ; its greateft
length from north-u-efttofouth-eaft is about four leagues,
and its greateft breadth two. The hills are fo high, that
they may be feen at the diftance of 15 or 16 leagues.
The north and eaft points of the ifland are of a confi¬
derable height; between them, on the fouth-eaft fide,
the ftiore forms an open bay, in which Captain Cook
thinks the Dutch anchored in 1722. He himfelf an-
N° io8.
] E A S
chorcd on the weft fide of the ifland, three miles north- Eafter.
ward from the fouth point. This, he fays, is a good
road with eafterly winds; but a dangerous one when v"~"
the wind blows from the contrary quarter, as the other
on the fouth-eaft fide muft be with eafterly winds : fo
that there is no good accommodation to be had for
(hipping round the whole ifland.
The ifland itfelf is extremely barren; and bears evi¬
dent marks not only of a volcanic origin, but of having
been not very long ago entirely ruined by an eruption.
As they approached the fouth point, Mr Forfter in¬
forms us, that they obferved the ftiore to rife perpen¬
dicularly. It confifted of broken rocks, whofe caver¬
nous appearance, and black or ferruginous colour,
feemed to indicate that they had been thrown up by
fubterraneous fire. Two detached rocks lie about a
quarter of a mile off this point: one of them is Angu¬
lar on account of its ftiape, and reprefents a huge co¬
lumn or obelifle ; and both thefe rocks were inhabited
by multitudes of fea-fowls. On landing and walking
into the country, they found the ground covered with
rocks and ftones of all fizes, which appeared to have been
expofed to a great fire, where they feemed to have ac¬
quired a black colour and porous texture. Twro or three
ftirivelled fpecies of grafles grew among thefe ftones,
and in fome meafure foftened the defolate appearance
of the country. The farther they advanced, the more
ruinous the face of the country feemed to be. The
roads w'er e intolerably rugged, and filled with heaps of
volcanic ftones, among which the Europeans could not
make their way but with the greateft difficulty ; but
the natives leaped from one ftone to another with fur-
prifing agility and eafe. As they went northward a-
long the ifland, they found the ground ftill of the fame
nature; till at laft they met with a large rock of black
melted lava, which feemed to contain fome iron, and
on which was neither foil nor grafs, nor any mark of
vegetation. Notwithftanding this general barrennefs,
however, there are feveral large tradts covered with
cultivated foil, which produces potatoes of a gold yel¬
low colour, as fweet as carrots, plantains, and fugar-
canes. The foil is a dry hard clay; and the inhabi¬
tants ufe the grafs which grows between the ftones
in other parts of the ifland as a manure, and for pre-
ferving their vegetables when young from the heat of
the fun.
The moft remarkable curiofity belonging to this
ifland is a number of Coloffian flatues; of which, how¬
ever, very few remain entire. Thefe ftatues are placed
only on the fea-coaft. On the eaft fide of the ifland
were feen the ruins of three platforms of ftone-work, on
each of which had flood four of thefe large ftatues;
but they were all fallen down from two of them, and
one from the third: they were broken or defaced by
the fall. Mr Wales meafured one that had fallen,
which was 15 feet in length, and fix .broad over the
fhoulders: each ftatue had on its head, a large cylin-
dric ttone of a red colour, wrought perfedtly round.
Others were found that meafured near 27 feet, and up¬
wards of eight feet over the ftioulders; and a ftill lar¬
ger one was feen ftanding, the. fliade of which was Suf¬
ficient to ftielter all the party, confifting of near 30
perfons, from the rays of the fun. The workmanftiip
is rude, but not bad, nor are the features of the face
ill formed; the ears are long, according to the diftor-
E A S [ 289 ] E B E
Eafler- tlon pra&ifed in the countr)’-, and the bodies have hard-
ly any thing of a human figure about them. How
thefe iflanders, wholly unacquainted with any mecha¬
nical power, could raife fuch ftupendous figures, and
afterwards place the large cylindric ftones upon their
heads, is truly wonderful! The moft probable conjec¬
ture feems to be, that the ftone is faftitious; and that
tach figure was gradually erefted, by forming a tem¬
porary platform round it, and raifing it as the work
advanced : but they are at any rate very ftrong proofs
of the ingenuity and perfeverance of the iflanders in the
age when they were built, as well as that the anceftors
of the prefent race had feen better days than their de-
fcendants enjoy. The water of this ifland is in general
brackifh, there being only one well that is perfectly
frefli, which is at the call end of the ifland: and when¬
ever the natives repair to it to flake their thirft, they
wafh themfelves all over; and if there is a large com¬
pany, the firft leaps into the middle of tfie hole, drinks,
and wafhes himfelf without ceremony ; after which a-
nother takes his place, and fo on in fucceflion. This
cuftom was much difreliflred by their new friends,
who flood greatly in need of this valuable article, and
did not wiflr to have it contaminated by fuch ablu¬
tions.
The people are of a middle fize. In general they are
rather thin; go entirely naked; and have pundtures on
their bodies, a cuftom common to all the inhabitants
of the South Sea iflands. Their greateft Angularity
is the fize of their ears, the lobe of which is ftretched
out fo that it almoft refts on their flroulder ; and is
pierced with a very large hole, capable of admitting
four or five fingers with eafe. The chief ornaments
for their ears are the white down of feathers and rings
which they wrear in the infide of the hole, made of the
leaf of the fugar-cane, which is very elaftic, and for
this purpofe is rolled up like a watch-fpring. Some
were feen clothed tin the fame cloth ufed in the ifland
of Otaheite, tinged of a bright orange-colour with
turmeric; and thefe our voyagers fuppofed to be chiefs.
Their colour is a chefnut-brown ; their hair black,
curling, and remarkably ftrong ; and that on the head
as well as the face is cut Ihort. The women are fmall,
and flender-limbed : they have pundlures on the face,
refembling the patches fometimes ufed by European
ladies ; they paint their face all over with a reddifli
brown ruddle, and above this they lay a fine orange-
colour extracted from turmeric-root; the whole is then
variegated with ftreaks of white fhell-lime. But the
moft lurprifing circumftance of all with regard to thefe
people, is the apparent fcarcity of women among thf m.
The niceft calculation that could be made, never
brought the number of inhabitants in this ifland to
above 700, and of thefe the females bore no proportion
in number to the males. Either they have but few fe¬
males, or elfe their women were reftrained from appear¬
ing during the ftay of the Ihip; notwithftanding, the
men ftiowed no iigns of a jealous difpofition, or the
women any fcruples of appearing in public : in faift,
they feemed to be neither referved nor chafte; and the
large pointed cap which they wore gave them the ap¬
pearance of profefied wantons. But as all the women
who were feen were liberal of their favours, it is more
than probable that all the married and modeft ones had
concealed themfelves from their impetuous vifitants in
Von. VI. Parti.
fome infcrutable parts of the ifland ; and what further Eaton
ftrengthens this fuppofition is, that heaps of ftones
were feen piled up into little hillocks, which had one .
fteep perpendicular fide, where a hole went under
ground. The fpace within, fays Mr Forfter, could be
but fmall; and yet it is probable that thefe cavities
ferved, together with their miferable huts, to give fiiel-
ter to the people at night; and they may communicate
with natural caverns, which are very common in the
lava currents of volcanic countries. The few women
that appeared were the moft lafeivious of their fex that
perhaps have been ever noticed in any country, and'
ftiame feemed to be entirely unknown to them.
EATON, a town of Buckinghamfhire, fituated on
the north fide of the Thames, oppofite to Windfor, and
famous for its collegiate fchool, founded by King Hen¬
ry VI. being a feminary for King’s College, Cambridge,
the fellow's of which are all from this fchool.
EAU de Carmes. See Pharmacy.
Eav de I.uce. See Chemistry, n0 1037.
EAVES, in archite£lure, the margin or edge of the
roof of an houfe ; being the loweft tiles, flates, or the
like,, that hang over the walls, to throw off water to a
diftance from the wall.
Eaves-Droppers, are fuch perfons as ftand under the
eaves, or walls, and windows of a houfe, by ipight or
day, to hearken after news, and carry it to others, and
thereby caufe ftrife and contention in the neighbour¬
hood. They are called evil members of the commonwealth
by the flat, of Weft. 1. c. 33. They may be puniftied
either in the court-leet by way of prefentment and
fine, or in the quarter-feffions by indiclment and bind¬
ing to good behaviour.
EBBING of the Tides. See Tide.
EBDOMARIUS, in ecclefiaftical writers, an offi¬
cer formerly appointed weekly to fuperintend the per¬
formance of divine fervice in cathedrals, and preferibe
the duties of each perfon attending in the choir, as to
reading finging, praying, &c. To this purpofe the
ebdomary, at the beginning of his week, drew up in
form a bill or writing of the refpe&ive perfons, and
their feveral offices, called tabula, and the perfons there
entered were ftyled intabulati.
EBDOME, ’E£Sop»t in antiquity, a feftival kept on
the feventh of every lunar month, in honour of Apollo,
to whom all feventh days were facred, becaufe one of
them was his birth-day ; whence he was fometimes
called Ebdomagenes. For the ceremonies of this folem-
nity fee Potter's Archteol. Grtec. lib. ii. cap. 20.
EBENUS, the ebony tree : A genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants: and in the natural method ranking under the
3 2d order, Papilionacete. The fegments of the calyx
are the length of the corolla, and the latter has fcarce
any alee : there is one rough feed. There is but one
fpecies, the cretica, a native of the ifland of Crete, and
fome others in the Archipelago. It rifes with a fhrubby
ftalk three or four feet high ; which puts out feveral
fide-branches garniflied with hoary leaves at each joint,
compofed of five narrow fpear-ihaped lobes, which join
at their tails to the footftalk, and fpread out like the
fingers of a hand. The branches are terminated by
thick fpikes of large purple flowers, which are of the
butterfly or pea-bloom kind. The plants may be pro¬
pagated from feeds fown in the autumn. In this coun-
O O try
E B I j 290 J E B O
Ebioir, try t]ie plants mult be protected during the winter, as
. l0liue3, they are unable to bear the cold.
' EBION, the author of the herefy of the Ebionites,
was a difciple of Cerinthusj and his fucceffor. . He im¬
proved upon the errors of his mailer, and added to them
new opinions of his own. He began his preaching in
Judea : he taught in and even at Rome. His
tenets infedted the ilk of Cyprus. St John oppofed both
Cerinthus and Ebion in Alia ; and it is thought, that
this apoftle wrote hisgofpel, in the year 97, particularly
againil this herefy.
EBIONITES, ancient heretics, who rofe in the
church in the very firll age thereof, and formed them-
felves into a fe& in the fecond century, denying the
divinity of Jefus Chriil.
Ovigen takes them to have been fo dalled from the
Hebrew word elion, which in that language lignifies
poor; beeaufe, fay's he, they were poor in lenfe, and
wanted underllanding. Eufebius, with a view to the
fame etymology, is of opinion they were thus called,
as having poor thoughts of Jefus Chrid, taking him for
no more than a mere man.
It is more probable the Jews gave this appellation to
the Chrillians in general out of contempt; betaufe in the
lint times there were few but poor people that embra¬
ced the Chrillian religion. This opinion Origen himfelf
feems to give into, in his book againlt Celfus, where he
fays, that they called Ebionites., fuch among the Tews as
believed that Jefus was truly the.expedted Mefliah.
It might even be urged, with fome probability, that
the primitive Chrillians aflunied the name themfelves, in
conformity to their profdTion. It is certain, Epipha-
nius obfervcs, they valued themfelves on being poor, in
imitation of the apollks. The fame Epiphanius, how¬
ever, is of opinion, that there had been a man of the
name Ebion, the chief and founder of the fe& of Ebio-
nites, contemporary with the Nazarenes and Cerin-
thians. He gives a long and exaft account of the ori¬
gin of the Ebionites, making them to have rifen after
the deftruftion of Jerufalem, when the firft Chriftians,
called Nazarenes, went out of the fame to live at Pella.
The Ebionites are little elfe than a branch of Naza-
ren,es : only that they altered and corrupted, in many
things, the purity of die faith held among thofe firil
adherents to Chrillianity. For this reafon, Origen di-
llinguifhes two kinds of Ebionites, in bis anfwer to
Celfus : the one believed that Jefus Chrift was born of
a virgin ; and the other, that he was born after the
manner of other men.
The firit were orthodox in every thing, except that
to the Chriftian doftrine they joined the ceremonies of
the Jewilh law, with the Jews, Samaritans, and Naza¬
renes ; together with the traditions of the Pharifees.
They differed from the Nazarenes, however, in feve-
ral things, chiefly as to what regards the authority of
the facred writings ; for the Nazarenes received all for
fciipture contained in the Jewifh canon ; whereas the
Ebionites rejected all the prophets, and held the very
namesof David, Solomon, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel,
in abhorrence. They alfo rejected all St Paul’s epiftles,
whom they treated with the utmoft difrefpedt.
They received nothing 6f the Old Tellament but
the Pentateuch; which (hould intimate them to have de-
fcended rather from the Samaritans than from the
Jews. They agreed with the Nazarenes in ufing the
Hebrew gofpels of St Matthew, otherwife called the Ebony.
Gofpel of the Twelve Apoflles ; but they had corrup-  v 
ted their copy in abundance of places ; and particular¬
ly, had left out the genealogy of our Saviour, which
was preferved entire in that of the Nazarenes, and even
in thofe ufed by the Corinthians.
Some, however, have made this gofpel canonical,
and of greater value than our prefent Greek gofpel of
St Matthew: See Nazarlnes. Thcfe lafl, vvhohs
fentiments, as to the birth of our Saviour, were the
fame with thofe of the Ebionites, built their error on
this very genealogy.
Behde the Hebrew gofpel of St Matthew, the Ebio¬
nites had adopted feveral other jrooks, under the names
of St James, John, and the other apoftles: they alio
made ufe of the Travels of St Peter, which are fuppo-
fed to have been written by St Clement; but had al¬
tered them fo, that there was fcarce any thing of
truth left in them. They even made that faint tell h
number of falfehoods, the better to authorife their own
pra&ices. See St Epiphanius, w’ho is very diflufive on
the ancient herefy of the Ebionites, User. 30. But
his account deferves little credit, as, by his own con-
felfton, he has confounded the other fedts with the
Ebionites, and has charged them with errors to which
the firft adherents of this feft were utter llrangers.
EBONY of Crete. SccEbenus.
Ebony Wood is brought from the Indies, exceeding¬
ly hard and heavy, fufeeptibk of a very fine polifh, and
on that account ufed in mofaic and inlaid works, toys,
&c. There are divers kinds of ebony : the moll ufual a-
mbng us are black, red, and green, all of them the pro-
du£l of the ifland of Madagalear, where the natives call
them indifferently hazon nminthi, q. d. Had wood. The
iiland of St Maurice, belonging to the Dutch, like-
wife furnifhes part of the ebonies ufed in Europe.
Authors and travellers give very different accounts
of the tree that yields the black ebony. By fome of
their deferiptions, it fhould be a fort of palm-tree ; by
others, a cytifus, &c. The mofl. authentic of them
is that of M. Flacourt, who refided many years in
Madagafcar as governor thereof; he alfures us, that
it grows very high and big, its bark being black, and
its leaves rcfembling thofe of our myrtle, of a deep,
dufky, green colour.
Tavernier affures us, that the iflanders always take
care to bury their trees, when cut down, to make them
the blacker, and to prevent their fplitting when wrought.
F. Plumier mentions another black ebony-tree, difeo-
vered by him at St Domingo, which he calls fpentium
porfulacee foliis acuhnium eleni materia. Candia a fo bears
a little fhrub, known to the botanifts under the name
of Ebf.nvs Cretica, above deferibed.
Pliny and Diofcorides fay the heft ebony comes from
Ethiopia, and the vvorft from India; but Theophra*
ftus prefers that of India. Black ebony is much pre¬
ferred to that of other colours. The bell is a jet black,
free of veins and rind, very maffive, aftringent, and of
an acrid pungent tafte. Its rind, infufed in water, is
faid to purge pituita, and cure venereal diforders ;
whence Matthiolus took guaiacum for a fort of ebony.
It yields an agreeable perfume when laid on burning
coals: when green, it readily takes fire from the a-
bundance of its fat. If rubbed againfl a flone, it be¬
comes brown. The Indians make ftatues of their gods,
and
EGA [ 291 ] EGG
Kioraaim aod fccptrcs For their princes, of tin’s wood. It was
II firft brought to Rome by Pompey, after he fubdued
. cate **' , Mithridates. It is now much Id's ufed among us than
anciently ; fince the difeovery of fo many ways of gi¬
ving other hard woods a black colour.
As to the green ebony, betides Madagascar and St
Maurice, it likewife grows in the Antilles, and efpeci-
ally in the ifle of Tobago. The tree that yields it is
verybuthy ; its leaves are fmooth, and of a fine green
colour. Beneath its bark is a white blea, about two
inches thick ; all beneath which, to the very heart, is
a deep green, approaching towards a black, tho’ fome-
times ftreaked with yellow veins. Its ufe is not confi¬
ned to mofaic work : it is likewife good in dyeing, as
yielding a fine green tin&ure. As to red ebony, called
^renadiHa, we know little of it more than the name.
'1 he cabinet-makers, inlayers, &c. make pear-tree
and other woods pafs for ebony, by giving them the
black colour thereof. This fome do by a few wafhes
of a hot deco&ion of galls; and when dry, adding
writing ink thereon, and polhhing it with a ftiffbrufh,
and a little hot wax $ and. others heat or burn their
wood black. See Dyeing.
EBORACUM (anc. geog.), a famous city of the
Brigantes .in Britain, the relidence of Septimius Se-
verus and Conilantius Chlorus, and where they both
dird ; a Roman colony ; and the ftation of the Legio
Sexta Vi&rix. Now Tefh. W. Long. 50. Lat. 54.
Caer-froch, or Cae.r-ejjroc, in Britiflr (Camden).
EBRO, anciently Iberus, a large river of Spain,
which, taking its rife in Old Cafiile, runs thro’ Bifcay
and Arragon, pafies by Saragofa, and, continuing its
courfe-thro’ Catalonia, difeharges itfelf with great ra¬
pidity into the Mediterranean, about 20 miles below
the city of 'Portofa.
LBUDAI, or Hebudf.s (anc. geog.), iflands on
the weft of Scotland. The ancients differ greatly as
to their fituation, number, and names ; faid in general
to lie to the north of Ireland and weft of Scotland.
Now called the JVtftern Ifles, alio Hebrides; this laft
a modern name, the reafon of which does not appear,
unlefs it be a corruption of Hcludes. By Beda called
Mevania, an appellation equally obfeure.
EBULLITION, the fame with Boiling. The
word is alfo wfed in a fynonymous fenfe with Effer¬
vescence.
EBUSUS (anc. gcog.), the greater of the two
iflands called Pityufae, in the Mediterranean, near the
-eaft coaft of Spain, to the fouth-weft of Majorca.
Famous for its pallures for cattle, and for its figs.
Now I vie a, too miles in compafs, without any noxious
animals but rabbits, who often deftroy the corn.
F.CALESIA, Exaxuo-iB, in antiquity, a feftival kept
in honour of Jupiter, furnamed Ilecalus, or Heealefius,
from Heeale, one of the borough-towns in Attica.
ECASTOR, in antiquity, an oath wherein Caftor
was invoked. It was a cuftom for the men never to
fwear by Caftor, nor the women by Pollux.
EC A TALA, Exa'ixix, in antiquity, ftatues erected
to the goddefs Hecate, for whom the Athenians had
a great veneration, believing that Ihe rvas the overfeer
of their families, and that Ihe protected their chil¬
dren.
ECA PESIA, Exalio-ier, in antiquity, an anniverfary
folemnity, obferved by the Stratonicenfxans, in honour
of Hecate. The Athenians likewife had a public eti- Ecatmn-
tertainment or fiipper every new moon, in honom- of k®011
the fame goddefs. The fupper was provided at the Ecchyma-
charge of the richer fort ; and was no fooner brought tis.
to the accuftomed place but the poor people carried all ■——v'—""f
off, giving out that Hecate had devoured it. For the
reft of the ceremonies obferved on this occafion, fee
Pott. Arch. Grcec. lib. ii. cap. 20.
ECATOMBALON, in chronology, the
firft month of the Athenian year. It confifted of 30
days, and began on the fiift new moon after the fum-
mer lolftice, and confequentJy anfwered to the lat¬
ter part of our June and beginning of July. The
Boeotians called it Hippodromus, and the Macedonians
Lous. See Month. The word is a derivative from
the Greek a hecatomb, becaufe of the great
number of hecatombs facrificed in it.
ECAVESSADE, in the manege, is ufed for a jerk
of the caveffon.
ECBATANA (anc. geog.), the royal refidence
and the capital of Media, built by Deioces king of the
Medes, according to Herodotus : Pliny fays, by Se-
leucus ; but that could not be, becaufe it is mentioned
by Demofthenes It was fituated on a gentle decli¬
vity, diftant 12 {India from Mount Orontes, and was
in compafs 150 ftadia. Here ftood the royal treafury
and tombs. It was an open nnwalled town, but had
a very ftrong citadel, encompaffed with feven walls,
■one within and rifing above another. The extent
of the utmoft was equal to the whole extent of Athens,
according to Herodotus; the fituation favouring this
conftrudtion, as being a gentle afeent, and each wall
was of a different colour.—Another Ecbatana of Per-
fia, a town of the Magi (Pliny).—A third of Syria.
ECCENTRICITY. See Excentricity.
_ ECCHELLENSIS (Abraham), a learned Maro-
nite, whom the prefident le Jai employed in the edition
of his Polyglott Bible. Gabriel Sionita, his country¬
man, drew him to Paris, in'order to make him his fel¬
low-labourer in publifhing that bible. They fell out:
Gabriel complained to the parliament, and cruelly de¬
famed his affociate ; their quarrel made a great noife.
The congregation de propaganda file affociated him,
1636, with thofe whom they employed in making an
Arabic tranflation of the feripture. They recalled him
from Paris, and belaboured in that tranflation at Rome
in the year 1652. While he was profeffor of the O-
riental languages at Rome, he was pitched upon by
the great duke Ferdinand II. to tranflate from Arabic
into Latin the 5th, 6th, and 7th books of Apollonius's
Conics; in which he was afffiled by John Alphonfo
Borelli, who added commentaries to them. He died
at Rome in 1664.
ECCHYMOSIS, from to ponr out, or from
out of, and juke. It is an effufion of hu¬
mours from their refpe&ive veffels, under the integu¬
ments ; or, as Paulus ALgineta fays, “ When the flefli
is bruifed by the violent collifion of any obje&, and its
fmall veins broken, the blood is gradually difeharged
from them.’I This blood, when colle&ed under the
Ikin, is called an ecchymofs, the Ikin in the mean time
remaining entire ; fometimes a tumor is formed by it,
'which is foft and livid, and generally without pain. If
the quantity of blood is not confiderable, it is ulually
reforbed ; if much, it fuppurates ; it rarely happens
O 0 2 that
E C C [ 292 ] E C C
Ecclairciffe- that any further inconvenience follows ; though, in
ment cafe of a very bad habit of body, a mortification may
Ecclefiafti t^lc an<i a ca^e regard mult be had
cal (Seurts. thereto.
-r—' ECCLAIRCISSEMENT. See Esclaircisse-
MENT.
ECCLESIASTES, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, the defign of which is to ihow the vanity
of all fublunary things.
It was compofed by Solomon ; who enumerates the
fevefal objects on which men place their happinefs,
and then (hows the infufficiency of all worldly enjoy¬
ments.
The Talmudifts made king Hezekiah to be the
author of it; Grotius afcribes it to Zorobabel, and o-
thers to Ifaiah ; but the generality of commentators
believe this book to be the produce of Solomon’s re¬
pentance, after having experienced all the follies and
pleafures of life.
ECCLESIASTICAL, an appellation given to
whatever belongs to the church : thus we fay, ecclefia-
ftical polity, jurifdi&ion, hiflory, &c.
Ecclesiastical Courts. In the time of the Anglo-
JBlarfJt• Saxons'there was no fort of diftinftion between the
Comment. jay an(] the ecclefiaftical jurifdifclion : the county-court
was as much a fpiritual as a temporal tribunal: the
rights of the church were afcertained and afferted at
the fame time, and by the fame judges, as the rights
of the laity. For this purpofe the bifhop of the dio-
cefe, and the alderman, or in his abfence the (heriff of
the county, ufed to fit together in the county-court,
and had there the cognizance of all caufes as well ec-
clefiaftical as civil; a fuperior deference being paid to
the bifirop’s opinion in fpiritual matters, and to that
of the lay-judges in temporal. This union of power
was very advantageous to them both : the prefence of
the bifhop added weight and reverence to the fheriff’s
proceedings ; and the authority of the (heriff was equal¬
ly ufeful to the bifhop, by enforcing obedience to his
decrees in fuch refractory offenders as would other-
wife have defpifed the thunder of mere ecclefiaftical
cenfures.
But fo moderate and rational a plan was wholly in-
confiftent with thofe views of ambition that were then
forming by the court of Rome. It foon became an
eftablifhed maxim in the papal fyftem of policy, that
all ecclefiaftical perfons, and all ecclefiaftical caufes,
fhould be folely and entirely fubjedt to ecclefiaftical ju-
rifdidtion only : which jurifdidtion was fuppofed to be
lodged in the firft place and immediately in the Pope,
by divine indefeafible right and inveftiture from Chrift
himfelf, and derived from the Pope to all inferior tri¬
bunals. Hence the canon law lays it down as a rule,
that “ [acerdotes a regibus honorandi funt, non judicandi ;
and places an emphatical reliance on a fabulous tale
which it tells of the emperor Conftantine, That when
fome petitions were brought to him, imploring the aid
of his authority againft certain of his bifhops accufed
of oppreflion and injuftice, he caufed (fays the holy
canon) the petitions to be burnt in their prefence, dif-
miffmg them with this valediftion : “ Ite, et inter vos
caufas vejlras difcutite, quia dignum non ejl ut nos judicetnus
Deos.”
It was not, however, till after the Norman conqueft,
that this doftrine was received in England; when Wil¬
liam I. (whofe title was warmly efpoufed by the mo- Eccldiaftl-
nafteries which he liberally endowed, and by the fo-cal Courts,
reign clergy whom be brought over in fhoals from •r—1
France and Italy, and planted in the beft preferments
of the Englifh church), was at length prevailed upon
to eftabliih this fatal encroachment, and feparate the
ecclefiaftical court from the civil: whether actuated by
principles of bigotry, or by thofe of a more refined po¬
licy, in order to difcountenance the law's of king Ed¬
ward abounding with the fpirit of Saxon liberty, is not
altogether certain. But the latter, if not the caufe,
was undoubtedly the confequence, of this feparation :
for the Saxon laws were foon overborne by the Nor¬
man jufticiaries, when the county-court fell into difre-
gard by the biflrop’s withdrawing his prefence, in obe¬
dience to the charter of the conqueror; which prohi¬
bited any fpiritual caufe from being tried in the fecu-
lar courts, and commanded the fuitors to appear be¬
fore the bilhop only, whofe decifions were diteCled to
conform to the canon law.
King Henry I. at his acceffion, among other refto-
rations of the laws of king Edward the Confeflbr, re¬
vived this of the union of the civil and ecclefiaftical
courts. Which was, according to Sir Edward Coke,
after the great heat of the conqueft was palt, only a
reftitution of the ancient law of England. This how¬
ever was ill relilhed by the Popifti clergy, who, under the
guidance of that arrogant prelate archbiftiop Anfelm,
very early difapproved of a meafure that put them on
a level wfith the profane laity, and fubjedled fpiritual
men and caufes to the infpedfion of the fecular magi-
ftrates : and therefore, in their fynod at Weftminfter,
3 Hen. 1. they ordained, that no biihop (hould at¬
tend the difcuffion of temporal caufes ; which foon dif-
folved this newly effefted union. And when, upon the
death of king Henry I. the ufurper Stephen was
brought in and fupported by the clergy, we find one
article of the oath which they impofed upon him was,
that ecclefiaftical perfons and tcclefiaftical caufes (hould
be fubjeft only to the bifhop’s jurifdi&ion. And as it
was about that time that the conteft and emulation be¬
gan between the laws of England and thofe of Rome,
the temporal courts adhering to the former, and the fpi¬
ritual adopting the latter, as their rule of proceeding ;
this widened the breach between them, and made a co¬
alition afterwards impracticable ; which probably would *
elfe have been effected at the general reformation of the
church.
Ecclefiaftical Courts are various; as the Archdea¬
con’s, the Consistory, the Court of Arches, the
Peculiars, the Prerogative, and the great court of
appeal in all ecclefiaftical caufes, viz. the Court of De¬
legates. See thefe articles.
As to the method of proceeding in the fpiritual courts, silU.fg
it muft (in the firft place) be acknowledged to their ComL'nt.
honour, that though they continue to this day to de¬
cide many queftions which are properly of temporal
cognizance, yet juftice is in general fo ably and im¬
partially adminiftered in thofe tribunals (efpecially of
the fuperior kind), and the boundaries of their power
are now fo well known and eftabliftied, that no mate¬
rial inconvenience at prefent arifes from this jurifdic-
tion ftill continuing in the ancient channel. And,
{hould any alteration be attempted, great confufion
would probably arife, in overturning long eftablilhed
forms,
E C C [ 293 ] E C H
Ecclefiafti- forms, and new-modelling a courfe of proceedings that
cal Court?, now prevailed for feven centuries.
’ The eitabliftmaent of the civil-law procefs in all the
ecclefiaftical courts was indeed a mafter-piece of papal
difcernment, as it made a coalition impra&icable be¬
tween them and the national tribunals, without mani-
feft inconvenience and hazard. And this confideration
had undoubtedly its weight in caufing this meafure to
be adopted, though many other caufes concurred. In
particular, it may be here remarked, that the pandects,
or collections of civil law, being written in the Latin
tongue, and referring fo much to the will of the prince
and his delegated officers of juftice, fufficiently recom¬
mended them to the court of Rome, exclufive of their
intrinfic merit. To keep the laity in the darkeft ig¬
norance, and to monopolize the little fcience which
then exifted entirely among the monkilh clergy, were
deep rooted principles of papal policy. And ast the
bifhops of Rome affe&ed in all points to mimic the
imperial grandeur, as the fpiritual prerogatives were
moulded on the pattern of the temporal, fo the canon-
law procefs was formed on the model of the civil law ;
the prelates embracing, with the utmoft ardor, a me¬
thod of judicial proceedings, which was carried on in
a language Unknown to the bulk of the people, which
baniffied the intervention of a jury (that bulwark of
Gothic liberty), and which placed an arbitrary pow-er
of deciilon in the bread, of a Angle man.
The proceedings in the ecclefiaflical courts are there¬
fore regulated according to the praftice of the civil and
canon laws; or rather to a mixture of both, correfted
and new-modelled by their own particular ufages, and
the interpofition of the courts of common law. For,
if the proceedings in the fpiritual court be ever fo re¬
gularly confonant to the rules of the Roman law, yet
if they be manifellly repugnant to the fundamental
maxims of the municipal laws, to which, upon prin¬
ciples of found policy, the ecclefiaftical procefs ought
in every ftate to conform (as if they require two wit-
neffes to prove a fa&, where one will fuffice at common
law); in fuch cafes, a prohibition ■will be awarded
againft them. But, undep thefe reftridtions, their or¬
dinary courfe of proceeding is, firll, by citation, to
call the party injuring before them. Then by libel {li~
W/ta, “ a little book” j, or by articles drawn out in a
formal allegation, to fet forth the complainant’s ground
of complaint. To this fucceeds the defendant's anfwer
upon oath ; when, if he denies or extenuates the charge,
they proceed io proofs by witnefles examined, and their
depofitions taken down in writing by an officer of the
court. If the defendant has any circumftances to offer
in his defence, he mufl alfo propound them in what L
called his defenjive allegation, to which he is intitled in
his turn to the plaintiff’s anfwer upon oath, and may
from thence proceed to proofs as well as his antagonift.
The canonical doctrine of purgation, whereby the par¬
ties were obliged to anfwer upon oath to any matter,
however criminal, that might be objected againft
them (though long ago over-ruled in the court of
chancery, the genius of the Englifh law having bro¬
ken through the bondage impofed on it by its clerical
chancellors, and aflerted the dodtrines of judicial as well
as civil liberty), continued till the middle of the laft
century, to be upheld by the fpiritual courts; when
the legiflature was obliged to interpofe, to teach them
a leflbn of fimilar moderation. By t% ftatute of Ecclefiafti-
13 Car. II. c. 12. it is ena&ed, that it fftall not be cal c.orP°*
lawful for any biftiop, or ecclefiaftical judge, to ten- rat!®ns
der or adminifter to any perfon vvhatfoever, the oath Echeneis.
ufually called the oath ex officio, or any other oath
whereby he may be compelled to confefs, accufe, or
purge himfelf of any criminal matter or thing, where¬
by he may be liable to any cenfure or punifhmeiit.
When all the pleadings and proofs are concluded, they
are referred to the confideration, not of a jury, but of
a fingle judge ; who takes information by hearing ad¬
vocates on both fides, and thereupon forms his interlo¬
cutory decree or definitive fentence, at his own difcretion :
from which there generally lies an appeal, in the fe-
veral ftages mentioned in the articles above referred
to ; though if the fame be not appealed from him in
15 days, it is final, by thedlatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19.
But the point in which thefe jurifditftions are the
moft defective, is that of enforcing their fentences when
pronounced; for which they have no other procefs
but that of excommunication; which would be often
defpifed by obliinate or profligate men, did not the
civil law ftep in with its aid. See Excommunica¬
tion.
Ecclesiastical Corporations, are where the mem¬
bers that compofe them are fpiritual perfons. They
were erected for the furtherance of religion and perpetu¬
ating the rights of the church. See Corporations.
Ecclesiastical State. See Clergy.
ECCLESIASTICUSj an apocryphal book, gene¬
rally bound up with the fcriptures, fo called, from its
being read in the church, ecclefia, as a book of piety
and inftrudtion, but not of infallible authority.
The author of this book was a Jew, called Jefus the
fan of Sirach. The Greeks'call it the IVifdom of the fon
of Sirach.
ECCOPROTICS, in medicine, laxative or loofen*
ing remedies, which purge gently, by foftening the hu¬
mours and excrements, and fitting them for expulfion.
—The word is compofed of the Greek particle and
xoirpoe excrement.
ECDICI, EhJixoj, among the ancients, patrons of
cities, w'ho defended their rights, and took care of the
public money. Their office refembled that of the mo¬
dern fyndics.
ECHAPE, in the manege, a horfe begot between
a ftallion and a mare of different breeds and countries.
ECHAPER, in the manege, a gallicifm ufed in the
academies implying to give a horfe head, or to put
on at full fpeed.
ECHENEIS, the Remora, in ichthyology ; a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of thoracici. The head is
fat, naked, depreffed, and marked with a number of
tranfverfe ridges ; it- has ten rays in the branchioftege
membrane ; and the body is naked. There are two piatc
fpecies, viz. 1. The remora, or fucking-fiftv, with a CLXXIIL
.forked tail, and 18 ftriae on the head. It is found in
the Indian ocean. 2. The neucrates, with an undi¬
vided tail, and r6 ftriae on the head. It is likewife a
native of the Indian ocean. Thefe fifties are often
found adhering fo ftrongly to the fides of -(harks and
other great fiflr, by means of the ftru&ure of its head,
as to be got off with difficulty. This fi(h was believed,
by all the ancients, to have moft wonderful powers,
and to be able, by adhering to the bottom, to arreft
the
E e H [ 294 1 E C H
Edicv'n the motion of a Ibip in its fulled conrfe ; and in love
,, . f! affairs, to deaden the warm eft affe&ions of both fexes
_ [Phn. lib. ix. c. 25.).
JECHEVIN, in the French and Dutch polity, a
magirtrate elefted by the inhabitants'of a city or town,
to take care of their common concerns, nnd the deco¬
ration and clcanlinefs of the city.
At Paris, there is a prevot and four echevins ; in
other towns, a mayor and echevins. At Amfterdam,
there are nine echevins; and at Rotterdam, feven.
In France, the echevins take cognizance of rents,
taxes, and the navigation of rivers, &c. -In Holland,
they judge of civil and criminal caufes; and if the cri¬
minal confeffes himfelf guilty, they can fee their fen-
.tence executed without appeal.
ECHINATE, or Echinated, an appellation given -
to whatever is prickly, thereby refembling the hedge-
hog. -
ECHlNlTES, in natural hiltory, the name by which
authors call the foffile centrouia, frequently found in
our chalk-pits. See Centxonia.
ECHINOPHOR A, in botany: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellate. The male florets are lateral,
with the central one hermaphrodite; there is one feed,
funk into an indurated involucrum.
ECHINOPS, in botany: A genus of the polyga-
mia fegregatae order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compojila. The calyx is uniflorous;
the corollulpc tubulated, and hermaphrodite ; the re¬
ceptacle briftly ; the pappus indiftinft.
ECHINUS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of vermes mollufca. The body is
roundifti, covered with a bony cruft, and often befet
with moveable prickles ; and the mouth is below, and'
confifts of five valves. 1. The efculentus, or eatable
echinus, is of a hemifpberical form, covered with (harp
ftrong fpines, above half an inch long ; commonly of
a violet colour; moveable ; adherent to fmall tubercles
elegantly difpofed in rows. Thefe are their inftru-
ments of motion by which they change their place.
Thifc.fpecies is taken in dredging, and often lodges in
cavities of rocks juft within low water mark. They
are eaten by the poor in many parts of England, and
by the better fort abroad. In old times they were a
favourite difh. They were dreffed with vinegar, ho¬
nied wine or mead, parfley or mint; and thought to
agree with the ftomach. They were the firft di(h in
the famous fupper of Lentulus, when he was madef.a-
men Martialis, or prieft of Mars. By fome'of the con¬
comitant difties, they feem to have been defigned as a
whet for the feeond 'courfe, to the holy perfonages,
priefts and veftals invited on that occafion. Many fpe-
cies of (hell-fifh made part of that entertainment. 2.
The lacunofus, or oval echinus, is of an oval depreffed
form ; on the top it is of a purple colour, marked with
a quadrefoil, and the fpaces between tuberculated in
waved rows ; the lower fide ftudded, and divided by
two fmooth fpaces. Length, four inches. When
clothed, it is covered with (hort thickfet bridles mix¬
ed with very long ones. There are 15 other fpecies,
all natives of the fea. See two fpecimens delineated on
Plate CLXXIII.
Echikus, in archite&ure, a member or ornament Echinus
near the bottom of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compo- M
file capitals. , r-cll° _
ECHITES, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of jrlants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 30th or¬
der, Contorta. There are two long and ftraight follicles;
the feeds pappous ; the corolla funnel-ftiaped, with the
throat naked. The corymbofa, a fpecies of this genus,
is fuppofed to yield the elaftic gum according to Ja-
quin. See Caoutchouc.
ECHIUM, viper’s bugloss, in botany: A ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pen¬
tandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 41ft order, Afperifol'ue. The corolla
Is irregular, with the throat naked. There are feven
fpecies, three of which are natives of Britain. None
of them have any remarkable property, except that
the flowers of one fpecies (the vulgare) are very grate¬
ful to bees. It is a native of many parts of Britain.
The ftem-is rough with hairs and, tubercles. The
leaves are fpear-fhaped, and rough with hair. The
flowers come out in lateral fpikes. They are firft red,
afterwards blue; fometimes purple or white. — Cows
and (beep are not fond of the plant; horfes and goats
refufe it.
ECHO, or Eccho, a found reflected or reverbera¬
ted, from a folid, concave, body, and fo repeated to the
ear *. The word is formed from the Greek * See A:w~
found, which comes from the verb "X1* fono. /'"> n ^
The ancients being wholly unacquainted with tire
true caufe of the echo, afcribed it to feveral caufes fuf- .
ficiently whimfical. The poets, who were not the
word of their philofophers, imagined it to be a perfon
of that name metamorphofed, and that (he affeded
to take up her abode in particular places ; for they
found by experience, that (he was not to be met with in
all. (See below. Echo in fabulous hijlory ) But the
moderns, who know found to confift in a certain tre¬
mor or vibration in the fonorous body communicated
to the contiguous air, and by that means to the ear,
give a more confiftent account of echo.
For a tremulous body, ftriking on another folid bo¬
dy, it is evident, may_be repelled without deftroying
or diminiftiing its tremor; and confequently a found
may be redoubled by the refilition of the tremulous
body, or air.
But a fimple reflexion of the fonorous air, is not
enough to folve the echo: for then every plain furface
of a folid hard body, as being fit to refleft a voice or
found, would redouble it; which we find does not
hold.
To produce an echo, therefore, it (hould feem that
a kind of concameration or vaulting were neceffary, in
order to colledt, and by collecting to heighten and in-
creafe, and afterwards refleCt, the found; as we find is
the cafe in reflecting the rays of light, where a concave
mirror is required.
In effeCt, as often as a found (trikes perpcndiculariy
on a wall, behind which is any thing of a vault or
arch, or even another parallel wall; fo often will it be
reverberated in the fame line, or other adjacent ones.
For an echo to be heard, therefore, it is neceffary
the ear be in the line of reflection : for the perfon who
made the found to hear its echo, it is neceffary he be
5 Pef*
E C H [
perpendicular to the place which .reflets it: and for a
manifold or tautological echo, it is neceffary there be
a number of walls, and vaults, or cavities,' either placed
behind or fronting each ether.
A fingle arch or concavity, &c. can fcarce ever flop
and reflect all the found; hut if there be a convenient
difpofition behind it, part of the faund-propagated thi¬
ther, being collected and reflected as before, will pre¬
fect another echo : or, if there be another concavity,
oppofed at a due diftance to the former, the found re¬
flected from the one upon the' other will he toffedback
again by this latter, &c.
Many of the phenomena of echos are well confider-
ed by the bifliop of Leighs, &c. who remarks, that any
found, falling either direCtly or obliquely on any denfe
body of a fmooth, whether plain or arched, fuperficie-s,
is reflected, or echoes, more or lefa. The furface, fays
he, mull be fmooth; otherwife the air, by reverbera¬
tion, will be put out of its regular motion, and the
found thereby broken and extinguilhed. He adds, that
it echoes more or lefs, to {how, that when all things
are as before deferibed, there is ilill an echoing, tho’
it Ire not always heard; either becaufe the direCt found
is too weak to beat quite back again to him that made
it; or that it does return to him, but fo weak, that it
cannot be difeeraed; or that he ftands in a wrong place
to receive the reflected found, which pafies over his
head, under his feet, or on one fide of him; and which
therefore may be heard by a man Handing in the place
where the reflected found does came, provided no in-
terpofed body intercepts it, but not by him that firft
made it.
Echoes may be produced with different circumftan-
ces. l or, i. A plane obftacle reflects the found back
in its due tone and loudnefs; allowance being made for
the proportionable decreafe of the found, according to
its diilance.
2. A convex obftacle reflects the found fomewbat
fmaller and fomewhat quicker, though weaker, than
etberwife it would be.
3. A concave obftacle echoes back the found, big¬
ger, flower, and alfo inverted} but never according to
the order of words.
Nor does it feem poffible to contrive any fingle echo,
that fuall invert the found, and repeat backwards; be-
eaufe, in fuch cafe, the wordlaft fpoken, that is, which
lift occurs to the obftacle, mult be repelled firft; which
cannot he. For where in the mean time Ihould the
firft words hang and be concealed; ov how, after fuch
a paufe, he revived, and animated again into motion?
From the determinate concavity or archednefs of
the reflecting bodies, it may happen that fome of them
#la]l only echo back one determinate note, and only
from one place.
4. The echoing body being removed farther off, it
reflects more of the found than wlien nearer; which is
the reafon why fome echoes repeat but one fyllable,
fome one word, and fome many.
5. Echoing bodies may be fo contrived and placed,
as that reflecting the found from one to the other, ei¬
ther direCtly and mutually, or obliquely and by fuc-
cefiion, out of one found, a multiple echo or many
txhoes (hall arife.
Add, that a multiple echo m y he made, by fo pla¬
cing the echoing bodies at unequal diftances, that
195 ] E C H
they may refieCt all one way, and not one on the other;
by which means, a manifold fucceftivc found will be
heard; one clap of the hands, like many; one ha, like
a laughter; one fingle word, like many of the fame
tone and accent; and fo one viol, like many of the
fame kind, imitating each other.
Laftly, echoing bodies may be fo ordered, that from
any one found given, they (hall produce many echoes
different both as to tone and intention. By which
means'a mutical room may be fo contrived, that not
only one inftrument playing therein ftiall feem many
of the fame fort and fize, but even a concert of diffe¬
rent ones, only by placing certain echoing bodies for
that any note played (hall be returned by them in
3ds,. ifths, and Bths.
Echo, is alfo ufed for the place where the repetition
of the found is produced or heard.
Echoes are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, vi%.
1 • Single, which return the voice but once. Whereof
fome are tonical, which only return a voice when mo¬
dulated into fome particular mufical tone: Others,
polyfyllabical, which return many fyllables, words, and
fentences. Of this laft kind is that fine echo in Wood-
ftock-park, which Hr Plot affures us, in the day-time,
will return very diftin&ly feventeen fyllables, and in the
night twenty.
2. Multiple, or tautoligical; which return fyilabkg
and words the fame oftentimes repeated.
In echoes, the place where the fpeaker ftands is cal¬
led the centrum phonicum; and the object or place that
returns the voice, the centrum phonocampticum.
At the fepulchre of Metella, wife of Craffus, was an
echo, which repeated what a man faid five times.
Authors mention a tower at Cyzicus, where the echo
repeated feven times. One of the fineft echoes we read
of is that mentioned by Barthius, in his notes on Sta¬
tius’s Thebais, lib. vi. 30. which repeated the words
a man uttered 17 times: it was on the banks of the
Nalia, between Cohlentz and Bingen. Barthius allures'
us, he had proved what he writes ; and had told 1 7
repetitions. And whereas, in common echoes, the re¬
petition is not heard till fome time after hearing the
word fpoke, or the notes fung; in this, the perfon who
fpeaks or fings. is fcarce heard at ali ; but the repeti¬
tion molt clearly', and always in furprifing varieties; the-
echo feeming fometimes to approach nearer, and fome-
times to be further off. Sometimes the voice is heard
very diftindtly, and fometimes fcarce at all. One hears
only one voice, and another feveral: one bears the
echo on the right, and the other on the left, &c. At
Milan in Italy, is an echo which reiterates the report
of a piflol 56 times; and if the report is very loud, up¬
wards of 60 reiterations may be counted. The ftrft;
20 echoes are pretty diftindt; but as the noife feems
to fly awayy and anfwer at a greater diftance, the reite¬
rations are fo doubled, that they can fcarce be counted-
See an account of a remarkable echo under the article
Paisley.
Echo, in architecture, a term applied to certain
kinds of vaults and arches, moft commonly of the el¬
liptic and parabolic figures, ufed to redouble founds,
and produce artificial echoes.
Echo, in poetry, a kind of compofitiori'wherein the
Laft words or fyllables of each verfe contains fome mean¬
ing, which, being repeated apart, anfwers to fome que-
fLiaa
E C L [ 296 1 E C T
ftion or other matter contained in the verfe; as in this
beautiful one from Virgil:
Cruielis mater magis, an ptier improbus ille ?
Imptobus Hie puer, cruJelis tu quoque mater.
The elegance of an echo confifts in giving a new fenfe
to the laft words ; which reverberate, as it were, the
motions of the mind, and by that means affe£t it with
furprife and admiration.
Echo, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of the Air
and Tellus, who chiefly refided in the vicinity of the
Cephifus. She was once one of Juno’s attendants,
and became the confident of Jupiter’s amours. Her
loquacity however difpleafed Jupiter, and (he was de¬
prived of the power of fpeech by Juno, and only per¬
mitted to anfwer to the queftions which were put to
her. Pan had formerly been one of her admirers, but
he never enjoyed her favours. Echo, after fire had
been puniflred by Juno, fell in love with Narciffus;
but being defpifed by him, pined herfelf to death,
having nothing but her voice left.
ECHOMETER, among muficians, a kind of fcale
or rule, with feveral lines thereon, ferving to meafure
the duration and length of founds, and to find their in¬
tervals and ratios.
ECHOUERIES. See under Trichecus.
ECKIUS (John), an eminent and learned divine,
profeffor in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt, memorable
for the oppofition he gave to Luther, Melanfthon,
Caraloftadius, and other leading Proteftants in Ger¬
many. He wrote many polemical trafts; and among
the i-eft, a Manual of Controverfies, printed in 1535,
in which he difcourfes upon moft of the heads contefled
between the Proteftants and Papifts. He was a man
of uncommon learning, parts, and zeal, and died in
1543-
ECLECTICS (ecleSici), a name given to fome an¬
cient philofophers, who, without attaching them-
felves to any particular fed, took what they judged
good, and folid, from each. Hence their denomina¬
tion ; which, in the original Greek, fignifies, “ that
may be chofen,” or “ that choftfesof the verb
ty.\iyu I choofe.—Laertius notes, that they were alfo,
for the fame reafon, denominated anahgetici; but
that they call themfelves Philalethes, i. e. lovers of
truth.
The chief or founder of the ecleftici was one Po-
tamon of Alexandria, who lived under Auguftus and
Tiberius; and who, weary of doubting of all things
with the Sceptics and Pyrrhonians, formed the eclectic
feft ; which Voflius calls the ecleSive.
Towards the clofe of the fecond century a feet
arofe in the Chriftian church under the denomination
of EcleSics, or modern Platonics. They profefied to
make truth the only object of their enquiry, and to
be ready to adopt ftom all the different fyftems and
lefts, fuch tenets as they thought agreeable to k.
However, they preferred Plato to the other philofo¬
phers, and looked upon his opinions concerning God,
the human foul, and things invifible, as conformable to
the fpirit and genius of the Chriftian deftrine. One
of the principal patrons of this fyftem was Ammo-
nius Saccas, who at this time laid the foundation of
that feft, afterwards diftingui/hed by the name of the
new Platonics, in the Alexandrian fchool. See Ammg-
kius and PnATONisTS.
10S. 1
Eclectics were alfo a certain fet of phyficians Ecle&iui
among the ancients, of whom Archigenes, under Tra- II
jan, w’as the chief, who felefted from the opinions of F'cthe^,‘ t
all the other fefts, that which appeared to them bed '
and moft rational; hence they were called'ecleSics, and
their preferiptions medicina edettha.
ECLIPSE, in aftronomy, the deprivation of the
light of the fun, or of fome heavenly body, by the iri-
terpofition of another heavenly body between our fight
and it. See Astrono-my-//«/«c.
ECLIPTA, in botany ; a genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia dafs of
plants. The receptacle is chaffy ; there is no pappus,
and the corolluke of the difle quadrifid.
ECLIPTIC, in aftronomy, a great circle of the
fphere, fuppofed to be drawn through the middle of the
zodiac, making an angle with the equino&ial of about
230 30', which is the fun's greateft declination; or,
more ftriftly fpeaking, it is that path or way among
the fixed ftars, that the earth appears to deferibe to an
eye placed in the fun. See Astronomy-7/j^.
Some call it via Solis, “ the way of the funbecaufe
the fun in his apparent annual motion never deviates
from it, as all the other planets do more or lefs.
Ecliptic, in geography, a great circle on the ter-
reftrial globe, not only anfwering to, but falling within,
the plane of the celeftial ecliptic. See Geography.
ECLOGUE, in poetry, a kind of paftoral com-
pofition, wherein fhepherds are introduced converfing
together. The word is formed from the Greek "My*
choice; fo that, according to the etymology, eclogue
Ihould be no more than a feled or choice piece; but
cuftom has determined it to a farther fignification, viz.
a little elegant compofition in a fimple natural ftyle
and manner.
Idyllion and eclogue, in their primary intention, are
the fame thing : thus, the idyllia, nSvw.x, of Theocri¬
tus, are pieces wrote perfe&ly in the fame vein with the
ecloga of Virgil. But cuftom has made a difference
between them, and appropriated the name eclogue to
pieces wherein Ihepherds are introduced fpeaking ; idyl-
lion, to thofe wrote like the eclogue, in a fimple natu¬
ral ftyle, but without any ftiepherds in them.
ECLUSE, a fmall but ftrong town of the Dutch
Low Countries, in the county of Flanders, with a good
harbour and fluices. The Englifti befieged it in vain
in 1405, and the people of Bruges in 1436. But the
Dutch, commanded by Count Maurice of Naffau, took
it in 1644. It is defended by feveral forts, and ftands
near the fea. E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 50. 25.
ECPHRACTICS, in medicine, remedies which at¬
tenuate and remove obftructions. See Attenuants,
and Deobstruents.
ECSTASY. See Extasy.
ECSTATICI, ErfetwH, from !r,rB/Kr / am entran¬
ced, in antiquity, a kind of diviners who were call into
trances or eeftafies, in which they lay like dead men,
or alleep, deprived of all fenfe and motion ; but, after
fome time, returning to themfelves, gave ftrange rela¬
tions of what they had feen and heard.
ECTHESIS, inchurch-hiftory, aconfeffion of faith,
in the form of an editl, publiftied in the year 639, by
the emperor Heraclius, with a view to pacify the
troubles occafioned by the Eutychian herefy in the
eaftern church. However, the fame prince revoked it,
on
E D D l 297 ] E D E
EcthHpCi on telng informed that pope Severinus had condemned
E<lda *t’ as favour‘n? t^ie Monothelites ; declaring at the
1-' ' . fame time, that Sergius, patriarch of Conftantinople,
was the author of it.
ECTHLfPSIS, among Latin grammarians, a fi¬
gure of profody whereby the m at the end of a word,
when the following word begins with a vowel, is elided,
or cut off, together with the vowel preceding it, forthe
fake of the meafure of the verfe : thus they read mili‘
tile, or nmlturn tile.
ECTROPIUM, in furgery, is when the eye-lids are
inverted, or retraced, fo that they fhow their internal or
red furface, and cannot fufficiently cover the eye.
ECTYLOTICS, in pharmacy, remedies proper for
eonfuming callolities.
ECU, or Escu, a French crown 5 for the value of
which, fee Money.
EDDA, in antiquities, is a fyftem of the ancient
Icelandic or Runic mythology, containing many cu¬
rious particulars of the theology, philofophy, and
manners, of the northern nations of Europe ; or of
the Scandinavians, who had migrated from Alia, and
from whom our Saxon anceftors were defcended. Mr
Mallet apprehends that it was originally compi¬
led, foon after the Pagan religion was abolifhed, as a
courfe of poetical le&ures, for the jufe of fuch young
Icelanders as devoted themfelves to the profeffion of a
fcald or poet. It confifts of two principal parts; the
JirJl containing a brief fyftem of mythology, properly
called the Edda; and the fecond being a kind of art of
poetry, and called fcalda or poetics. The moft ancient
Edda was compiled by Soemund Sigfuflbn, furnam-
ed the Learned, who was born in Iceland about the
year 1057. This was abridged, and rendered more
eafy and intelligible about 120 years afterwards, by
Snorro Sturlefon, who w'as fupreme judge of Iceland
in the years 1215 and 1222 ; and it was publiftred in
the form of a dialogue. He added alfo the fecond
part in the form of a dialogue, being a detail of dif¬
ferent events tranfa&ed among the divinities. The
only three pieces that are known to remain of the more
ancient Edda of Soemund, are the Volufpa, the Hava-
jnaal, and the Runnic chapter. The Volufpa, or pro¬
phecy of Vola or Fola, appears to be the text, on
which the Edda is the comment. It contains in two
or three hundred lines the whole fyftem of mythology,
difclofed in the Edda, and may be compared to the
Sibylline verfes, on account of its laconic yet bold ftyle,
and its imagery and obfcurity. It is profefledly a re¬
velation of the decrees of the Father of nature, and
the actions and operations of the gods. It defcribes
the chaos, the formation of the world, with its various
inhabitants, the funftion of the gods, their moft fignal
adventures, their quarrels with Loke their great ad-
verfary, and the vengeance that enfued; and con¬
cludes with a long defcription of the final ftate of the
univerfe, its diflblution and conflagration, the battle of
thelnferior deities, and the evil beings, the renova¬
tion of the world, the happy lot of the good, and the
punifhment of the wicked. The Havamaal, or Sub¬
lime Difcourfe, is attributed to the god Odin, who is
fuppofed to have given thefe precepts of wifdom to
mankind; it is comprifed in about i2oftanzas, and re-
fembles the book of Proverbs. Mr Mallet has given fe-
Vot. VI. Part. I. •
veral extradts of this treatife on the Scandinavian ethics. EdJ*
The Runic chapter contains a fhort fyftem of ancient II
magic, and efpecially of the enchantments wrought by Edelmck..
the operation of Runic chara&ers, of which Mr. Mai- "1 -
let has alfo given a fpecimen. A maaufeript copy of
the Edda of Snorro is preferved in the library of the
univerfity of Upfal; the firft part of which hath keen
publifhed with a Swedifh and Latin verfion by M.
Goranfon. The Latin verfion is printed as a fuppli-
ment to M. Mallet’s Northern Antiquities. The firft:
edition of the Edda was publiflied by Refenius, pro-
feflbr at Copenhagen, in a large quarto volume, in the
year 1665 ; containing the text of the Edda, a Latin
tranflation by an Icelandic prieft, a Danifh verfion,
and various readings from different MSS. M. Mallet
has alfo given an Englifti tranflation of the firft part,
accompanied with remarks; from which we learn, that
the Edda teaches the doftrine of the Supreme, called
the Univerfal Father, and Odin, who lives for ever, go¬
verns all his kingdtpm, and dire&s the great things as
well as the fmall; who formed the heaven, earth, and
air; made man, and gave him a fpirit or foul, which
ftiall live, after the body fliall have mouldered away ;
and then all the juft ftiall dwell with him in a place Gimle
or Vingolf, the palace of friendfliip; but wicked men
flrall go to Hela, or death, and from thence to Niflheim,
or the abode of the wicked, which is below in the ninth
world. It inculcates alfo the belief of feveral inferior
gods and goddefles, the chief of whom is Frigga or
Frea, i. e. lady, meaning hereby the earth, who was
the fpoufe of Odin or the Supreme God; whence
we may infer that, according to the opinion of thefe
ancient philofophers, this Odin was the aftive prin¬
ciple or foul of the world, which uniting itfelf with
matter, had thereby put it into a condition to pro¬
duce the intelligences or inferior gods, and men and
all other creatures. The Edda likewife teaches the
exiftence of an evil being called Loke, the calumnia¬
tor of the gods, the artificer of fraud, who furpaftes
all other beings in cunning and perfidy. It teaches
the creation of all things out of an abyfs or chaos ;
the final deftru&ion of the world by fire ; the abforp-
tion of the inferior divinities, both good and bad, into
the bofom of the grand divinity, from whom all things
proceeded, as emanations of his eflence, and who will
furvive all things; and the renovation of the earth in
an improved ftate.
EDDISH, or Eadis-h, the latter pafture or grafs
that comes after mowing or reaping ; otherwife called
eagrafs or earjh, and etch.
EDDOES or Edders, in botany; tlie American
name of the Arum efculentum.
EDDY (Saxon), of ed “ backward,” and ea
“ water,” among feamen, is where the water runs
back contrary to the tide ; or that which hinders the
free palfage of the ftream, and fo caufes it to return
again. That eddy water which falls back, as it were,
on the rudder of a fliip under fail, the feamen call the
dead water.
Eimr-Wind is that which returns or is beat back
from a fail, mountain, or any thing that may hinder
its paffage.
EDELINCK (Gerard), a famous engraver, bom
at Antwerp, where he .was inftrufted in . drawing and
P 2 engraving.
EDO [ 289 ] EDI
Edelinck engraving. He fettled at Paris, in the reign of
I! Louis XIV. who made him his engraver in ordinary.
Edgings. Edelinck was alfo counfellor in the Royal Academy
* of Painting. His works are particularly efteemed for
the neatnefs of the engraving, their brilliant call, and
the prodigious eafe apparent in the execution ; and
to this facility is owing the great number of plates
we have of his; among which are excellent portraits
of a great number of illuftrious men of his time.
Among the moft admired of his prints, the fol¬
lowing may be fpecified as holding the chief place.
I. A Battle between four Horfemen, with three
figures lying flain upon the ground, from Leonardo
da Vinci. 2. A holy Family, with Elizabeth, St
John, and two Angels, from the famous picture of
R.aphael in the king of France’s colleftion. The
firil impreffions are before the arms of M. Colbert
were added at the bottom of the plate ; the fecond
are with the arms ; and in the third the arms are taken
out, but the place where they had been inferted is
very perceptible. 3. Mary Magdalen bewailing her
fins, and trampling upon the riches of the world,
from Le Brun. The firft impreffions are without the
narrow’ border which furrounds the print. 4. Alex¬
ander entering into the Tent of Darius, a large print
on tw’o plates, from Le Brun. This engraving
belongs to the three battles, and triumphal entry of
Alexander into Babylon, by Girard Audran, and
completes the fet. The firft impreffions have the
name of Goyton the printer at the bottom. 5. Alex¬
ander entering into the Tent of Darius (fini(hed> by
P. Drevet), from Peter Mignard. Edelinck died in
1707, in an advanced age, at the Hotel Royal at the
Gobelins, where he had an apartment. He had a
brother named John, who was a Ikilful engraver, but
died young.
EDEN (Mofes), the name of a country, wnth
a garden, in which the progenitors of mankind were
fettled by God himfelf: The term denotes pleafure
or delight. It would be endlefs to recount the fe-
veral opinions concerning its fituation, fome of them
very wild and extravagant. Mofes fays, that “ a ri¬
ver went out of Eden to water the garden, and from
thence it was parted and became into four heads.”
This river is fuppofed to be the common channel of
the Euphrates and Tigris, after- their confluence;
which parted again, below7 the garden, into twro dif¬
ferent channels: fo that the two channels before, and
the other two after their confluence, conftitute the
heads mentioned by Mofes. Which will determine
the lituation of the garden to have been in the fouth
of Mefopotamia, or in Babylonia. The garden w7as
alfo called Paradije; a term of Perflc original, deno¬
ting a garden. See Paradise.
EDGINGS, in gardening, the ferics of fmall but
durable plants, fet round the edges or borders of
flower-beds, &c. The beft and moft durable of all
plants for this ufe, is box ; which, if well planted,
and rightly managed, will continue in ftrength and
beauty for many years. The feafons for planting this,
are the autumn, and very early in the fpring : and the
beft fpeeies for this purpofe is the dwarf Dutch box.
Formerly, it was alfo a very common practice to
plant borders, or edgings, of aromatic herbs; as thyme,
favory, hyflbp, lavender, and the like: but thefe Edhiling
are all apt to grow woody, and to be in part, or H
wholly, deftroyed in hard winters. Daifies, thrift, Edinburgh,
or fea July-flower, and camomile, are alfo ufed by * -
fome for this purpofe: but they require yearly tranf-
planting, and a great deal of trouble, elfe they grow
out of form ; and they are alfo fubjedt to perifh in
very hard feafons.
EDHILING, Edhilingus, an ancient appella¬
tion of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons.
The Saxon nation, fays Nithard (Hift. lib. iv.) is
divided into three orders or claffes of people ; the
edhilingi, the frilingt, and the lazzi; which flgnify the
nobility, the freemen, and the vafl'als or flaves.
Inftead of edhiling, we fometimes meet with atheling,
or eetheling} which appellation was like wife given to
the king’s fon, and the prefumptive heir of the crown.
See Atheling.
EDICT, in matters of polity, an order or inftru-
ment, figned and fealed by a prince, to ferve as a law
to-his fubjedts. We find frequent mention of the edicts
of the prsetor, the ordinances of that officer in the
Roman law. In the French law, the edidts are of fe-
veral kinds : fome importing a new law or regulation;
others, the eredtion of new offices; eftablifhments of
duties, rents, &c. ; and fometimes articles of pacifica¬
tion. In France, edidls are much the fame as a pro¬
clamation is with us: but with this difference, that the
former have the authority of a law in themfelves, from
the power which iffues them forth ; whereas the latter
are only declarations of a law, to which they refer, and
have no power in themfclves.
EDILE, or jEdile. See ^Edile.
EDINBURGH, a city of Mid-Lothian in Scot¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 30, and N. Lat. 56°, near t
the fouthern bank of the river Forth.—The origin of the Origin of
name, like that of moft otlier cities, is very uncertain. t'ie name.
Some imagine it to be derived from Eth, a fuppofed
king of the Pidls ; others from Edwin, a Saxon prince
of Northumberland, who over-ran the whole or greateft
part of the territories of the Pidls about the year 6174
while others choofe to derive it from two Gaelic
words Dun Edln, fignifying the face of a hill. The
name Edinburgh itfelf, however, feems to have been
unknown in the time of the Romans. The moft
ancient title by which we find this city diftinguiftied is
that of Cajlclh Mynyd Agned; which, in the Britifh lan¬
guage, fignifies “ the fortrefs of the hill of St Agnes.”
Afterwards it was named Cajirum Puellarum, becaufe
the Pidlifti princeffes were educated in the caftle (a ne-
ceffary protedlion in thofe barbarous ages) till they %
were married.—The ages in which thefe names were Time of
given cannot indeed now be exadlly afeertained : but IounJa"
the town certainly cannot boaft of very great antiquity; uncer-
fince, as Mr Whittaker informs us, the celebrated King
Arthur fought a battle on the fpot where it is fituated
towards the end of the fifth century.
The Romans, during the time they held the domi¬
nion of part of this ifland, divided their poffeffions into
fix provinces. The moft northerly of thefe was called
Valentia, which comprehended ail the fpace between
the walls of Adrian and Severus. Thus, Edinburgh,
lying on the very out-fleirts of that province which was
moft expofed to the ravages of the barbarians, became
E D I
[ 299 ]
E D I
Caftle fur-
rendered to
theEnglilh.
defers of
James I.
perpetually fubjeft to wars and devaftationsj by means be owned, was execrable ; but the punifhment was al-Edinburgh,
of which, the time of its firfl foundation cannot now be together (hocking to humanity. For three days fuc- J
guefled at. ceflively the aflaffins were tortured by putting on
The cadle is certainly very ancient. It continued their heads iron crowns heated red hot, diflocating
in the hands of the Saxons or Englifh from the inva- their joints, pinching their fle(h with red hot pincers,
fion of O-SIa and Ebufa in the year 452 till the defeat and carrying them in that dreadful fituation through
of Egfrid king of. Northumberland in 685 by the Pifts, the (Ireets upon hurdles. At lad an end was put to
who then repofleffed themfelves of it. The Saxon their fufferings, by cutting them up alive, and fending
kings of Northumberland reconquered it in the ninth the parts of their mangled bodies to the principal towns
century ; and it was retained by their fucceflbrs till of the kingdom. ^
the year 956, when it was given up to Indulphus About the end of the 14th century it was cuftom-Edinburgh
king of Scotland. In 1093 it was unfuccefsfully be- ary to confider Edinburgh as the capital of the king-,1ec?mes,lie
-fiegtd by the ufurper Donald Bane. Whether the city dom. The town of Leith, with its harbour and miHs, Scotland
was at that time founded or not is uncertain. Moil had been bellowed upon it by Robert I. in 1329; and
probably it was: for as protedlion from violence was his grandfon John Earl of Carries, who afterwards
necefrary in thofe barbarous ages, the caftle of Edin- afeended the throne by the name of Robert HI. con-
burgh could not fail of being an inducement to many ferred upon all the burgefles the Angular privilege of
people to fettle in its neighbourhood ; and thus the building houfes in the caltle, upon the foie condition
city would gradually be founded and increafe.— In that they (hould be perfons of good fame ; which we
1128, King David I. founded the Abbey of Holy- muft undoubtedly confider as a proof that the number
roodhoqfe, for certain canons regular; and granted of thefe burgefies was at that time very fmall. In
them a charter, in which he ftyled the town ifarg-o meo 1461 a very confiderable privilege was conferred ou
de Edwinejburg, “ my borough of Edinburgh.” By the city by Henry VI. of England when in a (late of
the fame charter he granted thefe canons 40 (hillings exile ; viz. that its inhabitants (hould have liberty to
yearly out of the town revenues; and likewife 48 (hil- tiade to all the Engliih ports on the fame terms with
lings more, from the fame, in cafe of the failure of certain the city of London. This extraordin^Vy privilege was
duties payable from the king’s revenue; and likewife bellowed in confequence of the kindnefs with which
one half of the tallow, lard, and hides, of all the beads that king was treated in a vifit to the Scottifl*
killed in Edinburgh. monarch at Edinburgh ; but as Henry was never re¬
in 1174, the caftle of Edinburgh was furrendered to ftored, his gratitude was not attended with any bene*
Henry II. of England, in order to purchafe the liberty fit to this city. From this time, however, its privi-
of King William I. who had been defeated and taken leges continued to be increafed from various caufes.
prifoner by the Englifti. But when William recovered In 1482 the citizens had an opportunity of libe-
his liberty, he entered into an alliance with Henry, rating King James from the oppreffion of his nobles,
and married his coufin Ermengardeupon which the by whom he had been imprifoned in the caftle. On
caftle was reftored as part of the queen’s dower. this account the provoll was by that monarch made
In 1215, this city was firft diftinguiftied by having hereditary high (heriff within the city, an office which
a parliament and provincial fynod held in it.— In he continues dill to enjoy. The council at the
1296, the caftle was befieged and taken by Ed- fame time were invefted with the power of making
ward I. of England ; but was recovered in 13 13 by laws and ftatutes for the government of the city ; and
Randolf Earl of Moray, who was afterwards regent the trades, as a teftimony of the royal gratitude for
of Scotland during the minority of King David II. At their loyalty, received the banner known by the name
laft King Robert deltroyed this fortrefs, as well as all of the Blue Blanket; an enfign formerly capable of
others in Scotland, left they (hould afford (belter to the producing great commotions, but which has not now
Englilh in any of their after incurfions into Scotland, been difplayed for many years pad. However, it dill
— It lay in ruins for a confiderable number of years; but exiils ; and the convener of the trades has the charge
was afterwards rebuilt by Edward III. of England, of keeping it.
who placed a ftrong garrifon in it. _ It was not long after the difeoyery of America that Venereal
In 1341 it was reduced by the following ftratagem. the venereal difeafe, imported from that country, made difeafe in>
A man, pretending to be an Engliih merchant, came its way to Edinburgh. As early as 1497, only fivePorted*
to the governor, and told him that he had on board years after the voyage of Columbus, we find it looked
his (hip in the Forth feme wine, beer, bifeuits, &c. upon as amoftdreadful plague; and the unhappy peifons
which he would fell him on very reafonable terms. A affefted with it were feparated as effectually as poffible
bargain being made, he promifed to deliver the goods from fociety. The place of their exile was Inchkeith,
next morning at a very reafonable rate: but at the a fmall ifland near the middle of the Forth ; which*
time appointed, twelve men, difguifed in the habit of fmall as it is, has a fpring of frefti water, and now af-
failors, entered the caftle with the goods and fuppofed fords pafture to fome (heep.
merchant; and having inftantly killed the porter and By the overthrow of James IV. at the battle ofOrigin of
centinels, Sir William Douglas, on a preconcerted fig- Flowden, the city of Edinburgh was overwhelmedthe towu'
nal, rufhed in with a band of armed men, and quickly with grief and confufion, that monarch having beenguard‘
made himfelf matter of the place, after having cut mod attended in his unfortunate expedition by the Earl of
of the garrifon in pieces. _ Angus, then provoft, with the reft of the magiftrates.
The year 1437 is remarkable for the execution of and a number of the principal inhabitants, mod of
the Earl of Athol and his accomplices, who had a con- whom periftied in the battle. After this difailer the
cern in the murder of James I. The crime, it mull inhabitants being alarmed for the fafety of their city
. PP* it
EDI E ?°o ] EDI
Eainbutgh. if was enacted that every fourth man fnould keep
watch at night; the fortifications of the town were
renewed, the wall being alfo’extended in fuch a man¬
ner as to inclofe the Grafsmarket, and the field on
which Heriot’s Hofpital, the Grey Friars Church, and
Charity Workhoufe, ftand. On the eaft fide it was
made to inclofe the College, Infirmary, and High
School; after which, turning to the north, it met the
old wall at the Netherbow-port. After this alarm was
over, the inhabitants were gradually relieved from the
trouble of watching at night, and a certain number of
tnilitia appointed to prevent dillurbances; who con¬
tinue to this day, and are known by the name of
the Town Guard. Before thefe new inclofures, moft of
the principal people lived in the Cowgate without the
M all; and the buiying-plaqe was fituated where the
Parliament Clofe now is. In our days of peace, when
no alarm of an enemy is at all probable, great part of
the walls, with all the gates, have been taken down,
and the city laid quite open, in order to afford more
ready paffage to the great coucourfe of people with
whom the ftreet is daily filled. But at the period
we fpeak of, not only were the inhabitants much lefs
numerous by reafon of the fmall extent of the city,
but it was depopulated by a dreadful plague ; fo that,
to flop if poffible the progrefs of the infe&ion, all
houfes and fhops were fhut up for 14 days, and fome
Mfhere infe&ed perfons had died were pulled down al-
8 together..
Ereftion of In 1504, the trail of ground called the Burrough
wooden Muir was totally overgrown with wood, though now
houfes. jt afford5 not the fmalleft veftige of having been in
fuch a ftate. So great was the quantity at that time,
however, that it was enafted by the town-council, that
whoever inclined to purchafe as much wood as was
fufficient to make a new front for their houfe, might
extend it feven feet into the ftreet. Thus the city was
in a fhort time filled with houfes of wood inftead of
ftone; by which, befides the inconvenience of having
the ftreet narrowed 14 feet, and the beauty of the
whole entirely marred, it became much more liable to
accidents by fire : but almoft all thefe are now pulled
down ; and in doing this a fingular tafte in the mafonry
which fupported them is faid to have been difeovered.
9 Ijr 1542, a war with England having commenced
deftroyed through the treachery of Cardinal Beaton, an Englifh
by the Eng-fleet of 200 fail entered the Forth; and having landed
Idh- their forces, quickly made themfelves irfcfters of the
towns of Leith and Edinburgh. They next attacked
the caftle, but were repulfed from it with lofs; and by
this they were fo enraged, that they not only deftroyed
the towns of Edinburgh and Leith, but laid wafte the
country for a great way round.—Thefe towns, how¬
ever, fpeedily recovered from their ruinous ftate; and,
in 1547, Leith was again burned by the Engliih after
the battle of Pinkey, but Edinburgh was fpared.
Several difturbances happened in this capital at the
time of tire Reformation, of which an account is given
under the article Scotland ; but none of thefe greatly
affetted the city till the year 1570, at which time
there was a civil war on account of (^Mary’s forced re
fignation. The regent, who was one of the contending
parties, bought the caftle from the perfidious governor
(Balfour) for 50001. and the priory of Pittenweem.
He did not, however, long enjoy the fruits of this in¬
famous bargain. Sir William Kirkaldy, the new go- Edinburgh.
vernor, a man of great integrity and bravery, declared  * “*
for the Queen. The city in the mean time was fome-
times in the hands of one party and fometimes of ano¬
ther ; during which contentions, the inhabitants, as xo
may eafily be imagined, fuffered extremely. In the Siege of the
year 1570 above mentioned, Queen Elizabeth fent a“ftlein
body of 1000 foot and 300 hprle, under the command xaFielk’s **
of Sir William Drury, to aflift the king’s party. The time,
caftle was fummoned to furrender; and feveral Ikirmilhes
happened during the fpace of two years, in which a kind
of predatory war was carried on. At laft a truce was
agreed on till the month of January 1573 ; and this op¬
portunity the Earl of Morton, now regent, made ufe
of to build two bulwarks acrofs the high-ftreet, nearly
oppofite to the tolbooth, to defend the city from the fire
of the caftle.
On the firft of January, early in the morning, the
governor began to cannonade the city. Some of the
cannon were pointed againft the fifh-market, then
held on the high ftreet; and the bullets falling a-
mong the fifties, fcattered them about in a furpri-
fing manner, and even drove them up fa high in
the air, that they fell down upon the tops of the
houfes. This unufual fpedlacle having brought a num¬
ber of people out of their houfes, fome of them were
killed and others dangeroully wounded. Some little
time afterwards, feveral houfes were fet on fire by ftiot
from the caftle, and burned to the ground; which
greatly, enraged the people againft the governor.—A
treaty was at laft concluded between the leaders of the
oppofite faftions; but Kirkaldy refufed to be com¬
prehended in it. The regent therefore folicited the
afljftance of Queen Elizabeth, and Sir William Drury
was again fent into Scotland with 1500 foot and a
train of artillery. The caftle was now befieged in
form, and batteries railed againft it in different places.
The governor defended himfelf with great bravery for
33 days; but finding moft of the fortifications demo-
lifhed, the well choaked up with rubbifh, and all fup-
plies of water cut off, he was obliged to furrender.
The Englifh general, in the name of his miftrefs, pro-
mifed him honourable treatment; but the Queen of
England fhamefully gave him up to the regent, by
whom he was hanged.
Sopn after this, the fpiritof fanaticifm, which feune-
how or other fucceeded the Reformation, produced vio¬
lent commotions, not only in Edinburgh, but thro’ the
whole kingdom. The foundation of thefe difturbances,
and indeed- of moft others which have ever happened
in Chriftendom on account of religion, was that, perni¬
cious maxim of Popery, that the church is independent
of the ftate. It is not to be fuppofed that this maxim .
was at all agreeable to the. fovereign; but fuch was the
attachment of the people to the doCfrines of the clergy,
that King James found himfelf obliged to compound
matters with them. This, however, anfwered the pur-
pofe but very indifferently; and at laft a violent up-
roar was excited. The King was then fitting in the The city
Court of Seflion,, which was held in the, Tolbooth, incur? the
when ,a petition was prefented to him by fix perfons,
lamenting the dangers vv'hich threatened religion ; and 0IJam“ 5
being treated with very little refpetft by one Bruce a
minifter, his Majefty afked who they were that dared
to convene .againft his proclamation ? He was.anfwec-
ed
EDI [ 301 ] EDI
Briinbtirgh. ed by Lord Lindfay, that they dared to do more, and
w"'v—' would not fuffer religion to be.overthrown. On this
the King perceiving a number of people crowding in¬
to the room, withdrew into another without making
any reply, ordering the door to be ihut. By this the
petitioners were fo much enraged, that on their return
to the church the moil furious refolutions were taken}
and had it not been for the activity of Sir Alexander
Home the prpvoft, and Mr Watt the deacon-convener
v/no affembled the crafts in his Majelly’s behalf, it is
more than probable that the door would have been
forced, and an end put to his life. This affront was
fo much refented by the King, that he thought proper
to declare Edinburgh an unfit place of refidence for the
court or the adminiilration of juftice. In confequence
of this declaration, he commanded the college of jullice,
the inferior judges, and the nobility and barons, to
retire from Edinburgh, and not to return without ex-
prefs licence. This unexpe&ed declaration threw the
whole town into conflernation, and brought back the
rr.agiftrates and principal inhabitants to a fenfe of their
duty. With the clergy it was far otherwife. They
railed againft the King in the molt furious manner;
and endeavouring to perfuade the people to take
up arms, the magillrates were ordered to imprifon
them: but they efcaped by a timely flight. A de¬
putation of the moll refpcCtable burgefles was then
feat to the King at Linlithgow, with a view to miti¬
gate his refentment. But he refufed to be pacified ;
and on. the lalt day of December 1596 entered the
town between two rows of his foldiers who lined the
llreets, while the citizens were commanded to keep
within their houfee. A convention of the eftates was
held in the Tolbooth, before whom the magiftrates
made the moft abjeft fubmiffions, but all in vain. The
convention declared one of the late tumults, in which
an attack had been made upon the King’s perfon, to
be high treafon; and ordained, that if the magiltrates
did not find out the authors, the city itfelf (hould be
fubjedted to all the penalties due to that crime. It was
even propofed to raze the town to the foundation, and
eredt a pillar on the fpot where it had Hood, as a mo^
nument of its crimes. The inhabitants were now re¬
duced to the utmoft defpair; but Queen Elizabeth in-
terpofing in behalf of the city, the King thought pro¬
per to abate fomewhat of his rigour. A criminal
profecution, however, was commenced, and the town-
council were commanded to appear at Perth by the firft
of February. On their petition^ the time for their ap¬
pearance was prolonged to the firft; of March; and the
attendance of 13 of the common-council was declared
fufficient, provided they had a proper comtnifiion from
the reft. The trial commenced on the fifth day of
the month; and one of the number having failed in his
attendance, the caufe was immediately decided againft
the councilthey were declared rebels, and their reve-
,a nues forfeited.
h again re- For 15 days the city continued, in the utmoft. confu-;
ceived into fi0n ; but at laft, on their earneft fupplication, and of-
■iTour. fering to fubmit entirely to the.King’s mercy, the com¬
munity were reftored on the following conditions, which
they had formerly prpffered: That, they lhauld conti¬
nue to make a moft diligent, fearch for the authors of
the tumult, in order to bring them to condign punifti-
ment} that uoae of the fcdjtious minifters Ihould be
allowed to return to their charges, and no others ad- Edinburgir.
mitted without his Majefty’s confent; and that in the " 1 *1
election of their magiftrates they Ihould prefent a lift
of the candidates to the King and his lords of council
and feflion, whom his Majefty and their lordftiips might
approve or rejeft at pleafure. To thefe conditions the
King now added fotne others; viz. that the houfes
which had been poffefled hy the miniilers fhould be de¬
livered up to the King ; and that the clergymen fhould
afterwards live difperfed through the town, every one
in his own parifh: That the town-council hoafe fhould
be appointed for accommodating the court of exche¬
quer ; and that the town fhould become bound for the
fafety of the lords of feflion from any attempts of the
burgefles, under a penalty of 40,000 merks; and, laftly,
that the town ihould immediately pay 20,000 merks to
his Majefty.
Upon thefe terms a reconciliation took place; which
appears to have been very complete, as the King not
only allowed the degraded miniflers to be replaced, but
in 1610 conferred a mark of his favour on the town,
by allowing the provoft to have a fword of ftate carried
before him, and the magiftrates to wear gowns on
public occafions. In 1618 he paid his laft vilit to this
city, when he was received with the moft extravagant
pomp and magnificence. See Scotland. ^ (
The events which during this period, ..regard the Proceed-'
internal police of the city, were principally the follow- ings of the
ing. After the unfortunate battle at Pinkey, the ma-
giflrates, probably apprehending that now their power “ 1
was enlarged by reafon of the common calamity, pro¬
ceeded in feme refpe6ts,in a very arbitrary manner ; .
forcing the inhabitants to. furnifh materials for the
public works ; enjoining merchants to bring home fil-
ver to be coined at the mint; and ordering lanterns
to be hung out at proper places to burn till nine at
night, Stc. Another invalion from England being ap¬
prehended in 1558, the city railed 1450 men for its
defence, among whom ..there are faid to have been 200
tailors, fo that their profeflion feems to have been in
a very flourifhing ftate at that time. During the dif-
turbances which happened, at the reformation, and of
which a particular account is given under the article
Scotland, it was enacted, that the figure of St Giles
fhould be cut opt of the town ftandard, and that of a
thiftle inferted in its place. It was likewife enadted, .
that none «but thofe who profefled the reformed reli¬
gion fhould ferve in any office whatever ; and the bet~
ter to preferve that extraordinary appearance of fandti-
ty which was affedted, a pillar was eredted in the
North Loch, for the[purpofe of ducking fornicators.
In 1595, the boys of the High School rofe againft
their mailers ; and fuch was the barbarifm of thofe
days, that one of theie ftriplings-fhot a magiftrate with .
a piftol, who. had come along with the reft to reduce
them to, obedience. . The. reafon of the uproar was, .
that they were in that year, refufed two vacations,
which had been cuftomary in former times : however, .
they were at laft. obliged to fubmit, and ever fince
have been allowed only one- for about fix weeks in the
autumn. The fame year the houfe of one. of the bai¬
lies was aflaulted by the tradefenens fans, affifted by-
journeymen who had not received the freedom of the
town : he efcaped with his life, but the offenders were
bacilhed the city for ever.
Xao
EDI [ 3=2 1 EDI
EJiii’bwg'h. Xn the beginning of the reign of Charles I. a per-
' v fcft harmony feems to have tiblifted between the court
r>i ft urban an<^ t^ie c't^ Edinburgh; for in 1627 king Charles I.
ces jn rhe’ prefented the city with a new fword and gown to be
time of worn by the provoft at the times appointed by hisfa-
Charles I. ther James VI. Next year he paid a vifit to this ca¬
pital, and was received by the magiftrates .in a moft
pompous manner; but foon after this the difturbances
arofe which were not terminated but by the death of
that unfortunate monarch. Thefe commenced on an
attempt of Charles to introduce Epifcopacy into the
kingdom; and the firft ftep towards this was the erec-'
tion of the three Lothians and part of Berwick into
a diocefe, Edinburgh being the epifcopal feat, and the
church of St Giles the cathedral. An account of the
difturbance occafioned by the firlt attempt to read the
prayer-book there, is given under the article Britain ;
but though the attempt was given over, the minds of
the people were not to be quieted. Next winter they
reforted to town in fuch multitudes, that the privy-
council thought proper to publifh two a£ts; by one of
which the people were commanded, under fevere pe¬
nalties, to leave the town in 24 hours ; and by the o-
ther, the court of feffion was removed to Linlithgow.
The populace and their leaders were fo much enraged
by the latter, that lord Traquair and fome of the bi-
fliops narrowly efcaped with their lives; and next year
{1638) matters became ftill more feriousf For now,
the king having provoked his fubjefts throughout all
Scotland with the innovations he attempted in religion,
Edinburgh was made the general place of rendezvous,
and the moft formidable aflbciations took place ; an
account of which has already been given under the ar¬
ticle Britain. Each of the towns in Scotland had a
copy ; and that which belonged to Edinburgh, crowd¬
ed with 5000 names, is ftill preferved among the
records of the city. Notwithftanding this difagree-
ment, however, the king once more vifited Edinburgh
in 1641, and was entertained by the magiftrates at an
expence of 12,000!. Scots. It does not appear that af¬
ter this the city was in any way particularly concerned
with the difturbances which followed either through¬
out the remainder of the reign of Charles I. the com¬
monwealth, or the reign of Charles II. In 1680 the
duke of York with his duchefs, the princefs Anne,
and the whole court of Scotland, were entertained by
the city in the Parliament Houfe, at the expence of
15,000!. Scots. At this time it isiaid that the fcheme
of building the bridge over the North Loch was iirft
projected by the duke.
Regulations From the time that king James VI. paid his laft vi-
madeby fit to Edinburgh in 1618, till the time of the union
the magi- Jn 1707, a confiderable number of private regulations
ftrates. were mage by the magiftrates ; fome of them evident¬
ly calculated for the good of the city, others ftrongly
charadteriftic of that violent fpirit of fanaticifm which
prevailed fo much in the laft century. Among the
former was an adt palled in 1621, that the houfes, in-
ftead of being covered with ftraw or boards, Ihould have
their roofs conftrudled of Hate, tiles, or lead. This adt
was renewed in 1667; and in 1698 an adt was paffedregu-
lating their height alfo. By this they were reftravned to
five ilories, and the thicknefs of the wall determined to
be three feet at bottom. In 1684 a lantern with a
candle was ordered to be hung out in the firft floor of
every houfe in order to light the ftreets at night; and Edinburgh,
there were two coaches with four horfes each ordered -*~v—■-
to be bought for the ufe of the magiftrates ; but it
does not appear how long they continued to be ufed.
In 1681 the court of feflion difeontinued its fittings
in fummer: but as this was found to be attended with
inconvenience, an adt was palled for their reftoration,
which has continued ever fince. During the time of
the civil war in 1649, the city was vifited by the
plague, which is the laft time that dreadful diftemper
hath made its appearance in this country. The in-
fedtion was fo violent, that the city was almoft de¬
populated, the prifoners were difeharged from the
tolbooth, and an adt was made for giving one Dr
Joannes Politius a falary of 801. Scots per month,
tor vifiting thofe who were infedted with the difeafe.
In 1677 the firft coffee-houfes were allowed to be
opened, but none without a licence: and the fame
year the town-council regulated the price of penny-
weddings ; ordaining the men to pay no more than
two Ihillings, and the women 18 pence ; very extra¬
vagant prices having been exadted before.
In contradiftindtion to thefe falutary adts, we may
Hate thofe which Ihow an extravagant defire of pre¬
ferring the appearance of virtue in the female fex, as
if it had been pofiible for others to infpire them with
virtuous notions if they had not imbibed them of them-
felves. In 1633 an adl of council was palled, by which
women were forbidden to wear plaids over their faces,
under penalty of five pounds and the forfeiture of the
plaid for the firft fault. Banilhment was the punilh-
ment of the third. The reafon afligned for this adt was,
that matrons were not known from ftrumpets and loofe
women, while the plaid continued to be worn over
the face. This adt was renewed in 1637 and 1638.
Succeeding town-councils continued to Ihow the
fame regard to thefe matters; for in 1695 they enadt-
ed, that no inn-keeper, vintner, or ale-feller, Ihould
for the future employ women as waiters or fervants,
under the penalty of five Ihillings fterling for each.
The following anecdote may perhaps make the vir¬
tues of thefe legiflators themfelves wear a fufpicious af-
pedt. In 1649 the city having borrowed L. 40,000
Scots, in order to raife their quota of men for his ma-
jefty, the payment of it was abfolutely refufed by the
town-council when a demand was made for that pur-
pofe. That they might not, however, depend entirely
upon their own opinion in a matter of fuch importance,
they took that of the General Aflembly upon the
fubjedf ; and it was determined by thefe reverend di¬
vines, that they were not in confcience bound to pay
for an unlawful engagement which their predecelfors
had entered into. Butin 1652, Cromwell’s parliament,
who pretended to no lefs fandiity than they, declared
themfelves of a very different opinion ; and on the ap¬
plication of one of the creditors, forced them to repay
the fum.
The treatment which the brave marquis of Montrofe jnfamoul
met with, Itkewife fixes an indelible ftigma both upon treatment
the magiftrates and clergy at that time. Having been of jhe mar-
put under fentence of excommunication, no perfon was
allowed to fpeak to him or do him the leaft office of
friendlhip. Being met without the city by the ma¬
giftrates and town-guard, he was by them condudted
in a kind of gloomy proceffion through the ftreets
bare-
EDI C 303 1 EDI
Edinburgh, bareheaded, and in an elevated cart made for the pur-
w—v——^ p0{-e . tjje 0ther prifoners walking two and two before
him. At the time of his execution he was attended
by one of the minillers, who, according to his own ac¬
count, did not choofe to return till be badfecn him cajlen
over the ladder.
The union in 1707 had almoft produced a war be¬
tween the two kingdoms which it was defigned to u-
nite ; and on that occafion Edinburgh became a fcene
of the moft violent difturbances, of which a particular
account is given under the article Britain. Du¬
ring the time the aft was palling, it was found abso¬
lutely neceffary for the guards and four regiments of
foot to do duty in the city. The dilturbances were
augmented by the difagreement of the two members
of parliament; and notwithftanding the viftory gain¬
ed at that time by the court party. Sir Patrick John-
flon the provoft, who voted for the union, was obli-
Loyalty of ged afterwards to leave the country. In 1715 the
the city in city remained faithful to the royal caufe, and proper
1715 and meafures were taken for its defence. A committee
of fafety was appointed, the city-guard increafed, and
400 men raifed at the expence of the town. The
trained bands likewife were ordered out, too of whom
mounted guard every night: by which precautions
the rebels were prevented from attempting the city :
they however made themfelves mailers of the citadel
of Leith ; but fearing an attack from the duke of
Argyle, they abandoned it in the night-time. A fcheme
was even laid for becoming mailers of the caille of
Edinburgh; for which pufpofe they bribed a ferjeant
to place Uieir fealing ladders. Thus fome of the rebels
got up to the top of the walls before any alarm was
given ; but in the mean time the plot being difeovered
by the ferjeant’s wife, her hulband was hanged over
the place where he had attempted to introduce the
rebels. The expence of the armament which the city
had been at on this occafion amounted to about 1700I.
which was repaid by government in the year 1721.
The loyalty of this city was Hill farther remarkable
in the year 1725, when dilturbances were excited in
all parts of the kingdom, particularly in the city of
Glafgow', coucerning the excife-bill; for all remained
quiet in Edinburgh, nowithllanding the violent out¬
cries that were made elfewhere : and fo remarkable was
the tranquillity in the metropolis, that government af¬
terwards returned thanks to the magillrates for it. In
1 736, however, the city had again the misfortune to fall
under the royal difpleafure, on the following account.
Two fmugglers having been detefted in Healing their
own goods out of a cuftom-houfe, were condemned to
be hanged. The crime was looked upon as trivial;
and therefore a general murmur prevailed among the
18 populace, - which was no doubt heightened by the fol-
Captain lowing accident. At that time it had been cullomary
P<~ for perfons condemned to die to be carried each Sun-
y<lay to t^ie church, called from that circumllance the
Tolbooth-church. The two prifoners juft mentioned
were condufted in the ufual way, guarded by three
foldiers, to prevent their making their efcape : but ha¬
ving once gone thither a little before the congrega¬
tion met, one of the prifoners feized one of the guards
in each hand, and the other in his teeth, calling out
to his companion to run ; which he immediately did
with fuch fpeed, that he fpon got out of fight, and
was never heard of afterwards. The perfon who had Edinburgft.
thus procured the life of his companion without re- —-y—
gard to his,own, would no doubt become a general ob-
jeft of companion ; and of courfe, when led to the
place of execution, the guard were feverely pelted by
the mob, and fome of them, according to the tellimony
of the witneffes who were fworn on the occafion, pretty
much wounded. By this Captain Porteous, who
commanded the guard, was fo much provoked, that he
gave orders to fire, by which fix people were killed
and eleven wounded. The evidence, however, even
of the faft that the orders to fire were given, appears
not to have been altogether unexceptionable ; never-
thelefs, on this he was tried and condemned to be exe¬
cuted. At that time the king was abfent at Hanover,
having left the regency in the hands of the queen ; and
the cafe of the unfortunate Porteous having been re-
prefented to her, fhe was pleafed to grant him a re¬
prieve : but fuch was the inveteracy of the people a-
gainft him, that they determined not to allow him to
avail,himfelf of the royal clemency. On the day that
had been appointed for his execution, therefore, &
number of people affembled, fhut the gates of the
city, and burnt the door of the prifon, the fame
which the mob would formerly have broke open in
order to murder king James. They then took out
Porteous, whom it was found impoffible to refeue
out of their hands, though every method that the
magiftrates could take for that purpofe m fuch a con-
fufion was made ufe of. It was even proved, that
the member of parliament went to the commander
in chief, and requelled that he would fend a party c£
foldiers to quell the dilturbance, but was abfolutely de¬
nied this requell, becaufe he could not produce a writ¬
ten order from the provoll to this purport ; which, in
the confufion then exilling in the city, could neither
have been expefted to be given by the provoll, nor
would it have been Cafe for any perfon to have carried it
about him. Thus the unhappy viftim was left in the
hands of his executioners; and being dragged by them
to the place dellined for receiving his fate, was hanged,
on a dyer’s fign-poft. As they had not brought a rope
along with them, they broke open a Ihop where they
knew they were to be had; and having taken out what
they wanted, left the money upon the table, and re¬
tired without committing any other diforder.
Such an atrocious infult on government could not. Govern-
but be highly refented. A royal proclamation was if- ment high-
fued, offering a pardon to any accomplice, and a reward ^
of L. 200 to any perfon who would difeover one of^Jnt! at'
.thofe concerned. The proclamation was ordered to be
read from every pulpit in Scotland the firft. Sunday of
every month for a twelvemonth : but fo divided were
the people in their opinions about this matter, that ma¬
ny of the clergy heiitated exceedingly about complying
with the royal order, by which they were brought in
danger of being turned out of their livings ; while thofe
who complied were rendered fo unpopular, that their
fituation was rendered Hill worfe than the others.
All the efforts of government, however, were infuffi-
cient to produce any difeovery ; by which, no 'doubt,,
the court were Hill more exafperated : and it was now
determined to execute vengeance on the magillrates
and city at large. Alexander Wilfon, the provoll.
at that time, was imprifoned three weeks before he
3, could.
EDI L 304 1 EDI
t'Jmlr.rg'n.could be admitted to tail; after winch, he and the
V— four bailies, with the lords of judiciary, were order¬
ed to attend the houfe of peers at London. On
their arrival there, a debate enfued, whether the lords
"(hould attend in their robes or not ? but at lad it was
agreed, that they fhould attend in their robes at the
bar. This, however, was refufed by their lordlhipp,
who infided that they (hould be examined within the
bar; upon which the affair of their examination was
dropped altogether. A bill wa$ at lad paffed both houfes,
by which it was enadled, that the city of Edinburgh
*(hould be fined in 20001. for the benefit of Porteous’s
■widow (though (he was prevailed upon to accept of
X.. 1500 for the whole) ; and the provod was declared
incapable of ever ferving government again in any ca¬
pacity whatever. To prevent fuch-catadrophes in time
coming, the town-council enafted, that, on the fird
appearance of an infurreftion, the chief officers in the
different focieties and corporations (hould repair to the
council, to receive the orders of the magidrates for the
quelling of the tumult, under the penalty of 81. 6 s. 8 d.
io for each omiffion.
The city In 1745, the city was ’inveded by the Pretender’s
the'r'tbd flrmy > an(^ 6n t^ie l71^ September, the Netherbow-
6 gate bemg opened to let a coach pafs, a party of High¬
landers, who had reached the gate undifcovered, ru(h-
ed in, and took poffefiion of the city. The inhabi-
‘ tants were commanded to deliver up their arms at the
■palace of Holyroodhoufe ; a certain quantity of mili¬
tary dores was required from the city, under pain of
military executisn ; and an affeffment of 2 s. 6 d. upon
the pound v-as impofed upon the real rents within the
city and liberties, for defraying that expence.
The Pretender’s army guarded all the avenues to the
cadle; but no figns of hodility enfued till the 25th of
the month, when the gartifon being alarmed from fome
unknown caufe, a number of cannon w»ere difeharged
at the guard placed at the Wed-port, but with very
little effeft. This gave occafion to an order to the
guard at the weigh-houfe, to prevent all intercourfe
between the city and cadle; and then the governor
acquainted the provod by letter, that unlefs the com¬
munication was preferved, he would be obliged to dif-
lodge the guard by means of artillery. A deputa-
lion was next fent to the Pretender; acquainting him
with the danger the city was in, and intreating him to
withdraw the guard. With this he refufed to comply ;
and the Highland centinels firing at fome people who
were carrying provifions into the cadle, a pretty fmart
cannonading enfued, which fet on fire feveral houfes,
killed fome people, and did other damage. The
Pretender then confented to difmifs the guard, and the
cannonading ceafed. After the battle of Culloden,
the provod of Edinburgh was obliged to dand a very
long and fevere trial, fird at London and then at Edin¬
burgh, for not defending the city againd the rebels ;
which, from the fituation and extent of the walls, every
one mud have feen to be impoffible.
During this trial a very uncommon clrcumdance hap¬
pened ; the jury having fat two days, infided that they
-could fit no longer, and prayed for a (hort refpite. As
the urgency of the cafe was apparent, and both parties
agreed, the court, after long reafoning, adjourned till
•the day following, taking the jury bound under a pe¬
nalty of L.500 each ; when the. court continued fitting
N°108.
two days longer, and the jury were one day inclofed. Edinhurgk.
The event was, that the provod was exculpated. —
After the battle of Culloden the duke of Cumber¬
land caufed fourteen of the rebel dandards to be burned
atthecrofs: that of the pretender was carried by the
-common executioner, the others by chimney-fweep-
ers; the heralds proclaiming the name of the com¬
manders to whom they belonged as they were thrown
into the fire. At this time the city of Edinburgh felt
a temporary inconvenience from the election of their
magidrates not having taken place at the ufual time ; 2r
fo that it became neceffary to apply to his majedy for Govern-
the redoraiion of the government of the city. This meat of the
was readily granted, the burgeffes being allowed a poll-Clt)’ rcfto*
tax ; after which an entire new fet of magidrates was**6 *
returned, all of them friends to the houfe of Hanover;
and foon after the freedom of the city in a gold box
was prefented to the duke of Cumberland.
With thefe tranfaftions all interferences betwixt go¬
vernment and the metropolis of Scotland were ended ;
the red of its hidory therefore only confids of inter¬
nal occurrences, the regulations made by its own ma¬
gidrates for the benefit of the city, their applications
to government for leave to improve it, or the execution
of thefe improvements; of which we (hall now give a
brief detail.
In the year 1716, the city fird bedowed a fettled fa-Salary he.
lary on the provod, in order to enable him to fupport flowed on
the dignity of fird magidrate. This was at fird L. 300 ;the Pr°voft«
but has fince been augmented to L.500, which his
lord (hip dill enjoys. In 1718 it was recomr^nded to
the magidrates to didingui(h .themfelves by wearing coats
of black velvet, for which they were allowed L. 1 o ;
but this a£l being abrogated in 1754, gold chains were
affigned as badges of their office, which they dill con¬
tinue to wear. Provod Kincaid happened to die in
office in the year 1777; which being a very rare accident,
perhaps the only one of the kind to be met with in the
records of Edinburgh, he was buried with great fo-
lemnity, and a vad concourfe of people attended.
Ttfmults have been frequent in Edinburgh, chiefly on Account ef
account of the dearnefs of proviflons. In 1740 Bell’s tumults-
mills were firfl: attacked by the populace, and afterwards
Leith mills: nor could the rioters be difperfed till the mi¬
litary had fired among them, and wounded three, of whom
one died ; and it was found neceffary to order fome dra¬
goons into the city in order to preferve tranquillity. In
1742 another violent tumult took place, owing to a cu-
dom of dealing dead bodies from their graves for anato¬
mical purp'ofes, which had then become common. The
populace beat to arms, threatened dedruftion to the fur-
geons; and in fpite of all the efforts of the magidrates
demoliflred the houfe of the beadle at St Cuthbert’s.
In 1756, new didurbances, whiefi required the affid-
ance of the military, took place: the caufe at this
time was the imjneffing of men for the war which was
then commencing. A didurbance was likewife excited
in 1760. This was occafioned 'by the footmen, who
till then were allowed to follow their maders into the
playhoufe, and now took upon them to didurb the en¬
tertainment of the company ; the confequence of which
was, that they were turned out, and have ever fince
been obliged to wait for their maders. In 1763 and
I7^5> t^ie tumult5 on account of the price of provifi¬
ons were renewed.;' many of the meal-mongers had
.2 their
EDI [ 305 ] EDI
Edinburgh, their houfes broken open and their (hops deftroyed.
The magiitrates, as ufual, were obliged to call in a
party of dragoons to quell the difturbance ; but at the
fame time, to put an effe&ual Hop, as far as was in their
power, to thefe proceedings for the future, they gave
, fecurity, that people who brought grain or provifion
into the market (hould be fecured in their property.
Since that time there have been no tumults direftly on
the account of provifions; though in 1784. a terrible
riot and attack of a diftillery at Canonmills took place,
on a fuppofition that the diftillers enhanced the price
of meal by ufing unmalted grain. The attack was re¬
pelled by the fervants of the diftillery ; but the mob
could not be quelled until the (heriff called the foldiers
quartered in the caftle to his affiftance. The fame
night a party of rioters fet out for Ford, a place ten
miles to the fouthward, where there was likewife a
large diftillery; which, as there was none to make any
oppofition, they foon deftroyedi One man was killed
in this riot at Edinburgh by the fire of a fervant of the
diftillery, and feveral of the rioters were afterwards
fecured and puniftied.
In the years 1778 and 1779 two very alarming dif-
, turbances happened, which threatened a great deal of
bloodfhed, though happily they were terminated with¬
out any. The firft was a mutiny of the earl of Sea-
forth’s Highland regiment, who were at this time quar¬
tered in the caftle. Thefe having been ordered to em¬
bark, for fome reafon or other unanimoufly refufed, and
polled themfelves on the top of Arthur’s feat, where they
continued for two days. Troops were colle&ed to pre¬
vent their efcape, and the inhabitants were ordered to
keep within doors at the firft toll of the great bell, which
was to be a fignal of violence about to take place;
but fortunately all the fears, naturally arifing from the
expedlation of this event, were diflipated by an ac¬
commodation. The other happened on account of the
attempt to repeal the penal laws againft the Papifts;
and was much more alarming than the other, as being
the effedl of a premeditated fcheme and determined re-
folution to oppofe government. On the 2d of Febru-
ary 1779 a mob affembled in the evening, burned a
Popifti chapel, and plundered another. Next day they
renewed their depredations; deftroying and carrying
off the books, furniture, &c. of feveral Popilh priefts
and others of that perfuafion. The riot continued all
that day, though the afliftance of the military was
called in ; but happily no lives were loft, nor was there
any firing. The city was afterwards obliged to make
good the damage fuftained by the Catholics on this
occafion, which was eftimated at L. 1500. This year
alfo an unlucky accident happened at Leith. About
50 Highland recruits having refufed to embark, a par¬
ty of the South Fencibles was fent to take them pri-
foners. Unexpe&edly, however, the Highlanders flood
upon their defence ; when, after fome words, a firing
commenced on both fides, and about one half of the
Highlanders were killed and wounded, the remainder
being taken prifoners and carried to the caftle. Captain
Mansfield and two or three privates were killed in this
a4 affray-
General We (hall clofe this hiftory of Edinburgh with a ge-
hiftory of neral account of the improvements which have lately
nrnvJ11" taken place in it, and of which a particular defeription
ments.' You VI. Part I.
will afterwards be given. Thefe began in the year Edinburgh.
I753» when the foundation-done of the Exchange' ""V ,J
was laid, at which time thefe was a grand proceffion,
and the greateft concourfe of people ever known in
Edinburgh. A triumphal arch was erefted for the
purpofe, through which the proceffion paffed, and me¬
dals were fcattered among the populace. In 1756 the
high ftreet was cleared by the removal of the crofs;
though many regretted this, on account of its being a
very ancient and elegant building. In the middle it
had an unicorn placed on the top of a pillar 20 feet
high ; but this fine ornament was broken to pieces
by the giving way of the tackle by which it was at¬
tempted to remove it. It is now again ere6led at
Drum, a feat belonging to lord Somerville, about four
miles from Edinburgh. In 1763 the firft done of the
north bridge was laid by provoft Drummond ; and in
1767 an add of parliament was obtained for extending
the royalty of the city over the fields to the north¬
ward, where the New Town is now fituated. About
the fame time a fpot of ground upon the fouth fide of
the town was purchafed by a private perfon for L. 1200,
which being feued out for building, gave rife to the
increafe of the town on that quarter ; and this pro¬
ceeded the more rapidly, as the houfes built there were
free from the dues impofed upon others fubjedl to the
royalty. In 1774 the foundation of the Regifter-Of-
fice was laid. In 1784 the projeft for rendering the
accefs to the town equally eafy on both fides was be¬
gun to be put in execution by laying the foundation of
the fouth bridge. At the fame time a great improve¬
ment was made by reducing the height of the ftreet
feveral feet all the way from the place where the crofs
flood to the Netherbow ; by which means the afeent
is rendered more eafy, not only for carriages, but alfo
for perfons who walk on foot. At the fame time, the
ftreet was farther cleared by the removal of the town
guard-heufe, which had long been complained of as an
encumbrance. It is dill farther in contemplation to
remove the Luckenbooths: and when this is accom-
plifhed, with other improvements by which it muft ne-
ceffarily be accompanied, it is to be queftioned whether
any city in Britain will be able to vie with Edinburgh
in elegance and beauty.
Having thus given a concife hiftory of the city from
its earlieft foundation, we (hall now proceed to deferibe
it in its moft improved (late.
Edinburgh is fituated upon a deep hill, rifing from Defcnption
eaft to weft, and terminating in a high and inacceffible °f £din-
rock, upon which the caftle (lands. At the eaft end *5UrS^*
or lower extremity of this hill (lands the abbey of
Holyrood-houfe, or king’s palace, diftant from the
caftle upwards of a mile ; and betwixt which, along
the top of the ridge, and almoft in a ftraight line, runs
the high-ftreet. On each fide, and parallel to this
ridge or hill, is another ridge of ground lower than
that in the middle, and which does not extend fo far
to the eaft ; that on the fouth being intercepted by Sa-
liftury-rocks and Arthur’s-feat, a hill of about 800
feet of perpendicular height; and that on the north by
the Calton-hill, confiderably lower than Arthur’s-feat:
fo that the fituation of this city is moft Angular and
romantic ; the eaft or lower part of the town lying be¬
tween two hills; and the weft or higher part rifing up
Qjj towards
EDI [ 306 1 EDI
Edinburgh towards a third hill, little inferior in height to the high-
’ <r eft of the other two, upon which, as has been obfer-
ved, the caftle is built, and overlooks the town.
The buildings of the town terminate at the diftance
cf about 2CO yards from the caftle-gate ; which fpacc
affords a moil delightful as well as convenient and
healthful walk to the inhabitants. The profpedl from
this ipot is perhaps the fineft any where to be met with,
for extent, beauty, and variety.
In the valley or hollow betwixt the mid and the fouth
ridges, and nearly parallel to the high-ftreet, is ano¬
ther ftreet called the Cowgate ; and the town has now
extended itfelf over moft part of that fouth ridge alfo.
Betwixt the mid and the north ridges was a loch, which,
till of very late, terminated the towm on that fide. From
the high-ftreet towards the loch on the north, and Cow-
gate on the fouth, run narrow crofs ftreets or lanes,
called ivynds and clofes, which grow deeper and fteeper
the farther weft or nearer the ealtle ; fo that, were it
not for the clofenefs and great height of the build¬
ings, this city, from its fituation and plan, might na¬
turally be expedled to be the belt aired, as well as the
cleaned, in Europe. The former, notwithftanding
thefe difadvantages, it enjoys in an eminent degree ;
but we cannot compliment it upon the latter, notwith-
itanding every pofiible means Eas been ufed by the ma-
giftrates for that purpofe.
The fteepnefs of the afcent makes the accefs to the
high-ftreet from the north and fouth very difficult ;
which no doubt greatly retarded the enlargement of
the city. To remedy this inconvenience on the north,
and with a view to extend the town on that quarter, a
moft elegant bridge has been thrown over the north
loch, which joins the north ridge to the middle of the
high-ftreet, by fo eafy an afcent as one in fixteen ;
and in purfuance of the delign, a plan of a new town
to the north w’as fixed upon, and is now nearly finifh-
ed, with an elegance and tafte that does honpur to this
country. In like manner, to facilitate the accefs from
the fouth fide, a bridge has been thrown Over the val¬
ley through which the Cowgate runs ; which, if not
equally elegant with the north bridge, is certainly as
convenient.
Account of The gradual increafe of the city of Edinburgh may
the gradual in fome degree be underftood from the traces of its an-
°h c‘ent wa^s that ft ill remain. James II. in 1450, firft
1 r^n beftowed on the community the privilege of fortify¬
ing the city with a wail, and empow’ered them to levy
a tax upon the inhabitants for defraying the expence.
When the city was firft fortified, the wall reached no
further than the prefent water-houfe, or refervoir, on
the caftle-hill: from thence to the foot of Halker-
fton’s w'ynd, juft below the new-bridge, the city was
defended by the north-loch ; an inconfiderable morafs,
which, being formerly overflowed, formed a fmall lake
that hath fince been drained. From this place to the
foot of Leith-wynd, it does not appear how the city
was fortified : but from the foot of Leith-wynd to the
Nether bow-port it was defended only by a range of
houfes; and when thefe had become ruinous, a wall was
built in their place. The original wall of Fdinburgh,
therefore, began at the foot of the north-call rock of
the caftle. Here it was (Lengthened by a fmall fortrefs,
the ruins of which are ftill to be feen, and are called the
viell-houje to,w<;ri from their having a fpring in their
neighbourhood. When the wall came oppofite to the Edinburgh,
refervoir, it was carried quite acrofs the hill, having a —
gate on the top for making a communication between
the town and caftle. In going down the bill, it went
flanting in an oblique direftion to the firft angle in
going down the Weft-bow, where was a gate named
the Upfer-bow port, one of the hooks of which ftiil
remains. Thence it proceeded eaftward in fuch a man¬
ner, as would have cut off not only all the Cowgate,
but fome part of the parliament-houfe; and being con¬
tinued as far as the mint-clofe, it turned to the north-
eaft, and connefted itfelf with the buildings on the
north fide of the high-ftreet, where was the original
Nether-bow Port, about 50 yards weft from that which
afterwards went by the fame name.
Soon after the building of this wall, a new ftreet
was formed on the outfide of it, named the Cowgate,
which in the 16th century became the reficience oi the
nobility, the fenators of the college of juftice, and o-
ther perfons of the firft diftinclion. After the fatal
battle of Flowden, however, the inhabitants of the
Cowgate became very anxious to have themfelves de¬
fended by a wail as well as the reft. The wall of the
city was therefore extended to its prefent limits. This
new wall begins on the fouth-eaft fide of the rock on
which the caftle is built, and to which the town-wall
comes quite clofe. From thence it defcends obliquely
to the Weft-port; then afcends part of a hill on the
other fide, called the High Riggs ; after which, it runs
eaftward with but little alteration in its courfe, to
the Brifto and Potter-row ports, and from thence to
the Pleafance. Here it takes a northerly direflion,
which it keeps from thence to the Cowgate-port; after
which the inclofure is completed to the Netherbovv by
the houfes of St Mary’s wynd. The original Nether-
bow port being found not well adapted for defence
was pulled down, and a new one built in 1571 by the
adherents of queen Mary. In 1606, the late hand-
fome building was erefted about 50 yards below the
place where the former flood. It was two ftories high,
and had an elegant fpire in the middle ; but being
thought to encumber the ftreet, and the whole build¬
ing being in a crazy fituation, it was pulled down by
order of the magiftrates in 1764.
In the original wall of Edinburgh there was, as has
been already obferved, a port on the caftle-hill. On
the extenfion of the wall, after building the houfes in
the Cowgate, this gate was'pulled down. That in the
upper or weft bow flood for a much longer time, and
was pulled down within the memory of fome perfons
lately or perhaps ftill living. Btfides thefe, there was
a third, about 50 yards above the head of the Canon-
gate ; but whether there were any more, is uncertain.
The ports or gates of the new walls were, l. The IVeJi-
port, fituated at the extremity of the Grafs-market;
beyond which lies a fuburb of the town and a borough
of regality, called Pcrtjburgh. Next to this is a wicket,
ftruck out of the town-wall in 1744, for the purpofe
of making an eafier communication between the town
and the public walks in the meadows, than by Brifto-
port. The next to this was Brifto-port, built in 1515
beyond which lies a fuburb called Brijlo-Jlrect. At a
fmall diftance from Brifto was the Potter-row Port, which
took this name from a manufactory of earthen ware in
the neighbourhood. Formerly it was called Kirk of
Field
EDI L 307 ] EDI
Edinburgh. Field Port. Between this and the Cowgate-port flood
u—y-— another, called St Mary's IVynd Port, which extended
from eaft to weft acrofs the foot of the Pleafance, and
which was demolifhed only fince the middle of the laft
century.—Glofe to the middle of this flood the Cow-
gate-port; which opened a communication between the
Cowgate and St Mary’s wynd, and the Pleafance.—
The Nether-low Port has been already fpoken of.—At
the foot of Leith-wynd was another gate, known by
the name of Leith-wynd Portand within it was a
. wicket giving accefs to the church of Trinity College,
and which ftill remains. At the foot of Halkerfton’s
wynd was another, which, as wTell as the former, was
built about the year 1560. Both of thefe were pulled
down fome years ago, and all the reft in 1785.—Ano¬
ther ftill remains at the foot of the Canongate, known
by the name of the Water-gate.
For 2 jo years the city of Edinburgh occupied the
fame fpace of ground, and it is but very lately that its
limits have been fo confiderably enlarged. In the
middle of the 16th century, it is defcribed as extending
in length about an Italian mile, and about half as much
in breadth ; wdiich anfwers very nearly to its prefent
limits, the late enlargements only excepted.—This fpace
of ground, however, wTas not at that time occupied in
the manner it is at prefent. The houfes were neither
fo high nor fo crowded upon each other as they are now.
This was a confequence of the number of inhabitants
increafing, which has occafioned the railing of the
houfes to fuch an height as is perhaps not to be paral¬
leled in any other part of the world. Till the time of
tfie Reformation, the burying ground of the. city
extended over all the fpace occupied by the Far-
liament-fquare, and from thence to the Cowgate.
The lands lying to the fouthward of the Cowgate were
chiefly laid out in gardens belonging to the convent of
Black-friars, and the church of St Mary in the Field.
Thefe extended almoft from the Pleafance to the Pot-
terrow-port. From the Brifto to the Weft-Port, the
ground was laid out in gardens belonging to the Gray-
friars. The magiftrates, on their application to queen
Mary, obtained a grant of the Gray-friars gardens for a
burying-place ; for which it was given as a reafon, that
they were fomewhat diftant from the town. Here,
however, it mull be underftood, that thefe gardens
were diftant from the houfes, and not without the
walls; for they had been inclofed by them long be¬
fore.—In the time of James I. the houfes within the
wralls feem to have been in general, if not univerfal-
ly, covered with thatch or broom; and not above
20 feet high. Even in the year 1621, thefe roofs
were fo common, that they were prohibited by aft
of parliament, in older to prevents accident from fire.
-—In the middle of the laft century, there were nei¬
ther courts nor fquares in Edinburgh. The Parlia¬
ment dole or fquare is the oldeft of this kind in the
city. Miln’s fquare, James’s court, &c. were built
.long after; and Argyle’s and Brown’s fquares within
thefe 50 years.
2yrew~ The New Town was projefted in the year 1752;
Town. but as the magiflrates could not then procure an ex-
tenfion of the royalty, the execution of the defign was
fufpended for fome time. In 1767, an aft was ob¬
tained, by which the royalty was extended over the
fields to the northward of the city ; upon which ad- Edinburgh,
vertifements were publilhed by the magiftrates, de- v—^
firing proper plans to be given in. Plans were given
in accordingly, and that defigned by Mr James Craig
architeft was adopted. Immediately afterwards, peo¬
ple were invited to purchafe lots from the town-coun¬
cil ; and fuch as purchafed became bound to conform
to the rules of the plan. In the mean time, however,
the town-council had fecretly referved to themfelves u
privilege of departing from their own plan ; which
they afterwards made ufe of in fuch a manner as pro¬
duced a law-fuit. According to the plan held forth
to the purchafers, a canal was to be made through that
place where the north loch had been, and the bank on
the north fide of it laid out in terraces: but inftead
of this, by an aft of council, liberty was referved to
the town to build upon this fpot; and therefore, when
many gentlemen had built genteel houfes in the new
town on faith of the plan, they were furprifed to find
the fpot appointed for terraces and a canal, beginning
to be covered with mean irregular buildings, and
work-houfes for tradefmen. This deviation was im¬
mediately complained of; but as the magillrates Ihow-
ed no inclination to grant any redrefs, a profecurion
was commenced againft them before the Lords of Sef-
fion. In that court the caufe was given againft the
purfuers, who thereupon appealed to the Houfe of
Lords. Here the fentence of the Court of Sefiion was
reverfed, and the caufe remitted to the confideration
of their Lordftiips. At laft, after an expenfive con-
teft, matters were accommodated. The principal
term of accommodation was, that fome part of the
ground was to be laid out in terraces and a canal;
but the time of difpofing it in that manner, was refer¬
red to the Lord Prefident of the Court of Selfion and
the Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer.—The fall
of part of the bridge, hereafter mentioned, proved a
very confiderable difadvantage to the new town ; as it
neceflarily induced a fufpicion that the paflage, by
means of the bridge, could never be rendered fafe.
An overfight of the magiftrates proved of more eflen-
tial detriment. A piece of ground lay to the fouth¬
ward of the old town, in a fituation very proper for
building. This the magiftrates had an opportunity
of purchafing for 1200I; which, however, they ne-
glefted, and it was bought by a private perfon, who
immediately feued it out in lots for building, as has
been already mentioned. The magiftrates then began
to fee the confequence, namely, that this fpot being
free from the duties to which the royalty of Edinburgh
is fubjeft, people would choofe to refide there rather
than in the New Town. Upon this they offered the
purchafer 2000I. for the ground for which he had-paid
1200I.; but as he demanded 20,0001. the bargain
did not take place. Notwithftanding thefe difeourage-
ments, the New Town is now almoft finiftied ; and
from the advantages of its lituation, and its being built
according to a regular plan, it hath undoubtedly a fupe-
riority over any city in Britain. By its fituation,
however, it is remarkably expofed to ftorms of wind,
which, at Edinburgh, fometimes rage with uncommon
violence.
It has three ftreets, almoft a mile in length, running
from eaft to weft, interfefted with crofs ftreets at proper
Qji 2 diftances.
Public
buildings
defcribed,
EDI L 308 ] EDI
Edinburgh, diftances; The moft northerly, called Queen's Street, is pointed for the governor, as the latter never inhabits it. Edinburgh.
‘ * 10.0 feet broad, and commands an extenfive profpeft of There is alfo a fort-ir;ajor, a ftore-keeper, mailer gunner, —v*--'
the Forth, the county of Fife, and the (hipping in the and chaplain; but as this laft does not refide in the caille,
river. That called George's Street, which is in the middle, worfhip is feldom performed in the chapel. The parlia-
is no lefa than 115 feet wide. It is terminated at each ment-houfe was formerly included in the great fquare
end by two very elegant and extenfive fquares; that on on the top, and the royal gardens were in the marih
the eail end is called St Andrew's Square ; the other, afterwards called the North-loch; the king’s itables be-
tho’ not yet finiihed, nor indeed begun, is to be named ing on the fouth fide, where the houfes ftill retain the
Charlotte's Square. Prince’s ftreet is the moft fouther- name, and the place where the barns were ftill retain
ly; and extends from the northern extremity of the the name of Caftle-barns.
bridge, quite to the weft end of the town; though as that The caftle is defended by a company of invalids, and
is not yet finiftied, we cannot fay whether it will be done four or five hundred men belonging to fome marching
exa&ly according to the plan laid down, as there has regiment, though it can accommodate 1000, as above-
been a propofal made by a private perfon of continuing mentioned; and this number has been fometimes kept
the whole a confiderable way farther to the weftward, in it. Its natural ftrength of fituation was not fufficient
to end in a circus. The reafon given for thfspropofed to render it impregnable, even before the invention of
innovation is, that the road to Glafgow and other parts artillery, as we have already obferved ; much lefs would
in the weft will thus be rendered more eafy, as it will it be capable of fecuring it againft the attacks of a mo-
then lie along the new bridge over the Watet of Leith dern army well provided with cannon. It coifid not, in
at Bell’s mills, which is much more convenient than all probability, withftand, even for a few hours, a well
that juft now in ufe. dire&ed bombardment: for no part but the powder-
The moft remarkable public buildings in Edinburgh magazine is capable of refifting thefe deftrudlive ma-
are: chines; and the fplinters from the rock on which the
1. The Cajlle. This Hands on a high rock, acceffible caftle is built, could not fail to render them ftill more
only on the eaft fide. On all others it is very fteep, and formidable. Befides, the water of the well, which is
in fome places perpendicular. It is about 300 feet high very bad, and drawn up from a depth of 100 feet, is
from its bafe: fo that, before the invention of artillery, apt to fubfide on the continued difeharge of artillery,
it might well have been deemed impregnable ; though which produces a concufiion in the rock,
the event (bowed that it was not.—The entry to this 2. The Palace of Holyrood-houfe. This, though much
fortrefs is defended by an outer barrier of pallifaddes ; negledled, is the only royal habitation in Scotland
within this is a dry ditch, draw-bridge, and gate, de- that is not entirely in ruins. It is a handfome fquare of
fended by two batteries which flank it; and the whole 230 feet in the infide, furrounded with piazzas. The '
is commanded by an half-moon mounted with brafs, front, facing the weft, confifts of two double towers
cannon, carrying balls of 12 pounds. Beyond thefe joined by a beautiful low building, adorned with a
are two gate-ways, the firft of which is very ftrong, double baluftrade above. The gateway in the middle
and has two portcullifes. Immediately beyond the fe- is decorated with double ftone columns, fupporting a
cond gate-way, on the right hand, is a battery mount- cupola in the middle, reprefenting an imperial crown,
ed with brafs cannon, carrying balls of 12 and 18 with a clock underneath. On the right hand is the
pounds weight. On the north fide are a mortar and great ftaircafe which leads to the council chamber and
fome gun batteries.—The upper part of the caftle the royal apartments. Thefe are large and fpacious, but
contains a half-moon battery, a chapel, a parade for unfurnifhed: in one of them the Scotch peers meet ta
exercife, and a number of houfes in the form of a fquare, eledt 16 of their number to reprefent them in parliament,
which are laid out in baracks for the officers. Be- The gallery is on the left hand, and meafures lyofeet by
fides thefe there are other baracks fufficient to con- 274. It is adorned with the fuppofed portraits of all the
tain 1000 men; a powder magazine bomb-proof; kings of Scotland. In the apartments of the duke of
a grand arfenal, capable of containing 8000 (land of Hamilton, which he poffefies as hereditary keeper of
arms; and other apartments for the fame ufe, which the palace, queen Mary’s bed of crimfon damafk, bor-
can contain 22,000 more : fo that 30,000 ftand of dered with green fringes and taflels, is ftill to be feen,
arms may be conveniently lodged in this caftle. — On but almoft reduced to rags. Here alfo ftrangers arq
the eaft fide of the fquare above mentioned, were for- (hown a piece of wainfeot hung upon hinges, which
merly royal apartments; in one of which king James opens to a trap-ftair communicating with the agart-
VI. was born, and which is ftill (hown to thofe who ments below. Through this paffage Darnley and thq
vifit the caftle. In another, the regalia of Scotland other confpirators rufhed in to murder the unhappy
were depofited on the 26th of March 1707, and are Rizzio. Towards the outward door of. thefe apart-
faid to be ftill kept there ; but they are never (hown ments are large duiky fpots on the floor, faid to be
to any body. Hence a fufpicion has arifen that they occafioned by Rizzio’s blood, which could never be
have been carried to London ; which is the more con- walked out. In the lodgings affigned to lord Dun-
firmed, as the keeper of the jewel-office in the tower more is a pidfure by Van Dyke, efteemed a mafter-
of London (hows a crown, which he calls that of Scot- ly performance, of king Charles I. and his queen go-j
land; and it is certain that the door of what is called ing a-hunting. There are likewife the portraits of
the Crown-room has. not been publicly known to be their prefent majefties at full length by Ramfay. Thq
opened fince the union. lodgings above the royal apartments afe occupied by
The governor of the caftle is generally a nobleman, the duke of Argyle as heritable mafter of the houfe-r
whofe place is worth about 1000I. a-year ; and that of hold.
deputy-governor, 500I. Thislaft refide s in the houfe ap- The front of this palace is two ftories high; the
rocs
EDI F 309 1 EDI
Edinburgh roof flat; but at each end the front proje&s, and is oi>
*—-v—— namented with circular towers at the angles. Here
the building is much higher, and the reil of the palace
is three ftsries in height. The north-weft, towers were
built by James V. for his own refidence : his name is
ftill to be feen below a nitch in one of thefe towers.
During the minority of queen Mary, this palace was
burned by the Englifti; but foon after repaired and
enlarged beyond its prefent fize. At that time it
confifted of five courts,, the moft weiterly of which
vms the largeft. It was bounded on the eaft by the
front of the palace, which occupied the fame fpace it
does at prefent; but the building itfelf extended fur¬
ther to the fouth. At the north-w'eft corner was a
ftiong gate, with Gothic pillars, arches, and towefs,
part of which wras not long ago pulled down. Great
part of the palace was burnt by Cromwell’s foldiers;
but it was repaired and altered into the prefent form
after the Reftoration. The fabric was planned by Sir
William Bruce a celebrated archited, and executed
by Robert Mylne mafon. The environs of the pa¬
lace afford an afylum fijr infolvent debtors; and ad¬
joining to it is an extenfive park, all of which is a.fanc-
tuary.
The abbey church was formerly called the monajlery
ef Holyroed-houfe, and built by king David I. in 1x28.
He gave it the name of Holyrood-houfe, in memory, as
is faid, of his deliverance from an enraged hart, by the
miraculous interpofition of a crofs from heaven. This
monaftery he gave to the canons regular of St Auguf-
tine : on whom he alfo beftowed the church of Edin¬
burgh caftle, with thofe of St Cuthbert’s, Corftorphin,
and Libberton, in the fhire of Mid-Lothian, and of
Airth in Stirlingftiire ; the priories of St Mary 's ifte
in Galloway, of Blantyre in Clydefdale, of Rowadill
in Rofs, and three others in the Weftern Ifles. To
them he alfo granted the privilege of eredting a bo¬
rough between the town’ of Edinburgh and the church
: ©f Holyrood-houfe. From thefe canons it had the
name of the Canongate, which it ftill retains. In this
new borough they had a right to hold markets. They
had alfo portions of land in different parts, with a moft
extenfive jurifdidtion, and right of trial by duel, and
fire and water ordeal;. They had alfo certain re¬
venues payable out of the exchequer and other funds,
with fifhings, and the privilege of eredting mills
on the water of Leith, which ftill retain the name
of Canon-mills. Other grants and privileges were be¬
ftowed by fucceeding fovereigns; fo that it was deem-
ed the richeft religious foundation in Scotland. At
the Reformation, its annual revenues were, 442 bolls
of wheat, 640 bolls of bear, 560 bolls of oats, 50Q
capons, two dozen of hens, as many falmon, 12 loads
of fait; befides a great number of fwine, and about
250!. fterling in money. At the Reformation, the
fuperiority of North Leith, part of the Pleafance, the
barony of Broughton, and the Canongate, .was vefted
in the earl of Roxburgh 5 and were purchafed from.’
him by the town-council of Edinburgh in 1636. In
1544, the church fuffered confiderably by the invafion
of the Englifh ; but was fpeedily repaired.. At the
Reftoration, king Charles H. ordered the church to be
fet apart as a chapel-royal, and prohibited its ufe as a
'teommon parifh church for the future. It was then fit¬
ted up in. a very elegant manner. A throne was
4;;
eredled for the fovereign, and 12 flails for the knightf Edjnh
of the order of the thiflle; but as mafs had been ce- '—’■v
lebrated in it in the reign of James VII. and it had
an organ, with a fpire, and a fine chime of bells on
the weft fide, the Prefbyterians at the revolution
entirely deftroyed its ornaments, and left nothing but
the bare walls.—Through time, the roof of the church
became ruinous; on which the duke of Hamilton re-
prefented its condition to the barons of exchequer, and
craved that it might be repaired. This requeft was
complied with: but the archffefl: and mafon who were
employed, covered the roof with thick flag-ftones,
which foon impaired the fabric ; and on the 2d of
December 1768, the roof fell in. Since that time, no
attempt has been made to repair it, and it is now en¬
tirely fallen to ruin.
The ruins of this church, however, are ftill fufficient
to difcover the excellency of the workmanfhip. Here
fome of the king’s of Scotland are interred ; and an
odd kind of curiofity has been the occafion of expofing
fome bones faid to be thofe of lord Darnley and a
countefs of Roxburgh who died feveral hundred years
ago. Thofe faid to belong to the former were very
large, and the latter had fome flelh dried upon them.
The chapel was fitted up in the elegant manner above
mentioned by James VII. but fuch was the enthufiafin
of the mob, that they not only deftroyed the orna¬
ments,. but tore up even the pavement, which was o£
marble.
1 o the eaftward of the palace is the bowling-green,
now entirely in diforder; and behind it is a field called St
Sinn’s Yards. Beyond this is apiece of ground called the
King’s Park; which undoubtedly was formerly over¬
grown with wood, though now there, is not a Angle
tree in it. It is about three miles in circumference;
and was firft inclofed by James. V. It contains the
rocky hills of Arthur’s Seat and Salifbury Craigs,
which laft afford an inexhauftible ftone quarry ; and up¬
on the northTide of the hill ftands an .old ruinous cha¬
pel, dedicated to St Anthony. The ftones are ufedin
building, as well as for paving the ftreets and high-ways.
The park was mortgaged to the family of Haddington
for a debt due to them; and by the prefent earl has
been divided into a number of inclofures by ftone-dykes
raifed at a confiderable expence. A good number of
flxeep and fome black cattle are fed upon itj and it is-
now rented at, 1500 1. annually.
3. St Giles’s Church is a beautiful Gothic building,,
meafuring in length 206 . feet. At the weft end, its-
breadth is 110; in the middle, 12.9; and at the eaft
end. 76 feet. It has a very elevated fituation, and
is adorned with a lofty fquare tower; from the fides
and corners of which rife arches of figured ftone-
work; thefe meeting with each.other in the middle,
complete the figure of an imperial crown, the top of
which terminates in a pointed fpire. The whole height:
of this tower is 161 feet.
This is the moft ancient church in Edinburgh. From
a paffage in an old author called Simeon. Dunelmenjts,
fome conje&ure it to have been built before the year
854.; but we do not find exprefs mention made of it
before 1359. The tutelar faint of this church, and of
Edinburgh, was St'Giles, a native of Greece. He
lived in the fixth century, and was defcended of an.
illuftrious family. On the death of his parents, he
gXit'
EDI [ 3T0 ] EDI
'"■gh pave all his eftate to the poor; and travelled into
France, where he retired into a wildernefs near the
conflux of the Rhone with the fea, and continued there
three years. Having obtained the reputation of ex¬
traordinary fanttity, various miracles were attributed
to him ; and he founded a monailery in Languedoc,
known long after by the name of St Giles’s.—In the
reign of James II. Mr Preftonof Gorton, a gentleman
whofe defcendents ftill poffefs an etlate in the county
of Edinburgh,, got poffefiion of the arm of this faint;
which relic he bequeathed to the church of Edin¬
burgh. In gratitude for this donation, the magiftrates
granted a charter in favour of Mr Prefton’s heirs, by
which the neareft heir of the name of Prefton was en¬
titled to carry it in all proceflions. At the fame
time, the magiftrates obliged themfelves to found
an altar in the church of St Giles’s, and appoint a
chaplain for celebrating an annual mafs for the foul of
Mr Prefton ; and likewife, that a tablet, containing
his arms, and an account of his pious donation, Ihould
be put up in the chapel.—sSt Giles’s was firit Amply a
parilh-church, of which the bilhop of Lindisfarn or Ho¬
ly Illand, in the county of Northumberland, was pa¬
tron. He was fucceeded in the patronage by the ab¬
bot and canons of Dunfermline, and they by the ma¬
giftrates of Edinburgh. In 1466, it was eredled into
a collegiate church by James III.—At the Reforma¬
tion, the church was, for the greater convenience, di¬
vided into feveral parts. The four principal ones are
appropriated to divine worfhip, the leffer ones to
other purpofes. At the fame time the religious uten-
lils belonging to this church were feized by the magi¬
ftrates. They were,— St Giles’s arm, enfhrined in
lilver, weighing five pounds three ounces and an half; a
iilver chalice, or communion-cup, weighing 23 ounces;
the great eucharijl or communion-cup, with golden loeiie
andfloncs; two cruets of 2 9 ounces; a golden bell, with a
heart, of four ounces and a half; a golden unicorn; a
golden pix, to keep the holt ; a fmall golden heart,
with two pearls; a diamond ring ; a filver chalice, pa-
tine, and fpoon, of 32 ounces and a half: a commu¬
nion-table-cloth of gold brocade ; St Giles’s coat, with
a little piece of red velvet which hung at his feet; a
round filver eucharijl: two filver cenfers, of three
pounds fifteen ounces; a filver fhip for incenfe ; a large
filver crofs, with its bafe, weighingfixteen pounds thir¬
teen ounces and a half; a triangular filver lamp ; two
filver candlefticks, of feven pounds three ounces; other
two, of eight pounds thirteen ounces; a filver chalice
gilt, of 2cJ ounces ; a filver chalice and crofs, of 75
ounces ; befides the priefts robes, and other veftments,
of gold brocade, crimfon velvet embroidered with gold,
and green damalk.—Thefe were all fold, and part of
the money applied to the repairs of the church ; the
reft was added to the funds of the corporation.
In the fteeple of St Giles’s church are three large
bells brought from Holland in 1621 ; the biggeft
weighing 2000 lb. the fecond 700, and the third
500. There are alfo a fet of mufic bells, which play
every day between one and two o’clock, or at any time
in the cafe of rejoicings. The principal divifion is
called the High Church, and has been lately repaired
and new featcd. There is a very elegant and finely
ornamented feat for his majefty, with a canopy fupport-
cd by four Corinthian pillars decorated in high tafte.
This feat is ufed by the king’s commiffioner during the Edinburgh.
time the General Affemblj fits. On the right hand is' v"-—
a feat for the lord high conftable of Scotland, whofe
office it is to keep the peace within doors in his ma-
jefty’s prefence ; it being the duty of the earl marlhal
to do the fame without. The feats belonging to the
lords of council and feffion are on the right of the lord
high conftablc ; and on the left of the throne was a feat
for the lord high chancellor of Scotland; but that office
being now^boliffied, the feat is occupied by others.
On the left of this fit the barons of exchequer ; and, to
the left of them, the lord provoft, magiftrates, and
town-council. The pulpit, king’s feat, and galleries, are
covered with crimfon velvet with gold and filk fringes.
The aifle of St Giles’s church is fitted up with feats
for the general affembly who meet here ; and there
is a throne for his majeiiy’s commiffioner with a cano¬
py of crimfon filk damaik, having the king’s arms em¬
broidered with gold, prefented by the late lord Cath-
cart to his fucceffor in office. In this church is a mo¬
nument dedicated to the memory of lord Napier, baron
of Merchiiton, well known as the inventor of loga¬
rithms ; a fecond to the earl of Murray, regent of
Scotland during the minority of James VI. ; and a
third to the great marquis of Montrofe.
4. The Parliament Houfe, in the great hall of which
the Scottilh parliament ufed to afiemble, is a magnificent
building. The hall is 123 feet long and 42 broad, with
a fine arched roof of oak, painted and gilded. In this the
lawyers and agents now attend the courts, and fingle
judges fit to determine caufes in the firft inftance, or to
prepare them for the whole court, who fit in an inner
room formerly appropriated to the privy-council. In a
nich of the wall is placed a fine marble ftatue of prefident
Forbes, erefted at the expence of the faculty -of advo¬
cates. There are alfo full length portraits of king
William III. queen Mary his confort, and queen
Anne, all done by Sir Godfrey Kneller ; alfo of
George I. John duke of Argyle, and Archibald duke
of Argyle, by Mr Aikman of Cairney.
Above flairs are the court of exchequer and trea-
fury chamber, with the different offices belonging
to that department; and below is one of the moll va¬
luable libraries in Great Britain, belonging to the fa¬
culty of advocates. Befides 30,000 printed volumes,
there are many fearce artd valuable manufcripts, medals,
and coins : here is alfo an entire mummy in its origi¬
nal cheft, prefented to the faculty (at the expence of
30ol.)bythe earl of Morton, late prefident of the
royal fociety. As thefe rooms are immediately below
the hall where the parliament fat, they are fubjedl to a
fearch by the lord high conftable of Scotland ever fince
the gun-pow’der plot; and this is fpecified in the gift
from the city to the faculty. This library was found¬
ed, in the year 1682, by Sir George Mackenzie lord
advocate. Among other privileges, it is intitled to a
copy of every book entered in llationer’s hall. Before
the great door is a noble equeftrian ftatue of Ch. li¬
the proportions of which are reckoned exceeding¬
ly juft. Over the entrance are the arms of Scotland,
with Mercy and Truth on each fide for fupporters.
The court of feffion, the fupreme tribunal in Scot¬
land, confifts of 15 judges, who fit on a circular bench,
clothed in purple robes turned up with crimfon velvet.
Six of thefe are lords of the jufticiary, and go the cir-
6 cuit
ED! [ 311 1 E D ^
Eclinljurgh. Cuit twice a-year ; but, in that capacity, they wear which had long before been built on the north fide of E fink
u—^fcarlet robes turned up with white fattin. the high-llreet, and which had beeu thrown out into
5. The Tollooth was eredted in 1561, not for the the hollow to the northward. Of this rubbifh there
purpofes merely of a prifon, but likewtfe for the ac- were no lefs than eight feet between the foundation of
commodation of the parliament and other courts ; but the bridge and the folid earth. Befides this deficiency
it has fince become fo very unfit for any of thefe in the foundation, an immenfe load of earth which had
purpofes, that it is now propofed to pull it down and been laid over the vaults and arches in order to raife
rebuild it in fome other place, efpecially as it is very the bridge to a proper level, had no doubt contributed
inconvenient in its prefent fituation on account of its to produce the cataftrophe above mentioned.—The
incumbering the ftreet. The provoft is captain of the 'bridge was repaired, by pulling down fome parts of the
tolbooth, with a gaoler under him : and the latter has fide-walls, and afterwards rebuilding them; ftrengthen-
a monopoly of all the provifions for the prifoners ; a ing them in others with chain-bars; removing the
circumftance which mull; certainly.be confidered as a quantity of earth laid upon the vaults, and fupplying
grievous opprtfiion., thofe who are lealt able to pur- its place with hollow arches, &c. The whole was fup-
chafe them being thus obliged to do fo at the higheft ported at the fouth end by very ftrong buttreffes and
price. There is a chaplain who has a falary of 30I. a- counterforts on each fide; but on the north it has only
year. a fingle fupport.—The whole length of the bridge,
6. There is a Hall in the Writers Court belonging from the High-ftreet in the Old Town to Prince’s-ftreet
to the clerks to his majefty’s fignet, where there is alfo in the New, is 1x25 feet; the total length of the piers
an office for the bufinefs of the fignet. The office of and arches is 310 feet. The width of the three great
keeper of the fignet is very lucrative, and he is allowed arches is 72 feet each ; of the piers, 134- feet; and of
a depute and clerks under him. Before any one enters the fmall arches, each 2Q feet. The height of the great
into this fociety he mud attend the college for two arches, from the top of the parapet to the hafe, is 68
years, and ferve five years as an apprentice to one of feet; the breadth of the bridge within the wall over
the fociety. There is a good library belonging to the arches is 40 feet, and the breadth at each end 5a
this hall, which is rapidly increafing, as every one who feet.— On the fouthern extremity of this bridge Hands
enters mull pay 10 1. towards it. He pays alfo i001. the GtneralPoft Office for Scotland ; a neat plain build*
of apprentice-fee, and tool, when he enters. ing, with a proper number of apartments for the bufi*-
7. The Exchange is a large and elegant building, nefs, and a houfe for the fecretary
with a court of about 90 feet fquare in the middle. The communication betwixt the two towns hy means
On the north fide are piazzas where people can walk of this bridge, though very complete and convenient
xinder cover, tl^e other three fides being laid out in for fuch as lived in certain parts of either, was yet
/hops; hut the merchants have never made ufe of it to found infufficient for thofe who inhabited the weftern
meet in, Hill Handing in the Hreet as formerly. The diftri&s. Another bridge being therefore neccftary,
back part of the building is ufed for the general cuflom- it was propofed to fill up the valley cccafionally with
houfe of Scotland, where the commiffioners meet to the rubbiih dug out in making the foundations of
tranfaft bufinefs. They have above 20 offices for the houfes in the New Town ; and fo great was the qtian-
different departments, to which the accefs is by a tity, that this was accomplifhed fo as to be fit for the
hanging flair 60 feet in height. In looking over the paffage of carriages in little more than four years and
window before he afeends this Hair, a Hranger is fur- an half. '
prifed to find himfelf already 40 feet from the ground, 8. The South Bridge is dire&ly oppofite to the other,
which is owing to the declivity on w'hich the exchange fo as to make but one Hreet, crolling that called the
is built. For the cuflomhoufe rooms the city receives High-Jlreet almofl at right angles. It ccnfifls of 19
a rent of tl./rrday. arches of different fizes: but only one of them is,
The Truflees Office for the improvement of fiiheries vifible, t/z. the large one over the Cowgate ; and even
and manufactures in Scotland is in the fouth-weff cor- this is fmall in comparifon with thofe of the North,
ner of the exchange ; the fund under their manage- Bridge, being no more than 30 feet wide and 3 1 feet
ment being part of the equivalent money given to high. On the fouth it terminates at the Univeifity
Scotland at the Union. This is diffributed in premi- on one hand, and the Royal Infirmary on the other,
urns amongfl thofe who appear to have made any con- The Tron Church, properly called Chrijl Churchy Hands,
fiderable improvement in the arts. at the northern extremity, facing the High-flreet, and
7. The North Bridgey which forms the main paffage in the middle of what is now called Hunter’s Square, in,
of communication betwixt the Old and New Towns, memory of the late worthy chief magiflrate who plan-
was founded, as has already been obferved, in 1763 by ned thefe improvements, but did not iiverto fee them
Provofl Drummond ; but the contract for building it executed. On the wefl fide of this fquare the Mer-
was not figned till Auguflztff 1765. The architect chant Company have built a very handfome hall for
was Mr William Mylne, who agreed with the town- the occafional meetings of their members. This bridge
council of Edinburgh to finifti the work for 10,140 1. was ereCted with a defign to give an eafy accefs to the
and to uphold it for 10 years. It was alfo to be finifh- great number of flreets and fquares on the fouth fide,
ed before Martinmas 1 769 : but on the 3d of Augufl as well as to the country onrthat quarter from whence
that year, when the work was nearly completed, the the city is fupplied with coals. The Hreet on the top
vaults and fide-walls on the fouth fell down, and five is fuppofed to be as regular as any in Europe ; every
people were buried in the ruins. This misfortune wras houfe being of the fame dimenfions, excepting that
occafioned by the foundation having been laid, not up- between every two of the ordinary conflruCtion there
on the folid earth, but upon the rubbifh of the houfes is one with a pediment on the top, in order to prevent
E O 1 [ 31
Edinburgh, that famenefs of appearance which would otherwjfe
'' take place. So great was the rage for purchafing
ground on each fide of this bridge for building, that
the areas fold by public atf&ion at 50I. per foot in
front. By this the community will undoubtedly be
confiderable gainers; and the proprietors hope to
indemnify themfelves for their extraordinary expence
by the vaft fale of goods fuppofed to attend the (hops
in that part of the town; though this feems fomewhat
more dubious than the former.
9. The Concert Hall, called alfo St Cecilia’s Hall,
Hands in Niddery’s-ftreet; and was built in 1762,
after the model of the great opera-theatre in Parma.
The plan was drawn by Sir Robert Mylne, architeft
of Blackfriars bridge. The mufical room is of an oval
form, the ceiling being a concave elliptical dome, lighted
from the top by a lanthorrt. The feats are ranged in
the form of an' amphitheatre ; and are capable of con¬
taining 500 perfons, befides leaving a large area in the
middle of the room. The orcheftra is at the upper end,
and is terminated by an elegant organ.
The mufical fociety was firll inftituted in the year
1728. Before that time, feveral gentlemen had formed
a weekly club at a tavern kept by one Steil, a great
lover of mufic, and a good finger of Scots fongs. Here
the common enertainment confifted in playing on the
harpfichord and violin the concertos and fonatas of
Handel, juft then publiftied. The meeting, however,
foon becoming numerous, they inftituted, in the year
above mentioned, a fociety of 70 members, for the
. purpofe of holding a weekly concert. The affairs of
the fociety are regulated by a governor, deputy-go¬
vernor, treafurer, and five direttors, who are annually
chofen by the members. The meetings have been
continued ever fince that time on much the fame foot¬
ing as at firft, and the number of members is now in-
creafed to 200. The weekly concerts are on Friday ;
the tickets being given gratis by the directors, and at¬
tention paid in the firft place to ftrangers. Oratorios
are occafionally performed throughout the year; and
the principal performers have alfo benefit concerts.
The band are excellent in their feveral departments ;
and feveral of the members are alfo good performers,
and take their part in the orcheftra. There are al¬
ways many applications on the occafion of a vacancy
by the death of any of the members or otherwife ; and
fuch is generally the number of candidates, that it is
no eafy matter to get in.
10. The Uni'verjity. In the year 1581, a grant was
obtained from king James VI. for founding a college
or univerfity within the city of Edinburgh ; and the
citizens, aided by various donations from well difpofed
perfons, purchafed a fituation for the intended new
college, confifting of part of the areas, chambers, and
church of the collegiate provoftry and prebends of the
Kirk-a-field, otherwife called Ttmplum et PrafeBura
SanBtc Maria in campis, lying on the fouth fide of the
city. Next year, a charter of confirmation and erec¬
tion was obtained alfo from king James VI. from which
the college to be built did afterwards derive all the
privileges of an univerfity.
In 1583, the provoft, magiftrates, and council, the
patrons of this new inftitution, prepared the place
in the beft manner they could for the reception of
teachers and ftudents ; and in the month of O&ober
N° 108.
]
E D I
the fame year, Robert Rollock, whom they had in- Edinburgh,
vited from a profefforihip in St Salvator’s College in  v—<<
the univerfity of St Andrew’s, began to teach in the
new college of Edinburgh. Other profeffors were
foon after elefted ; and in the year 1586, Rollock was
appointed principal of the college, and the following
year alfo profeffor of divinity, immediately after he
had conferred the degree of M. A. on the ftudents
who had been under his tuition for four years. The
offices of principal and profeffor of divinity remained
united till the year 1620.
In the 1617, king James VI. having vifited Scot¬
land after his acceffion to the crown of England, com¬
manded the principal and regents of the college of
Edinburgh to attend him in Stirling caftk ; and after
they had there held a folemn philofophical difputation
in the royal prefence, his majefty was fo much fatif-
fied with their appearance, that he defired their col¬
lege for the future might be called The College of King
James, which name it ftill bears in all its diplomas or
public deeds.
For feveral years the college confifted only of a
principal, who was alfo profeffor of divinity, with four
regents or profeffors of philofophy. Each of thefe
regents inftrufted one clafs of ftudents for four years,
in Latin, Greek, fchool logic, mathematics, ethics,
and phyfics, and graduated them at the conclufion of
the fourth courfe. A profeffor of humanity or Latin
was afterwards appointed, who prepared the ftudents
for entering under the tuition of the regents; alfo a
profeffor of mathematics, and a profeffor of Hebrew
or Oriental languages. It was not till about the year
1710 that the four regents began to be confined each
to a particular profeffion ; fince which time they have
been commonly ftyled Profejfors of Greek, Logic, Mo¬
ral, Philofophy, and Natural Philofophy.—The firft me¬
dical profeffors inftituted at Edinburgh, were Sir Ro¬
bert Sibbald and Dodlor Archibald Pitcairn, in the
year 1685*. Theie, however, were only titular pro- * See Cot-
feffors; and for 30 years afterwards, a fummer-lefture lege 0/
on the officinal plants, and the diffeftion of a human Phf,cla>ls‘
body once in two or three years, completed the whole
courfe of medical education at Edinburgh.—In 1720,
an attempt was made to teach the different branches
of phyfic regularly; which fucceeded fo well, that,
ever fince, the reputation of the univerfity as a
fchool for medicine hath been conftantly increafing,
both in the ifland of Britain, and even among diftant
nations.
The college is endowed with a very fine lihmry,
founded in 1580 by Mr Clement Little advoSte,
who bequeathed it to the town-council. They order¬
ed a houfe to be built for it in the neighbourhood of
St Giles’s church, where it was for fame time kept
under the care of the eldelt minifter of Edinburgh,
but was afterwards removed to the college. This col¬
lection is enriched, as well as others of a fimilar kind,
by receiving a copy of every book entered in Station¬
er’s hall, according to the ftatute for the encourage¬
ment of authors. Befides this, the only fund it has
is the money paid by all the ftudents at the univerfity,
except thofe of divinity, upon their beings matriculated ;
and a fum of 5I. given by each profeffor at his admif-
fion. The amount of thefe fums is uncertain, but has
been eftimated at about 150L annually. The ftudents
ef
EDI [ 313 1 EDI
MnbHfph. rtf, divinity, who pay nothing to tin's library, have One
^ belonging to their own particular department.
Here are fhown two Ikulls, one altnoft tis thin
as paper, pretended to be that of the celebrated
George Buchanan, and, by way of contrail, another
faid to have been that of an idiot, and which is
exceffively thick. Here alfo are preferved the origi¬
nal proteil againfl the council of Conllance for burn¬
ing John Hufs and Jerom of Prague in 1417; the origi- ►
nal contrail of queen Mary with the dauphin of France,
and fome valuable coins and medfds. There are alfo
feveral portraits; particularly of Robert Pollock the
firll principal of the univerfity, king James VI. Lord
KTapier the inventor of logarithms, John Knox, prin¬
cipal Carllairs, Mr Thomfon the author of the Seafons,
&c. The mufeum contains a good colleflion of natural
Curiofities, the number of which is daily increafing.
The anatomical preparations are worth notice, as are
alfo thofe belonging to the profeflbr of midwifery.
The celebrity of this College has been greatly owing
to the uniform attention of the magiftracy in filling
Up the vacant chairs with men of known abilities in
their refpeclive departments. Greatly to their honour,
too, they have been no lefs attentive to the inftituting
of new profefTorfhips from time to time as the public
feemed to demand them. At prefent (anno 1790),
the Senatus Academicus confilts of the following mem¬
bers, arranged according to the different faculties.
• Faculty of Theology.
Hugh Blair, D. T). Emeritus Profeffor of Rhetoric ficfnbutgh.
and Belles Lettres.  v—'
Andrew Dalziel, A. M. Profeflor of Greek, and Se¬
cretary and Librarian.
John Robifon, A. M. Profeffor of Natural Philofophy.
Dugald Stewart, A. M. Profeffor of Moral Philo¬
fophy.
John Hill, LL. D. ProfefTor of Humanity.
John Bruce, A. M. Joint Profeffor of Logic-
John Walker, D. D. Regiu* Profeffor of Natural Hi-
flory, and Keeper of the Mufeum.
William Greenfield, A. M. Profeffor of Rhetoric and
Belles Lettres.
John Playfair, A. M. Profeffor of Mathematics.
Robert Blair, M. D. Regius Profeffor of Practical A-
flronomy.
James Finlayfon, A. M. Joint Profeffor of Logic.
Andrew Coventry, M. D. Profeffor of Agriculture.
Andrew Fife, Principal Janitor and Macer.
William Stewart, Under Janitor.
N. B. There are only about 50 burfers in this uni¬
verfity, and thefe do not exceed 12 K per annum.
The number of Undents during the lafl feffion of
the college, from October 10. 1789 to May 6. 1790,
was nearly as follows :
Students of Divinity # - . 130
—  ^Law - 100
 Phyfic - 440
General Gaffes - - 420.
William Robertfon, D. D. Principal of the College.
Andrew Hunter, D. D. Profeffor of Divinity.
Thomas Hardy, D. D. Regius Profeffor of Church-
Hiitory.
James Robertfon, D. D. Profeffor of Oriental Lan¬
guages, and Emeritus Secretary and Librarian.
Faculty of Law.
Robert Dick, Advocate, Profeffor of Civil Law.
AllanMaconOchie, Advocate, Profeffor. of Public Law.
Alexander Frafer Tyder, Advocate, Profeffor of Uni-
verfal Civil Hillor.y, and of Greek and Roman Anti¬
quities.
David Hume, .Advocate, Profeffor of Scots Law.
Faculty of Medic in i.
Alexander Monro, M. D. Profeffor of Medicine, and
of Anatomy and Surgery.
James Gregory, M. D. Profeffor of the Pradtice of
Phyfic.
Jofeph Black, M. D. Profeflbr of Medicine and Che-
miftry.
Francis Home, M. D. Profeffor of Medicine and Ma¬
teria Medica.
Andrew Duncan, M. D. Profeffor of the Theory of
Phyfic.
Daniel Rutherford, M. D. Profeffor of Medicine and
Botany.
Alexander Hamilton, M. D. Profeffor of Midwifery.
Faculty of Aras.
George Stewart, LL. D._ Emeritus Profeffor of Hu¬
manity.
Adam Ferguffon, LL. D. Emeritus Profeffor of Moral
Philofophy, and joint Profeffor of Mathematics.
Vol.VI. Part. I.
In all 1090
The old buildings being very mean, and unfit for
the reception of fo many profeffors and fludents, and
quite unfuitable to the dignity of fuch a flourilhing
univerfity, as well as inconfiftent with the improved
Hate of the city, the Lord Provoft, Magiftrates, and
Council, fet on foot a fubfcription for eredting a new
llrudlure, according to a delign of Robert Adam, Efq;
architedl. Part of the old fabric has in confequence
been pulled down, and the new building is already in
confiderable forwardnefs. The foundation flone was
laid on Monday the 16th of November, with great fo-
lemnity, by the Right Hon. Francis Lord Napier,
grand mailer mafon of Scotland, in the prefence of
the Right Hon. the Lord Provoll, Magillrates, and
Town-Council of the city of Edinburgh, with the
Principal, Profeffors, and Students of the univerfity of
Edinburgh, a number of Nobility and Gentry, and
the Mailers, Officers, and Brethren, of all tbe lodges
of free mafons in the city and neighbourhood, who
marched in proceffion from the Parliament-Houfe
down the High-Street. After the different mafonic
ceremonials were performed, two cryftal-bottles, call
on purpofe at the glafs-houfe of Leith, were depofited
in the foundation-llone. In one of thefe were put
different coins of the prefent reign, each of them be¬
ing previoully enveloped in cryllal, in fuch art ingeni¬
ous manner, that the legend on the coins could be di-
Ilinflly read without breaking the cryllal. In the other
bottle were depofited feven rolls of vellum, containing
a Ihort account of the original foundation and prefent
Hate of the univerfity, together with feveral other pa¬
pers, in particular the different newfpapers, containing
advertifements relative to the college, &c. and a lilt of
the names of the Principal and Profeffors, alio of the
R r prefent
EDI [ 314 J EDI
Edinburgh prefent Lord Provoft and Maglftrates, and Officers of
“■ '* the grand lodge of Scotland. The bottles being care¬
fully fealed up, were covered with a plate of copper
wrapt in block tin ; and upon the under fide of the
copper wei c engraved the arms of the city of Edin-
buigh and the univerfity ; likewife the arms of the
Right Hon. Lord Napier, grand matter mafon of
Scotland. Upon the upper fide, a Latin infcription,
of which the following is a copy:
ANNUENTE DEO OPT. MAX.
REGNANTE GEORGIO III. PRINCIPE
MUNIFICENTISSIMO;
ACADEMIA! EDINBUR6EN S IS
jEDIBUS,
INITIO QUIDEM HUMILLIMIS,
ET JAM, POST DUO SECULA, PENE RUINOSIS;
NOVI HUJUS JEDIFICII,
UBI COMMODITATI SIMUL ET ELEGANTIAS,
TANTO DOCTRINARUM DOMICILIO
DIGNjE,
CONSULERETUR,
PRIMUM LAPIDEM POSUIT,
PLAUDENTE INGENTI OMNIUM ORDINUM
FREQUENTIA,
VIR NOBILISSIMUS
FRANCISCOS DOMINUS NAPIER,
REIPUB. ARCHITECTONICS APUD SCOTOS
CURIO MAXIMUS!
XVI. KAD. DECEMB.
ANNO SALUTIS HUMANS MDCCLXXXIX.
SRS ARCHITECTONICS IDDIDCCLXXXIX.
CONSOLE TH.OMA ELDER,
ACADEMIS PRSFECTO GULIELMO
ROBERTSON,
ARCHITECTO ROBERTO ADAM.
F. F. S.
The eaft and weft fronts of this pile are to extend 255
feet, and the fouth and north 358. There are to be
houfes for the principal and fix or feven of the profeffors.
The library is to be a room of 160 feet in length; the
mufeum for natural curiofities is to be of the fame
extent; and the dimenfions of the hall for degrees and
public exercifes are about 90 feet by 30. There are
likewife to be an elegant and moft convenient anato¬
mical theatre ; a chemical laboratory ; and large rooms
for inftruments and experiments for the profeflbrs of
mathematics, natural philofophy, a;nd agriculture. The
whole when finilhed, if not the mott fplendid ftru&ure
of the fort in Europe, will however be the completeft
and moft commodious ; and it will do the utmoft ho¬
nour to the genius of the architeft and to the munifi¬
cence of the public. About L. 16,000 is already fub-
fcribed; and there is no doubt that the aid of parlia¬
ment will be granted to complete the work.
The botanical garden belonging to the univerfity is
fituated at the diftance of about a mile, on the road
between Edinburgh and Leith. It conlifts of about five
acres of ground; and is furr.ifhed with a great variety of
plants, many of them brought from the moft diftant
quarters of the globe. The profeflbr is botanift to the
king, and receives a falary of 120I. annually for the
fupport of the garden. A monument, to the memo¬
ry of the celebrated botar.ift Linnaeus, was eredfed
here by the late Dr Hope, who firft planned the gar¬
den, and brought it to perfection..
The univerfity of Edinburgh, like the others in thisF.dinburgh
kingdom, fends one member to the General Affembly  v  
of the church of Scotland; and the widows of the
profeffors have a right to the funds of thofe of mini-
fters, the profeffors being truftees on that fund along
with the prefbyteiy of Edinburgh.
X I. ’The Royal Infirmary was firft thought of by the
college of phyficians in 1725. A filhing company
happening to be diffolved at that time, the partners
contributed fome of their flock towards the ettablifti-
ment of the infirmary. A fubfcription was alfo feton
foot, and application made to the General Affembly to
recommend the fame throughout their jurifdidtion.
This was readily complied with, and the affembly paf-
fed an adt for that purpofe; but very little regard was
paid to it by the clergy. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, 2000I. being procured, a fmall houfe was opened
for the reception of the fick poor in Auguft 1729. In
1736, the contributors towards the infirmary were
eredfed into a body corporate by royal ftatute; and
after this the contributions increafed very confiderably:
by which means the managers were enabled to enlarge
their fcheme from time to time ; and at laft to under¬
take the prefent magnificent ftruclure, the foundation
of which was laid in 1738. During 25 years, when
this inftitution was in its infancy, Lord Hopetoun
beftowed upon it an annuity of 400I. In 1750,
Dodtor Archibald Ker bequeathed to this incorpora¬
tion 200I. a-year in the ifland of Jamaica. In 1755,
the lords of the treafury made a donation to it of 80001.
which had been appointed for the fupport of invalids.
In return for this, the managers of the infirmary con-
ftantly keep 60 beds in readinefs for the reception of
fick foldiers. This year alfo fick fervants began to be
admitted into the infirmary, and a ward was fitted up
for their reception.
This inftitution, however, was more indebted to
George Drummond, Efq; than to any other perfon. He
w as feven times chofen lord provoft of Edinburgh; and
always diredled his attention to the improvement of
the city, particularly to that of the royal infirmary.
So fenfible were the managers of their obligations to
him, that, in their hall, they eredled a buft of him with
this infcription, “ George Drummond, to whom this
country is indebted for all the benefit which it derives
from the Royal Infirmary.”—In 1748, the flock of
the infirmary amounted to 5000I; in 1755, t0 7°76L
befides the eftate left by Do&dr Ker; in 1764, to
23,426!.; and in 1778, to 27,074!.
The royal infirmary is attended by two phyficians-
chofen by the managers, who vifit their patients daily
in prefence of the ftudents. All the membeis of the
college of furgeons are alfo obliged to attend in rota¬
tion, according to feniority. If any furgeon declines-
attendance, he is not allowed to appoint a depute; but
the patients are committed to the care of one of four
affiftant furgeons, chofen annually by the managers.—
From the year 1762 to 1769, there were admitted 6261
patients; which number added to 109 who were in the
hofpital at the commencement of the year 1762, made,
in all, 6370. Of thefe, 4395 w^ere cured ; 358 died;
the reft were either relieved, difmilfed incurable, tor
irregularities, or by their own defire, or remained m the
hofpital.— From 177010 1775, the patients annually
admitted into the infirmary were, at an average, 1567;
of whom 63 died. In 1776, there were admitted 1668,
of
EDI [ 3*5 J EDI
Edinburgh of whom 57 died; and in 1777, the number admitted
  v  was 1593, and of deaths 52. In the year 1786,
there were admitted 1822 patients: Of thefe 1354
were cured; 166 relieved ; 84 died; the reft were
either relieved, difmiffed incurable, for irregularities,
or by their own defire.
The building confifts of a body and two wings, each
of them three ftories high, with an attic ftory and gar¬
rets, and a very elegant front. The body is 210 feet
long, and 36 broad in the middle, but at the ends only
24 feet broad. There is a bull of king George II. in
a Roman drefs, above the great door. The wings are
70 feet long, and 24 broad. In the centre is a large
ftair-cafe, fo wide that fedan chairs may be carried
up. In the different wards, 228 patients may be ac¬
commodated, each in a different bed. There are
cold and hot baths for the patients, and alfo for
the citizens; and to thefe laft the patients are never
admitted.
Befides the apartments neceffary for the fick, there
are others for the officers and fervants belonging to the
houfe. There are likewife rooms for the managers, a
confulting room for the phyficians and furgeons, a
waiting-room for the ftudents, and a theatre that will
hold upwards of 200 people for performing chirur-
gical operations. There is a military ward, fupport-
ed by the intereft of the 80001. already mentioned;
and in confequence of which a fmall guard is al¬
ways kept at the infirmary. The wards for fick
fervants are fupported by collections at the church
doors. Befides the attendance of the royal college
of furgeons by rotation, as has already been men¬
tioned, there are two phyficians belonging to the
houfe, who are elefted by the managers, and have a
fmall falary; there is likewife a houfe-furgeon and
apothecary. Students who attend the infirmary pay
3I. 3s. annually, which brings in a revenue of about
5001. towards defraying the expence of the houfe..
Two wards are fet apart for the patients whofe cafes
are fuppofed to be moft interefting; and the phyfi¬
cians give leftures upon them.
12. The Public Difpenfary was founded by Dr Dun¬
can in 1776, for the poor whofi* difeafes are of fuch a
nature as to render their admiffion into the infirmary
either unneceffary or improper. Here the patients re¬
ceive advice gratis four days in the week; a regifter
is kept of the difeafes of each, and of the effefts pro¬
duced by the medicines employed. All patients not
improper for difpenfary treatment are admitted on the
recommendation of the elder or church-warden of the
parifh where they refide. The phyficians officiate and
give leisures gratis; fo that the apothecary who lodges
in the houfe, and the medicines, are the only expen-
ces attending this ufeful inftitution. The expence of
the whole is defrayed by public contributions, and
from a fmall annual fee paid by the ftudents who at¬
tend the ledlures. It is under the dire&ion of a pre-
fident, two vice-prefidents, and 20 directors, elected
annually from among the contributors. One guinea
intitles a contributor to recommend patients and be a
governor for two years, and five guineas gives the fame
privilege for life.
13. The High School. The earlieft inftitution of a
grammar-fchool in Edinburgh feems to have been a-
bout the year 1519. The whole expence beftowed up- EdinWffh.
on the firft building of this kind amounted only to a- -"v—*
bout 40I. Sterling. Another building, which had
been erefted for the accommodation of the fcholars in
1578, continued, notwithftanding the great increafe
of their number, to be ufed for that purpofe till 1777.
The foundation of the prefent new building was laid
on the 24th of June that year by Sir William Forbes,
Grand Mafter of the Free Mafons. The total length
of this building is 120 feet from fouth to north ; the
breadth in the middle 36, at each end 38 feet. The
great hall where the boys meet for prayers, is 68 feet
by 30. At each end of the hall is a room of 32 feet
by 20, intended for libraries. The building is two
ftories high, the one 18, the other 17, feet in height.
The expence of the whole when finifhed is reckoned at
40001.
There is a reftor and four mafters, who teach from
4 to 500 fcholars annually. The falaries are trifling,
and the fees depend upon the reputation they have
obtained for teaching; and as this has been for fomr
years very confiderable, the re&or’s place is fuppofed
to be worth not lefs than 4001. per annum, a mailer’s
about half that fum. There is a janitor, whofe place is
fuppofed to be worth about 70I. a-year. His bufinefs
is to take care of the boys on the play-ground; and
there is a woman who lives on the fpot as under ja¬
nitor, whofe place may be worth about 251. annually.
There is a library, but not large, as each of the boys
pays only one Hulling annually to its fupport.
There are four eftablilhed Englilh fchools in Edin¬
burgh ; the mafters of which receive a fmall falary,
upon exprefs condition that they lhall not take above
five Ihillings per quarter from any of their fcholars.
There are likewife many other private fchools in Edin¬
burgh for all languages ; and, in general, every kind
of education is to be had here in great perfection and
at a very cheap rate.
.14. The Mint is kept up by the articles of union,
with all the offices belonging to it, though no money
is ever ftruck here. It ftands in the Cowgate, a little
to the weft of the Englifli church ; but is in a ruinous
ftate, though ftill inhabited by the different officers,
who have free houfes; and the bell-man enjoys his fa¬
lary by regularly ringing the bell. This place, as well
as the abbey of Holyrood-houfe, is an afylum for debt¬
ors.
15. The Englijh Chapel ftands near the Cowgate
port, and was founded on the 3d of April 1771. The
foundation-ftone was laid by general Oughton, with
the following infeription: Edijici facr. Ecclefite epife. An¬
glia, primum pofuit lapidem J. Adolphus 0 ugh ton, in archi-
teftonica Scotia repub. atrio maximus, militumprafecius, reg-
nante Georgia III. tertio Apr. die, A. D. MDCCLXXI.
It is a plain handfome building, neatly fitted up in
the infide, and fomewhat refembling the church of
St Martin’s in the Fields, London. It is 90 feet long,
75 broad, and ornamented with an elegant fpire' of
confiderable height. It is alfo furnifhed with an ex¬
cellent bell, formerly belonging to the chapel royal at
Holyrood-houfe, which is permitted to be rung for af-
fembling the congregation ; an indulgence not grant¬
ed to the Prelbyterians in England. The expence of
the building was defrayed by voluntary fubfeription ;
R r 2 and.
Edinburgh
e»i r 316
ami, to the honour of the country, people of all per-
fuahoas contributed to this pious work. It has al¬
ready, coll 70001. and will require roool. more to
finilh the portico. This church is built in a Angular
manner, viz. from fouth to notth, and the altar-piece
Hands- on the call fide.- Three clergymen officiate
here, of whom the iirll has 150I. the other two
100I. each. The altar-piece is finely decorated, and
there is a good organ.
There is another Epifcopal chapel,, but fmall, in
Black-fryars wynd, which was founded by Baron
Smith in the year 1722. There are alfofome meetings
of the Epifcopal church of Scotland, who adhere to
their old forms, having Hill their bilhops and inferior
clergy. For feme time thefe were fubjected to penal
laws,.as they refufed to take the oath to government,
or mention the prefent royal family in their public
prayers: but of late'they have conformed, and had
their condudl approved of by his Majefty ; fo that now
every denomination of Chriilian* in Britain pray for
the royal family on the throne.
16. Heriot's Hojpltal owes its foundation to George
Heriot, goldfmith to James VI. who acquired by his
bufinefs a large fortune- At his death, he left the
magiftrates of Edinburgh 23,625!. 10 s. “ for the
maintenance, relief, and bringing up of fo many poor
and fatherlefs boys, freemens fons of the town of
Edinburgh,” as the above fum Ihould be fufficient
for. This hofpital is finely fituated on the well
end of the fouth ridge, almolt oppofite to the caftle,
and is the moll magnificent building of the kind in
Edinburgh. It was founded in July 1628, accord¬
ing to a plan (as is reported) of Inigo Jones; but
the work being interrupted by the civil wars, it was
not finilhed till the year 1650. The expence of the
building is faid to have been upwards of 30,000! (a) :
and the hofpital is now poffeffed of an income of about
3000!. a-year; though this cannot be abfolutely af-
certained, as the rents are paid in grain, and of courfe
mull be flu&uating.
It Hands on a rifing ground to the fouth-weft of the
city, and is a fquare of 162 feet without, having
a court 94 feet fquare in the iiifide, with piazzas on
three of the fides. There is a fpire with a clock over
the gateway, and each corner of the building is or¬
namented with turrets ; but notwithHanding the mag¬
nificent appearance of the outfide, the inner part
is far from being convenient. There is a fiatue of
the founder over the gateway, in the drefs of the
times, and a very good painting of him ih the gover¬
nor’s room, with a picture of the late treafurer Mr Car¬
michael. There is a chapel 61 feet long and 22 broad,
which is now repairing in fuch a manner as will make
It worthy of notice. When Cromwell took poffeffion
of Edinburgh after the battle of Dunbar, he quartered
his fick and wounded foldiers in this hofpital. It was
I EDI
applied to the fame purpofe till the year 1658, when EcUahorgV
general Monk, at the requell of the governors, re- v~“-
moved the foldiers ; and on the 1 ith of April 1659,
it was opened for the reception of boys, 30 of whom
were admitted into it. The Augufl after, they were
increafed to 40; and in 1661, to 52. In 1753 the
number was raifed to 130, and in 1763 to 140; but
fince that time it has decreafed. — In this hofpital
the boys are inllrufted in reading, writing, arith¬
metic, and a knowledge of the Latin tongue. With
foch as choofe to follow any kind of trade, an ap¬
prentice-fee of 301. is given vvlien they leave the
hofpital; and thofe who choofe an academical educa¬
tion, have an annuity of tol. a-year bellowed on them
for four years. The whole is under the overlight
of the treafurer, who has under him a heufe-gover-
nor, houfe-keeper, and fohool-mailers.
1 7. V/at foil’s Hofpital has its name from the founder
George Watfon, who was at firll clerk to Sir William
Dick provoll of Edinburgh in 1676, then accountant
of the bank of Scotland ; after that he became receiver
of the city’s impoll on ale, treafurer to the Merchant’s
Maiden Hofpital, and to the fociety for propagating
Chriilian knowledge. Dying a bachelor in 1723, he
left 12,oool. for the maintenance and education of the
children and grand-children of decayed members of
the merchant company of Edinburgh. The fcheme,
however, was not put in execution till the year 1738,
when the fum originally left had accumulated to
20,0001. The prefent building was then eredled, in
which about 60 boys are maintained and educated.
It is much lefs magnificent than Heriot’s hofpital, but
the building is far from being defpicable. It Hands to
the fouthward of the city at a fmall diHance from
Heriot’s hofpital, and was eredled at the expence of
5000I.: its prefent revenue is about 1700I. It is un¬
der the management of the mailer, affillants, and trea¬
furer of the Merchant Company, four old bailies, the
old dean of guild, and the two minilters of the old
cburch. The boys are genteelly clothed and liberally
educated. Such as choofe an univerfity education are
allowed 10I. per annum for five years: thofe who go
to trades have 201. allowed them for their apprentice
fee; and at the age of 25 years, if they have behaved
properly, and not contradled marriage without confent
of the governors, they receive a bounty of 501. The
boys ate under the immediate infpe&ion of the trea¬
furer, fchool-mailer, and houfe-keeper.
18. The Merchants Maiden Hofpital was eftablilhed
by voluntary contribution about the end of the lafi cen¬
tury, for the maintenance of young girls, daughters of
the merchants burgelfes of Edinburgh. The gover¬
nors were eredled into a body corporate, by a£l of par¬
liament, in 1707. The annual revenue amounts to
1350I. Seventy girls are maintained in it; who, up¬
on leaving the houfe, receive 3I. 6s. 8d. excepting
a
(a) It is to be obferved, that money then bore tc\. per cent, interell.— Tire above firms are taken from Mr
Arnot’s Hifiory of Edinburgh, who fubjoins the following note. “ Where Maitland had collected his moll
erroneous account of George HerLot’s effedts, we do. not know. He makes the fum received, out of Heriot’s
effe&s, by the governors of the hofpital, to. be 43,608!. 1 [ s. 3d. being almoll the double of what they really
got. This blunder has been the caufe of many unjull murmurings againll the magillrates of Edinburgh, and
svea the means of fpiriting up law-fuits againfi them.”
E D I
Edinbnrjrh. a few who are allowed 81. 6s. 8d. out of the funds of
the hofpital. The profits arifing from work done in
the houfe are alfo divided among the girls, according
to their induftry.
19. The Trades Maiden Hofpital was founded in the
year 1704 by the incorporations of Edinburgh, for the
maintenance of the daughters of decayed members, on
a plan fimilar to that of the merchants hofpital. To
this, as well as to the former, one Mrs Mary Erlkine,
a widow gentlewoman, contributed fo liberally, that
{he was by the governors ftyled joint fovndrefs of the
hofpital. Fifty girls are maintained in the houfe, who
pay of entry-money 11. 13s. 4d. ; and, when they
leave it, receive a bounty of 5I. 11 s. i4rd. The re¬
venues are eftimated at 600I. a-year.
20. Tie Orphan Hofpital was planned in 1732 by
Andrew Gairdner merchant, and other inhabitants.
It was promoted by the fociety for propagating Chri-
ftian knowledge, by other focieties, by voluntary fub-
fcriptions, and a collefTtion at the church-doors. — In
1733, the managers hired a houfe, took in 30 orphans,
maintained them, gave them inftruftions in read¬
ing and writing, and taught them the weaving bufi-
nefs. In [735, they were erected into a body corpo¬
rate by the town of Edinburgh : and, in I742 > they' ob¬
tained a charter of ereftion from his late majefty, ap¬
pointing molt of the great officers of Hate in Scotland,
and the heads of the different focieties in Edinburgh,
- members of this corporation ; with powers to them to
hold real property to the amount of 1000I. a-year.
The revenue is inconfiderable ; but the inftitution is
fupported by the contributions of charitable perfons.
Into this hofpital orphans are received from, any part
of the kingdom. None are admitted under feven, nor
continued in it after 14, years of age. At prefent
( 1790) about 140 orphans are maintained in it.
The orphan hofpital is fituated to the eaft of the
north bridge; and is a handfome building, confifting of
a body and two wings, with a neatfpire, furnilhed with
a clock and two bells. The late worthy Mr Howard
admits, that this inftitution is one of the moft uefeful
charities in Europe, and is a pattern for all inftitutions
of the kind. The funds have been confiderably in-
creafed, and the building greatly improved, through
the attention and exertions of Mr Thomas Tod the’pre¬
fent treafurer.
21. The Trinity Hofpital. This was originally found¬
ed and amply endowed by king James II.’s queen. At
the Reformation, it was ftripped of its revenues ; but
the regent afterwards beftowed them on the provoft of
Edinburgh, who gave them to the citizens for the ufe
of the poor. In tySj, the town-council purchafed
from Robert Pont, at that time provoft of Trinity col¬
lege, his intereft in thefe fubjetfts ; and the tranfaetion
was afterwards ratified byr James VI. The hofpital was
then repaired, and appointed for the reception of poor
old burgeffes, their wives, and unmarried children, not
under 50 year s of age. In the year 1700, this hos¬
pital maintained 5.4 peribns ; but, fince that time, the
number has decrealed.—The revenue eonfifts in a
real eftate of lands and houfes, the grofs rent of which
are 762I. a-year; and 5500I. lent oiit in bonds at 4 per
cent.
This hofpital is fituated at the foot of Leith-wynd,
and maintains about 50 of both fexes, who are com-
EDI
fortably lodged, each liaving a room for themfelves. Eduil ur^h.
They are fupplied with roaft or boiled meat every day —y—
for dinner, have money allowed them for clothes, and
likewife a fmall fum for pocket-money. There it
a fmall library for their amufement, and they have a
chaplain to fay prayers. There are fome Out-pen-
fioners who have 61. a-year, but thefe are difeouraged
by the governors. The funds are under the manage¬
ment of the town-council.
22. The Charily Workhoufe was erefted in 1743 by
voluntary contribution. It is a large plain building,
on the fouth fide of the city. Here the poor are em¬
ployed, and are allowed twopence out of every (hilling,
they earn. The expence of this inftitution is fuppo-
fed not to be lefs than 40001. annually; as about 700
perfons of both fexes, including children, are main¬
tained here, each of whom cannot be reckoned to coft
lefs than 4I. ios. per annum; and there are befides
300 out-peniioners. The only permanent fund for de¬
fraying this expence is a tax of two per cent, on the
valued rents of the city, which may bring in about
600 1. annually; and there are other funds which yield
about 4001. The reft is derived from collettions at
the church doors and voluntary contributions; but as
thefe always fall fhort of what is requifite, recourfe mult
frequently be had to extraordinary colle&ions. The
fum arifing from the rents of the city, however, is
conftantl/ increafing ;, but the members of the College
of Juftice are.exempted from the tax.
There are two other charity workhoufes in the fub-
urbs, much on the fame plan with that now deferibed;
one in the Canongate, and the other in St Ciithbert’s
or Well Kirk parilh.
To this account of the charitable eftablilhments in
Edinburgh, we lhall add that of fome others ; which,
though not calculated to decorate the city by any
public building, are perhaps no lefs deferving of
praife than any we have mentioned. The firft is that
of Captain William Horn; who left 3500I. in trull to
the magillrates, the annual profits to be divided on
Chriftmas day to poor out-day labourers, who mull at
that feafon of. the year be dellitute of employment;
five pounds to be given to thofe who have large fami¬
lies, and one half to thofe who have fmaller.
Another charity is that of Robert Johnllon, L.L.D.
of London, who in 1640 left 3000 1. to the poor of
this city ; 10Q0 I. to be employed in fetting them to
work, another. 10001. to clothe the hoys in Heriot’s
Hofpital, and the third 10001. to burfers at the uni-
verfity.
About the beginning of this century John Strachem
left his ellate of Craigcrook, now upwards of 3001.
a-year, in trull to the prefoytery of Edinburgh, to bu
by them difpofed of in fmall annual fums to poor
.old people not under 65 years ef age, and to orphans
not above 12.
There is befides a fociety for the fupport of the in-
dufttious poor, another for the indigent lick, and there
are alfo many charity-fchools.
Having thus given an account of the moll re¬
markable edifices belonging to Old Edinburgh, we
lhall now proceed to thofe of the New Town. This
is terminated on the eaft fide by the Calton-hill,,
round which there is a pleafan't walk, and which af¬
fords one of the finell profpects that can be imagined,
varying
[ .317 1
E D I
Edinburgh, varying remarkably almoft at every ftep. On this hill
is a burying-ground, which contains a fine monument
to the memory of David Hume the hiftorian.—On
the top is an Obfervatory, the fcheme for building
which was firft adopted in the year 1736 ; but the dis¬
turbance occafioned by the Porteous mob prevented
any thing from being done towards the execution of it
at that time. The Earl of Morton afterwards gave
tool, for the purpofe of building an obfervatory, and
appointed Mr M‘Laurin profeffor of mathematics, to¬
gether with the principal and fome profeflbrs of the
univerfity, truftees for managing the fum. Mr M‘Lau-
iin added to the money above mentioned the profits
arifing from a courfe of lectures which he read on ex¬
perimental philofophy; which, with fome other fmall
fums, amounted in all to 3001.: but Mr M‘Laurin
dying, the defign was dropped.—Afterwards the mo¬
ney was put into the hands of two perfons who became
bankrupt ; but a considerable dividend being obtained
out of their effefts, the principal and intereft, about
the year 1776, amounted 10400!. A plan of the
building was made out by Mr Craig archited; and the
foundation-ftone was laid by Mr Stodart, lord provoft
of Edinburgh, on the 25th of Auguft 1776. About
this time, however, Mr Adam architect happening to
come to Edinburgh, conceived the idea of giving the
whole the appearance of a fortification, for which its
fituation on the top of the Calton-hill was very much
adapted. Accordingly a line was marked out for in-
clofing the limits of the obfervatory with a wall con-
ftru&ed with buttreffes and embrafures, and.having
Gothic towers at the angles. Thus the money defigned
for the work was totally exhaufted, and the obfervatory
ftill remains unfiniflied; nor is there any appearance of
its being foon completed either by voluntary Subscrip¬
tion or any other way.
2 3. Proceeding to the wellward, the firft remarkable
building is the Theatre, which Hands oppofite to the
Regifter Office, in the middle of Shakefpeare Square.
The building is plain on the outfide, but elegantly
fitted up within, and is generally open three days in
the week, and when full will draw about 1501. a-night;
-fo that the manager generally finds himfelf well re¬
warded when he can procure good a&ors.
Entertainments of the dramatic kind came very early
into falhion in this country. They were at firft only
reprefentations of religious fubjefts, and peculiarly de¬
signed to advance the interefts of religion ; the clergy
being the compofers, and Sunday the principal time of
exhibition. In the 16th century, the number of play-
houfes was fo great, that it was complained of as a
nuifance, not only in Edinburgh, but throughout the
kingdom. They foon degenerated from their original
inftitution ; and the plays, inftead of being calculated
to infpire devotion, became filled with all manner of
buffoonery and indecency.—After the Reformation*
the Prefbyterian clergy complained of thefe indecencies;
and being a&uated by a Spirit of violent zeal, anathe-
matifed every kind of theatrical representation what¬
ever. King James VI. compelled them to pafs from
their cenfures againft the flage ; but in the time of
Charles I. when fanaticifm was carried to the utmoft
length at wdiich perhaps it was poffible for it to arrive,
jt cannot be fuppofed that ftage plays would be tolera-
E D I
ted.—It feems, however, that amufements of this Edinburgh.
kind were again introduced at Edinburgh about the  v—'
year 1684, when the Duke of York kept his court
there. His refidence at Edinburgh drew off one half
of the London company, and plays were a&ed in E-
dinburgh for fome little time. The misfortunes at¬
tending the Duke of York, however, and the eftablifh-
ment of the Prefbyterian religion (the genius of which
is unfavourable to amufements of this kind), foon put
a flop to the progrefs of the ftage, and no theatrical
exhibition was heard of in Edinburgh till after the
year 1715. The firft adventurer was Signora Violante,
an Italian, remarkable for feats of ftrength, tumbling,
&c. In this way fhe firft exhibited in a houfe at the
foot of Carrubber’s Clofe, which has fince been em¬
ployed by different feclaries for religious purpofes.
Meeting with good fuccefs, fhe foon invited a compa¬
ny of comedians from London ; and thefe being alfo
well received, Edinburgh continued for fome years to
be entertained with the performances of a ftrolling com¬
pany, who vifited it annually. Becoming at laft, how¬
ever, obnoxious to the clergy, they were in 1727
prohibited by the magiftrates from ailing within their
jurifdiftion. But this interdiil was fufpended by the
Court of Seffion, and the players continued to perform
as ufual.
Still, however, theatrical entertainments were but
rare. The town was vifited by itinerant companies
only once in two or three years. They performed in
the Taylor’s Hall in the Cowgate; which, when the
houfe was full, would have drawn (at the rate of 2 s. 6d.
for pit and boxes, and 1 s. 6d. for the gallery) 401. or
45 1. a-night. About this time an aft of parliament
was palled, prohibiting the exhibition of plays, except
in a houfe licenfed by the king. Of this the prefby-
tery of Edinburgh immediately laid hold ; and at their
own expence brought an aftion on the ftatute againft
the players. The caufe was by the Court of Seffion
decided againft the players; who thereupon applied to
parliament for a bill to enable his majefty to licenfe a
theatre in Edinburgh. Againft this bill petitions were
prefented in 1739 to the houfe of commons by the
magiftrates and town-council, the principal and pro-
feffors of the univerfity, and the dean of guild and his
council; in confequence of which, the affair was drop¬
ped. All this oppofition, however, contributed in
reality to the fuccefs of the players; for the fpirit of
party being excited, a way of evading the a6l was ea-
fily found out, and the houfe was frequented more
than ufual, infomuch that Taylor’s Hall was found in-
fufficient to contain the number of fpediators.
The comedians now fell out among themfelves, and
a new playhoufe was eredled in the Canongate in the
year 1746. The confequence of this was, that the old
one in Taylor’s Hall became entirely deferted, and
through bad condudl the managers of the new theatre
foon found themfelves greatly involved. At laft, a riot
enfuing through diffeniions among the performers, the
playhoufe was totally demolifhed. — When the extenfion
of the royalty over the fpot where the New Town is
built was obtained, a claufe was likewife added to the
bill, enabling his majefty to licenfe a theatre in Edin¬
burgh. This was obtained, and thus the oppofition
of the clergy for ever filenced. But notwithftanding
[ 3<8 ]
EDI [ 3*9 ] EDI
Edinburgh, this, the high price paid by the managers to the pa-
*—“Y-—tentee, being no lefs than 500 guineas annually, pre¬
vented them efFeftually from decorating the houfe as
they would otherwife have done, or even from always
retaining good aftors in their fervice ; by which means
the fuccefs of the Edinburgh theatre has not been fo
great as might have been expe&ed.
Not far from this building, an amphitheatre was
opened in 1790, on the road to Leith, for equeftrian
exhibitions, pantomime entertainments, dancing, and
tumbling. The circus is 60 feet diameter; and in the
forenoon ladies and gentlemen are taught to ride. The
houfe will hold about 1500 people.
24. The Regtjler Office. This work was firft fug-
gefted by the late Earl of Morton, lord-regifter of Scot¬
land, with a view to prevent the danger which attended
the ufual method of keeping the public recoi-ds. In
former times, indeed, thefe fuftered from a variety of
accidents. Edward I. carried off or deftroyed moft of
them, in order to prevent any marks of the former in¬
dependency of the nation from remaining to pofterity.
Afterwards Cromwell fpoiled this nation of its records,
moft of which were fent to the tower of London. At
the time of the Reftoration, many of them were fent
down again by fea; but one of the veffels was fhip-
wreeked, and the records brought by the other have
ever fince been left in the greateft confufion.—The
Earl of Morton taking this into confideration, obtain¬
ed from his majefty a grant of i2,oool. out of the for¬
feited eftates, for the purpofe of building a regifter-
office, or houfe for keeping the records, and difpoling
them in proper order. The foundation was laid on
the 27th of June 1774, by Lord Frederic Campbell
lord-regifter, Mr Montgomery of Stanhope lord advo¬
cate, and Mr Miller of Barlkimming lord juftice-clerk;
three of the truftees appointed by his majefty for exe¬
cuting the work. The ceremony was performed under
a difeharge of artillery, in prefence of the judges of the
courts of feflion and exchequer, and in the fight of a
multitude of fpedlators. A brafs plate was put into the
foundation-ftone with the following infeription: Con-
SERVANDIS TaBULIS PuBLICIS POSITUM EST, ANNO
M.DCC i-xxiv, MUNIF1CENTIA OPTIMI ET PIETISSIMI
principis Georgii Tertii. In a glafs vafe herme¬
tically fealed, which is alfo placed in the foundation-
ftone, are depofited fpecimens of the different coins of
his prefent majefty.
The front of the building direftly faces the bridge,
extends from eaft to weft 200 feet, and is 40 feet back
from the line of Prince’s-ftreet. In the middle of the
front is a fmall proje&ion of three windows in breadth.
Here is a pediment, having in its centre the arms of
Great Britain, and the whole is fupported by four Co¬
rinthian pilaftres. At each end is a tower proje&ing
beyond the reft of the building, having a Venetian
window in front, and a cupola on the top. The front is
ornamented from end to end with a beautiful Corin¬
thian entablature. In the centre of the building is a
dome of wooden work covered with lead. The infide
forms a faloon 50 feet diameter and 80 high, lighted
at top by a copper window 15 feet in diameter. Round
the whole is a hanging gallery offtone, with an iron
balluftrade, which affords conveniency for preffes in
the walls for keeping the records. The whole number
of apartments is 97; all of which are vaulted beneath,
and warmed with fire-places. This building, which is the Edinburgh,
moft beautiful of Mr Adams’s defigns, has been execu- '11 J
ted in a fubftantial manner, in about 16 years, at the
expence of near 40,000!. and is one of the principal
ornaments of the city. A ferjeant’s guard is placed
here from the caftle, for the further prote&ion of the
records. It is intended to place a ftatue of his prefent
Majefty in the front of the building, with the lion and
unicorn above the centinels boxes. The lord-regifter
has the direftion of the whole, and the principal clerks
of Sefiion are his deputes. Thefe have a great num¬
ber of clerks under them for carrying on the bufinefs
of the Court of Seflion. The lord-regifter is a mini-
fter of ftate in this country. He formerly collefted
the yotes of the parliament of Scotland, and ftill col-
lefts thofe of the peers at the eleftion of 16 to reprefent
them in parliament.
25. On the eaft fide of St Andrew’s Square Hands
the General Excife Office, built by the late Sir Lau¬
rence Dundas for his own refidence, but fold by his
fon for the above purpofe. It is a very handfome
building, with a pediment in front ornamented with
the king’s arms, and fupported by four Corinthian
pilaftres j and, in conjundlion with ihetwocorner houfes,
has a fine effeft.
26. St Andrew's Church Hands on the north fide of
George’s Street. It is of an oval form ; and has a
very neat fpire of 186 feet in height, with a chime of
eight bells, the firft and only one of the kind in Scot¬
land. It has alfo a handfome portico in front.
27. Oppofite to St Andrew’s church i» the Phy~
ficians Hall, defigned for the meetings of the facul¬
ty, and Which has a portico refembling that of the
church.
28. Farther to the weftward, on the fouth fide, ftand
the Affiembly-rooms, which though a heavy looking
building on the outfide, are neverthelefs extremely ele¬
gant and commodious within. The largeft is too-
feet long and 40 broad, being exceeded in its dimen-
fions by none in the ifland, the large one at Bath ex¬
cepted. Weekly affembli'es are held here for dancing
and card-playing, under the dirtftion of a mafter of
ceremonies ; admifiion-tickets five fliillings each.
It now remains only to fpeak fomething of the re-
ligious and civil eftablilhments of this metropolis, eftablifc
The higheft of the former is the General Affembly of ments.
the Church of Scotland, who meet here annually in the
month of May, in an aide of the church of St Giles
fitted up on purpofe for them. The throne is filled by.
a commiflioner from his majefty, but he neither debates
nor votes. He calls them together, and diffolves them
at the appointed time in the name of the king; but
they call and diffolve themfelves in the name of the
Lord Jefus Chrift. This affembly confifts of 350
members chofen out of the various prdbyteries through¬
out the kingdom ; and the debates are often very in¬
ter efting and eloquent. This is the fupreme eccle-
fiaftical court in Scotland, to which appeals lie from.-
the inferior ones.
The ecclellaftical court next in dignity to the af-
fembiy is the Synod of Lothian and Twetddale, who,
meet in the fame place in April and November; and
next to them is the Prefbytery of Edinburgh. Thefe.
meet on the laft Wednefday of every month, and are
truftces on the fund for minifters widows. They havo
EDI [ 3JC
EiTii.'trurgh. a hall in Scott’s dole, where there is a good picture of
Dr Webfterby Martin, which was put up at the ex¬
pence of the tmilees, out of gratitude for the trouble
he took in planning and fully eftablifhing the fund.
The Society for Propagating Chriltian Knowledge in
the Highlands and Illands of Scotland, was eltablifhed
a body corporate by queen Anne in the year 17O9, for
the purpofe of ere&ing fchools to inltmcl poor chil¬
dren in the principles of Chriftianity, as well as in
reading and writing. The fociety have a hall in War-
rilton’s clofe where their bufmefs is tranfa&ed. From
time to time they have received large contributions,
which have always been very properly applied; and
for much the fame purpofe his majelty gives iqooI.
annually to the general afiembly of the church of
Scotland, which is employed by a committee of their
number for inftru&ing the poor Highlanders in the
principles of the Chriftian religion.
The Earfe church at Edinburgh was built about
20 years ago by fubfcription for the fame laudable
purpofe. Great numbers of people refort to the me¬
tropolis from the Highlands, who underiland no other
language but their own, and confequently have no op¬
portunity of inftrudtion without it ; and a moft re¬
markable proof of the benefit they have received from
it is, that though the church is capable of holding
Jooo people, yet it is not large enough for thofe who
apply for feats. The miniiter has tool, per annum
arifing from the feat-vents, and holds communion with
the church of Scotland. The eftablifhment was pro¬
moted by William Dickfou dyer in Edinburgh.
Folincal With regard to the political conflitution of Edin-
conftitu- burgh, the town-council have the direftion of all pub-
tion. He affairs. The ordinary council confifts only of 25
perfous; but the council ordinary and extraordinary, of
33. The whole is composed of merchants and tradef-
men, wbofe refpe£tive powers and interefts are fo in¬
terwoven, that a balance is preferved between the two
bodies. The members of the town-council are partly
elefted by the members of the 14 incorporations, and
they partly choofe their own fuccefibrs. The eleftion
is made in the following manner: Firft a lift or leet of
fix perfons is made out by each incorporation ; from
which number, the deacon belonging to that incorpo¬
ration muft be chofen. Thefe lifts are then laid before
the ordinary council of 25, who “ fhorten the leets,”
by expunging one half of the names from each ; and
from the three remaining ones the deacon is to be
chofen. When this cle&ion is over, the new deacons
are pvefented to the ordinary council, who choofe fix
of them to be members of their body, and the fix dea¬
cons of laft year then walk off. The council of 25
next proceed to the eleftion of three merchant and
two trades counfellors. The members of council, who
now amount to 33 in number, then make out leets,
from which the lord provoft, dean of guild, treafurer,
and bailies muft be chofen. The candidates for each
of thefe offices are three in number; and the election
is made by the 30 members of council already men¬
tioned, joined to the eight extraordinary council-dea¬
cons.
The lord provoft of Edinburgh, who is ftyled right
honourable, is high Iheriff, coroner, and admiral, within
the city and liberties, and the town, harbour, and road
of Leith. He has alfo a jurifdiftion in matters of life
N> 108.
> 1 EDI
and death. He is prefes of the convention of royal Edinburgh.
boroughs, colonel of the trained bands, commander of —y—«»
the city-guard and of Edinburgh jail. In the city he
has the precedency of all the great officers of ftate and
of the nobility; walking on the right hand of the king
or of his majefty’i comrtiiffioner ; and has the privilege
of having a fword and mace carried before him. Un¬
der him are four magiftrates called bailies, whofe office
is much the fame with that of aldermen in London.
There is alfo a dean of guild, who has the charge of
the public buildings, and without whofe warrant no
houfe nor building can be erefted within the city. He
has a council to confult with, a nominal treafurer, who
formerly had the keeping of the town’s money, which
is now given to the chamberlain. Thefe feven are
elected annually; who with the feven of the former
year, three merchants and two trades counfellors, and
14 deacons or prefes of incorporated trades, making in
all 33, form the council of the city, and have the foie
management and difpofal of the city revenues 5 by.
which means they have the difpofal of places to the
amount of 20,0001. annually. Formerly the provoil
was alfo an officer in the Scots parliament. The ma¬
giftrates are Iheriffs-depute and juftices of the peace 5
and the town council are alfo patrons of all the churches
in Edinburgh, patrons of the univerfity, and ele&ofg
of the city’s reprefentative in parliament. They have
betides a very ample jurifdi&ion both civil and crimi¬
nal. They are fuperiorsof the Canongate, Portlburgh,
and Leich; and appoint over thefe certain of their own
number, who are called baron bailies : but the perfon
who prefideS over Leith has the title of admired, be-
caufe he hath there a jurifdiddion over maritime affairs.
The baron bailies appoint one or two of the inhabi¬
tants of their refpedth'e diftridts to be their fubftitutes,
and thefe are called rejidetit bailies. They hold courts
in abfcnce of the baron-bailies, for petty offences, and
difeuffing civil caufes of little moment.
No city in the world affords greater fecurity to the
inhabitants in their perfons and properties than Edin¬
burgh. Robberies are here very rare, and a ftreet-murder
hardly known in the memory of man; fo that a perfon
may walk the ftreets at any hour of the night in per-
fedbfecurity. This is in a great mtafure owing to the 31
town-guard.- This inftitution originated from the con-’I'owrl
fternation into which the citizens were thrown after the
battle at Flov.den. At that time, the town-council
commanded the inhabitants to affemble in defence of
the city, and every fourth man to he on duty each
night. This introduced a kind of perfonal duty foi*
the defence of the town, called watching and warding;
by which the trading part of the inhabitants were ob¬
liged in perfon to watch alternately", in order to pre¬
vent or fupprefs occafional difturbances. This, how¬
ever, becoming in time extremely inconvenient, the
town-council, in 1648, appointed a body of 60 men to
be raifed; the captain of which was to have a monthly
pay of III. 2s. 3d. two lieutenants of 2I.' each, two
ferjeants of il. 5 s. and the private men of 15 s. each.
No regular fund was eftablifhed for defraying this
expence ; the confequence of which was, that the old
method of watching and warding was refumed: but
the people on whom this fervice devolved were
now become fo relaxed in their difeipline, that the
magiftrates were threatened with having the king’s
5 troops
EDI [ 321 ] EDI
Edinburgh, troops quartered in the city if they did not appoint a
‘"—v ' fufficient guard. On this 40 men were raifed in 1679,
and in 1682 the number was increafed to 108. After
the revolution, the town-council complained of the
guard as a grievance, and requefted parliament that it
might be removed. Their requeft was immediately
granted, and the old method of watching and warding
was renewed. This, however, was now fo intole¬
rable, that the very next year they applied to parlia¬
ment for leave to raife 126 men for the defence of the
city, and to tax the citizens for their payment. This
being granted, the corps was raifed which Hill con¬
tinues under the name of the town-guard. At prefent
the eftablilhnjent conlills of three offtcers and about
90 men, who mount guard by turns. The officers
have a lieutenant’s pay; the fergeants, corporals, drum¬
mers, and common foldiers, the fame with thofe of the
army. Their arms are the fame with thofe of the
king’s forces; but when called upon to quell mobs,
they ufe Lochaber-axes, a part of the ancient Scot-
31 tilh armour now in ufe only among themfelves.
J/Iilitia or The militia or trained band of the city confift of
bauds^ comPan’es 100 men each. They were in ufe to
1 s' turn out every king’s birth-day; but only the officers
now remain, who are chofen annually. They confift
of 16 captains and as many lieutenants; the provoft,
as has already been mentioned, being the colonel.
The town-guard are paid chiefly by a tax on the
trading people ; thefe being the only perfons former¬
ly fubjeit to watching and warding. This tax, how¬
ever, amounts only 101250!. and as the expence
of the guard amounts to 14001. the magiftrates are
obliged to defray the additional charge by other
3,, means.
Number of The number of inhabitants in the city of Edinburgh
inhabitants. Is fomevvhat uncertain, and has been very varioufly
calculated. By a furvey made in the year 1775, it
appears that the number of families in the city, Ca-
nongate, and other fuburbs, and the town of Leith,
amounted to 13,806. The difficulty therefore is to fix
the number of perfons in a family. Dr Price fixes this
number at 4^ > Mr Maitland, at yl-; and Mr Arnot,
at 6: fo that, according to this laft gentleman, the
whole number of inhabitants is 82,836; to which he
thinks 1400 more may be added for thofe in the garri-
fon, hofpitals, &c. There are in Edinburgh 14 in¬
corporations, capable of choofing their own deacons,
viz. The royal college of furgeons; the corporations
of goldfmiths, fleinners, furriers, hammermen, wrights
and mafons, taylors, bakers, butchers, ftioemakers,
weavers, waukers, bonnet-makers, and merchant-com¬
pany. The revenue of the city, arifing partly from
duties of different kinds, and partly from landed pro¬
perty, is eftimated at about io,ocol. per annum.
Ptenly of The markets of Edinburgh are plentifully fupplied
provifions. with all forts of provifxons. Frefli butcher-meat, as
well as fowl and filh, if the weather permit, may be
had every day; and no city can be better fupplied
with garden ftuffs. The Edinburgh ftrawberries par¬
ticularly are remarkably large and fine. A lemark-
able inftance of the plenty of provifions with which
Edinburgh is fupplied was obferved in the year 1779,
when feveral large fleets, all of them in wane of ne-
ceffaries, arrived in the Forth, to the amount of
Vol. VI. Part. I.
about 500 fail, and having on board at leaft 20,006 Edinbu
men ; yet the increafed confumption of provifions, II
which certainly enfued upon the arrival of fo many E<iom
ftrangers, made not the leaft increafe in the rate of the ' ”''r~
markets, infomuch that feveral vi&ualling (hips fent
down by the navy-board returned without opening
their hatches. The city-mills are let to the corpora¬
tion of bakers in Edinburgh ; and the bread made in
the city is remarkable for its goodnefs.
Edinburgh is fupplied with water brought for feme
miles in pipes, and lodged in two refervoirs, from
whence it is diftributed through the city both to pub¬
lic wells and private families. A revenue accrues to
the town from the latter, which muft undoubtedly
increafe in proportion as the city extends in magni¬
tude.
There are but few merchants in Edinburgh, moft of
them refiding at the port of Leith ; fo that the fup-
port of the city depends on the confumption of the
neceffaries as well as the fuperfluities of life. There
are five different forts of people on whom the (hop-
keepers, publicans, and different trades depend: x. The
people of the law, who are a very refpe&able body in
the city. 2. The number of young people of both
fexes who come to town for their education, many of
the parents of whom come along with them. 3. The
country gentlemen, gentlemen of the army and navy,
and people who have made their fortunes abroad. See.
all of whom come to attend the public diverfions, or
to fpend their time in fuch a manner as is moft agree¬
able to them. 4. The vaft concourfe of travellers from
all parts. 5. Moft of the money drawn for the rents
of country gentlemen is circulated among the bankers
or other agents.
At Edinburgh there are excellent manufa&ures of
linen and cambrics ; there are alfo manufadlures of
paper in the neighbourhood, and printing is carried on
very extenfively. But for fome time the capital branch
about Edinburgh has been building: which has gone
on, and (till continues to do fo, with fuch rapidity,
that the city has been increafed exceedingly in its ex¬
tent; and it is not uncommon to fee a houfe built in a
few months, and even inhabited before the roof is quite
finiflxed.
EDITOR, a perfon of learning, who has the care
of an impreffion of any work, particularly that of an
ancient author : thus, Erafmus was a great editor ; the
Louvain doftors, Scaliger, Petavius, F. Sirmond, bi-
(hop Walton, Mr Hearne, Mr Ruddiman, &c. are
likewife famous editors.
EDOM, or Esau, the fon of Tfaac and brother of
Jacob. The name of Edom, which fignifies red, was
given him, either becaufe he fold his birth-right to
Jacob for a mefs of red pottage, or by reafon of the
colour of his hair and complexion. Idumea derives
its name from Edom, and is often called in feripture
the land of Edom. See the next article.
Edom, or Idumea (anc. geog.), a diftridt of Ara¬
bia Petraea ; a great part alfo of the fouth of Judaea
was called Idumaea, becaufe occupied by the Idumae-
ans, upon the Jewifli captivity, quite.to Hebron." But
the proper Edom or Idumaea appears not to have been
very extenfive, from the march of the Ifraelites, in
which they compaffed it on the fouth eaftwards, till
S s they
E D U [ 322 j E D U
Edmund, they came to the country of the Moabites. Within
Education, compafg ];es mount Hor, where Aaron died ;
'''v marching from which the Ifraelites fought with king
Arad the Canaanite, who came down the wildernefs
againil them (Mofes). And this is the extent of the
Idumtea Propria, lying to the fouth of the Dead Sea ;
but in Solomon’s time extending to the Red Sea
(1 Kings ix. 26.)
EDMUND I. and II. See (Hiftory of) England.
Definition EDUCATION may be defined, that feries of means
by which the human underftanding is gradually en¬
lightened, and the difpofitions of the human heart are
formed and called forth between earlieft infancy and
the period when we confider ourfelves as qualified to
take a part in aftive life, and, ceafing to direft our
views folely to the acquifition of new knowledge or
the formation of new habits, are content to act upon
a the principles which we have already acquired.
Particulars This comprehends the circumffances of the child in
cotnprc- regard to local fituation, and the manner in which the
der the d” nece^ries an<^ conveniences of life are fupplied to him;
fiukion. the degree of care and tendernefs with which he is
nurfed in infancy; the examples fet before him by
parents, preceptors, and companions; the degree of
reflraint or licentioufnefs to which he is accuftomed;
the various bodily exercifes, languages, arts, and fei-
ences, which are taught him, and the method and or¬
der in which they are communicated ; the moral and
religious principles which are inftilled into his mind ;
and even the ftate of health which he enjoys during
3 that period of life.
Various In different periods of fociety, in different climates,
inodes of and under different forms of goverment, various infti-
fcave^re1 tut'ons ^ave naturally prevailed in the education of
vailed.^" yout^ » and even in every different family, the children
are educated in a different manner, according to the
differences in the fituation, difpofitions, and abilities,
of the parents. The education of youth being an
objeA of the highefl importance, has not only engaged
the anxious care of parents, but has likewife often at¬
tracted the notice of the legiflator and the philofopher.
What our readers have therefore a right to expeCt
4 from us on this article is, iff, That we give an account
^ aD' of fome of the moft remarkable inftitutiens for the edu¬
cation of youth which have been legally eftablifhed
or have accidentally prevailed among various nations
and in various periods of fociety. 2dly, That we alfo
give fome account of the moft judicious and the moft
fanciful plans which have been propofed by thofe au¬
thors who have written on the fubjeft of education.
And, laftly, that we venture to prefent them with the
refult of our own obfervations and recollections on this
s important head.
Education In the infancy of fociety, very little attention can be
in a favage paid to the education of youth. Before men have
^ate' rifen above a favage ftate, they are almoft entirely the
creatures of appetite and inftinft. The impuife of
appetite hurries them to propagate their fpecies. The
power of inftin&ive affieAion is often, though not al¬
ways, fo ftrong as to compel them to preferve and
riurfe the fruit of their embraces. But even when
their wants are not fo urgent, nor their hearts fo de-
ftitute of feeling, as to prompt them to abandon their
new-born infants to the ferocity of wild beafts or the
feyerity of the elements, yet ftill their uncomfortable
and precarious fituation, their ignorance of the laws bfEducasieK.
nature, their deficiency of moral and religious princi-  v u
pies, and their want of dexterity or Ikill in any of the
arts of life, all thefe together muft render them unable
to regulate the education of their children with much
attention or fagacity. They may relate to them the
wild inconliftent tales in which all their notions con¬
cerning fuperior beings and all their knowledge of the
eircumftances and tranfaCliqps of their anceftors are
contained; they may teach them to bend the bow, to
point their arrows, to hollow the trunk of a tree into
a canoe, and to trace the almoft imperceptible path of
an enemy or a wild bead over dreary mountains or
through intricate forefts: but they cannot imprefs
their minds with juft ideas concerning their focial rela¬
tions, or concerning their obligations to a Supreme
Being, the framer and upholder of nature: they teach
them not to reprefs their irregular appetites, nor to re-
ftrain the failles of paffion when they exceed juft bounds
or are improperly dire£ted ; nor can they inform their
underftandings with very accurate or extenfive views
of the phenomena of nature, Befides, they know not
how far implicit obedience to his parents commands
is to be required of the boy or youth, nor how far he
ought to be left to the guidance of his own reafon or
humour. Among favages the influence of parental
authority foon expires, nor is the parent folicitous to.
maintain it. As the eagle expels his young from his
lofty neft as foon as they become able to fupport them-
felves in the air; fo the favage generally ceafes to care
for his child, or affume any power over him, as foon as
he becomes capable of procuring the means neceffary
for his own fubfiftence. Savages being fcarce con¬
nected by any focial ties, being unacquainted with the
reftraint of civil laws, and being unable to contribute
in any great degree to the maintenance or prote&iori
of one another; each individual among them, as foon.
as he attains that degree of ftrength and dexterity
which may enable him to procure the neceflaries o'f
life, ftands fingle and alone, independent on others,
and feorning to fubmit to their commands. The pa¬
rent, confcious of his inability to confer any important
benefits on his child, after he has advanced even
a very fhort way towards manhood, no longer endea¬
vours to controul his aCtions ; and the child, proud of
his independence, fcarce fubmits to alk his parent’s ad¬
vice. And even before reaching this period of inde¬
pendence, fo few are the benefits which parents can
beftow (being confined to fupplying the neceffaries of
life, and communicating the knowledge of a very few
of the rudeft fimpleft arts), that children- regard them .
with little deference, nor do they always infift on im¬
plicit fubmiffion. Want of natural affe&ion, and con-
feioufnefs of fuperior ftrength, often prompt the pa¬
rent to abufe the weaknefs of his child. Yet though ;
fmall the (kill with which the favage can cultivate the
underftanding or form the difpofitions of his child,
though few the arts which he can teach him, and,
though not very refpe&ful or fubmiffive the obedience
or deference which he requires; yet is there one qua¬
lity of mind which the favage is more careful to infpire
than thofe parents who are directed in educating their
children by all the lights of civilized fociety. That
quality is indeed abfolutely neceffary to fit the favage
for his .fituation; without it,, the day on which he
csafcd ;
E D U [3:
Mutation ceaied to fnjoy the protection of his parents would
k—v-— molt probably be the laft day of his life: That quality
is Fortitude. We may perhaps think, that the hard¬
ships to which the young favage is from the period
of his birth unavoidably expofed, might be enough to
infpire him with fortitude ; butt as if thefe were in¬
sufficient, other means are applied to infpire him with
what the Stoics have regarded as the firit of virtues.
He is compelled to fubmit to many hardlhips unne-
cdiary, but from a view to this. Chiidren are there
called to emulate each other in bearing the fevereit
torments. Charlevoix relates, that he has feen a boy
and girl bind their arms together, place a burning coal
between them, and try who could longeft endure with¬
out (blinking the pain to which they thus expofed
6 themfelves.
The fav-.ge Still, however, the young favage owes his education
indebted rather to nature and to the circumdances in which he
iiaOu-e and 's P^ced, and the accidents which befal him, than
circnnillati- to the kindnefs or prudence of his parents. Na-
ces (or his ture has endowed him with certain powers of under¬
education. fentiments, fenfations, and bodily organs 5
he has been placed in certain circumitances, and is ex¬
pofed to a certain train of events; and by thefe means
chiefly, not by "the .watchful induftry of inftruftors,
does he become fuch as he appears when he has reached
the years of maturity.
Ed ^tion But man was not defigned-by his wife and beneficent
in anbri- Creator to remain long in a favage Hate ; the princi-
j roved bate pies of his nature incline him to focial life. Reafon,
fociety. diftinguifhing the fuperior advantages to be enjoyed in
fociety, concurs with the focial principle in his breaft,
in prompting him to feek the company and converfa-
tion of others of the human race. When men enter
into fociety, they always unite their powers and ta¬
lents, in a certain degree, for the common advantage
of the focial body. In confequence of this, laws come
in time to be inftituted; new arts -are invented; pro-
grefs is made in the knowledge of nature; moral du¬
ties are better underftood and defined; jufter ideas are
gradually acquired of all our focial relations; friend-
Ihip, love, filial, parental, and conjugal affeftion, all
are heightened and refined. All thefe advantages do
not infiantly refult from mens entering into a focial
flate ; the improvement of the human mind, and the
civilization of fociety, are gradual and progrefiive: But
as it is natural for men to unite in a focial ftate, fo it
is no lefs natural for fociety to be gradually improved
and civilized till it attain an high degree of perfe&ion
g and refinement.
Attention When men have attained to fuch knowledge and
to the edu- improvement as to be intitled to a more honourable
cation of appellation than that of favages, one part of their im-
tm-afcon*13 Provements genera^y confifts in their becoming more
fequence ©f j11*^0118 an^ attentive in dire&ing the education of
civiiiza- ^their'youth. They have now acquired ideas of de-
tion. ipendence and fubordination ; they have arts to teach
-and'knowledge to communicate; they have moral prin¬
ciples to iniUl; and have formed notions of their re¬
lation and obligations to fupertor powers, which they
are defirous that their children Ihould alfo entertain.
Their affeftion to their offspring is now alfo more ten¬
der and conllant. We obferve at prefent in that ftate
cf fociety in which we live, that the poor who can
fcarce earn for themfelves and their children the ne-
3 1 EDU
ceffaries of life, ate generally lefs fufceptible of paren- Education,
tal affettion, in all its anxious tendernefs, than the rich,
or thofe whom Providence hath placed in eafy circum-
ftances ; and we may make ufe of this fact in reafon-
ing concerning the different degrees of the fame affec¬
tion felt by the favage and the member of a civilized
fociety. The favage may be confidered as the poor man,
who with difficulty procures the neceffaries of life e ven
for himfelf; the other, as the man in affluent circum-
ftances, who is more at leifure to liften to the voice of
tender and generous affeftion.
In this improved ftate of fociety, the education of
youth is viewed as an ohjeft of higher importance.
The child is dearer to his parent; and the parent is
now more capable of cultivating the underftanding
and reftifying the difpofitions of his child. His
knowledge of nature, and his dexterity in the arts of
life, give him more authority over a child than what
the favage can poflefs. Obedience is now enforced,
and a fyftem of education is adopted; by means of
which the parent attempts to form his child for a&ing
a part in focial life. Perhaps the legiflature interferes,
the education-of the youth is regarded as highly wor¬
thy of public concern ; it is confidered that the fooliih
fondnefs or the unnatural caprice of parents may, in
the riling generation, blaft the hopes of the ftate. ^
In reviewing ancient hiftory, we find that this ac- Public e,
tually took place in feveral of the moft celebrated go- ftablilh-
vernments of antiquity. The Perfians, the Cretans, nj|ent1’ 1°:'
and the Lacedemonians, were all of them too anxious among the
to form their youth for difeharging the duties of citi- ancients,
zens to entruft the education of the children folely to
the parents. Public eftablilhments were formed among
thofe nations, and a feries of inliitutions enadled, for
carrying on and regulating the education of their
youths : Not fuch as our European univerfities, in
which literary knowledge is the foie objeft of purfuit,
the ftudent is maintained folely at his parents expence,
and attends only if his parents think proper to fend
him; but of a very different nature, and on a much
more enlarged plan.
The Perfians, according to the elegant and accurate .^mong
account delivered by Xenophon in the beginning of ancient
his Cyropaedia, divided the whole body of their citi- Perfians.
zens into four orders; the boys, the youth, the full-
gre^m men, and thofe who were advanced beyond that
period of life during which military fervice was requi¬
red. For each of thefe orders particular halls were
appropriated. Each of them was fubje&ed to the in-
fpeftion of twelve rulers. The adults and the fuper-
annuated were required to employ themfelves in the
performance of particular duties, fuitable to their age,
their abilities, and their experience ; while the boys
aiid the youth were engaged in fuch a courfe of edu¬
cation as feemed likely to render them worthy and ufe-
ful citizens.
The boys were not employed, In their places of in-
ftruftion, in acquiring literary accomplilhments; for to
fuch the Perfians were ftrangers. They went thither
to learn juftice, temperance, modefty ; to (hoot the
bow, and to lanch the javelin. The virtues and the
bodily exercifes were what the Perfians laboured to
teach their children. Thefe were the direft, and not
fubordinate, purpofes of their fyftem of education. The
mailers ufed to ipend the greateft part of the day in
Educat'on.
Remaiku
on Xeno¬
phon’s ac¬
count of
tertian
education.
E D U F 324 1 E D U
difpenfmg juftice to their fcholars; who carried before
them adtions for thefts, robberies, frauds, and other
fuch grounds of complaint againft one another.— Such
were the means by which the Perfians endeavoured to
iaftil, even in early youth, a regard for the laws of na¬
tural equity, and for the inftitutions of their country.
Till the age of 16 or 17, the boys were bufied in ac¬
quiring thofe parts of education. At that period they
ceafed to be confidered as boys, and were raifed to the
order of the youths. After they entered this order,
the fame views were flill attended to in the carrying
on of their education. They were ftill enured to bo¬
dily labour. They were to attend the magillrates, and
to be always ready to execute their commands. They
were led out frequently to the chace; and on fuch ex¬
peditions they were always headed by the king, as in
time of war. Here they were taught to expofe them-
felves fearlefsly to danger; to fufitr, without repining
or complaint, hunger, thirft, and fatigue ; and to con¬
tent themfelves with the coarfeft, fimpleft fare, for re¬
lieving the neceifities of nature. In ftrort, whether at
home or out on fome hunting expedition, they were
conftantly employed in acquiring new fkill and dexte¬
rity in military exercifes, new vigour of mind and
body, and confirmed habits of temperance, fortitude,
abftinence, patience, patriotifm, and noble integrity.
After fpending ten years in this manner, their courfe
of education was completed ; they were admitted into
the clafs of the adults, and were efteemed qualified for
public offices. It mull; not efcape our notice, that
the citizens were not compelled to fend their children
to pafs through this courfe of education in the public
halls; but none except fuch as paffed through this
courfe of education were capable of civil power, or ad¬
mitted to participate in public offices or public ho¬
nours.
Such are the outlines of that fyftem of education
which Xenophon reprefents as publicly eilablifhed a-
mong the Perfians. Were we able to prefer?* in a
translation all the manly and graceful iimplicity of
that enchanting author, we would have offered to the
perufal of our readers the paffage in which he has de-
fcribed it; but confcious of being inadequate to that
talk, we liave prefumed only to extradi: the information
which it contains.
Perhaps, however, this fyftem of education did not fub-
fift preciielyas the eloquent difciple of Socrates defcribes
it among that rude and fimple people. On other occa-
fions he has commemorated fuch inftances of their bar¬
barity, as would tempt us to think them incapable of
fo much order and fo much wifdom. Perhaps, as the
difcoverers of the new world have fometimes conferred
on the inhabitants of that hemifphere, in the accounts
of them with which they entertained their friends in
Europe, amazing degrees of moral and political wif¬
dom, of {kill and dexterity in the arts, of induftry and
valour, which thofe uncivilized children of nature were
afterwards found not to poffefs; fo the Athenian phi-
lofopher has alfo afcribed to the Perfians prudence and
attention in regulating the education of their youth
beyond what people in fo rude a ftate can poffibly
exert.
But if we examine into the principles on which this
fyftem of education proceeds, without concerning our-
fdves whether it once actually prevailed among the
Perfians, or is the produ&ion of the fine imagination Education,
of Xenophon, we will find it peculiarly fuitable for a
nation juft emerging from the rudenefs and ignorance
of barbarity to a knowledge of focial and civil rela¬
tions, and of the duties connefted with fuch relations.
They have facrificed their independence to obtain the
comfort and fecurity of a focial ftate. They now
glory in the appellation of citizens, and are defirous to
difeharge the duties incumbent on a citizen. They
muft info.m their children in the nature of their focial
relations, and imprefs them with habits of difeharging
their focial duties; otherwife the fociety will foon be
dilfolved, and their pofterity will fall back into the
fame wild miferable ftate from which they have emer¬
ged. But perhaps the circumftances, or abilities, or
difpofitions of individuals, render them unequal to this
weighty talk. It becomes therefore naturally an ob-
je£t of public care. The whole fociai body find it
neceflary to deliberate on the moft proper means for
difeharging it aright. A plan of education is then
formed; the great objeft of which is, to fit the youth
for difeharging the duties of citizens. Arts artd
fciences are hitherto almoft wholly unknown : and all
that can be communicated to the youth is only a Ikill
in fuch exercifes as are neceflary for their procuring
fubiiftence, or defending themfelves againft human
enemies or beafts of prey; and habits of performing
thofe duties, the negledl of which muft be fatal to the
fociety or the individual.
Such is the fyftem of education which we have furvey-
ed as eftablilhed among the Perfians; and perhaps we
may now be lefs fufpicious than before of Xenophon’s
veracity. It appears natural for a people who have reach¬
ed that degree of civilization in which they are deferi-
bed, and have not yet advanced farther, to inftitute
fuch an eftabliftrment. Some fuch eftablifhment alfo
appears necefiary to prevent the fociety from falling
back into their former barbarity. It will prevent their
virtue and valour from decaying, though it may per¬
haps at the fame time prevent them from making any
very rapid progrefs in civilization and refinement.
Yet the induftry, the valour, the integrity, and the
patriotifm which it infpires, muft neceffarily produce
fome favourable change in their circumftances; and
that change in their circumftances will be followed by
a change in their fyftem of education.
The Cretans, too, the wifdom of whofe laws is fo Among the
much celebrated in the records of antiquity, had a Cretans,
public eftabliftiment for the education of their youth.
Minos, whom they revered as their great legiflator,
was alfo the founder of that eftablifliment. Its ten¬
dency was fimilar to that of the courfe of education
purfued among the Perfians,—to form the foldierand
the citizen. We cannot prefent our readers with a
very particular or accurate account of it; but fuch as
we have been able to procure from the belt authorities
we think it our duty to lay before them.
The Cretans were divided into three clafles; the
boys, the youth, and the adults. Between feven and
feventeen years of age, the boy was employed in learn-
ing-to {hoot the bow, and in acquiring the knowledge
of his duties as a man and a citizen, by liftening to
the converfation of the old men in the public halls,
and obferving their conduft. At the age of feven, he
was conducted to the public halls to enter on this
courfe
E D U [ 3*5 3 E D U
Education, courfe of education. He was taught to expofe himfelf
boldly to danger and fatigue ; to afpire after fkill and
dexterity in the ufe of arms and in the gymnaftic ex-
ercifes ; to repeat the laws and hymns in honour of
the gods. At the age of feventeen he was enrolled
among the youth. Here his education was Hill conti¬
nued on the fame plan. He was to exercife himfelf
among his equals in hunting, wreftling, and the mili¬
tary exercifes ; and while thus engaged, his fpirits
were roufed and animated by llrains of martial mufic
played on fuch inltruments as were then in ufe among
the inhabitants of Crete. One part of the education
of the Cretan youth, in which they were particularly
defirous to excel, was the Pyrrhic dance ; which was
the invention of a Cretan, and confifted of various mi¬
litary evolutions performed to the found of inftru-
ments.
Such were the principles and arts in which the Cre¬
tan legiflature diredfed the youth to be inftrudted.
This courfe of education could not be diredled or fu-
perintended by the parent. It was public, and car¬
ried on with a view to fit the boy for difcharging the
duties of a citizen when he Ihould attain to man¬
hood.
Remarks on ^ eafy to ^ee’ t*iat a ^y^em education
the Cretan niull have been inftituted in the infancy of fociety, be-
•ducation. fore many arts hadlbeen invented, or the diftinftions of
rank had arifen; at a time when men fubfifted in a
confiderable degree by hunting, and when the imer-
courfe of nations was on fuch a footing, that war, in-
ftead of being occafional, was the great bufinefs of
life. Such a fyftem of life would then naturally take
place even though no fage legifiator had arifen to re¬
gulate and enforce it.
Anwn * the Lycurgus, the celebrated lawgiver of Lacedemon,
Lacedano-6 thought it neceffary to diredl the education of youth
mans. in a particular manner, in order to prepare them for
paying a llridt obedience to his laws. He regarded
children as belonging more properly to the ftate than
to their parents, and wilhed that patriotifm Ihould be
Hill more carefully chtriflied in their breads than filial
affe&ion. The fpirit of his fyilem of education was
pretty fimilar to that of thofe which we have juft view¬
ed as fubfifting among the Perfians and the Cretans.
As foon as a boy was born, he was fubmitted to the
infpedtion of the elders of that tribe to which his pa¬
rents belonged. If be was well fiiaped, ftrong, and
vigorous, they diretted him to be brought up, and
alhgned a certain portion of land for his maintenanee.
If he was deformed, weak, and fickly, they condemn¬
ed him to be expofed, as not being likely ever to be¬
come an ufeful citizen. If the boy appeared worthy
of being brought up, he was entrufted to the care of
his parents till he attained the age of feven years ; but
his parents were ftridtly charged not to fpoil either his
mind or his bodily conftitution by foolifh tendernefs.
Probably, too, the ftate of their manners was at that
time fuch as not to render the injun&ion peculiarly nc-
ceflary.
At the age of feven, however, he was introduced
to a public clafs, confifting of all the boys of the fame
age. Their education was committed to matters ap¬
pointed by the ftate ; and what was chiefly inculcated
on them in the courfe of it, was fubmiffive obedience
and refpeft to their fuperiorsj quicknefs and brevity in
their convcrfation, and replies to fuch queftions as f-.lacation.
were put to them ; dexterity and addrefs in perform- " v—
ing what was commanded them, and firmnefs and pa¬
tience in bearing every pain or hardfhip to which they
might be expofed. One of the means ufed to form
them to habits of activity and addrefs, was to permit,
nay, to dire& them to commit little a£ts of theft;
which, if they performed them fo dexteroufly as to
avoid detedlion, they might afterwards boaft of as
noble exploits: but if dete&ed in fuch enterprifes,
the aukward artlefs boy was expofed both to puniih-
ment and difgrace. To avoid the punifhment and dif-
grace incurred by being detedled in an aft of theft,
the Spartan boy would often fuffer with unfhrinking
fortitude the fevereft torments. It is related of one
of them, that rather than be difeovered with a young
fox under his cloak, which he had ftolen, he fuffered
the little animal to tear open his bowels. Not content
with beholding the children fuffer by fubmitting vo¬
luntarily to fuch hardfliips, the Spartans alfo endea¬
voured to form them to fortitude, by whipping them
on their religious feftivals, fometimes with fuch feve-
rity that they expired under the lalh. The Lacede¬
monian youth were alfo taught fuch bodily exercifes,
and the ufe of fuch warlike weapons, as were neceft’ary
to render them expert and Ikilful foldiers.
They too, as well as the Cretans and Perfians, a- Remarks,
mong whom we have feen that fomewhat fimilar
modes of education prevailed, were to be citizens and
foldiers; not hulbandmen, mechanics, artifts, mer¬
chants, &c. Therefore the mode of education eftablfth.-
ed among them was fimple and uniform. Its aim was,
to make them acquainted with the nature of their fo-
cial duties, and to form them to fuch vigour of body
and fuch firmnefs of mind as might render them fit
for the ftation in which they were to be placed, and
adequate to the part which they were to aft. This
eftabliihment for education was perfe&ly confiftent
with the other parts of that legiflature which was infti¬
tuted by Lycurgus. Youth educated among the La-
cedemonias could hardly fail to become worthy mem¬
bers of that Angular republic. Let us not however
regard the Spartans as Jingularly inhumane in their
treatment of youth. Let us reafeeud, in imagination,
to that period in the progrefs of fociety from rudenefs.
to refinement, to which they had attained when Ly¬
curgus arofe among them. What were then their
circumftances, their arts and manners, their moral
principles, and military difeipline ? Not very different
from thofe which the laws, of Lycurgus rendered fa
long ftationary among them. He, no doubt, reftilied
fome abufes, and introduced greater order and equa¬
lity. But man is not to be fo eaflly metamorphofed
into a new form. As you cannot, at once, raife an
acorn to a venerable oak ; fo neither will you be able
to change the favage, at once, into the citizen. All
tlie art or wifdom of Lycurgus, even though aflifted
by all the influence of the prophetic Apollo, could
nev^r have eftabliflied his laws among his countrymen,
had not their charafter and circumrtances previoufly
difpofed them to receive them. But, grant this, and
you muft, of confequence, allow, that what to us.
may appear cruel and inhumane, muft have affe&ed
their feelings in a different manner. The change in¬
troduced in the treatment of youth by the eftabliflu
meet
E D IT [ 3;
.tA^ion.. ment of this' fyftem of education was probably recom-
'• mended by its being more humane than what before
prevailed. Corrupted as are our manners, and effeminate
our modes of education ; yet we tivould not perhaps
aft wifely in laying them afide, to adopt in their
ftead thofe of ancient Sparta. But the Spartan edu¬
cation was pek-uliarly well fitted to form citizens for
the republic of Lycurgui; it was hippily adapted to
thatftate of fociety in which it was introduced. And,
if we Ihould enquire by what means Lycurgus was
enabled to fix the arts, the manners, and in Ihort
the civilization of his country, for fo long a period in
a ftationary Hate; we would perhaps find reafon to a-
fcribe that effeft, to the public eftablifhmept which
he inftituted for the education of yeuth; to his
confining the Spartan citizens to the profefiion of
arms, and afligning all fervile offices to the Helots;
and to his prohibiting the ufe of gold and filver.
Among thefe however his eflablffhment for education
occupies the chief place. Never was any Hate adorn¬
ed with more patriotic citizens than thofe of Sparta.
With them every private affeftion feemed to be fwal-
lowed up by the amor patrht: the love of their country
was at leaft their ruling paffion. Poedaretes being re-
jefted when he offered hiinfelf a candidate for a feat
among the council of three hundred, returned home,
rejoicing that there were in Sparta no fewer than
three hundred whom his countrymen found reafon to
regard as better citizens than himfelf. This was not
a feeming joy, affumed to conceal the pain which he
fiiffered from the difappointment p it was heartfelt
and fincere. ISuch were the effefts of their fyllem of
education.
Education When we turn our eyes from the Perfians, the Cre-
among the tans, and the Spartans, to the other nations of anti-
other na- quity; we no where behold fo regular a fyftem of pub-
eions of an- jjc educat;on. Among the Athenians and the Homans,
* 1 the laws did not defcend to regulate in fo particular a
manner the management of the youth. Thefe nations
gradually emerged fromaftate of the rudeft barbarity,
to that polifiied, enlightened, and civilized ftate which
rendered'them the glory and the wonder of the hea¬
then world : but in no part of their progrefs from the
one ftate to the bther do we find any fuch eftabliffi-
mentfubfifting among them. So various,however, are the
circumftances which form and diverfify the charafter
of nations, that we cannot reafonably conclude, be-
caufc no fuch eftablilhmehts exifted among the Athe¬
nians and Romans, that therefore their exiftence was
unnatural among thofe nations who poffefied them.
But though the education of youth was managed in a
different manner among thefe and moft other nations
in the ancient w'orld, than by public eftablilhments,
which detached children from the care of their parents;
yet ftill it was every where regarded as an objeft of the
higheft importance. As the manners of mankind gradu¬
ally improved to a ftate of refinement; as the invention
of arts, and the difeovery of fcience gradually intro¬
duced opulence and luxury; connubial, parental, and
filial affeftion gradually acquired greater ftrength and
tendernefs. Of confequence, children experienced more
of their parents care ; and that care was direfted to
form them for acting a becoming part in life. Ac¬
cording to the circumftances of each nation, the arts
which they cultivated, and the form of government
:6 ] !•; D U
under which they lived; the knowledge which they BdhciHon.
fought to communicate to their children, and the ha-
bits-'which they endeavoured to imprefs upon them,
were different from’thofe of other rations: And again,
according to the different circumftances, tempess, abi¬
lities, and difpoiitions of parents, even the children of
each family were brought up in a manner different
from that in which thofe of other families were mana¬
ged. The Athenians, the Romans, the Carthagini¬
ans, condufted each of them the education of their
youth in a different manner, becaufe they had each
different objefts in view. But having confidered the
moft lingular eftablilhments for education which pre¬
vailed in the ancient world, it feems imneceffary for na
to defcend to a particular account of the manner which
every nation, or fantaftic individual, thought proper
to purfue in bringing up their youth. It will probably
be more ufeful and entertaining to our readers, if we
next prefent them with a view of fome of the moft
judicious or fanciful plans of education which have
been propofed by the writers on that fubjeft. J7
One of the moft refpeftable writers on education QuimSti-
among the ancients, is the celebrated Quinftilian. He Kan.
taught rhetoric in Rome during the reign of Domi-
tian and under feveral of the other emperors. When
he retired from the exercife of his employment as a
teacher of rhetoric, he fpent his leifure in the com-
pofition of a treatife, riot merely on rhetoric, but on
the moft proper means for educating a boy fo as to
render him both an eloquent orator and a good man.
In that valuable treatife, he enters into a minute
detail of all that appears to him moft likely to conduce
to thofe important ends.
As foon as the boy enters the world, he would have
the greateft care to be ufed in feleftihg thofe who are
to be placed about him. Let his nurfe have no im¬
pediment of fpeech. It will be happy for him, if his
parents be perfons of fenfe and learning. Let his tu¬
tor, at leaft, poffefs thefe qualifications.! Asfoon as he
attains the diftinft ufe of his organs of fpeech, let
him be initiated in the firft elements of literature. For
as he is capable of diftinguiflring and remembering at
a very early age-; fo his faculties cannot poffibly be
employed in a more advantageous manner. And even
at this early period of life, let maxims of prudence
and the firft principles of morals be inculcated upon
his mind by the books which are put into his hands,
and even by the lines which he copies in learning the
art of writing. The Greek language was to the Ro¬
mans in the days of Quinftilian, what the Latin and
Greek and French are to us at prefent, an acquifi-
tion held indifpenfably neceffary to thofe who afpired
to a liberal education ; and Quinftilian judges it pro¬
per that the boy Ihould begin his application to let¬
ters with the Greek language in preference to his mo¬
ther tongue.
This judicious writer next examines a queftion which
has been often agitated, Whether a domeftic or a pub¬
lic education is liable to the feweft inconveniences,
and likely to be attended with the greateft advantages ?
And he is of opinion, that in a domeftic education the
boy is in danger of being corrupted by injudicious
fondnefs and evil example; is not roufed by the fpur
of emulation; and is deprived of proper opportunities
for acquiring a juft idea of his own powers, or that
EDI! [ 327 1 E D IT
Education, activity and dexterity which he will afterwards find fo
—"v  neceffary when he comes to adl a part in life : While in
a public education, which was preferred by feme of
the moil renowned nations of antiquity, the morals
are not greatly expofed to corruption, emulation is
roufed, friendlhips are formed, all the powers of the mind
are called forth to a& with new vigour, and the youth
is prepared for performing his, part on the great theatre
of the world. Quinftilian, therefore, whites that pa¬
rents would place their children in public feminaries
of education.
When a boy is committed to a matter's care, the
matter’s attention mutt be firft dire&ed to difeover his
difpofitions and the extent of his capacity. Of bis
capacity he will form a favourable judgment, not from
Ids fprightlinefs, nor even from his quicknefs of appre-
beniion ; but from bis modetty, docility, and virtuous
difpofitions. If the boy pottefa thefe laft qualifica¬
tions, the matter will rejoice in him, as ikely to give
him fatisfa&ion and do him honour. According to
his temper and difpofitions, let the boy be treated with
mildnefs or feverity j but never let feverlty extend to
blows. Let the boy be allured and led, by the moil
artful and infinuating treatment, to do his duty ; there
will then be no occaiion to punilh him for negledt-
ingit-
• AsQuin&ilian’s profefled objefl was, not merely to
give general directions for forming the heart and cul¬
tivating the underftauding, but to form a particular
character in life, the feholar and the orator ; he finds
it neceifai'y to enter into rfiinute details concerning the
manner in which the boy is to be inttru&ed in fpeak-
iog, writing, grammar, and compofition ; of which it
does not appear neceffary for us to take particular no¬
tice in this place. Mufic and geometry, he thinks,
ought to make a part of the young orator’s, ftudies ;
as being ufeful to render him accurate in reafoning,
and capable of relifhing the beauties of the poets. He
is alfo of opinion, that the boy fhould not be confined
to one branch of ftudy, without being allowed to at¬
tempt others till he have made himfelf matter of that.
Let feveral parts of literature- engage his attention
by turns : let him dedicate a confiderable portion of
his time to them. He may thus acquire habits of in*
dhftrious application which will renaaiawith him through
life.
With the tender attention of a good man, this fen«-
ttble and elegant writer ftiU accompanies his pupil
through the courfe of his {Indies ; anxioufly infifts that
he be placed under a matter diftinguiflred for purity of
morals, and for no mean abilities in his profeffion ; di-.
refls his memory to be ftored with the nobleft paffagea
of the poets, orators, and hiftoriana ; and carefully ditt
cuffes and refutes thofe opinions which reprefent ge¬
nius as above induftry* The remaining, part of hifr
work being employed on the principles of rhetoric,
without containing any thing on the fubjeft of educa¬
tion in general, it is not iiieceffary that we ttiould here
prefent an analyfis of it to our readers. But fince
Quindilian was fo dittinguilhed,. not only as a rheto¬
rician, but as an inftru&or of youth; and difplays fo
much good fenfe and fo folid a judgment, formed on
long experience, in whatever he advances on the fub-
jedl of education ; we could not, without extreme ne*.
gligence, omit taking notice of him uader thi*. ar¬
ticle, and affording our readers an oppoftunity of Education,
being inftruded by littening to his fentiments on this 1
head. jg
The name of John Milton is fo much revered in Bri- Milton’s
tain, that his fentiments on any fubjeft are interefting t'catife 00
to Britons. His life was dedicated to ftudy : During e<iucatI0R*
3 part of it, he was employed in the talk of inftrudling
youth ; and among his other works we find a treatife
on education. He had himfelf been educated accord¬
ing- to that plan which has long been eftabliftied in the
Englifh univeriities ; but with that mode of education
he was not fatisfied. The object of his dire&ions is
chiefly to fonn the fcholar. lie confidered himfelf as
qualified to exhibit a model of “ a better education,
in extent and comprehenfion far more large, and yet
of time far (korter, and of attainment far more certain,
than any that had yet been in practice.” The follow¬
ing is the fub(lance of his treatife.
As the end of learning is to cultivate our under-
ftandings, and to reflify our difpofitions ; therefore the
defign of our applying fo the ttudy of languages can¬
not be merely that we may commit to memory the
words of which they confitt, or that we may acquire
a knowledge of their analogy and ftruflure ; but that
we may enrich our miuds with the treafures of wifdom .
which they contain. But in the prefent modes of edu¬
cation this defign does not appear to be kept in view.
The learner of Latin is burdened with rules, and
themes, and verfes, and orations ; but no care is taken
to make him matter of the valuable knowledge which
the claffics contain. And when he advances a little
farther, he is driven into the thorny paths of logic
and metaphyfics. So, when his ftudies are completed,
and he is coufidered as having received a liberal edu¬
cation, he is almoft as deftitute of real knowledge as
when he firft entered a fchool.
But to render learning truly beneficial, inftead of
the fchool and univerfity education which youth at
prefent receive ; let the pjace of both fchool and uni¬
verfity be fupplied by an academy, in which they may
acquire all that is taught at either, except law and phy-
fic. Let the academy^fford accommodation for 150
perfons; jo of whom may be fervants and attendants-
As many academies as are ne.ceffary may be afterwards
erefted on the model of this one. Let the youth
who are introduced into this academy begin their ttu-
dies with learning the principal rules of grammar from
fome good elementary book. In their pronunciation
of Latin, let them be. taught to follow the pronun¬
ciation of the Italians ; as that, of the Englifh is in-
diftimSl, and unfuitable' to the genius of the language.
Next, read to them fome entertaining book on educa¬
tion ; fuch as, the three firft books of Quindltlian in
Latin, and Cebes, Plutarch, or fome other of the So-
cratic difeourfes, in Greek ; and be careful to feize
every opportunity of infpiring them, by feafonable lec¬
tures and explanations, with love for learning, admira¬
tion of great and virtuous ch;ira£ters, and a difpofition
to cheerful obedience. At the fame time, hut at a
different hour of the day, let them be inftrufled in the
rules of arithmetic and the elements of geometry. Be¬
tween {'upper and bed-time inftrufl them in .the prin¬
ciples of religion and the facred hiftory. From the
writers on education let your pupils pafs to the author®
on agriculture, to Cato, Varro, and Columella. Be-
2.; * fare •
E D XT [ 328 ] E D U
Evocation, fore half thefe authors be read, they cannot but be
—v—-' pretty well qualified to read moft of the profe authors
in the Latin language ; and they may now, with great
propriety, learn the ufe of the globes, and make them-
felves acquainted with the ancient and modern maps.
Let them, about the fame time, begin the ftudy of
the Greek tongue, and proceed in it as in the Latin :
they will not fail to overcome, in a (hort time, all the
difficulties of grammar ; after which they will have ac-
cefs to all the treafures of natural knowledge to be
found in. Ariftotle and Theophraftus. In the fame
manner they may make themfelves acquainted with Vi¬
truvius, Seneca, Mela, Celfus, Pliny, and Solinus.
And having thus paffed through the principles of arith¬
metic, geometry, aftronomy, and geography, with a
general compadt of phylics; let. them next turn their
attention to mathematics, in which they may begin
with the practical branch of trigonometry, which will
fcrve as an introduction to fortification, architecture,
and navigation. To teach them the knowledge of
nature, and inllrudt them in the arts of life, let them
have the affiilance and inftruftions, not merely of ma¬
kers who are acquainted only with books, but of men
whofe Ikill has been obtained by actual practice, even
of artifts and mechanics. Next, let the poets obtain
their attention ; and they will now read them with eafe
and pleafure. From the poets let your pupils proceed
to the moralifis ; and, after acquainting themfelves
■with them, they may be allowed the entertainment of
fome of the belt Greek, Latin, and Italian, dramatic
compofitions. From thefe let them proceed to poli¬
tics : let them here ftudy the law of Mofes, the ad¬
mirable remains of the ancient lawgivers of Greece,
the Roman tables, edicfts, and pande&s, concluding
with the inftitutions of their mother country. Now
let them be more particularly inftrufted in the princi¬
ples of theology ; for by this time they may have ac¬
quired the Hebrew language, together with the Chal¬
dee and the Syriac dialect, and may therefore read the
fcriptures in their original language. When their minds
are thus furnilhed, they will be able to enter into the
fpirit of the nobleft hiftorians and poets. To get
by heart, and repeat in a proper manner, paffages
from the writings of fome of thefe, will have the
happieft effefts in elevating their genius. Let this
flately edifice be crowned with logic and rhetoric. Far
different would be the effeas of fuch a courfe of edu¬
cation, from thofe produced by any which is at pre-
fent purfued. We ffiould then fee abler writers, more
eloquent fpeakers, and wifer ftatefmen.. Similar to
this, probably, was the courfe taught in the famous
fchools of Pythagoras, Plato, Ifocrates, and Arittotle.
This would unite the advantages of an Athenian and
a Spartan education : for our pupils ffiould be taught
the exercifes of wreftling and fencing, and the whole
0 military difciplinc.
Remarks. Such are the ideas of our admired Milton on the
fubjeft of education. An enthufiaftic admirer of the
fciences, arts, and inftitutions of Greece and Rome ;
from his religious and political principles, no friend to
the univerfities; it was natural for a man of his learn¬
ing and ingenuity, in an age of innovation, and influ¬
enced by fuch prejudices, to form fuch a projeft as
that which we have furveyed. He feems not to have
refle&ed, that it is neceffary for children to belong oc-
N° 109.
cupied in obtaining a familiar acquaintance with Education,
words, before they can gain from books any know-—v—<
ledge of things; overlooking this circumftance, and
perceiving plainly that the mode of education which
then prevailed confined the attention of youth almoft
wholly to words, he could not but regard the fcheme
which he propofed as likely to produce very happy
effedts. His obfervation, that the appearances of ex¬
ternal nature are among the firft objefts which attradl
the attention of youth, which he communicates by di-
refting his pupils to perufe the writers on agriculture
and natural hiftory as near the beginning of their ftu-
dies as poffible; if not altogether juft, yet muft be
allowed to be nearly fo. Perhaps human adfibns and
paffions, and the feries of events which happen around
us, are, by the time at which we begin our appli¬
cation to learning, the objedfs which moft frequently
and ftrongly engage our attention : But the appear¬
ances of external nature are at leaft the next objedf of
our regard. ..... ao
Mr Locke, to whofe abilities and noble defire to be Locke’s
ufeful to the world his country is fo much indebted, Treatife on
has written, among other things, on the education ofe^ucat‘on•
youth. He was capable of thinking for himfelf; but
more defirous of rendering himfelf ufeful, than of being
admired for Angularity. He is, therefore, an author
to whom we ought to liften, at leaft, with refpedtful
attention. If Quindtilian and Milton had been em¬
ployed as teachers of youth, Mr Locke had been con-
verfant with the world, had inquired into the prin¬
ciples of human nature, and had no doubt endea¬
voured.to examine without prejudice the effedls of
thofe modes of education of which he difapproves.
When we confider, that, to render himfelf ufeful to
the rifing generation, he could defcend from the
heights of fcience to tranflate the fables of ALfop,
and to perform other humble talks in literature, which
a philofopher of lefs benevolence and virtue would
have difdained ; we cannot but look with veneration
and gratitude on fo exalted a charadter. In his Trea¬
tife on Education, the two great objedts which Mr
Locke keeps in view are, ift, To preferve and
ftrengthen the bodily conftitution ; 2dly, To inform
the underftanding with ufeful knowledge, and to cherilh
good difpofitions in the heart. * t
In his diredfions on the firft of thefe heads, he feems Bodily cen-
extremely anxious to prevent parents and others in ftitution.
whofe hands children are placed, from injuring them by
ill-diredled tendernefs. Plain fare, fimple and light
cloathing, abftinencc from phyfic and from ftrong
liquors, he earneftly recommends as the moft judici¬
ous means for preferving and confirming the health
of the child. In all his gratifications let the ftridleft
moderation be obferved. If you permit him to in¬
dulge pretty freely in deep, at leaft caufe him to get
up at an early hour in the morning. In one thing,
fiowever, few parents will be willing to comply with
Mr Locke’s advice. He not only diredts that the
child’s feet be frequently bathed in cold water; but
even expreffes a wilh, that his fhoes were always kept
in fuch a condition as to admit water freely. This he
thinks likely to fortify the conftitution of the body
in fuch a manner, as to render him lefs liable, in the
courfe of life, to fuch difeafes as arife from any un-
ufual expofure to wetnefs or cold, than others whofe
E D U [ 349 1 E D U
EfJ-jNation. feet have been more carefully kept dry. Though he
k-—v had profecuted his ftudies with a defign to enter into
the profeffion of phyfic, yet fo unfavourable an opi¬
nion did he entertain of the effe6ts produced b#- me¬
dical preparations on the human conftitution, that he
eatneftly infills on the parent to beware of adminifter-
ing any of them to his child. From the defire which
Mr Locke difcovers to have children expofed to hard-
fliips, and rellrained from indulgence, in order to con¬
firm the health and invigorate the conllitution, we
may conjecture him to have been an admirer of that
fevere mode of education which ufually prevails in the
earlier periods of the exillence of fociety. He feems
to have thought, that if a boy be brought up like a
Huron or a Spartan, he mull necelfarily become ro-
bull and healthy ; without reflecting, that of thofe
children who are fubjeCted to fuch a courfe of educa¬
tion, too great a proportion are unable to furvive ite
fuch is the natural delicacy of the human frame.
Cultivation' When he turns his attention to the cultivating of
of the pow- the underltanding, and the forming of the difpofi-
crs of the tions, Mr Locke {till defervedly claims the regard of
"”nH the parent and the preceptor. With a virtuous in¬
dignation he reprobates that negligence and folly by
which we generally corrupt the heart and fpoil the
temper of children, even in the period of infancy ; fo
as to render them incorrigible when they advance
farther in life. Their appetites are pampered, all
their defires are gratified ; and if we are at any time
difpofed to refufe what they alk, they have an all-
powerful engine to compel our compliance with their
wilhes. They aflail us with tears ; and we then yield
to their requells, however hurtful to themfelves or in¬
convenient to us. We often Itudioufly inltruCt them
in vicious tricks, and call forth their evil paffions. At
fo early an age, their rage or cunning can fcarcely- in¬
jure us; and we refiedt not that habits of peevilh-
nefs and deceit mult be peculiarly hurtful to them¬
felves.
But though all the foolilh defires of children ought
not to be gratified, and though we Ihould carefully
avoid leading them into any bad habit; yet it is not
Receffary nor prudent to treat them with harflinefs or
feverity. Let them be formed to obedience from
their earlielt years: let them be accuftomed to fubmit
implicitly to the direftion of thofe on whom they de¬
pend. But beware of fouring their temper and de-
preffing their fpirits by harlhnefs: and on the other
hand, remember, that it is no lefs improper to give
the boy a habit of negkdting his duty except when
he is allured to it by the hopes of reward. As he ad¬
vances towards manhood, and attains the ufe of rea-
fon ; you may admit him to greater familiarity, and
allow him to follow his own inclinations more than at
an earlier period : and if, inltead of indulging all his
freaks in childhood, you have carefully accuftomed
him to obedience and fubmiffion, without enforcing
thefe by improper means, he will now be able to regu¬
late his conduA with fome degree of prudence.
But while caution is to be ufed in beftowing re¬
wards and infliAing punilhments; {till rewards and
punithmems are indifpenfably neceflary in the manage¬
ment of the child. Infpire your boy with a fenfe of
lhame, and with a generous third for praife. Carets
and honour him when he does well; -treat him with
Vop. VI. Parti.
negleA when he aAs amifs. This conduA will pro-Ed'cati’orn
duce much better elfeAs than if you were at one time —v—
to chide and beat him; at another, to reward him with
a profufion of fvveetmeats and playthings.
Think not that children are to be taught propriety
of conduA by loading their memory with rules, di-
reAing them how to aA on every particular occaiion.
Burden them not with rules, but imprefs them with
habits.
Be not defirous of forming them at too early an'
age, to all that politenefs and propriety of manners'
which you wilh to diftinguifh them when they become*
men. Let them be taught an eafy, graceful car¬
riage oFbody: but give yourfelf no concern, though
they now and then blunder againft the punAilios of
good-breeding ; time will correA their aukwardnefs.
With regard to that important queftion, whether
children ought to be fent to a public fchool, or are
likely to be better trained up in a domellic educa¬
tion ? fo impofiible is it for one mailer to extend his
attention to a number of boys, and fo likely is the
contagion of vice to be caught among the crowd of a
public fchool, that a private feems more favourable
than a public education to virtue, and fcarce lefs fa¬
vourable to learning.
When you refolve to give your Ton a domeltic edu¬
cation, be careful to regulate that domeftic education
in a judicious manner. Keep him at a diftance from
evil example : choofe the moll favourable feafons for
communicating inftruAion : llriAly enforce obedience;
but never by blows, except in cafe of obltinacy which
you find otherwife incurable. If his engagements in
life prevent the parent from fupei intending and direc¬
ting his fan’s education perfonally, let him commit
him to the care of a virtuous and judicious tutor.
Let the tutor be rather a man of experience in the
world than of profound learning ; for it is more ne¬
ceflary that the pupil be formed for conduAing him-
felf with prudence in the world, and be fortified againll
thofe temptations to which he will be expofed when
he enters upon aAive life, than that his head be Huf¬
fed with Latin and logic.
Here Mr Locke, notwithftanding that his own
mind was llored with the treafures of Grecian and
Roman literature, takes occafion to declare himfelf
pretty freely again ft that application to ancient learn¬
ing, which was then indifpenfably required in the edu¬
cation of youth. He conliders languages and philo-:
fophy as rather having a tendency to render the youth
unlit for aAing a prudent and becoming part in life,
than forming for it : and he therefore infills that thefe
Ihould be but in a fubordinate degree the objeAs of
his attention-.
Let the tutor encourage the child under his care
to a certain degree of familiarity ; let the pupil be
accuftomed to give his opinon on matters relative to-
himfelf: let him be taught juftice, by finding injuftice-
to others prejudicial to himfelf; let him he taught li¬
berality, by finding it advantageous ; let him be ren¬
dered fuperior to teazing his parents or tutor with
complaints, hy finding his complaints unfavourably re¬
ceived. That you may teach him to reftrain every
foolilh or irregular defire, be fine never to indulge his
wiflies, fave when you find the indulgence proper for
him, and convenient for yourfelf. Curiolity, how-
T t ever,
E D U [ 33° l E D U
Education, ever, is a principle which ought to t>6 induftrioufly
  roufed in the breaft of tlie child, and cheriihed there
by meeting always the readielt gratification. How¬
ever you may oppofe the boy’s inclinations in other
things, yet refufe him not a proper portion of recrea¬
tion : let him indulge in play, while he continues to
play with keennefs and attivity ; but fuffer him not
to loiter about in liftlqfs indolence. To reflrain your
child from fool-hardy courage, point out to him the
dangers to which it expofes him : to raife him above
timorous cowardice, and infpire him with manly for¬
titude; accuflom him from the earlieft period of life
loan acquaintance with fuch things as he is moil like¬
ly to be afraid of: fubjeft him now and then to pain,
and expofe him to danger; but let fuch trials be ju-
dicioufly conduced.
Idlenefs or curiofity fometimes leads children to
cruelty in their treatment of fuch animals as are placed
within their power. Dogs, cats, birds, and butterflies,
often fufifer from their inhumanity. But when they
feem inclined to fuch cruelty, let them be carefully watch¬
ed, and let every means be ufed to awake their hearts
to generous fenfibility. Allow them to keep tame
-birds, dogs, See. only on condition of their ufing them
with tendernefs. Perhaps this unhappy difpofition to
cruelty is occafioned, or at leaft foftered, by people’s
laughing when they behold the impotent efforts of
children to do mifehief ; and often going fo far as even
to encourage them in maltreating thofe creatures which
are within their reach. We entertain them, too, with
ftories of fighting and battles; and reprefent characters
diflinguifhed for atrocious a£ts of inhumanity as great
and illuftrious. But let fuch practice be carefully re¬
frained from, if you wifh to infpire your child with ge¬
nerous and humane fentiments. Teach him gentlenefs
and tendernefs, not only to brute animals, but alfo to
fervants and companions.
Curiofity is to be roufed and cherifhed in the bread:
of the child : but by what means ? Anfwer his inqui¬
ries readily : though his queftions be put in aukward
language, let not that hinder you from attending to the
objedts of them. Curiofity is natural to the human
mind; and if you reprefs not the curiofity of the child,
he v/ill often be moved by its impulfe to the purfuit of
knowledge, Let him find his eagernefs in the purfuit
of knowledge, a, fource of applaufe and efteem. Avoid
the folly of thofe who fport with the credulity of child¬
ren, by anfwering their queftions in a ludicrous or de¬
ceitful manner.
You muft, however, not only lifien with obliging
attention to his queftions, and ftrive to gratify his cu¬
riofity ; but even whenever he attempts to reafon on
fuch fubje&s as are offered to his obfervation, be care¬
ful to encourage him: praife him if he reafons with any
degree of plauiibility ; even if he blunders, beware of
ridiculing or laughing at him. With regard to the
boy’s play-things: while you indulge.him freely in in¬
nocent diverfions, give him fuch play-things as may be
neceffary in the amufements in which he engages, pro¬
vided they be fuch as he cannot make himfelf; but it
will be ftill better for him to exercife his dexterity and
ingenuity in making them himfelf.
After throwing out thefe things concerning the ge¬
neral principles on which education ftiould be carried
on, Mr Locke next proceeds to thofe particular parts
of knowledge in which he thinks every young gentle- Education.
man ought to be inftru&ed. In virtue, wifdom,  v—
breeding, and learning, he comprehends all that is ne¬
ceffary to enable his pupil to a6t a refpedable part in
life.
In forming the boy to virtue, the firft thing to be
done, is to inform him of the relation fubfifting between
human creatures and a fupreme independent Being,
their creator, preferver, and governor ; and to teach
him, that obedience and worfhip are due to that Being.
But when you inform the child of the exiftence of an
inviiible Being, beware of impreffmg his mind with any
notions concerning fpirits or goblins, which may render
him incapable of bearing darknefs or folitude. In in¬
fancy our minds are, by the indiferetion of thofe about
us, generally impreffed with fuch prejudices concerning
a tfioufand frightful forms, ever ready to affail or haunt
us under the (hade of night, that we become incapable
of manly fortitude during the courfe of life : the foldier
who will boldly face death in the field of battle, fhall
perhaps tremble and take to flight at the ruftling of a
few leaves, or the grunting of a hog in the dark. But
were the imaginations of children not crazed with wild
ftories concerning fpirits and hobgoblins, darknefs
would be no more alarming to them than light. After
informing the child of the exiftence of a Deity, and
teaching him to pray to him ; next labour to imprefs
his mind with a veneration for truth, and habituate him
to a ftrict adherence to it on every occafion. Endea¬
vour alfo to render him gentle and good-natured.
The beft means you can ufe to teach him wifdom
or prudence in conducing himfelf in the ordinary bufi-
nefs and intercourfe of life, is to teach him to defpife the
mean fhifts of cunning. The reft muft be learned by
a&ual experience in life.
The decencies of life, comprehended under the word
Good Breeding, form no inconfiderable part of a good
education. In teaching thefe, two things are to be at¬
tended to : Infpire the youth with a difpofition to
pleafe and oblige all .with whom he is converfant; next,
teach him how to exprefs that difpofition in a becoming
manner. Let boifterous roughnefs, haughty contempt
of others, cenforioufnefs, impertinent raillery, and a
fpirit of contradi&ion, be baniftied from his temper and
behaviour. At the fame time, beware of leading him to
regard the mere forms of intercourfe as a matter of the
higheft importance. Remember that genuine good¬
breeding is only an eafy and graceful way of exprefling
good fenfe and benevolence in his converfatibn and de¬
portment.
Mr Locke, when he comes to give his opinion con¬
cerning thofe parts of learning which are proper to be
taught a young gentleman, and the manner in which
they ought to be communicated, advifes to initiate the
child.in the art of reading, without letting him know
that he is engaged about a matter of any importance,
or learning an accompliftiment. which you are felicitous
that he ftiould acquire. Prefent it to him in the form of an
amufement, or teach him to confider it as an high ho¬
nour to be permitted to learn his alphabet; otherwife
he will turn from it with difguft. When by infinuating
arts you have allured him to apply to reading, put into
his hands fuch books as are plain, entertaining, and in-
ftru&ive. Infill not on his reading over the bible : in-
ftead of gaining any advantage from an indiferiminate
perufal
E D U [ 3
Bdtfc'ation. perufal of it at this period of life, he is likely to acquire
the tnofl. confufed notions of religion, and an indiffer¬
ence for the facred volume during the reft of life; yet
it may be highly proper to caufe him to perufe fome
of its beautiful hiftorical paffageSj and to familiarize
him with its elegant and fimple moral precepts. After
learning to read his mother-tongue, the boy’s attention
ought to be next dire&ed to the art of writing. The
eafieft way to teach him that art, is to get a plate en¬
graved, after the model of any hand which you think
moft proper for his imitation. With this plate get a
number of copies call with red ink; the letters of thefe
the learner may trace with his pen filled with black ink:
and he will thus in a fhort time, and without much
trouble to you or himfelf, acquire a decent hand. As
drawing is ufeful on many occafions in life ; if the boy
be not naturally incapable of acquiring it, he may with
great propriety dedicate fome part of his time and at¬
tention to that art.
When the fcholar has attained a tolerable degree of
fkill in writing, and in reading and fpeaking his native
language, he mull next begin an acquaintance with 0-
ther languages. Among thefe, the tirft objeft of his
ftudy will naturally be the Latin. Yet let none wafte
their time in attempting to acquire a knowledge of
Latin, but fuch as are deiigned for fome of the learned
profeffions, or for the life of a gentleman without a
profeflion. To thefe laft it may be ufeful ; to others
it is wholly unferviceable. But in learning the Latin
tongue, a much happier method than burdening and
perplexing him with rules of grammar, would be to
make him fpeak it with a tutor who were fufficiently
mafter of it for that purpofe. Thus might he fpend
that time which is ufually occupied in acquiring this
language, in learning fome other neceffary branches of
education. But if you cannot conveniently have the
boy taught the language by the way of converfation,
let the introduftory books be accompanied with an
Engliih veriion, which he may have eafy recourfe to
for the explanation of the Latin. Never perplex him
■with grammatical difficulties. Refledl that, at his
age, it is impoffible to enter into the fpirit of thofe
things. Render every thing as eafy and pleafing as
pofiible; for the attention will not fail to wander, even
though you labour not to render the talk difagreeable.
Skill in grammar may be ufeful ; but it is to thofe
whofe lives are to be dedicated to the ftudy of the dead
languages : that knowledge which the gentleman and
the man of the world'may have occafion to derive from
the treafnres contained in the ancient languages, may
be acquired without a painful ftudy of profody or fyn-
tax. As the learning of any language is merely learn¬
ing words; if poffible, let it be accompanied with the ac-
quifition of fome real knowledge of things ; fuch as the
nature of plants, animals, &c. their growth and propa¬
gation. But if you cannot or will not give your boy
a private education, and are ftill refolved to fend him to
fchool, to be whipped through the ufual courfe of
Greek and Latin ; at leaft adt with fo much good
fenfe and humanity, as to infill that he be riot burdened
and tormented with the compofition of Latin themes
and verfes. Neither let his memory be oppreffed with
whole pages and chapters from the claffics. Such ridi¬
culous exercifes have no tendency, whatever prejudice
31 ] E d u
may urge to the contrary, to improve him either in the Education'!
knowledge of languages or of nature.  
Mr Locke feems to wifh that the French language,
which in his days had attained to higher refinement
and a more regular analogy than any of the other mo¬
dern languages of Europe;—he feems to wilh that
the French w'ere learned along with the Latin : and he
wilhes the ftudy of thefe languages to be accompanied
with the ftudy of arithmetic, geography, hiftory, and
chronology. Let thefe branches of knowledge be
communicated to the learner in one of the two lan¬
guages ; and he will thus acquire the language with
greater facility. He next points out the advantage*
bf the branches of knowledge which he recommends
as proper to be learned together with the languages ;
but on that head he fays nothing Angular. One me¬
thod which he recommends for facilitating the ftudy-
of language is, to put into the youth’s hands, as foon
as he has acquired a tolerable knowledge of chronolo¬
gy, fome of the moft entertaining Latin hiftorians 1
the interefting nature of the events which they relate
will not fail to command his attention, in fpite of the
difficulty which he muft find in making out their mean¬
ing. The Bible and Tully’s Offices will be his bed
guides in the ftudy of ethics. The law of nature and
nations, as well as the civil and political inflitutions of
his country, will form to him an important obje6l,
which he ought to ftudy with the moft careful atten*
tion. Rhetoric and logic, though generally regarded
as obje6ls of great importance in a liberal education,
can neither of them contribute much, with all their
rules and terms, to render him an acute reafoner or an
eloquent fpeaker 5 and it is therefore unneceffary for
him to honour them with very particular attention.
Tally and Chillingworth will be more beneficial in
teaching him to reafon and to perfuade, than all the
treatifes on rhetoric and logic which he can poffibly
perufe, or all the leftures on thofe arts which he can
gain opportunities to hear. In every art and every
icience, practice and experience are infinitely better
than rules. Natural philofophy, as contributing to in-
fpire the bread with warmer fentiments of devotion,
and ferving alfo to many ufeful purpofes in life, ought
to make a part in the young gentleman’s (Indies.
But the humble experimental writers on that fubjedt
are to be put into his hands in preference to the lofty
builders of fyftems. As for Greek, our pupil is not
to be a profeffed fcbolar, but a gentleman and a man
of the world ; and therefore it does not appear necef¬
fary that Greek (hould make a part in the fyftem of
his education. But in none of thefe ftudies will the
pupil ever attain any proficiency, unlefs he be accu-
llomed to method and regularity in the profecution of
them. In languages, let him gradually afeend from
what is fimpleft to what, is moft difficult : in hiftory,
let him follow the order of time ; in philofophy, that
of nature.
Dancing, as contributing to eafe and gracefulnefs
of carriage, ought to make a part in our young gentle¬
man’s education. Fencing and riding beingfaffiion-
able, cannot well be denied him. As he is likely, in
the courfe of life, to have fome leifure hours on his
hands, and to be fometimes difpofed to adlive recrea¬
tion, let him learn fome mechanical trade, with the
T t 2 exercife
E D U [ 332 j E D U
Education, esercife of which he may agreeably fill up fome of
thofe hours. If he is to poffefs any property, let him
not be un/killed in the management of accounts. Tra¬
vel, inftead of being ufeful, appears more likely to be
hurtful to the underltanding and morals of the traveller,
Ymlefs deferred to a later period than that at which
young men are ufually fent out to complete their edu¬
cation by traverfing through foreign countries.
Here Mr Locke concludes his work with obfer-
ving, that he does not offer it to the world as a full or
comprehenfive treatife on the fubjeiff of education ;
but merely as the outlines of what occurred to him as
moll proper to be obferved in breeding up a young
gentleman not intended for any learned profeffion or me¬
chanical employment, but for adding a refpedfable part
in life at the head of a competent hereditary fortune.
Remarks. In confidering the fentiments of this refpedtable phi-
lofopher on the fubjedl of education, we perceive,
that as he was, on the one hand, fuperior to thofe pre¬
judices which render us incapable of diitinguifhing the
defedls or abfurdities of any cuftom or inftitution which
has long prevailed; fo, on the other hand, he was free
from that filly vanity which-difpofes thofe who are fub¬
jedl to its influence to affedl novelty and Angularity of
fentiment on every fubjedl which they confider. Though
a member of one of the univerfities, he hefitates not
to declare himfelf againll a very laborious attention to
claflical learning ; and his reafoning is, through the
whole of his treatife, rather plain and folid than iubtle
or refined.
Yet, however we refpedl the foundnefs of his un-
derftanding or the benevolence of his intentions, we
cannot avoid obferving, that his opinions are not al¬
ways fuch as experience juftifies. He had no doubt
taken notice of fonte inftances in which the too great
anxiety of parents about the prefervation of their chil¬
dren’s health was the very means of rendering their
conftitution feeble and tender through the courfe of
life ; and from that circumftance might be led to pro-
pofe thofe expedients which he mentions for preferving
the health and ilrengthening the conftitution of chil¬
dren. But a little more obfervation or inquiry would
have eafily convinced him, that fome of his expedients,
inftead of ftrengthening the child’s conftitution, would
in all probability (horten his days.
He had perhaps feen fome of the heroes of clafli¬
cal literature, who were familiar with Demofthenes
and Cicero, and had Homer and Virgil at their fingers
ends,—he had feen fome of thofe gentlemen fo over¬
loaded with their cargo of Greek and Latin as to be
unfit for the ordinary bufinefs and intercourfe of life ;
and fuch inftances might tempt him to forget the advan¬
tages which he himfelf, and a long feries of philofophers,
patriots, and ftatefmen, with whofe names the annals of
our country are adorned, had derived from a regular claf-
fical education. But as we are afterwards to deliver our
own fentiments on this fubjedl, we will not here extend
our obfervations on Mr Locke to a greater length.
Rouffeau An author more diftinguilhed than Mr Locke, for
tendernefs of fentiment, Angularity, eloquence, and
whim, has prefented the public with a work on the fub¬
jedl of education, in which he, with unexampled bold-
nefs, inveighs againft all the eftabliftied modes, as well
as reprobates whatever had been advanced by former
writers on the fubjedl t and, at the fame time, deli¬
neates a plan of education which he would perfuade us Educatiam¬
is infinitely fuperior to thofe which he explodes. This  '
writer is the amiable and pathetic Rouffeau : And tho’
he be often vain, paradoxical, and whimfical; yet the
charm of genius and fentiment which adorns his wri¬
tings will at leaft engage our attention while he unfolds
his opinions.
He fets out with obferving, that our bufinefs in the imprudent
bringing up of children fhould be, to fecond and to manage-
call forth nature ; and that, inftead of this, we almoft menr °f ,
always oppofe her intentions and operations. As foon fh'lclrcn *n
as the child fees the light, he is wrapped in fwathing anC^'
bands. His limbs are thus reftrained from that free
motion which is neceflary to their growth and vigour ;
and even the internal parts of his frame are rendered
incapable of their proper functions. Mothers are too
proud or indolent, or too fond of gaiety and diflipa-
tion, to fubmit to the talk of nurfing their owm chil¬
dren. The poor infants are committed to fome hire¬
ling nurfe, who not being attached to them by natu¬
ral affedlion, treats them with negligence or inhuma¬
nity. But is that mother capable of any delicacy of
fentiment, who can permit another to fuckle her child,
and to fliare with her, or perhaps wholly fupplant her,
in the filial affedlion of that child ?
Again, when parents undertake the care of their
infant children, they often injure them by miftaken
tendernefs. They pamper them with delicate meats,
cover them with warm clothes, and anxioufly keep
them at a diftance from all that has the appearance of
danger : not attending to the economy of nature, who
fubjedls us in infancy to a long train of epidemical
diftempers, and expofes us during the fame period
to innumerable dangers ; the defign of which doubtlefs
is, to teach us a prudent concern for our own fafety,
and to ftrengthen and confirm our conftitutions.
A child no fooner enters into life, than it begins to
cry ; and during a great part of infancy continues
frequently to fired tears. We either attempt to foothe
it into good nature, or feek to filence it by harflrer
means ; and it is thus we infufe into its infant mind
thofe evil paflions which we afterwards prefume to im¬
pute to nature.
As the mother generally difdains to nurfe her own
child, fo the father is feldom at leifure to take any
fhare in the management of his education : he is put
into the hands of a tutor. But that tutor whofe time
and attention can be purchafed for money is unworthy
of the charge. Either be yourfelf your fan’s precep¬
tor, or gain a friend whofe friendlhip to you Ihall be
his foie motive to undertake the talk.
After a few preliminary obfervations to the above Manage-
purport, our author introduces his Emilius; in whofe ment of E-
education he delineates that plan which he prefers. n?l!m.s‘’u'
The preceptor whom he would aflign Emilius muft be^"^ m an
young ; and muft dedicate his attention to Emilius alone,
from the time when his pupil enters the world till he at¬
tain the full age of manhood. Emilius, to receive the
full benefit of his preceptor’s fyftem of education, and
to afford full fcope to it, muft poflefs a genius of the
middle clafs ; no prodigy of parts, nor Angularly dull;
he muft have been born to affluent circfimftances and
an elevated rank in life. His preceptor is invefted
with the rights, and takes upon him the obligations,
of both father and mother. Emilius is, when put
4 into
E D U [ 333 .1
. into the hands of his preceptor, a well-fhaped, vigo- in this matter.
J rous, and healthy child. The firlt care of the pre¬
ceptor is to provide him with a nurfe, who, as he is
new born, muft be newly delivered : it is of ftill high¬
er importance that (he be clean, healthy, virtuous, and
of mild difpofitions. While fuckling her charge, (he
fhall feed plentifully, chiefly on a vegetable diet. The
child mult be frequently bathed, in cold water if pof-
fible ; if you begin with warm, however, ufe it by de¬
grees colder and colder, till at length he is able to bear
it entirely cold. He is not to be wrapped in fwaddling-
clothes or rollers, or bound with Itay-bands ; but put
in good warm blankets and in a roomy cradle : Let
him ftretch and move his limbs at freedom, and crawl
about on hands and knees at his pleafure. The great-
eft care mud now be taken to prevent the child from
contratting any habits whatever : Suffer him not to
ufe one arm more than another, or to eat or deep at
Hated hours. Prepare him for the enjoyment of liber¬
ty, by preferving to him the exercile of his natural
abilities, unfettered by any artificial habits.
As foon as the child begins to diltinguifh objedts,
let his education begin. Some objefts are naturally
agreeable, others frightful. Accuftom him to look
upon any objedt that may come in his way without be¬
ing affrighted. Children are at firll ignorant of local
relations, and learn to dillingualh them only by expe¬
rience ; and while Emilias is yet an infant, incapable
of fpeaking or walking, he may be affifled in acquiring
the knowledge of thefe.
In his feeble helplefs condition, the child mud feel
many wants and much uneafmefs ; tears are the lan¬
guage which nature has given him to make known his
dillrefFes and wants. When the child cries, it would
be much more prudent and humane to examine what
he fuffers or dands in need of, than, as is ufualiy done,
to rock or fing him afleep ; or, when thefe means fue-
ceed not, to threaten or ufe him brutally.
In managing;children, as nature, has endowed them
E D U
When they fpeak, let us not lidcn Educam.m
with fuch folicitude as to relieve them from the necef- v ^
iky of ufing an open didindt articulation.
* When the child attains the power of expreffing him-
felf in artificial language, he may then be conlidered
as having reached the fecund period of infancy. He
needs not now to make known his wants by tears, and
fhould therefore be difcouraged from the ufe of them.
Let his tears be entirely negle&ed. He now begins
to run about, and you are anxious to prevent him from
hurting himfelf; but your anxiety can only render
him peevifh or timid. Remove him from any very
alarming danger, and then fuffer him to run about at
his pleafure. He will now and then bleed, and hurt
himfelf; but he will become bold, lively, and cheer-
ful. _ _ a;
In regulating the conducf of your child, let him Subjeibon
know that he is dependant; but require not of him ant0 authon*
implicit fubmiffion to your will. Let his unreafonable1^'
defires be oppofed only by his natural inability to gra¬
tify them, or by the inconveniences attending the gra¬
tification. When he afks what is neceffary or reafon-
able, let him indantly obtain it; when he afks what
is unreafonable or improper, lend a deaf ear to all his
intreaties and demands. Beware of teaching him to
eflablifh his authority over you by means of the forms
of politenefs. A child will fcarce take the trouble to-
addrefs you with If you pleafe, unlefs he has been made
to regard thefe as a fet of magic fyllables, by the ufe
of which he may fubjedt every perfon to his will. His
If you pleafe then means / pleafe ; pray, with him, Hands
for do. Though you put in his mouth the words of
humility, his tone and air are thofe of authority that
will be obeyed.
Sacrifice not the prefent happinefs of your child for
the fake of any dillant advantage.
Be not too anxious to guard him againft natural
evil. The liberty which he enjoys'while he is now
and then permitted to expofe himfelf to blows, or
ith no fuperfluous powers, we ought not to confine cold, or wetnefs, is more than a fufficient compenfa-'
them from the free ufe of thofe which they are able to tion for all that he thus fuffers...
exert. It is our duty to fupply.their deficiency both
of mental and bodily powers ; but while we are ready
to adminifter on every occafion to their real wants, we
mult beware of gratifying their caprice or unreafon¬
able humours. In order to diftinguilh between their
natural and fantaftic wants, we muft Hudy the language
and figns by which they exprefs their wifhes and emo¬
tions. Though crying be the means which nature
has given infants to enable them to procure relief or
afiifiance, yet when they cry they are not always in
Seek not to imprefs. him. with ideas of duty or oM-qjeas of
gation. Till children reach the years of difcretion, moral obl& -
they are incapaple of any notions of the diftindtions of£atioil>
morality. Avoid therefore even the ufe of the terms-
by which thefe are exprelfed in their hearing. While
they continue to be affedled only by fenfible objedls,
feek not to extend their ideas beyond the fphere of
fen fat ion. Try all the powers of language, ufe the
plainefi and moft familiar methods you can contrive ;
you lhall Hill be unable to .give the boy at this age any
need of either. They often cry from obHinacy or jult ideas of the diftindtion between right and wrong.
i e :n -t?.,* :r • a—i   ^ _ r r     • .e_ r r . r o
habits of peevilhnefs. But if, inftead of attempting to
foothe them by diverting their attention to other ob-
He may readily conceive, that for one fet of adtions
you will punifn him, and that by another he will ob-
jedls, we would on fuch occafions entirely negledb tain your approbation; but farther than this his ideas-
them, they would foon ceafe to indulge in fuch fits of right and wrong, of virtue, and vice, cannot yet be*
of crying.
When children begin to fpeak, we are ufualiy anxi¬
ous about their language and articulation, and
carried. .
The powers of the human mind are gradually u..
folded. At fir ft, the infant is capable only of percep-.
every moment corredling their blunders. But inftead tion; by and by, his inftindts and paflions begin to ex-,
of hoping to teach them purity or corredlnefs of fpeech ert their force; at length, as he advances towards
by fuch means as thefe, let us be careful to fpeak eafily manhood, reafon begins to adl, and he becomes able
and corredfly before them, and allow them to exprefs to feel the beauty of virtue and the deformity of
themfelves in the heft manner they can. By fuch vice.
means we will be much more likely to obtain our wifhes
But; though you feek not to regulate his condudb
by
E D U [ ?34 ] E D U
Erlucatii n. ky notions of duty, yet let him feel the yoke of necef-
fity, Let him know, that as he is weaker than you,
he mull not, therefore, expeft that you (hould be
fubje£l to his will; and that, as he has neither {kill
nor llrength to control the laws of nature, and make
every objeft around him bend to his pleafure, he can¬
not hope to obtain the gratification of all his willies.
Thus you teach him virtue before he knows what vir¬
tue is; and call forth his reafon without mifleading
or perverting it. Let him feel his impotence ; but
forbid him not to think, that if he had power there
would be no reafon why he might not at pleafure even
turn the world upfide down.
Hitherto you haye given your pupil no verbal in-
ftrudlions, nor muft you yet attempt to inftruft him
by any other means than experience; let all his know¬
ledge be literally of his own acquilition.
Let not the parent who has obferved the conduft
tsf children brought up in the ufual way be afraid
that, if his child {hould be treated like our pupil, he
would become ftupid and vicious. Nature fends not
human beings into the world with a prcdifpofition to
vice : we fow the feeds of it in the infant heart; and
by our abfurd modes of treatment, we alfo enfeeble
and pervert the powers of the underllanding.
But from the hour of his birth till he attain the
age of twelve, the education of Emilius fitall be purely
negative. Could we but bring him up healthy and
robuft, and entirely ignorant, till that period, the eyes
of his underftanding would then be open to every
leflbn: free from the influence of habit and prejudice,
his paffions would not then oppofe us; and we might
render him the wifeft. and moft virtuous of men. If
we can but lofe time, if we can .but advance without
receiving any imprefiions whatever, our gains are un-
fpeakable. Nature gives the powers of every mind
fome particular dircdlion : but that particular bias,
impreffed by the hand of nature, cannot be diftinguiflted
before the period we have mentioned ; and if you
counteract nature, inftead of feconding her views, the
confequences cannot but be highly unfavourable both
to the heart and the underftanding of your pupil.
Perhaps, in the midit of fociety, it may be difficult
to bring up our pupil without giving him fome idea
of the relations between man and man, and of the mo¬
rality of human aftions. Let that, however, be de¬
ferred as long as poffible.
Were Emilius to witnefs a fcene of anger, and to
alii the caufe of the appearances which he beheld, he
{hould be told that the perfons were affe&ed with a
fit of fudden illnefs. We might thus perhaps pre¬
vent the unhappy efFefts of fuch an example.
The firft moral notions which {hould be communi¬
cated to the child are thofe of property. To commu¬
nicate the ideas of property to our pupil, we will di-
reft him to take poffeffion of fomething; for inftance,
of a piece of ground belonging to fome other perfon,
and in a ftate of cultivation. Let him cultivate this
fpot of ground anew, fow it with feeds, and look ea¬
gerly forward to the time of harvefl in the hopes of
reaping the fruit of his labours. In the mean time, let
the proprietor of the ground take notice of what is
done, dettroy your pupil’s rifingcrop, and complain of
the injudice done him. While the boy laments his
Ms and the difappointment of his hopes, in all the
bitternefs of grief, let the proprietor of the ground Educations
ftill infill: on the injury done him, and complain of 
what he fuffers by the purpofe for which he himfelf
had cultivated and fown the ground being fruftrated.
Our pupil, now fenfible of the reafonablenefs of the
other’s claims, will defifl: from his lamentations, and
only beg to have fome other fpot affigned him which,
he may cultivate at his pleafure without offending any
perfon. This he will juflly confider as his own pro¬
perty, to the produCIions of which raifed by "his own
labour he has an exclufive right, and in the occupying
of which none ought to moleft him. In fome fuch
manner as this may the nature of property, the idea of
which eafily refers in this inftance to the firft occupier,
and afterwards the exchange of property, be explained
to him.
Another inftance of the manner in which the pupil
is now to be managed may not be improper in this
place. He ispoffibly fo rude and boifterous as to fpoil
or break whatever is within his reach. Be not angry
with him, however, if he break the Utenfils which he
lias conftant need of; be in no hafte to fupply him
with others in their room; let other things be re¬
moved out of his way : if he break the windows of
his apartment, let him be expofed night and day to
the cold ; complain not of the inconvenience yourfelf,
but order matters fo that he may feel it. After fome
time, let them be mended up ; and if he break them
again, change your method. Tell him calmly, “Thefe
windows are mine ; I took care to have them put
there; and I will prevent their being again broken,
by confining you in a dark room.” Let all his en¬
deavours to avoid this prove ineffeftual. Let him be
a&ually confined, and be liberated only on propofing
and agreeing to the condition of breaking no more win¬
dows. When he propofes this condition, be ready to
liften to him ; obfetve that it is well thought on, and
that it is a pity he did not think of it fooner. Con¬
fider this engagement between you as facred; treat
him as before, and you cannot fail to attain the end
in view.
The moral world now opens to us : But no fooner
are we able to diftinguifh between right and wrong,
than we become defirous to conceal thofe inftances in
which we aft wrong. Lying is therefore a vice of
which your pupil is now apt to be guilty: you cannot
always prevent, but you can punifli; but let the pu-
niftiments which you inflift appear to the child only
the natural confequences of his conduft. If he is in
any inftance convifted of a lie, let his affertions no
longer gain credit. By this means, fooner than by
precepts, or any other fpecies of punifliment, will you
be able to reclaim him from the habit of lying.
The methods generally taken to render children
virtuous are prepofterous and foolifli. To render them
generous and charitable, we give them money, and bid
them beftow it in alms, while we ourfelves give nothing;
but the parent or mafter, and not the child, {hould beftow
the alms. Example might produce the wilhed-for effeft.
Befides, children are ftrangers to the value of money.
A gingerbread cake is more to them than an hundred
guineas. Though you teach them to give away
money, till you perfuade them to part readily with
thofe things which they value moft, you do not infpire
them with generofity. Would you make them liberal
by
29
Hiftory,
how far
proper to
be put in¬
to the
hands of
boys.
E D U r 335 1 . E D U
by ftiowing them that the mofl. liberal is always beft to read, he will apply to fome of thofe'about him. E iurar
provided for? this is to teach covetoufnefs, not libera- They may be unwilling to oblige him, or otherwife en- v
lity. Example is the only means by which you can, gaged. If, at length, it is read to him, that may be
at this period, hope to teach your pupil any of the when it is now too late to take advantage of fome
virtues. agreeable invitation which it contained This may
The only lelfon of morality that can with any pro- be two or three times repeated. At length he be-
priety be inculcated on children, is to injure no per- comes eager to learn to read; and accomplifhes that
fon. Even the poiitive precept of doing good, muft almoft without affiltance.
be eonfidered as fubordinate to this negative one of The principle on which we proceed, is to leave the
doing no harm. The moll virtuous and the moft ex- pupil almoft wholly under his own direction, feemingly
alted of characters, is the man who does the leaft harm at leaft ;. to lead him to acquire new accomplilhments,
to his fellow-creatures. folely from the delire of increafing his powers, and
In a public education, it will be neceffary to attempt extending his influence; and humbly to follow nature,
the communication of moral inftruftion at an earlier not to force her.
period than in a private one. In a private education. As We are defirous of cultivating his underftanding,
it will always be beft to allow the moral powers of the means which we employ for that purpofe is, to
children to ripen as much as pofiible before you en- cultivate thofe abilities on which it depends; he is
deavour to inform and diredl them by precepts. always a&ive and in motion. Let us firlt make him a
There is an inequality among geniufes ; and fond man in point of health and vigour, and he will foon
mothers and fathers may be difpofed to plead for ex- become a man in underftanding.
ceptions in favour of fuch of their children as they By our conftant attention to the welfare of chil-
view with a partial eye. “ This boy’s mind is more dren, we render it unneceffary for them to attend to
capacious, his powers are riper, than thofe of others.” it themfelves. What occafion has your fon or pupil
But however great the feeming difparity of geniufes to obferve whether the afpedl of the Iky threaten
may be, it is at bottom but inconliderable. Let the rain, when he knows that you will take care to have
age of children be therefore regarded as a common him fheltered from a (hower? or to regulate the length,
meafure by which their treatment is to be regulated. of his cxcurfions, when he is fure that you will not
However quick and tenacious the memories of chil- fuffer him to lofe his dinner?
dren may feem, they can derive little advantage from While matters are fo ordered that Emilius thinks
the exertions of memory till fuch time as judgment himfelf fubjetft only to his own will, though all his
begins to a£l. All the knowledge that they acquire motions are regulated according to your pleafure ; in-
in the courfe of the ufual fyftem of education, is Head of becoming fantaftic and capricious, he infen-
merely the knowledge of words. The languages, ftbly acquires the habit of keeping utility in view in
geography, chronology, in ihort all that they are all his adlions.
taught, and called to difplay fo oftentatioufly at this The lirft objedls which engage the attention of chil-
period of life, ferve no other purpofe than to fill their dren are the appearances of the material world around
minds with words. them : our firft ftudy is a kind of experimental philo-
Hiftory is efteemed a proper thing to be put into fophy ; our inftruments and inftru&ors are pur hands,
the hands of children. But except you wifli to con- our feet, and our eyes. By exercifing thefe bodily
fine their attention to the external and phyfical aftions, organs, the boy will acquire more real knowledge
it is almoft nothing they can acquire by the perufal even in the period of childhood, than if we fhould de-
of it. And if divefted of the moral diftin&ions of dicate nine-tenths of his time to books, from the age
a&ions, of the workings of the pafiions, and the com.- of fix to fixty. All who have examined, with any fa-
plication of interefts, what is there to render hiftory gacity, the charadters, circumftances, and manners of
entertaining ? We may indeed eafily teach them to re- the ancients, have agreed in attributing to their gym-
peat the yKOx&s kings, emperors, wars, conquejls, revolu- naftic exercifes that fuperior ftrength of body and
tions, laws : but of the things wdiich you ufe thefe mind which renders them objedts of admiration to the
words to denote, you will find they are hitherto in- moderns.
capable of forming any clear ideas. Our pupil’s clothes cannot be too light and eafy. If
But the mere knowledge of words is not fcience ; tight and clofe, theyTetter and confine his joints and
make your pupil acquainted with things, and he will limbs, and likewife obftrudl the circulation of the
not fail to acquire their names. Emilius muft never be blood ; if accuftomed to warm clothing,, he will foon
fet to get any compofition by heart, not even fables: become incapable of bearing cold.,
be careful to place before him thofe feenes and objects. In every thing let him be habituated to what is Ex
the images of which it may be ufeful for him to have plain and hardy. Let his bed be coarfe and hard, his and exe
impreffed on his memory ; but by no other means feek clothes plain, his fare fimple. Infants muft be freely ciie.
to aflift him to improve that faculty. indulged in fleep : but as Emilius is now advanced be-
Emilius ftiall not even learn to read till he attain yond infancy, he muft be accuftomed at times to go
the age of twelve : for, before that period, it can be to bed late and get up early, to be fometimes haftily
benefit to him; and the labour would only make waked from fleep; and thus to prepare himfelf for
of
him unhappy during that period of life which is natu- what he may afterwards have occafion to fubmit to in
rally the golden part of our days. But when he has the courfe of life.
attained the proper age, matters (hall be fo ordered, As this period is in a particular manner that of ex^
that he {hall find his ignorance of letters an inconve- ercife, »and Emilius is encouraged to take as much,
nience, A card fiiall be fent him, which being unable exerciie as he choofes; we muft endeavour to prompt,..
hut
li. iHcation.
Darknefs
and ghofts.
E D U [ 336 ] _ E D U
but without fcemlng to direft him to fitch as are mod fome time I would fhow him I had put a thi-d cake EcJucaroa.
proper. Swimming, though not generally attended to, in my pocket. This he would not fail to alk after  
is yet one of the fird which a boy ought to learn. It finifhing his own : no, fays I, I can eat it myfelf, or
may, in many occafions in life, be of the greated ad- we will divid it or day, we had better let thefe two
vantage, by enabling us to fave our own life or the little boys there run a race for it. Accordingly I
life of others. Emilius (hall be taught to fwim ; he propofe the race to the boys; who readily accept"rhe
flrall be taught whatever can really enlarge the fphere conditions, and one of them carries off the prize. Af-
of his power: “could 1 teach him to fly in the air, I ter feeing this feveral times repeated, Emilius begins
would make him an eagle; if to bear the fire, a fala- to think himfelf qualified to obtain the third cake as
mander.” W’ell as any of the little boys, and to look upon running.
To exercife the fenfes is not merely to make ufe of as an accomplifliment of fome confequence. He feeks
them ; it is to learn to judge by them. Call not your an opportunity of being permitted to enter the lifts,
pupil to exert all his ftrength on every occafion ; but He runs; and after being two or three times outftrip-
let him learn to judge of the truth of the information ped, is at length fuccefsful, and in a flrort time at-
which he receives from One fenfe, by having recourfe tains an undoubted fuperiority. ^^
to the evidence of another. ' As children-naturally imitate almoft whatever they Drawing.
It is not impoffible to improve the fenfes to an high- behold, they are often difpofed to attempt drawing,
er degree of perfection than that which they ufually In this our pupil might be indulged, not merely for the
attain. Blind men generally poffefs the fenfe of touch fake of the art, but to give him a fteady hand and a
in a more exquifite degree, than we who have alfo good eye. But he fhould draw from nature, not from
eyes to guide and inform us. But they acquire this other drawings or from prints. Were he to draw
fuperior delicacy and acutenefs of fenfation, only by the likenefs of a horfe, he ftiould look at the animal:
their finding it neceffary to have more frequent re- if to attempt a reprefentation of a houfe, he ftiould
courfe to the information of that fenfe. Here is then view the houfe itfelf. In this method he will, no
a wide field for improvement and agreeable exercife to doubt, fcratch for a long time without producing any
our pupil. . likenefs: but he will acquire what we propofed as
What a variety of ufeful diverfions might he be led the ends of his attempting to draw ; namely, fteadi-
to entertain himfelf with in the courfe of the night, nefs of hand and juttnefs of fight, by this method,
The hours of darknefs are generally hours of terror, fooner than by any others.
not only to men, but alfo to the brute animals. Even Geometry, when taught in the ufual way, is cer- Geometry,
reafon, knowledge, and courage, are not always fuffi- tainly above the capacity of children ; they cannot go
cient to render us fuperior to the terror which darknefs along with us in our reafonings : Yet they are not to-
infpires. tally incapable of acquiring even this difficult fcience ;
This timidity is ufually attributed to the tales of if, when they are profecuting their amufements, you
ghofts and goblins with which we are frightened in lead them infenfibly to obferve the properties of the
infancy. But it originates from another caufe; our circle, the triangle, and the fquare, and place them
ignorance of what is paffing around us, and eur ina- now and then in circumftances when they may have
bility to diftinguifh objects during that period of occafion to apply their knowledge of thefe to real ufes
darknefs. The paffion of fear was implanted by nature in life.
in the human breaft, in order that it might ferve to A child has been taught the various relations be-
put us on our guard againft danger. Butin confe- tween the outlines, furfaces, and contents of bodies, by
quence o£ our being fubjeft to the influence of that having cakes fet before him, cut into all manner of
paffion, when we are ignorant of what furrounds us, regular folida ; by which means he was led to mafter
imagination calls up dangers on all hands. And fuch the whole fcience of Archimedes, by ftudying which
is the caufe from which our terror in darknefs natural- form contained the greateft quantity,
ly arifes. There is a period between infancy and the age of
But the only way to free our pupil from this ty- puberty at which the growth and improvement of our.
ranny of imagination, is to oppofe to it the power of faculties exceed the inereafe of our defires. About 12
habit. A bricklayer or tyler is never giddy on look- or 13, when the appetite forthefex has not yet begun
ingdown from the roofs of houfes. Neither will our to make itfelf felt, when unnatural wants are yet un¬
pupil be alarmed by the terrors of darknefs, if he he known, no falfe appetites yet acquired; at that pe-
accuftomed to frequently abroad under night. It riod, though weak as a man, as a child the youth is
is eafy to contrive a number of little amufements, the ftrong.
agreeablenefs of which may, for a time, overcome our This interval, when the individual is able to effect
pupil’s averfion for darknefs; and thus may a habit more than is neceffary for the gratification of his
be at length impreffed. wiflies, contains the moft precious moments of his
Let us give yet another inftance of the means by' life, which ought to be anxioufly filled up in an ufe-
which children may be led to do what we wiftt, with- ful manner. This is the btft time for employment,
out our impofing any reffraint on their will. Sup- for inftrudlion, for itudy.
pofe Emilius is lazy and inactive, and we wilh to make Now, let us begin to confider what is ufeful : for,
him learn to run. When walking.out with the yourfg hitherto, we have only inquired what was neceffaiy.
fluggard after dinner, I would fometimes put a couple In entering on our Rudies, we will make no account of
of his favourite cakes in my pocket; of thefe each of any but lueh as inftinft dire&s us to purfue : thole
us Humid eat one in the courfe of our walk. After, which the pedants and the pretended philofopher are
N° 109. ini-
E D U [ 337 ] E D V
Education, impelled to purfue folely from the defire of attradl-
ing the admiration of mankind, are unworthy of our
notice. «
»The earth which we inhabit, and the fun by whofe
beams we are enlightened, are the iirit objedts which
claim our attention. We will therefore diredt the at¬
tention of our pupil to the phenomena of nature. We
will lead him to the knowledge of geography, not by
maps, fpheres, and globes: we will lead Emilius out
on fome beautiful evening to behold the fetting fun.
Here we take particular notiee of fuch objedts as
mark the place of his going down. Next morning
vve vifit the fpot to Contemplate the rifing of the
glorious luminary. After contemplating for fome
time the fucceflive appearances which the fcene before
us affumes, and making Emilius obferve the hills and
the other furrounding objedts, I tland lilent a few mo¬
ments, affedting to be occupied in deep meditation:
At laft I addrefs him thus : “ I am thinking, that,
when the fun fet lall night, it went down yonder;
whereas this morning, you fee he is rifen on the oppo-
fite of the plain here before us. What can be the
meaning of this ?” I fay nothing more at this time,
but rather endeavour to diredt his attention to other
objedl?.
' This is our firft leifon in cofiiupgraphy.
Our laft obfervation was made about Midfummer;
we will next view the rifmg fun on fome fine morn¬
ing in the middle of winter. This fecond obfervation
fhall be made on the very fame fpot which we chofe
for the former. When Emilius and I perceive the
fun no,w emerging above the horizon, we are ttruck
at the change of the place of his riling*—By fuch
leffons as thefe may the pupil be gradually taught
a real, not a feeming, acquaintance with the relative
motions of the fun and the planets and with geogra-
•phy.
During the firft period of childhood, the great ob-
jedt of our fyftem of education was to fpend our time
34 as idly as pofiible, in order that we might avoid em-
©Ijeias flu- ploying it to an ill purpofe : but our views are now
Cond^eriTdc^ianoe<^ w*t^1 our pupil’s progrefs in life; and we
oTchUd-1 have fcarce enough of time for the accoinplilhment of
hood. our neceflary purfuits. We therefore proceed as
quickly as poflible in making ourfelves acquainted with
the nature of the bodies around its, and the laws by
which their motions and appearances are regulated.
We keep to this ftudy at prefent, as being neceffary
for the moft important purpofes in life, and as being
the moft fuitable to the prefent ftate of our pupil’s
^powers. We ftill begin with the moft common and
obvious phenomena of nature, regarding them as mere
fadts; and, advancing from thefe, we come to gene¬
ralize by degrees.
As fooa as we ate fo far advanced as to be able to
give our pupil an idea of what is meant by the word
vfeful, we have attained a cohftderable influence over
his future condudl. On every occailon after this
a frequent queftion between us will be, Of what ufe is
that ? This (hall be the inllrument by means of
which I (hall now be able to render him abfolutely
fubmifilve to my wilbes. However, I will allow him
to make ufe of it in his turn, and will be careful not
to require of him to do or learn any thing the utility
of which he cannot comprehend.
Vou VI. Part. I.
Books only teach people to talk about what they Education,
do not underiland. Emilius (hall .have as little re- v—'
Courfe as polfible to books for inftrudlion. Yet if we
can find a book in which all the natural wants of man
are difplayed in a manner fuitable to the underftand-
ing of a child, and. in which the means of fatisfyirg ttobiufen
thofe wants are gradually difplayed with the fame Crufoe.
cafe and fimplicity ; fuch a book will be worthy of
his moft attentive .ttudy. There is fuch a book to be
found; but it is neither Ariftotle, nor Pliny, not*
Buffon ; it is Robinfon Ctufoe. Emilius (hall have
the adventures of Robinfon put into his hands: he
(hall imitate his example; evert affedl his dsefs ; and,
like Robinfon, learn to provide for himfelf without the
aid of others.
Another employment of Emilius at this period
(hall be, to vifit the fhops of various artifans; and
when he enters a (hop, he (hall never come out with¬
out lending a hand to the work, and underftand-
,ing the nature and the reafon of what he fees going
forward.
Still, however, we are careful to afford not a hint
concerning thofe facial relations the nature of which
he is not yet able to comprehend.
The value and importance of the various arts are
ordinarily eftimated, not according to their real uti¬
lity, but by a very injudicious mode of eftimation $
Thofe which conttibute in a particular manner to the
gratification of the fantaftic willies of the rich, are pre¬
ferred to thofe which fupply the indifpenfable neceffa-
ries of life. But Emilius fliall be taught to view
them in a different light. Robinfon Crufoe fhall
teach him to value the (lock of a petty ironmonger
above that of the moft magnificent toy-lliop in Eu¬
rope. Let us eftablifli it as a maxim, that we are to
lead our pupil to form juft notions of things for him¬
felf, not to didftate to him out s. He will eftimate the
works both of nature and art by their relation to his
own convenience ; and will therefore regard them as
more precious than gold—a Ihoemaker or a mafon, as
a man of more importance than the moft celebrated
jeweller in Europe.
The ihtercourfe of the arts confifts in the recipro¬
cal exchange of induftry; that of commerce, it) the
exchange of commodities; and that of money, in the
exchange of bills and calh. To make our pupil com¬
prehend the nature of thefe, we have now only to ge¬
neralize and extend to a variety of examples thofe
ideas of the nature of property, and of ihe exchange
of property, which vve formerly communicated to him.
The nature of money, as bearing only a conventional
value, which it derives from the agreement of men to
ufe it as a fign for facilitating Commerce, may be now
explained to Emilius, and will be eafily comprehend¬
ed by him. But go no farther: feek not yet to ex¬
plain to the child in what manner money has given
rife to the numerous chimeras of prejudice and caprice (
nor how countries which abound moft in gold and fil-
ver, come to be the moft deftitute of real wealth.
Still our views ate diredled to bring up our pupil in
fuch a manner that he may be qualified to occupy any¬
place in the order of fpciety into which even the ca¬
price of fortune can throw him. , Let us make him a
man ; not a Have, a lord, or a monarch. How much
fuperior the charadler of a king of Syracufe turned
U u fchoolmafter
E D U [ 338 ] E D U
Education, fchoplmafter at Corinth, of a king of Macedon become
a notary at Rome, to an unhappy Tarquin incapable
of fupporting himfelf in a Rate of independence when
expelled from his kingdom!
The pro- Whatever be our fituation in the world, we can
paietry ef contribute nothing but our perfonal abilities to fociety.
making a q'0 exert them is therefore the indifpenfable duty of
iiiwhateverevei7 one w^° enj°ys the advantages of a focial Rate ;
fphere of and to cultivate them in our pupil to the beR purpofe,
life, learn a-ought to be the great aim of every courfe of education,
trade. Emilius has already made himfelf familiar w’fth all the
labours of hulbandry ; I can therefore bid him culti¬
vate the land which he inherits from his father. But
if it fiiould be lofl, what fliall be his refource ? He fhall
learn a trade, that he may be provided againR fuch an
accident. And he (hall not be a politician, a painter,
a mufician, or an architeft; to gain employment for
his talents in any of thefe arts, would coR him no lefs
trouble than to regain his- loR eRate. He (hall learn
fame Ample mechanical art: he will then need only to
Rep into the firR (hop he fees open, to perform his
day’s labour, and receive his wages.
It may be here proper to take notice of a miRake
into which people generally fall in determining the
trade or profefiion in which they are to place their
ehildren. Some accident difpofes the child to declare
himfelf for a particular employment: the parent re¬
gards that as the employment to which his talents are
fitted by the defign of nature; and permits him to em¬
brace it without inquiring whether another would
have been more fuitable or advantageous. But becaufe
1 am pleafed with my occupation, I am not on that
account necefTaril/ qualified for it. Inclinations do
not confer abilities. It requires more careful and ac¬
curate obfervation than is generally imagined, to diRin-
guiflr the particular taRe and genius with which nature
has endowed the mind of a child. We view him care-
lefsly, and of confequence we are apt to miRake cafual
inclination for original difpofition.
But Emilius needs not now to hefitate about the
occupation which he is to choofe. It is to be fame
mechanical employment. All the diRimftion we have
now to make is, to prefer one that is‘cleanly and not
likely to be injurious to his health. We (hall make
choice of that of a joiner. We cannot dedicate all our
time to the trade ; but at leaR for two days in the
week we will employ ourfelves in learning our trade.
We will have no workfhop eredled for our conveni¬
ence, nor will we have a joiner to wait on us in order
to give us the neceffary inRruftions: but for the two
days in every week which we dedicate to the purpofe
of learning a trade, we will go to our mailer’s work-
(hop ; we will rife before him in the morning ; work
according to his orders; eat at his table ; and, after
doing ourfelves the honour of flipping with his family,
return to our own hard mattrefles at night. We (hall
be treated only according to the merit of our perform¬
ances. Our maRer (liall find fault with our work when
clumfily or negligently done, and be pleafed with it only
when well executed.
New ideas While my pupil has been accuRomed to bodily ex-
fnggefted ercife and manual labour, his education has been hi-
bv his a'US t*ierto condu£led in fuch a manner as to give him in-
pficatiorf to fenfibly a taRe for reflexion and meditation. Before
a trade. he has been long a workman, therefore, he will begin
to become more fenfible of that inequality of ranks Edocatloa,
which takes place in the order of fociety. He will ,
therefore take notice of his own dependence, and of
my apparent wealth, and will be defirous to know
why I contribute not my perfonal exertions to fociety.
I put off the queRion with telling him, that I beRow
my fuperfluous wealth on him and the poor ; and will
take to make a bench or table every week, that I may
not be quite ufelefs to the public. 3g
And now when about to enter the moR critical Progref*
period of life, when juR on the brink of that age at that Emi-
which the heart and blood begin to feel the impuHe of ^de'be*
a new appetite, what progrefs has our pupil made ? fore the
what knowledge has he acquired ? All his fcience is age of pu.
merely phyfical. Hitherto he has fcarce acquired any hei-ty.
ideas of moral relations ; but the effential relations be¬
tween men and things he has attentively fludied. - He
knows the general qualities of certain bodies; but up¬
on thofe qualities he has not attempted to reafon. H<t
has an idea of abfiradl fpace, by means of geometrical
figures; of abRraCt quantity, by means of algebraical
figns. He has no defire to find out the effence of
things ; their relations alone intereR him. He values
nothing external but from its relation to himfelf. The
general confent of mankind, or the caprice of cuffom,
have not yet given any thing a value in his eyes; utility
alone is his meafure of eRimation. He is laborious,
temperate, patient, refolute, and bold. His imagi¬
nation never exaggerates danger. He fcarce knows
as yet what death is; but (hould it approach him, he
is prepared to fubmit to neceffity. He is virtuous in
every thing relative merely to himfelf. He is prepa¬
red to become a virtuous member of fociety as foon as
he (hall be made acquainted with the nature of his fo¬
cial relations. He is free from vice and error as far as
is poflible for human nature. He confiders himfelf as
unconnected with others; requires nothing from any
perfon, and thinks none has a right to require any
thing of him. Sure a youth arrived thus at his fifteenth
year has not mifpent the period of his infancy. ^
But now our pupil has reached the moR. critical pe- New mea-
riod of life. He now feels the influence of the paffionfures to be
for the fex ; and as foon as we become fubject to the
influence of that pafiion, we are no longer unfocial tfon at that
beings. The want of a miflrefs foon produces the age.
want of a friend.
As hitherto we have been careful not to force or
anticipate nature, fo even now our attention muR be
directed to divert the impulfes of that dangerous ap¬
petite which now begins to make itfelf felt. To con¬
fine the growing paffions within proper limits, let it*
be our care to defer as long as poflible the time at
which they begin to difplay themfelves. For this
purpofe, let us cautioufly guard our words and adtions
in the prefence of our pupil. Let us be careful to
give him no premature inflrudtions.
To excite and cherifli that fenfibility of mind which
now firR begins to (how itfelf; to extend the care of
the youth beyond himfelf, and to intereR him in the
welfare of his fellow creatures ; let us be careful to put
fuch objedts in his way as have a tendency to call forth
and refine the feelings. It is not poflible for the hu¬
man heart to fympathife with thofe who are happier
than ourfelves: our fympathy is moved only by the
fight of mifery. We pity in others only thofe diflref*
E D U t 339 ] E D U
Education, fes to which we ourfelves are liable ; and our pity for Books, folitude, fdlenefs, a fedentary and effemi- Education.
the misfortunes of otliers is meafured, not by the quan- nate life, the company of women and young people, v—-*
tity of the evil, but by the fuppofed fenfibility of the are what he muft carefully avoid at this age. He hasMe^°
fufferer. Let thefe obfervations ferve to direft us in
what manner we are to form the minds of children to
humanity and compaflion.
In profecution of our defign, to retard rather than ac¬
celerate the growth of the paflions, let us, when that cri¬
tical period which we have fo much feared comes on, fe-
clude him as much as poffible from the intercourfe of fo-
ciety, where fo many objefts appear to inflame the ap¬
learned a trade, he is not unikilled in agriculture; pYJ^ed to”'
thefe may be means, but not our only means, for pre-preferve
ferving him from the impulfe of fenfual defire. He is the purity-
now too familiar with thefe: he can exercife themofIn8m***
without taking the trouble to reflect; and while his”6”'
hands are bufy, his head may be engaged about fome-
thing quite different from that in which he is employ¬
ed. He muft have fome new exercife which may at
petites. Let us be circumfpeft in the choice of his com- once fix his attention and caufe him to exert his bodily
panions, his employment, his pleafures. Let all our care powers. We can find none more fuitable for this pur-
be directed to nourifh his fenfibility without inflaming pofe than hunting. Now, therefore, Emilius fhall
his defires. As his moral powers now begin to unfold eagerly join in the chace ; and though I do not wifli
themfelves; in cultivating them, let us proceed not by him to acquire that cruelty of difpofition and ferocity
way of lefture, or by diretting his attention to books, of temper which ufually diflinguifli thofe who dedi-
but ft ill by leading him to acquire experience. At cate their lives to that barbarous diverfion, yet at pre¬
length the period will arrive for communicating to him fent it may have the happieft effe&s in fufpending the
fome religious inftru&ion. When he knows the na- influence of the moft dangerous of paffions.
ture of his relations to fociety, he may be informed of When I have now condudted my pupil fo far ; have
his relation to and dependence upon a Deity.
informed him of what 1 have done for him, and of thii
[The creed of the Savoyard curate, containing difficulty of his fituation ; and have refigned my au-
thofe fentiments concerning religious matters which thority into his hands ; he is fo fenfible of the dangers
Roufleau feems to propofe as the moft proper to be
inculcated on his pupil, comes next in the order of the
work ; but it - does not appear to be fo clofely con¬
to which he is expofed, and of the tender folicitude
with which I have watched over him, that he ftill
wiffies to continue under my direction. With fome
nefted with the fubjeft of education as to render feigned difficulty I again refume the reins. My
it proper for us to give a view of it in this place.
The fentiments which he there advances, the reafon-
ings which he urges, are evidently hoftile to reveal¬
ed religion; and the power of his eloquence has
adorned flight and fuperficial arguments with fuch a
charm, that even the fterneft believer, if not abfo-
lutely deftitute of tafte and feeling, muft read them
with delight.]
And now, notwithftanding all my arts, I can no
longer keep back that moment which I have endeavour¬
ed to defer to as late a period as poffible. As foon as I
perceive that it has certainly arrived, I no longer treat
Emilius as my pupil or difciple, but as my friend.
His affe&ions are now expanded beyond himfelf; his
moral powers have begun to exert themfelves, and have
received fome cultivation ; he alfo is become capable
thonty is now eftabliflied. I may command obedience;
but I endeavour to guard againft the neceffity of ufmg
it in this manner.
To preferve him from indulging in licentious plea¬
fures, I let him know that nature has defigned us for
living in a ftate of marriage, and invite him to go in
fearch of a female companion. I will deferibe to him
the woman whom he is to confider as worthy of his at¬
tachment in the moft flattering colours. I will array
her in fuch charms, that his heart ftiall be hers before
he has once feen her. I will even name her: her name
ftiall be Sophia. His attachment to this imaginary
fair. one will preferve him from all the allurements of
unlawful love. Befides, I take care to infpire him
with fuch reverence for himfelf,-that, notwithftanding
” the fury of his defires, he will not condefcend to
of religious fentiments, and inftrufted in the nature of purfue the enjoyments of debauchery. And though
his relation to a fupreme Being. Befides, it is now T r— xL ' 1
requifite, if we confider the period to which nature
has conduced him, that he ffiould no longer be treat¬
ed as a Ample child. Hitherto ignorance has been his
guardian, but now he muft be reftrained by his own
good fenfe.
Now is the time for me to give him in my accounts;
to ftiow him in what manner his time and mine have
been employed; to acquaint him with his ftation and
mine, with our obligations to each other, his moral
relations, the engagements he has entered into with
regard to others, the degree of improvement which he
has attained, the difficulties he will hereafter meet
with, and the means by which he may furmount them:
—in a word, to point out to him his critical fituation,
and the new perils which furround him ; and to lay
before him all the folid reafons which fhould engage
him to watch with the utmott attention over his con-
dudl, and to be cautious of indulging his youthful de-
■fires.
I may now fometimes entruft him to his own care, and
not feek to confine him always under my eye; yet ftill
I will be cautious to watch over his conduct with care¬
ful circumfpeftion.
But as Emilius is to be ftiortly introduced to his So¬
phia, it may perhaps be proper for us to inquire into
her chara&er, and in what manner ftie has been brought
up.
There is a natural difference between the two fexes. Diftin&ivc
The difference in the ftrudlure of their bodies ftiows
them to be deftined by nature for different purpofes in?f the tw®
life, and muft neceffarily occafion a diftin&ion between fexcs"
their characters. It is vain to a Ik which of them me¬
rits the pre-eminence : each of them is peculiarly fitted
to anfwcr the views of nature. Woman is naturally
weak and timid, man ftrong and courageous; the
one is a dependent, the other a protedtor. As the
guardian of her virtue, and a reftraint on her defires,
woman is armed with native modefty. Reafon is the
guide and governor of man. When a man and a wo-
U u 2 man
E D U [ 340 T E D 0
Edycatiob1? tnan arc united by conjugal vows, a violation of thofe
*" '' vows is evidently more criminal in the woman than in
the man. The wife ought to be anfwetable for the
genuinenefs of the offspring with which fhe has been
entrufted by nature. It is no doubt barbarous and
wicked for the hufband to defraud his wife of the only
reward which fhe can receive for the fevere duties of
her fex: but the guilt of the faithlefs wife is ftill
more atrocious j and the confequences of her infidelity
are ftill more unhappy.
But if nature has eftablifhed an original diftinftion
between the characters of the two fexes ; has formed
them for different purpofes, and affigned them differ¬
ent duties; it mull follow, that the education of the
one fex ought to be conducted in a manner different
from that of the other. The abilities common to the
two fexes are not equally divided between them ; but
if. that fhare which nature has diftributed to woman be
fcantier than what fhe has beflow’ed on man, yet the
deficiency is more than compenfated by the qualities
peculiar to the female. When the woman confines
Iierfelf to affert her proper rights, fhe has always the
advantage over man ; when fhe would ufurp thofe of
the other fex, the advantage is then invariably again ft
her.
But we require not that woman fhould be brought'
up in ignorance. Let us confider the delicacy of her
fex, and the duties which fhe is dellined to perform;
and to thefe we may accommodate the education which
we beflow upon her. While boys like whatever is at¬
tended with motion and noife, girls are fond of fuch
decorations as pleafe the eye. Dolls are the favourite
plaything of the fex. in their infant years. This is an
original tafte, of the exiftence of which we have the
plaineft evidence. All therefore that we ought to do
is, to trace and bring it under proper regulation. Al¬
low the girl to decorate her baby in whatever manner
fhe pleafes; while employed about that, fhe will ac¬
quire fuch flcill and dexterity in thofe arts which are
peculiar-to her fex, that with fcarce any difficulty fhe
will acquire needle-work, embroidery, and the art of
working lace. Her improvements may even be ex¬
tended as.far as defigning, an art fomewhat coqne&ed
with taftq in drefs ; but there is no reafon that their
(kill in this art fhould be carried farther than to the
drawing of foliage, fruits, flowers, drapery, and fuch
parts of the art as bear fome relation to drefs. Al¬
ways affign reafons for the employment which you
give to young girls, but be fure you keep them con-
ilantly bufy. They ought to be accufiomtd to labo¬
rious induftry, as well as to bear the abridgment of
their liberty. Ufe every art to prevent their work
from becoming difagreeable to them. For that pur-
pofe, let the mother be careful to make herfelf agree¬
able. A girl who loves her mother or her aunt, will
work cheerfully by them aH day ; while fhe to whom
her mother is not dearer than all the world hefides,
feldom turns out well. Never fuff'er girls, even at their
diverfions, to be entirely free from reftraint, nor allow
them to run from one amufement to another. If you
bow and then deleft your daughter ufing a little artifice
to excufe herfelf from obedience, refleft that artifice is,
in a certain degree, natural to the fair fex ; and as every
natural inclination, when not abufed, is upright and
goodj why fhould it not be cultivated ? In order to
give girls proper notions of drefs, let them be taught Education,
to confider fplendor and elegance of drefs as defigfted  v—
only to conceal the natural defefts of the perfon ; and
to regard it as the nobleft triumph, the higheft praife,
of beauty, to fhine with unborrowed luftre in the
fimpleft attire. Forbid not young women to acquire
thole arts which have a tendency to render them agree¬
able. Why refufe them the indulgence of learning to
dance, tofing, and to fludy fuch other accomplifhments
as afterwards enable them to entertain their hufbands?'
Girls are more difpofed to prattle, and at an earlier
age, than boys. We may now and then find it ne-
ctffafy to reflrain^tbeir- volubility. But the proper
queftion to them on fuch occafions is not, as to boys,
Of what ufe is this? but, What effeSs will this produce?
At this early period, when they are yret itrangers to
the diftinftion between-good- and evil, and ■ therefore
unable to form a juft judgment concerning any perfon’s
conduft, we ought to reftrain them carefully from,
faying what may be difagreeable to thofe with whom
they converfe.
Girls are no lefs incapable than boys of forming di-
ftinft notions of' religion at an early age. Yet, and
even far that very reafon, religious inftruftion fhould
be communicated to them much fooner than to the
youth of the other fex. Were we to wait the period
when their mental faculties arrive at maturity, we might
perhaps lofe the happieft time, from our inability to
make a right diftinftion. Since a woman’s conduft is-
fubjeft to public opinion, her belief ought therefore
to depend, not on reafon, but on authority. Every
girl ought to follow the religion of her mother, every
married woman that of her hufband. They cannot
derive a rule of faith from their own inquiry. Let us
therefore feek, not fo much to inftruft them in the
reafons of our belief, as to give them clear diftinft no¬
tions of thefe articles which we require them to be¬
lieve. Be more careful to inftruft her in thofe doc¬
trines which have a conneftion- with morality, than in.
thofe myfterious articles which we are required to be¬
lieve, though we cannot comprehend them.
Such are the principles on which the education of
Emilius’s unknown miftrefs has been condufted.
[Notwithllanding the merit of that part of thistrea-
tife in which the author entertains us with the court-
fhip between his Emilias and Sophia, it does not ap¬
pear to be fo intimately connefted with the fubjeft of
education as to render it proper for us to prefent our
readers with a view of it. We therefore pafs over
the courtfhip, to give a view of Our author’s fentiments.
concerning the advantages to be derived from travel¬
ling, and the manner in which it ought to- be direft-
^2 .. , o 4*
When Emilius has formed a firm attachment to So-Emiliusat*
phia, and by his affiduities has been fo fortunate as torched to a
gain her affeftions, his great wifh now is, to be unitedmiftrefe*
with her in the bonds of marriage. But as he is ftill
young, is but imperfeftly acquainted with the nature
of thofe duties incumbent on him as. a member of a
particular fociety, and is even ignorant of the nature
of laws and government, I muft feparate him from his 43
Sophia, and carry him to gain a knowledge of thefe TravcL
things, and of the charafter and circumftances of man¬
kind, in various countries, and under various forms of
civil government, by travelling. Much has been faid
con-
it d ir
f'diicatlon. conceiving the' propriety of feeding' young people to
-v  travel, in order to complete their education. The
rfiultiplicity of books is unfavourable to real knowledge.
We read with avidity, and think that by reading we
render ourfelves prodigioufly wife. But we impofe on
eurfelves : the knowledge which we acquire from books
is a falfe fpecies of knowledge, that can never render
us truly wife.
To obtain real knowledge, you muft cbferve nature
with your own eyes, and Ifudy mankind. But to gain
this knowledge by travelling, it is not neceffafy th!atr
ve fhould traverfe the univerfe. Whoever has feen ten'
Trenchmen, has beheld them all ; and whoever has fur-
veyed and compared the circutnftances and manners of
ten different nations, may be faid to know mankind.
To pretend that no advantages may be derived from
travelling, becaufe fome of thofe who travel return home
without having gained much real improvement, would
be highly unreafonable. Young people who have had
a bad education, and are fent on their travels without
any perfon to diredt or fuperintend their condudf, can¬
not be expefted to improve by viiiting foreign coun
tries. But they whom nature has adorned with vir
ttraus difpolitions, who have been fo happy as to re
c'eive a good education, and go abroad with a real de
flgn of improvement, cannot but return with an in
creafe of virtue and wifdom. In this manner fhall E-
milius conduft his travels. To induce him to improve
in the moft attentive manner that time which he fhould
fpend in travelling, I would let him know, that as he
had now attained an age at which it might be proper
for him to form fome determination with regard to the
plan of his future life, he ought therefore to look
abroad into the world, to view the various orders in
fbciety, to examine the various circumftances of man¬
kind, under different forms of government, and in
different parts of the globe; and to choofe his country,
Ms flation, and his profeffion. With thefe views fhould
Emilias fet out on-his travels ; and with thefe views,
in the courfe of our travels, we fhould inquire into the
origin of fociety and government, into the nature of
thofe principles by means of which men are united in
a-focial ftate, into the various circumftances which have
g’iven rife to fo many*different forms of government,
and into the neceffary relation between government and
manners. Our ftay in the great towns fhould be but
fhort : for as in them corruption of manners has. rifen
t-o a great height, and diflipation reigns, a long ftay
in any great town might be fatal to the virtuous dtf-
pofitions of Emilius. Yet his attachment to Sophia
would alone be fufficient to fave him from the dangers
to which his virtue is expofed. A young man muft
either be in love, or be a debauchee. Inftances may
be pointed out in which virtue has been prefsrved with¬
out the aid of love ; but to fuch inftances I can give
little credit.
Return Emilius, however, may now return to his Sophia,
from his His underftanding is now much more enlightened than
travels, and when he fet out on his travels. He is now acquainted
marriage, feveral forms of government, their advantages
and defefts, with the chara&ers of feveral different na¬
tions, and with the effects which difference in circum¬
ftances may be expeCted to produce on the characters
of nations. He has even been fo fortunate as to get
acquainted with fomc perfons of merit in each of the
f 34r T
E D IJ
countries' which he has vifited. With thefe adran- Education.
tages gained, and with afteCtion unchanged and una-   
bated, he returns to his Sophia. After having made
him acquainted with the languages, the natural hiftory,
the government, the arts, cuftoms^ and manners, of fo
many countries, Emilius eagerly informs me that the
period which we had deftined for our travels is now
expired. I afk, What are then his purpofes for life ?
He replies, that he is fatisfied with the circumftances
ift which nature has placed him, and with my endea¬
vours to render him independent on fortune, and wifhes
only for his Sophia to be happy. After giving him a
.few advices for the regulation of his conduft in life, I
conduCf him to his Sophia, and behold him united with
her in marriage. I behold him happy ; with affection¬
ate gratitude he bleffes me as the author of his happi-
nefs; and I thus receive the reward of all the pains
with which I have conducted his education.'
Such are the outlihes of the fyftem of education pro- Remarkit
pofed by this Angular and original genius. For origi¬
nality of thought, affeCting fentiment, enchanting de-
feription, and bold vehement eloquence, this book is
one of the nobleft pieces of compofition, not only in
the French language, but even in the whole compafs
of ancient and modern literature. The irregularity of
Ms method, however,, renders it a very difficult talk to
give an abridged view of his work. He conduCts his
pupil, indeed, from infancy to manhood : But inftead
of being barely a fyftem of education, his work is be-
fides a treafure of moral and philofophical knowledge.
He has chofen a path, and follows it from- the bottom
to the fummit of the hill: yet whenever a flower ap¬
pears on the right or left hand, he eagerly fteps afide
to pluck it; and fometimes, when he has once ftepped
afide, a new objeCt catches his eye and feduces him
ftill farther. Still, however, he returns. His 'obfer-
vations are in many places loofely thrown together,
and many things are introduced, the want i*_' which
would by no means have injured either the unity or the
regularity of his work. If we attempt to review the
principles on which he proceeds in reprobating the pre¬
valent modes of eduction, and pointing out anew'courfe,.
his primary and leading one feems to be, that we ought
to watch and feeond the defigns of nature, without an¬
ticipating her. As the tree bloffomSi the flowers blow
and the fruit ripens each at a certain period ; fo there
is a time fixed in the order of nature for the fenfitive,
another forthe intellectual, and another for the moral
powers of man to difplay themfelvea'. We in vain at¬
tempt to teach children to reafon concerning truth and
falfehood, concerning right and wrong, before the proper
period arriveWe onlyconfound their notions of things,
and load their memories with words without meaning ;
and thus prevent both their reafoning and moral powers-
from attaining that flrength and acutenefs of which
they are naturally capable. He attempts to trace the
progrefs of nature, and to mark in what manner fhe
gradually raifes the human mind to the full ufe of all
its faculties. Upon: the obfervations which he has
made in tracing the gradual progrefs of the powers
of the human mind towards maturity, his fyftem ij
founded.
As it is impoffible to communicate to the blind any
juft ideas of colours, or to the deaf of founds; fo it
muft be acknowledged, that we cannot poffibly com*-
E D U [ 342 ] E D U
Education, mutncate to children ideas which they have not facul-
v ' ■ -' ties to comprehend. If they are, for a certain pe¬
riod of life, merely fenfitive animals, it mull be folly
to treat them during that period as rational and moral
beings. But is it a truth that they are, during any
part of life, guided folely by inftin&, and capable only
of fenfation ? Or, how long is the duration of that pe¬
riod ? Has nature unkindly left them to be, till the age
of twelve, the prey of appetite and paffion ? So far
are the fads of which we have had occafion to take
notice, concerning the hiftory of infancy and child¬
hood, from leading to fuch a conclufion, that to us it
appears undeniable that children begin to reafon very
foon after their entrance into life. When the material
world firft. opens on their fenfes, they are ignorant of
the qualities and relations of furrounding objects r they
know not, for inftance, whether the candle which they
look at be near or at a diftance ; whether the fire with
which they are agreeably warmed may alfo affed them
with a painful fenfation. But they remain not long
in this ftate of abfolute ignorance. They foon appear
to have acquired fome ideas of the qualities and rela¬
tive fituation of bodies. They cannot, however, ac¬
quire fuch ideas, without exerting reafoning powers in
a certain degree. Appearances muft be compared, and
inferences drawn, before knowledge can be gained.
It is not fenfation alone which informs us of the re¬
lative diftances of bodies ; nor can fenfation alone teach
us, that the fame effeds wliich we have formerly ob-
ferved will be again produced by the fame caufe.
But if children appear capable of reafoning at a very
early period, they appear alfo to be at a very early pe-
' riod fubjed to the influence of the paffions: they are
angry or pleafed, merry or fad, friends or enemies,
even while they hang at the breaft ; inflead of being
felfilh, they are naturally liberal and focial. And if
we obferve them with candid attention, we will find
that-the yaffions do not difplay themfelves fooner than
the moral fenfe. As nature has wifely ordered, that we
fhould not fee, and hear, and feel, without being able to
compare and draw inferences from our perceptions; fo it
is a no lefs certain and evident law of nature, that the
paffions no fooner begin to agitate the human bread,
than we become able to ditlinguifli the beauty and the
deformity of virtue and vice. The child is not only
capable of gratitude and attachment to the perfon who
treats him with kindnefs ; he is alfo capable of diftin-
guifhing between gratitude and ingratitude, and of
viewing each with proper fe'ntiments. He cries when
you refufe to gratify his defires ; but he boldly infills
that he is injured when you ufe him cruelly or unjuftly.
It is indeed impoffible to attend to the condudl of chil¬
dren during infancy, without being convinced that
they are, even then, capable of moral diftinctions. So
little are they acquainted with artificial language, that
we and they do not then well underftand each other.
But view their actions; confider thofe figns by which
nature has taught them to exprefs themfelves. Our
limbs, our features, and our fenfes, are not gradually
and by piecemeal bellowed as we advance towards ma¬
turity ; the infant body comes not into the world mu¬
tilated or defective : why then, in point of mental
abilities, fliould we be for a while brutes, without be¬
coming rational and moral beings till the fulnefs of
time be accomplilhed ? All the differences between the
phenomena of manhood and thofe of infancy and child- Education,
hood may be accounted for, if we only refledl, that '■"—'V—^
when children come into the world, they are totally un¬
acquainted with all the objefts around them ; with the
appearances of nature, and the inilitutions of fociety ;
that they are fent into the world in a feeble Hate, in
order that the helpleffnefs occafioned by their ignorance
may attract the notice and gain the affiftance of thofe
who are able to help them ; and that they attain not
full ftrength in the powers either of mind or body,
nor a fufficient acquaintance with nature, with artifi¬
cial language, and with the arts and inftitutions of fo¬
ciety, till they arrive at manhood.
Even Rouffeau, notwithftanding the art with which
he lays down his fyllem, cannot avoid acknowledging
indire&ly, on feveral occafions, that our focial difpo-
fitions, our rational and our moral powers, difplay
themfelves at an earlier period than that at which he
wifhes us to begin the cultivation of them.
But though the great outlines of his fyftem be mere¬
ly theory, unfupported by fafts, nay plainly contra-
didlory to fafis; yet his obfervations on the improprie¬
ty or abfurdity of the prevalent modes of education
are almoft always juft, and many of the particular di-
re&ions which he gives for the conducing of educa¬
tion are very judicious. He is often fanciful, and often
deviates from the common road, only to ftiow that he
is able to walk in a feparate path. Yet why fliould
he be oppofed with fo much virulence, or branded with
fo many reproachful epithets ? His views are liberal
and extenfive: his heart feems to have glowed with
benevolence: his book contains much obfervation of
human aftions ; difplays an intimate acquaintance with
the motives which fway the human heart; and if not
a perfe& fyftem for education, is yet fuperior to what
any other writers had before done upon the fnbjeft. It
is furely true, that we ourfelves often call forth evil paf¬
fions in the breafts of children, and imprefs them with
bad habits: it is no lefs true that we put books in their
hands, and load their memory with words, when we
ought rather to dire& their attention to things, to the
phenomena of nature, and the fimpleft arts of life.
The form in which he has chofen to communicate his
fentiments on the fubjedt of education renders the per-
ufal of it more pleafing, and his precepts more plain,
than they would otherwife have been : it is nearly that
dramatic form with which we are fo much delighted in
fome of the nobleft compofitions of the ancients.
After viewing the public eftablifliments for educa¬
tion which exifted in fome of the moft renowned ftates
of antiquity; and after iiftening to the fentiments of
the experienced Quindlilian, the learned Milton, the
judicious Locke, and the bold fanciful Rouffeau, on
this interefting fubjeft ; it may now be proper to lay
before the reader our own fentiments concerning the
education of youth under a few diftindt heads.
Indeed, if we were difpofed to give abridgments of all
the books which have been written on the fubjedl of edu¬
cation, or even to hint at all the various modes which
have been recommended by.teachers or theorifts, we
might fwell this article to an amazing fize : Nay, were
we only to take notice of the many elegant and fen-
fible writers who have of late endeavoured to call the
attention of the public to this fubjedl, we might ex¬
tend it to an immoderate length. A Karnes, a Prieft-
ley,
E D U l 343 1 E D U
Education. ley, a Knox, a Madame de Sillery, and a Berquin,
w—y—~ m;ght well attrad and fix our .attention. But as,
among fiich a crowd of writers, every thing advanced
by each cannot be original; and even of thofe things
which are original only a certain, and that perhaps
even a moderate, proportion, can be juft and judicious j
and as they often either borrow from one another, or
at leaft agree in a very friendly manner, though in fome
things they profefs a determined hoftility ; therefore
we fhall content ourfelves with having taken notice of
four of the mod refpe&able writers on the fubjeft.
In prefenting to our readers the refult of our own
obfervations and refleftions, we (hall throw our thoughts
nearly under the following heads. The management of
children from their birth till they attain the age of five
or fix; from that periodgill the age of puberty; and from
that age till manhood; private and public education; re¬
ligion and morals ; the languages ; natural philofophy ;
the educatioii of people of rank and fortune ; education
of perfons defigned for a mercantile employment, and
for the other humbler occupations in atftive life not
particularly connefted with literature; education of the
female fex ; foreign travel ; knowledge of the world ;
and entrance into a&ive life. We do not pretend to
be able to include under thefe heads every thing worthy
of notice in the fubject of education : but under thei’e
we will be able to comprehend almoft every thing of
importance that has occurred to us on the fubjeft.
I. *0n the Management of Infants from the Time of their
Birth till they attain the Age of fve or Jix.
The young of no other animal comes into the
world in fo helplefs a ftate, or continues fo long to
need afiiftance, as that of the human fpecies. The
calf, the lamb, and the kid, are vigorous and live¬
ly at the inftant of their birth; require only, for a very
Ihort period, nourifhment and protedtion from their re-
fpeftive dams ; and foon attain fuch degrees of ftrength
and adtivity as to become entirely independent. The
infancy of the oviparous animals is not of longer con¬
tinuance: And, indeed, whatever department of the ani¬
mal world we may choofe to furvey, we ftill find that no
fpecies is fubjedt to the fame fevere laws as man during
the firft period of life.
Yet the charadter and the views of man are fo very
different from thofe of the other animals, that a more
carefulattention to thefe may perhaps induce us to regard
this feeming feverity rather as an inftance of the peculiar
Man com- kindnefs of the Author of nature. From every obfer-
pared to vation which has been hitherto made on the powers and
malT inre 0Perati°ns °f t^le inferi°r animals, we are led to confi-
fpeA to tl'e^er them as guided and adtuated chiefly, if not folely,
helpleffnefs by inftindt, appetite, and fenfation : their views extend
«f infancy. not beyond the prefent moment; nor do they acquire
new knowledge or prudence as they advance in life.
But the charadler of the human race is much more ex¬
alted. We have alfo powers and organs of fenfation,
inftindts and appetites; but thefe are the moft ignoble
parts of our nature : our rational faculties and moral
powers elevate us above the brutes, and advance us to
an alliance witbfuperior beings. Thefe rational facul¬
ties and moral powers render us capable of focial life,
ofartificial language, of art, of fcience, and of religion.
Now, were one of the fpecies to come into the world
full grown, poffeffed of that bodily ftrength and vigour
which diftinguifhes manhood, his ignorance would ftill Educatisn,
render him inadequate to the duties of life; nay, » /
would even render him unable to procure means for his
fubfiftence : while his manly appearance would deprive
him of the compaffion and benevolent afliftance of o-
thers; and his ftrength and vigour would alfo render
him lefs docile and obedient than is neceffary, in order
that he may receive inftru&ion in the duties and arts
of life. Again, were the period of infancy as ftiort to
the human fpecies as to the other animals; were we
to be no longer fubje&ed to a parent’s authority, or
protefted by his care, than the bird or the quadruped;
we fhould be expofed to the dangers and difficulties of
the world before we had acquired fufficient knowledge
or prudence to condutt us through them, before we
had gained any acquaintance with the ordinary pheno-
mena of nature, or were able to ufe the language or
pra&ife the arts of men in a focial ftate.
Since, then, it is by the benevolence of nature that
we are feeble and helplefs at our entrance into life,
and that our progrds towards maturity is flow and
gradual; fince nature has deftined us to be for a con-
fiderable time under the care and authority of our pa¬
rents ; and fince the manner in which we are managed
during that early part of life has fo important an in¬
fluence on our future chara&er -and condudl: it-is
therefore incumbent on parents to diredl that tender-
nefs, which they naturally feel for their offspring, in
fuch a manner as to fecond the views of nature.
When children come into the world, inftindt diredls
them to receive nouriihment from the bread, and
to claim attention to their pains and wants by crying.
We attend to their figns, and drive to render them as Drefs of is-
eafy as we can. They are walked, clothed with fuch%nt3*
garments as we think moft fuitable, and fuckled either
by their mother or by fome other woman who is con-
fidered as proper for the purpofe. The abfurd mode
of fwaddling up infants in fuch a manner as to confine
them almoft from all motion, and leave fcarce a limb at
liberty, which has been fo often exclaimed againft and
reprefented as highly injurious to the fymmetry and vi¬
gour of the human frame, is now almoft entirely laid a-
fide; and therefore we need not raife our voice againft it.
Still, however, there are certainly too many pins and
bandages ufed in the drefs of infants : thefe are unfa¬
vourable to the circulation of the blood, impede the
growth, and often occafion thofe tears and that peevilh-
nefs which we rafhly attribute to the natural ill-humour
of the poor creatures. Their drefs ought to be loofe
and cool, fo as to prefs hard on no joint, no vein nor
mufcle; and to leave every limb at liberty. If too
heavy and clofe, it may occafion too copious a perfpi-
ration, and at the fame time confine the matter perfpi-
red on the furface of the fkin ; than which nothing can
be more prejudicial to the health of the child. It may
alfp, however, be too thin and cool: for as moderate
warmth is neceffary to the vegetation of plants; fo it is
no lefs neceffary for promoting the growth of animals:
and, therefore, though the drefs of infants ought to be
loofe and eafy, yet ftill it (hould be moderately warm. 48’
It is common for mothers in affluent or even in Nurfes,
comfortable circumftances, to forego the pleafure of
nurfing their own children, that they may avoid the fa¬
tigues with which it is.attended. This pra&ice has
long prevailed in various ages and among various na-
1 tiorrs ;
* D U T 344 .1
Education. tioOs: it has been often reprobated with all the warmth mild
of paffion, and all the vehemence of eloquence, as di(ho¬
nourable, inhuman, contradictory to the.tiefigns of na¬
ture, and deftruCtive of natural affeCtion ; yet ftill it
prevails; fathers and mothers are ttill equally deaf to
the voice of nature and the declamations of philofo- of life.
E D U
paflkmate ; and which, though they be gene- Educatfea,
rally attributed to the original conformation of the  v '
mind by the hand of nature, yet are owing rather to
the circumftances in which we are placed, and the
manner in which we are treated, during the fii it part
phers. Indeed, in a luxurious age, fuch a pvadtice may
be naturally expeCted to prevail. In fuch an age, they
who are poffefled of opulence generally perfuade them-
felves, that, to be happy, is to fpend their time wholly
amid diverftons and amufements, without defcending to
ufeful induftry, or troubling themfelves about the ordi¬
nary duties of life. Influenced by fuch notions, they
think it proper for them to manage their family affairs,
and to nurfe and educate their children, by proxy; nay,
to do for themfelves nothing that another can perform
for them. It is vain to make a furious oppofition to
thefe abfurd notions; the falfe views of happinefs, the
pride and the indolence produced by luxury, will ftill
be too powerful for us. We muft not hope to per¬
fuade the mother, that to receive the careffes, to
behold the fmiles, and to mark the bodily and mental
powers of her child in their gradual progrefs towards
maturity, would be more than a fufficient compenfa-
tion for all the fatigues which {he would undergo in
nutfingand watching over him in his infant years. We
need not mention, that the mutual affe&ion between a
mother and her child, which is partly the effeCt of in-
ftinCt, depends alfo, in no inconfiderable degree, on
the child’s fpending the period of infancy in its mo¬
ther’s arms; and that when (he fubftitutes another in
her place, the child naturally transfers its affeCtion to
the perfon who performs to it the duties of a mother.
When children begin to walk, our fondnefs difpofes
us to adopt many expedients to aflift them. But thefe
feem to be improper. It is enough for us to watch
over them fo as to guard them from any danger which
they might otherwife incur by their firft attempts to
move about. Thofe who advife us not to be too an¬
xious to preferve children from thofe flight hurts to
which they are expofed from their difpofition to acti¬
vity, before they have acquired fuflicient ftrength or
caution, certainly give a judicious piece of advice
which ought to be liftened to. By being too atten*
tive to them, we teach them to be carelefs of them¬
felves ; by feeming to regard every little accident
which befals them as a moil dreadful calamity, we in-
fpire them with timidity, and prevent them from ac¬
quiring manly fortitude. When children begin to lifp
out a few words or fyllables, the pleafure which we
feel at hearing them aim at the ufe of our language,
difpofes us to liften to them with fuch attention as to
relieve them from the neceffity of learning an open
dillinCt articulation. Thus we teach them to exprefs
themfelves in a rapid, Indiftinft, and heiitating man¬
ner, which w.e often 6nd it difficult, fometimes even
impoffible, to correct, when they are farther advanced.
Would we teach them a plain diftinft articulation,
we, ought not only to fpeak plainly and diftinClly in
their prefence, but alfo to difregard their queftions and
We need not urge thefe, nor the various other reafons requefts, if not expreffed with all the opennefs and
which feem to recommend to every mother the province diitincjnefs of pronunciation of which they are i
of fuckling her own children, and watching over their pable.
infant years ; for we will either not be heard, or be Man is naturally an imitative animal,
liftened to with contempt. Yet we may venture to fug- of our natural difpofitions is difplayed at ;
geft, that if the infant muft be committed to a ftran-
ger, fome degree of prudence may be employed in fe-
lefting the perfon to whom he is to be entrufted.
Her health, her temper, and her manner of fpeaking,
muft be attended to. A number of other qualifica¬
tions are alfo to be required in a nurfe: but it is rather gree with fome philofophers, that children are a<ftua<
Scarce any
i earlier pe¬
riod than our difpofition to imitation. Childrens
firft amufements are dramatic performances, imitative
of the arts and a&ions of men. This is one proof a-
mong others, that even in infancy our reafoning fa¬
culties begin to difplay themfelves; for we cannot a-
the bufinefs of the phyfician to give directions with re¬
gard to thefe. If her habit of body be any way un¬
healthy, the conftitution of the infant that fucks her
ted and guided folely by inftinft in their attempts at
imitation.
However that be, the happieft ufe might be made
milk cannot but be injured : if her temper be rough or of this principle which difcovers itfelf fo early in the
peeviih, the helplefs child fubjefted to her power will
be often harihly treated; its fpirit will be broken, and its
temper foured : if her pronunciation be inarticulate
infant mind. Whatever you wifti the child to acquire,
do in his prefence in fuch a manner as to tempt him
to imitate you. Thus, without louring his mind by
too rapid, the child may acquire a bad habit when it reftraint during this gay innocent period of life, you
V firft begins to exert its vocal organs, which will not be
eafily correfted.
Influence of In the milder feafons of the year, infants ought to
treatment be frequently carried abroad. Not only is the open
may begin even now to cultivate his natural powers.
Were it impoffible at this time to communicate any
inftru&ion to the boy, without banilhing that fpright-
ly gaiety which naturally diftinguilhes this happy age.
*n a*r favourable to health, but the frelhnefs, the beau- it would be belt to think only how he might lofe his
_...cs and ty» t^e variety, and the lively colours of the feenes
dipefitions. of nature, have the happieft effects on the temper, and
have even a tendency to enliven and invigorate the
time in the leaft difadvantageous manner. But this
is far from being neceffary. Even now the little crea¬
ture is difpofed to imitation, is capable of emulation,
* r 1 r , r  ...1. 1 • em¬
powers of the mind. At this period, the faculties of and feels a defire to pleafe thofe whofe kindnefs has
the underftanding and the difpofitions of the heart gained his affe&ion. Even now his fentiments and
generally acquire that particular bias, and thofe dif- conduit may be influenced by rewards when prudently
tinguifiiing features, which charaiterize the individual bellowed, and by punilhments when judicioufly in-
during the future part of his life, as quick or dull, Hided. Why then Ihould we hefitate to govern him
N° 109. 5 by
E D U
i by the fame principles, by which the laws of God and
fociety affert their influence on our own fentiments
and conduift ? Indeed, the imprudent manner in which
children are too generally managed at this early pe¬
riod, would almoft tempt us to think it impoffible to
inftrudt them, as yet, without injuring both their abi¬
lities and difpofitions. But this is owingdblely to the
carelefsnefs, ftupidity, or capricious conduct of thofe
under whofe care they are placed.
I, 345 3
E D U
Such are the thoughts which have fuggefted them- Edueact/n
felves to us concerning the management of children in ■
mere infancy,. What an amiable little creature would
the boy or girl be, who were brought up in a manner
not inconfiitent with the fpirit of thefe few hints ?
Behold him healthy and vigorous, mild, fpright-
ly, and cheerful: He is fubmifiive and docile, yet
not dull or timid ; he appears capable of love, of pity,
and of gratitude. His mind is hitherto, however.
Is implicit obedience to be exadfed of children? and at almoft wholly uninformed: he is acquainted but
with a few of the objefts around him; and knows
but little of the language, manners, and inftitutiona
of men: but he feels the impulfe of an ardent cu-
riolity, and all the powers of his mind are alive and
a<ftive.
ancUvhen v;^at Period of life Ihould we begin to enforce it ? As
to be ex- ’‘children appear to be capable both of reafoning and
of moral diftinftions at a very early age;'and as
they are fo weak, fo inexperienced, fo ignorant of the
powers of furrounding bodies, and of the language,
inftitutions, and arts of men, as to be incapable of tt /-> ,/ n.r ± t i * rr
fnpporting or conducing themfelves without direc- ‘ n e anagemen °f 1 rt™ r ween e ge of jive
tion or alfiftance ; it feems therefore proper that they orjx an e ge of pu erty.
be required even to fubmit to authority. To the ne- At this period it may be proper, not only to exa6l
ceflity of nature both they and we muft on many oc- obedience, and to call the child’s attention for a few
cafions fubmit. But if the will of a parent or tutor minutes now and then to thofe things of which the
be always found fcarce lefs unalterable than the ne- knowledge is likely to be afterwards ufeful to him;
ceflity of nature, it will always meet with the fame but we may now venture to require of him a regular
refpedlful fubmiflive refignation. It may not perhaps fteady application, during a certain portion of his
be always proper to explain to children the reafons time, to fuch things as we wifh him to learn. Before
for which we require their obedience : beeaufe, as the this time it would have been wrong to confine his ar¬
range of their ideas is much lefs extenfive than ours ; tention to any particular talk. The attempt coyld
as they do not well underftand our language, or com- have produced no other effect than to deftroy his na-
prehend our modes of reafoning; and as they are now tural gaiety and cheerfulnefs, to blunt the native quick-
and then under the influence of paffion and caprice, as nefs of his powers of apprehenfion, and to render hate -
v/ell as people who are farther advanced in life ; we ful that which you wilhed him to acquire. Now,
are therefore likely to fail in making them compre- however, the cafe is fomewhat different r The child is
hend our reafons, or in convincing them that they not yet fenfible of the advantages w'hich he may derive
are well-grounded. And as it is proper to exadt obe* from learning to read, for inllance ; or even though
dience of children ; fo we Ihould begin to require it he were able to forefee all the advantages which he
as foon as they become capable of any confiderable de- will obtain by ikill in the art of reading through the
gree of adfivity. Yet we muft not confine them like courfe of life; yet is it the charafter of human nature,
flaves, without allowing them to fpeak, to look, or to at every ftage of life, to be fo much influenced by pre-
move, but as we give the word. By fuch treatment fent objedls in preference to future views, that the
fenfe of its utility alone would not be fufficient to in¬
duce him to apply to it. Even at the age of 12, of
20, of 50 j nay, in extreme old age, when reafon is
become very perfpicacious, and the pafliohs are morti¬
fied; dill we are unable to regulate our condudl folely
by *iews of utility. Nothing could be more abfurd,
therefore, than to permit the child to fpend his time
we could expedt only to render them peevifli and ca¬
pricious. It will be enough, at firft, if we let them know
that obedience is to be hexadled; and if we reftrain
Them only where, if left at liberty, they would be ex-
pofed to imminent danger.
If then, at fo early a time of life as before the age
of five or fix, it is poffible to render children obedient,
and to communicate to them inftrudtion j what arts, or in foolilh tricks, or in idlenefs, till views of utility
what learning, ought we to teach them at that period ? fitould prompt him to fpend it in a different manner.
To give a proper anfwer to this queftion, is no eafy No; let us begin early to habituate him to applica-
matter. It feems at firft difficult to determine, whether tion and to the induftrious exertion of his powers. By
we ought yet to initiate them In letters. But as their endowing him with powers of adtivity and apprehen-
apprehenfion is now quick, and their memory pretty fion, and rendering him capable of purfuing with a
tenacious, there cannot be a more favourable time for fteady eye thofe objedts which attract his defires, na-
this very purpofe. As foon as they are capable of a ture plainly points out to us in what manner we ought
diftindt articulation, and feem to poffefs any power of to cultivate his earlier years. Befides, we can corn-
attention, we may with the greateft propriety begin mand his obedience, we can awaken his curiofity, we
to teach them the alphabet. The mott artful, alluring can roufe his emulation, we can gain his affedtion, we
methods may be adopted to render the horn-book can call forth his natural difpoiition to imitation, and
agreeable ; or we may ufe the voice of authority, and we can influence his mind by the hope of reward and
command attention for a few minutes ; but no harfh- the fear of punifhment. When we have fo many means
nefs, no feverity, and fcarce any reftraint. At the of eftablifhing our authority over the mind of the boy
fame time, it will be proper to allow the little crea- without tyranny or ufurpation ; it cannot furely be
tures to run much about in the open air, to exercife difficult, if we are capable of any moderation and pru-
their linjbs, and to cultivate thofe focial difpofitions dence, to cultivate his powers by making him begin
which already begin to appear, by playing with their at this period to give regular application to fomething
equals. that may afterwards be ufeful.
Vot. VI. Parti, Xs,
And
E D U [ 346 ] E D U
Education. And if the boy muft now begin to dedicate fome
' " portion of his time regularly to a certain talk, what
A know- ta^< b6 rooH fuitable? Even that to which children
ledge of are ufually fir ft required to apply; continue teaching him
word? and to read. Be not afraid that his abilities willfuffer from
°f an attenti°n to l560!55 at early an aSe‘ Say not that
learnt ?.t the i1 ‘s folly t0 teach him words before he have gained a
fame time, knowledge of things. It is neceffary^ it is the defign
of nature, that he ftiould be employed in acquiring a
knowledge of things, and gaining an acquaintance with
the vocal and written figns by which we denote them,
at the fame time. Thefe are intimately conne&ed;
the one leads to the other. When you view any ob-
jeft, you attempt to give it a name, or feek to learn the
name by which men have agreed to dillinguifh it: in
the fame manner, when the names of fubllances or of
qualities are communicated to us, we are defirous of
knowing what they fignify. At the fame time, fo
imperfeft is the knowledge of nature which children
can acquire from their owm unafiifled obfervation, that
they mull have frequent recourfe to our afiiftance be¬
fore they can form any diftin£l notions of thofeobjefts
and fcenes which they behold. Indeed language can¬
not be taught, without teaching that it is merely a
fyftem of figns, and explaining what each particular
fign is dcfigned to fignify. If, therefore, language is
not only neceffary for facilitating the mutual inter-
courfe of men, but is even ufeful for enabling us to
obtain fome knowledge of external nature, and if the
knowledge of language has a natural tendency to ad¬
vance our knowledge of things; to acquaint ourfelves
■with it muft therefore be regarded as an objedl of the
higheft importance : it muft alfo be regarded as one of
the firft objefts to which we ought to diredl the atten¬
tion of children. But the very fame reafons which
prove the propriety of making children acquainted
with thofe artificial vocal figns which we ufe to e£-
prefs our ideas of things, prove alfo the propriety of
teaching them thofe other figns by which we exprefs
thefe in writing. It is pofiible indeed, nay it fre¬
quently happens, that we attempt to inftrutt children
in language in lb improper a manner as to confound
their notions of things, and to prevent their intelleftual
powers from making that improvement of which they
are naturally capable : but it is alfo poflible to ini¬
tiate them in the art of reading, and in the knowledge
of language, with better aufpices and happier effefts.
The knowledge of language may be confidered as the
key by which we obtain accefs to all the ftores of na¬
tural and moral knowledge.
5* Thoughwe nowagree to confine our pupil to a certain
Confine- and have determined that his firft talk flrall be to
far'prflpeT karn to read ; yet we do not mean to require that he be
confined to this talk during the greateft part of the day,
or that his attention be ferioufly dire&ed to no other ob-
je£t. To fubjeft himtotoofevere reftraint would produce
the moft unfavourable effe&s on his genius, his tem¬
per, and his difpofitions. It is in confequence of the
injudicious management of children, while they are
fometimes fuffered to run riot, and at other times
cruelly confined like prifoners or Haves ; it is in con¬
fequence of this, that we behold fo many inftances of
peevifhneft, caprice, and invincible avcrfion to all fc-
rious application at this period of life. But were a
due medium obferved, were reftraint duly tempered
3
with liberty and indulgence, nothing would be more Education.
eafy than to difpofe children to cheerful obedience,  
and to communicate to them inftrudtion at this age.
That part of their time which they are left to enjoy
at liberty, they naturally dedicate to their little fports.
The favourite fports of boys are generally adlive; thofe
Of girls, fedentary. Of each we may take advantage,
to prepare them for the future employments of life.
How’ever, neither are the amufements of boys invari¬
ably adlive, nor thofe of girls always fedentary; for,
as yet, the manners and difpofitions of the two fexes
are diftinguifhed rather by habit or accident than by
nature. The difpofition to adlivity which charadteri-
zes children, is no lefs favourable to health than to
their improvement in knowledge and prudence ; their
adlive fports have a tendency to promote their growth
and add new vigour t® their limbs. Perhaps, even at
this time, children might be enticed to learn the ele¬
ments of natural philofophy and natural hiftory amid
their amufements and fports. Birds, butterflies, dogs,
and other animals, are now favourite objects of their
care ; their curiofity is powerfully roufed by the ap¬
pearance of any ftrange objedt; and many of the fim-
pleft experiments of natural philofophy are fo pleafing,
that they cannot fail to attradl the attention even of
thofe who are leaft under the influence of curiofity.
Yet it would be improper to infill on their attention
to thefe things as a talk: if we can make them regard
them as amufements, it will be well; if not, we muft
defer them to fome happier feafon. They might alfo,
by proper management, be led to acquire fome Ikill in
the arts. They build mimic houfes, and fill them with
fuitable furniture ; they conftrudl little boats, and fail
them; they will fence in little gardens, and cultivate
them ; and we even fee them imitate all the labours
of the hulbandman. Such is the pleafure which man
naturally feels in exerting his powers, and in adling
w'ith defign. Let us encourage this difpofition. Thefe
are the moft fuitable amufements in which they can
engage. . S3 ,
As the boy’s attention to literary objedls is ftillfup- Whatbook*
pofed to be continued, he will foon be able to readmo11 Pr0'
wdth fome cotredlnefs and facility. It becomes an ob-*^’
jedl of importance, and of no fmall difficulty, to de¬
termine what books are to be put into his hands, and in
what manner his literary education is to be condudled.
After the child is made acquainted with the names
and powers of the letters, with their combination into
fyllables, and with the Combination of thefe again into
words, fo that he can read with tolerable facility ; it
wull be proper that the pieces of reading which are
put into his hands be fuch as are deferiptive of the
a&ians of men, of the fcenes of external nature, and of
the forms and chara&ers of animals. With thefe he is
already in fome degree acquainted : thefe are the ob¬
jedls of his daily attention; beyc»d them the range
of his ideas does not yet extend ; and therefore other
fubje&s will be likely to render his talk difagreeable to
him. Befides, our prefent objedt is to teach him.
words: in order to teach him words, we muft let him
know their fignification; but till he have acquired a very>
confiderable knowledge of language, till he have gain¬
ed a rich fund of fimple ideas, it will be impoffible for
him to read or to hear with underftanding on any
other fubjedt but thefe. And let us not as yet be par¬
ticularly;
E D U [ 347 J E D U
Education, ticularly anxious to communicate to him religious or
w-—v moral inltruftion, otherwife than by our example, and
by caufing him to a£t in fuch a manner as we think
molt proper. Our great bufinefs at prefent is, to
make him acquainted with our language, and to teach
him in what manner we ufe it to exprefs our ideas.
By his own obfervation, and by our inltiuclion, he
will foon become capable of comprehending all that
we wifh to communicate : But let us not be too hafly;
the boy cannot long view the actions of mankind, and
obferve the economy of the animal and the vegetable
world, without becoming capable of receiving both
religious and moral inftru&ion when judicioufly com-
municated.
Writirg. As foon as the pupil can read and fpell with tolera¬
ble facility, and has acquired fuffieient ftrength of
arm and fingers to hold a pen, it may be proper to
initiate him in the art of writing. If this art is not
made difagreeable by the manner in which his appli¬
cation to it is required, he will learn it without diffi¬
culty. Childrens natural difpofition to imitate, parti¬
cularly whatever depends on manual operation, renders
this art peculiarly eafy and pleafing to them when
they are not harfhly forced to apply to it, nor fuffered
to get into a habit of performing their talk with hafte
and negligence.
Reftrahit. It requires indeed the moft cautious prudence, the
niceit delicacy, and the moft artful addrefs, to prevail
with children to give a cheerful and attentive applica¬
tion to any appointed talk. If you are too ftern and
rigid in enforcing application, you may feemingly ob¬
tain your objeft : the child fits motionlefs, and fixes
his eye on his book or copy ; but his attention you
cannot command; his mind is beyond your reach, and
can elude your tyranny ; it wanders from the prefent
objects, and flies with pleafure to thofe feenes and ob¬
jects in which it has found delight. Thus you are
difappointed of your purpofe ; and, befides, infpire
the child with fuch averlion both to you and to thofe
objefts to which you wiffi him to apply, that perhaps
at no future period will he view learning otherwife
than with difguft.
Gentlenefs. Again, gentlenefs, and the arts of infinuation, will
not always be fuccefsful. If you permit the child to
apply juft wjjien he pleafes ; if you liften readily to all
his pretentfes and excufes; in ihort, if you feem to
confider learning as a matter not of the higheft im¬
portance, and treat him with kindnefs while he pays
but little attention and makes but flow progrefs; the
confequences of your behaving to him in this manner
will be fcarce lefs unfavourable than thofe which at¬
tend imprudent and unreafonable feverity. It is, how¬
ever, fcarce poflible to give particular directions how to
treat children fo as to allure them to learning, and at
the fame time to command their ferious attention.
But the prudent and affe&ionate parent and the judi¬
cious tutor will not be always unfuccefsful; • fince there
are fo many circumftances in the condition of children,
and fo many principles in their nature, which fubjeft
57 them to our will.
Arithme- The principles of arithmetic ought to make a part
tlc* in the boy’s education as foon as his reafoning powers
appear to have attained fuch ftrength and quicknefs
that he will be able to comprehend them. Arithme¬
tic affords more exercife to the reafoning powers of
the mind than any other of thofe branches of learning Education.
to which we apply in our earlier years: and if the  *
child’s attention be dire&ed to it at a proper period,
if he be allowed to proceed flowly, and if care be
taken to make him comprehend fully the principles
upon which each particular operation proceeds, it
will contribute much to increafe the ftrength and the
acutenefs of the powers of his underftanding.
Where the learned languages are regarded as an ob¬
ject worthy of attention, the boy is generally initiated
in them about this time, or perhaps earlier. We have
referved to a feparate head the arguments which occur
to us for and againft the practice of inftru&ing chil¬
dren in the dead languages ; and (hall therefore only
obferve in this place, that the ftudy of them ought
not to engrofs the learner’s attention fo entirely as to
exclude other parts of education.
From arithmetic our pupil may proceed to the ^
practical branches of the mathematics: Add in all of Pi-atfical.
thefe, as well as in every other branch of learning, what mathema-
you teach him will be beft remembered and moft tffi>tics*
roughly underftood, if you afford him a few opportu¬
nities of applying his leffons to real ufe in life. Geo¬
metry and geography are two moft important branch¬
es of education ; but are often taught in fuch a man¬
ner, that no real beaefit is derived from the knowledge
of them. The means which Rouffeau propofes for in¬
itiating young people in thefe and in feveral other'of
the arts and fciences are excellent; and if judicioufly
applied, could hardly fail of fuccefs.
While boys are engaged in thefe and in the lan¬
guages, they may alfo attend to and cultivate the bo¬
dily exercifes; fuch as dancing, fencing, and horfe-
manfhip. Each of thefe exercifes is almoft abfolntely
neceffary for one who is defigned to have intercourfe
with the world ; and befides, they have a tendency to
render the powers of the body aftive and vigorous,
and even to add new courage and firmnefs to the
mind.
When our pupil has acquired fome knowledge of
his own and of the learned languages, has gained
fome Ikill in the principles of arithmetic and of prac-
tical mathematics, and has received fome inftru£lion Firft exer-
in the principles of morality and religion, or even be-cife.sincoin*
fore this time, it will be proper to begin him to the P0^1011,
pra&ice of compofition. Themes, verfions, and let¬
ters, the firft exercifes in compofition which the boy is
ufually required to perform, none of them feems hap¬
pily calculated for leading him to increafe his know¬
ledge, or to acquire the power of expreffing himfelf
with eafe and elegance. Without enlarging on the
impropriety or abfurdity of thefe exercifes, we will
venture to propofe Something different, which we can¬
not help thinking would conduce more eft equally to
the end in view. It has been already obferved, that
the curiofity of children is amazingly eager and aftive,
and that every new object powerfully attracts their re¬
gard : but they cannot view any objeft without ta¬
king notice of its moft obvious qualities; any animal,
for inftance, without takirfg notice of its fhape, its
colour, its feeming mildnefs or ferocity; and they arc
generally pretty ready to give an account of any thing
extraordinary which they have obferved. How eafy
then would it be to require them to write down an ac¬
count of any new objett expofed to their obferva-
E D XT f 343 1 E D U
EJmtion.tion? The tafk would not be difficult; and every
‘ new piece of compofition which they prefented to us
would add fo much to their knowledge of nature. We
might even require fuch fpecimens of their accuracy of
obfervation and ikill in language, at times when they
enjoyed no opportunities of beholding new or furpri-
fing obje&s; a tree* a flower* a field, a houfe, an animal*
any other fimple objeft, fhould be the fubjeci of their
exercife. After fome time, we might require them to
defcribe fomething more various and complex. They
might give an account of feveral objects placed in a
relative fituation; as, a ftream, and the vale through
which it flows; or, a bird, and the manner in which
it conftrudts its neft ; or, of one objedt fucceffively afi
fuming various appearances, as the bud, the flower,
the apple. Human adtions are daily expofed to their
obfervation, and powerfully attradt their attention*
By and by, therefore, their talk fliould be to defcribe
fome adtion which had lately palled in their prefence-.
We need not purfue this hint farther; but, if we
miftake not, by thefe means young people might
fooner, and much more certainly, be taught to exprefs
themfelves with eafe and corredlnefs in writing, than
by any of the exercifes which they are at prefent
caufed to perform with a view to that. Befides,
they would at the fame time acquire much more real
knowledge. The fiudy of words would then be ren¬
dered truly fubfervient to their acquiring a know¬
ledge of things.
We cannot defcend to every particular of that feries
of education in which we wilh the boy to be engaged,
from that period when he firft becomes capable of fe-
rious application till he reach the age of puberty. It
is not neceffary that we fliould, after having given ab-
ftradts of what has been offered to the world by fo
many refpedtable writers on the fubjedt.
The few hints which we have thrown out will be fufr
ficient to (how, in.general, in what manner we wilh the
youth’s education to be condudted during this period.
L.et the parent and the tutor bear in mind, that much
depends on their example, with regard to the difpofi-
tions and manners of the youth; and let them care¬
fully ftrive to form him .to gentlenefs, to firmnefs, to
patient induftry, and to vigorous courage let them,
if poffible, keep him at a dillance from that contagion
with which the evil example of worthlefs. fervants and
play-fellows will be likely to infedf him. Now is the
time for fowing the feeds of piety and virtue : if care¬
fully fown now, they will fcarce fail to grow up, and.
bear fruit in future life.
III. From Puberty, to Manhood.
This age is every way a very important period in.
human life. Whether we confider the change which
now takes place in the bodily conftitution, or the
pafiion which now Srlt begins to agitate the breaft,
ftill we muff regard this as a critical feafon to the
youth. The bufinefs of thofe to whofe care he is
ftill entrufted, is to watch over him .fo as to prevent
the paffion for the fex. from hurrying him to lhameful
and vicious indulgence, and from feducing him to ha¬
bits of frivolity and indolence; to prevent him from
becoming either the lhamelefs rake, or the trifling
coxcomb. Though fo furious is the impulfe of that
appetite which now fires the bofomand (hoots through
ihe veins of the youth, that to reftrain him from the
exceffes to which it leads can be no eafy talk; yet if Education,
his education has been hitherto condudied with pru- 1 v " '
dence, if he is fond.of manly exercifes, aftive, fober,
and temperate,, and ftill influenced by modefty and
the fenfe of (hame ; even this-may through the blef-
fing of heaven be accomplifhed. It is impoffible to
give better directions than thofe of Rouifeau for this
purpofe. Let the yumng man know.his fituation; fet
before him in a ftriking light the virtue which he may
prattife by reftraining appetite, and the frightful fa¬
tal vices into which he may be hurried. But trull not
to precept, nor to any views which you can lay before
him, either of the difgracefulnefs and the pernicious
coilfequences of vice, or of the dignity and the hap¬
py fruits of virtue. Something more mud be done.
Watch over him-with the attention of an Argus ; en¬
gage him in the moft aCtive and fatiguing fports*
Carefully keep him at a diftance from all fuch compa¬
ny, and iuch books, as may fuggeil to his mind ideas
of love, and of the gratification at which it aims. But
(till all your precautions will not counteract the de»
figns of nature ; nor do you wifti to oppofe her defigns*.
The youth under your care muft feel the impulfe of
defire, and become fufceptible of love. Let him then
fix his affeCtions. on. fome virtuous young woman. His
attachment to her will raife him above debauchery,,
and teach him to defpife brutal pleafures: it will ope¬
rate as a. motive to difpofe him to apply to fuch arts,
and to purfue fuch branches of knowledge, as may be
neceffary for his farther ellablilhment in the world.
The good fenfe of Rouffeau on this head renders it
lefs neceffary for us to.enlarge on it ; efpecially as we
are to treat of fome articles feparately which. regard.
the management of youth at this period.
IV. Religion and Morale. „
. t 60 >
In pointing out the general plan of education which At what
appears to us the moft proper to be purfued in order age the
to form a virtuous and refpeCtable member of fociety,
we took but (light notice of the important objeCts of m;,y
religion and morals. At what period, and in what taught..
manner, ought the principles of religion and morality
to be inftilkd into the youthful, mind ? It has been
before obferved, that clukiren are capable of reafon-
ing and of moral diftinCtions even at a very early age.
But they cannot then comprehend our reafonings, nor
enter into our moral diftinCtions; beeaufe they are
ftrangers to our language, and to the artificial manner
in which we arrange our ideas when we exprefs them
in converfation or in writing. It follows, then, that
as foon-as they - are fufficiently acquainted with our
language, it muft be proper to communicate to them
the principles and precepts of morality and religion.
Long before this time, they are diligent and accurate
obfervers of human aCtions. For a (hort period it is
merely the external aft which they attend to and oh-
ferve : fooa, however, they penetrate farther; con-
feious themfrlves of reflection and volition, they re¬
gard us alfo as thinking beings; confcious of bene¬
volent and of unfriendly difpofitions, they regard us
as afting with defign, and as influenced by paffion:
naturally imitative animals, they are difpofed in their
conduft to follow the example which we fet before
them. By our example we may teach them piety and
virtue long .before it can be proper to offer them rdi*
gious or moral inftruftion ia a formal maimer.
Wc
E D U l 349 1 E D U
Education. We cannot'prefume to determine at what particular
» 1 period children ought to be firft informed of their re¬
lations to God and to fociety, and of the duties incum¬
bent on them in confequence of thofe relations. That
period will be different to different children, according
to the pains which have been taken, and the means
which have been employed, in cultivating their natural
powers. Perhaps even where the moil judicious maxims
of education have been adopted, and have been purfued
with the happieit effedls, it cannot be fooner than the
age of eight or nine. But even before this period
much may be done. Show the child your reverence
for religion and virtue ; talk in his prefence, and in
the plaineft, ftmpleft terms, though not direftly to
him, of the exilltftce of God the creator, the prefer-
ver, and the governor of the world ; fpeak of the con-
llant dependance of every creature on the gracious
care of that Being ; mention with ardour the gratitude
and obedience which we owe to him as our great pa¬
rent and belt benefactor: next, fpeak of the mutual
relations of fociety ; of the duties of children and pa¬
rents, of mailers and fervants, of man to man. At
length, when his mind is prepared by fuch difeourfes
which have paffed in his prefence without being ad-
dreffed to him, you may begin to explain to him in
a direft manner the leading doftrines of religion. He
will now be able to comprehend you, when you ad-
drefs him on that important fubjeft : the truths which
you communicate will make a powerful impreffion on
his mind ; an impreffion which neither the coi'ruption
and diflipation of the world, nor the force of appetite
and paffion, will ever be able to efface.
Some writers on this fubjedl have afferted, that
Halit youth are incapable of any juft ideas of religion till
they attain a much more advanced age ; and have in¬
dited, that, for this reafon, no attempts ihould be
made to communicate to them the articles of our ci-eed
in their earlier years. This dodtrine, both from its
novelty and from its pernicious tendency, has provoked
the keeneft oppofition. It has, however, been op-
pofed rather with keennefs than with acutenefs or ikill.
Its opponents feem to have generally allowed that
children are incapable of reafoning and of moral dif-
ti notions ; but- they have aferibed wonderful effedls to
habit. Enrich the memories of children, fay they,
with the maxims of morality, and with the dodlrines
of religion ; teach them prayers, and call them to en¬
gage in all the ordinances of religion. What though
they comprehend not the meaning of what they learn ?
What though they underftand not for what purpofe
you bid them repeat their prayers, nor why you con¬
iine them on the Lord’s day from their ordinary
amufements ? Their powers will at length ripen,, and
they will then fee in what they have been employed,
and derive the higheft advantage from the irkfome
talks to which you confined them. You have formed
them to habits which they will not be able to lay afide:
After this they cannot but be religious at fome period
of life, even though you have infpired them with-.a
difgult for the exercifes of religion. Thofe good
people have alfo talked of the priniciple of the- ajjbeia-
twn of ideas. As no man Hands alone in fociety, fay
they ; fo no one idea exifts in the mind fingle and
unconnefted with others : as you are connedted with
jour parents, your children, your friends, your coun¬
ts
trymen; fo the idea of a tree, for inftance, is con- Education*
nedled with -that of the field in which it grows, of * J,
the fruit which it bears, and of contiguous, diffimilar,
and refembling objedls. When any one fet of related
ideas have been often prefented to the mind in com.
nedfion with one another, the mind at length comes to
view them as fo intimately united, that any particular
one among them never fails .to introduce the reft;
Revifit the feenes in which you fpent your earlieft
years; the fports and companions of your youth na¬
turally arife to your recolledlion. Have you applied'
to the ftudy of the claffics with reludtance and con-
ftraint, and fuffereJ much from the feverity of parents
and tutors for your indifference to Greek and Latin ?
you will, perhaps, never through the courfe of life fee
a grammar fehool, without recolledling your fufferings,
nor look on a Virgil or Homer without remembering
the ftripes and confinement which they once occafion-
ed to you. In the fame manner, when religious prin¬
ciples are impreffed on the mind in infancy in a pro¬
per manner, an happy affociation is formed which can¬
not fail to give them a powerful influence on the fentif
timents and condudf in future life. But if we have
advanced to manhood before being informed of the
exiftence of a Deity, and of our relation to him; the
principles of religion, when communicated, no longer
produce the fame happy effedls : the heart and the un-
derftanding are no longer in the fame ftate; nor will
the fame affociations be formed.
This dodlrine of the ajjociation of ideas has been ad- Dr Prieft- -
duced by an ingenious writer, diftinguiihed for his ley’s opi-
difeoveries in natural philofophy, and, for his labours nion.xon-
in controverfial divinity, as an argument in beWfofthaSSS;
propriety of inftrufting youth in the principles of re-
ligion even in their earlieft years. We admire, we
efteem, the fpirit which has prompted him to difeover
fo much concern for the interefts, of the rifing genera¬
tion ; but at the fame time we will not conceal our
opinion, that even this argument ought to be urged
with caution. Many of tire phenomena of human na¬
ture may indeed be explained^ if we have recourfe to
the principle of ajfociation. The influence of any
principle, religious or moral, depends, in a great mea-
fure on the ideas and images which, in confidering it,
we have been accuftomed to affoeiate with it in our
minds. But what are the ideas or images moft likely
to be affociated by children .with the dodlrincs and du- -
ties of religion, if we call them to liften to the one
and perform the other at too early a period ? Will
they be fuch as may affiil the influence of religion on
their fentiments and condu& in the future part of
life ? Obferve the world Are thofe who, in infancy, '*
have been moft rigidly compelled to get their cate-
chifms by tote, either the moft pious or the bell in¬
formed in religious matters ? Indeed, when we conli-
der what has been faid of the influence of habit, and i
of the-affociation of ideas, we cannot help thinking,
that any arguments which onr the prefent occafion ■
may be adduced from .either of thefe, tend diredlly to.
prove, not that we ought to pour in religious inftruc-
tion into the minds of children,. without confidering
whether they be qualified to receive it; but, on the
contrary, that we ought cautioully to wait for and-
catch the proper feafon ;—thatfeafon when the youth¬
ful mind, no longer a ftrauger to our language, our.
fentiments,..
ED u r 350 1 E 6 IT
E ’-wcatior.'fentiments, mir views of nature, or our manner of rea-
c" v—— foning, will be able to go along with us, when we talk
to him of a fupreme Being, of our condition as depend¬
ant and accountable creatures, of truth, benevolence,
and juftice.
We flatter ourfelvee, then, that our readers will
readily agree with us, ill, That the moral and reafon-
ing powers of children begin to difplay themfelves at
a very early age, even in infancy, zdly, That as foon
as they have made themfelves acquainted with the moft
obvious appearances of nature, and have gained a to¬
lerable knowledge of our language and our manner of
arranging our ideas in reafoning, we may with the
greateft propriety begin to inftrudt them in the prin¬
ciples of religion, gdly. That the moll careful and
judicious obfervation is neceffary to enable us to di-
flinguilh the period at which children become capable
of receiving religious inPirudlion; becaufe, if we either
attempt to communicate to them thefe important truths
too early, or defer them till towards manhood, we
■may fail of accomplilhing the great end wdiich we have
in view.
If w-e can be fo fortunate as to choofe the happieft;
feafon for flowing the firft feeds of piety in the infant
mind, our next care will be to flow them in a proper
manner. We mull anxioully endeavour to communi¬
cate the principles of religion and morality, fo as they
may be eafiefl comprehended by the underftanding of
the learner, and may make the deepeft imprefiion on
‘ his heart. It would be a matter of the greatell diffi¬
culty to give particular diredlions on this head.' The
63 difcretion of the parent or tutor mull here be his
guide. We are afraid that fome of the catechifms
1 1S- commonly taught are not very happily calculated to
ferve the purpofe for which they are intended. Yet
we do not wilh that they Ihould be negledted while
nothing more proper is introduced in their room. In
inllrudling children in the firft. principles of religion, we
mull beware of arraying piety in the gloomy garb, or
painting her with the forbidding features, in which Are
has been reprefented by anchorites, monks, and puri¬
tans. No ; let her affume a pleafing form, a cheerful
drefs, and an inviting manner. Defcribe the Deity as
the affedlionate parent, the benefaflor, and though
the impartial yet the merciful judge of mankind.
Exhibit to them Jefus Chrift, the generous friend and
faviour of the pollerity of Adam, who with fuch en¬
chanting benevolence hath faid, “ Suffer little children
to come unto me.” Reprefent to them his yoke as
eafy, and his burden as light. Infill not on their fay¬
ing long prayers or hearing tedious fermons. If pof-
fible, make the doftrines of religion to appear to them
as glad tidings, and its duties as the moll delightful of
talks.
V. The Languages.
Is the time ufually fpent in learning the languages
ufefully occupied ? What advantages can our Bri-
tilh youth derive from an acquaintance with the
languages and the learning of Greece and Rome ?
Would we lillen to many of the fathers, the mothers,
and the polite tutors of the prefent age, they will
perfuade us, that the time which is dedicated to
grammar-fchools, and to Virgil, Cicero, Homer,
and Demollhenes, is foolilhly thrown away ; and that
no advantages can be gained from the lludy of claflical Education*
learning. They wilh their children and pupils to be ' v-1"'*'
not merely fcholars; they wifh them to acquire what ,64
may be ufeful and ornamental when they come to mingle
with the world ; and for this purpofe, they think it ficaUduca"
much better to teach their young people to fmatter tiun.
out French, to dance, to fence, to appear in company
with invincible affurance, and to drefs in fuch a man¬
ner as may attradl the attention of the ladies. Befides,
the tendernefs and humanity of thofe people are ama¬
zing. They are fhoeked at the idea of the fufferings
which boys undergo in the courfe of a claffical educa¬
tion. The confinement, the llripes, the harlh lan¬
guage, the burdens laid on the memory, and the pain
occafioned to the eyes, during the dreary period fpent
in acquiring a knowledge of Greek and Latin, affedl
them with horror when they think of them as inflidled
on children.. They therefore give the preference u>
a plan of education in which lefs intenfe application is
required and lefs feverity employed.
But, again, there are others who are no lefs warm Prejudices,
in their eulogiums on a claffical education, and no lefs for
indullrious in recommending the lludy of Greek and
Latin, than thofe are eager in their endeavours to
draw negle£l on the polilhed languages of antiquity.
With this fecond clafs, if an adept in Greek and La¬
tin, you are a great and learned man ; but without
thofe languages, contemptible for ignorance. They
think it impoffible to inlpire the youthful mind with
generous or virtuous fentiments, to teach the boy
wifldom, or to animate him with courage, without the
affillance of the ancient philofophers, hiftorians, and
poets. Indeed their fuperilitious reverence for the an¬
cient languages, and for thofe writers whofe compofi-
tiom have rendered Greece and Rome fo illullrious,
leads them to aferibe many other Hill more wonderful
virtues to a claffical education.
With which of thefe parties lhall we join ? or lhall
we mediate between them ? Is it improper to call youth
to the lludy of the languages? Is it impoffible to com¬
municate any ufeful knowledge without them ? Or
are they, though highly ufeful, yet not always indif-
penfably neceflary? ^
We have formerly taken notice of one circumllance Utility of
in favour of a claffical education, to which it may be clafical
proper to reeal the attention of our readers. We ob- learning to-
ferved, that the cultivation of claffical learning has a
favourable influence on the living languages. It has ment of
a tendency to preferve their purity from being deba- our mother
fed, and their analogy from becoming irregular. In tongue-
lludying the dead languages, we find it neceflary to
pay more attention to the principles of grammar than
in acquiring our mother-tongue. We learn our native
language without attending much to its analogy and
llrudlure. Of the numbers who fpeak Englilh through
the Britilh dominions, but few are flailed in the in¬
flexion of its nouns and verbs, or able to diltinguifli
between adverbs and conjunftions. Defirous only of
making their meaning underftood, they are not anxi¬
ous about purity or correcftnefs of fpeech. They re-
jedl not an expreffion which occurs to them, becaufe
it is barbarous or ungrammatical. As they grew up
they learned to fpeak from their mothers, their nurfes,
and others about them ; they were foon able to make
known their wants, their wifties, and their obferva-
tions.
E I) U [ 351 1 E D u
Education, ttons, in words. Satisfied with this, or called at a
,“J very early period to a life of humble indultry, they
have continued to exprefs themfelves in their mother-
tongue without acquiring any accurate knowledge of
its general principles. If thefe people find occafion
to exprefs themfelves in writing, they are fcarce more
ftudious of corre&nefs and elegance in writing than in
fpeaking; or, though they may afpire after thofe
properties, yet they can never attain them. But
fuch writers or fpeakers can never refine any language,
or reduce it to a regular analogy. Neither can they
be expe&ed to diftinguifh themfelves |ts the guardians
of the purity and regularity of their native tongue, if
it fliould before have attained an high degree of per-
fe&ion. But they who, in learning a language dif¬
ferent from their native tongue, have found it nectf-
fary to pay particular attention to the principles of
grammar, afterwards apply the knowledge of grammar
which they have thus acquired ia ufing their mother-
tongue ; and by that means become better acquainted
with its ftru&ure, and learn to write and fpeak it with
more corre&nefs and propriety. Befides, the lan¬
guages of Greece and Rome are fo highly diftinguifh-
ed for their copioufnefs, their regular analogy, and
for various other excellencies, which render them fu-
perior to even the chief of modern languages, that the
ftudy of them has a natural tendency to improve and
enrich modern languages. If we look backwards to
the 15th century, when learning began to revive in
Europe, and that fpecies of learning which began firft
to be cultivated was claflical literature, we find that
aim oft all the languages then fpoken in Europe were
wretchedly poor and barbarous. Knowledge could not
be communicated, nor bufinefs tranfa&ed, without
calling in the aid of Latin. Claffical learning, how¬
ever, foon came to be cultivated by all ranks with en-
fhufiaftic eagernefs. Not only thofe defigned to pur-
fue a learned profeffion, and men of fortune whofe ob-
je£I was a liberal education without a view to any par¬
ticular profeffion ; but even the lower ranks, and the
female fex, keenly ftudied the languages and the wif-
dom of Greece and Rome. This avidity for claffical
learning was followed by many happy effefts. But its
influence was chiefly remarkable in producing an ama¬
zing change on the form of the living languages. Thefe
foon became more copious and regular ; and many of
them have confequently attained fuch perfe&ion, that
the poet, the hiftorian, and the philofopher, can clothe
their thoughts in them to the greateft advantage.
Could we derive no new advantage from the ftudy of
the ancient languages, yet would they be worthy of
our care, as having contributed fo much to raife the
modern languages to their prefcnt improved ftate. But
they can alfo conduce to the prefervation and fupport
of thofe noble ftru&ures which have been reared by
their affiftance. The intercourfe of nations, the affec¬
tation of writers, the gradual introduction of provin¬
cial barbarifms, and various other caufes, have a ten¬
dency to corrupt and debafe even the nobleft languages-.
By fuch means were the languages of Greece and
Rome gradually corrupted, till the language ufed by a
Horace, a Livy, a Xenophon, and a Menander, was
loft in a jargon unfit for the purpofes of compofition.
But if we would not difdain to take advantage of
them, the claflical works in thofe languages might
prevent that which we ufe from experiencing fuch a Education-
decline. He who knows and admires the excellencies L——
of the ancient languages, and the beauties of thofe
writers who have rendered them fo celebrated, will be
the firm enemy of barbarifm, affedlation, and negli¬
gence, whenever they attempt to debafe his mother-
tongue. We venture therefore to affert, that when
the polilhed languages of antiquity ceafe to be ftudied
among us, our native tongue will then lofe its purity,
regularity, and other excellencies, and gradually de¬
cline till it be no longer known for the language of
Pope and of Addifon ; and we adduce it as an argu¬
ment in behalf of claffical learning, that it has contri¬
buted fo much to the improvement of the living lan-_
guages, and is almoft the only means that can prevent
them from being corrupted and debafed. 67
In thofe plans of education of which the ftudy of170!- ll'u"nS?
the dead languages does not make a part, proper10
means are feldom adopted for impreffing the youthful
mind with habits of induftry : nor do the judgment,
the memory, and the other powers of the mind, receive
equal improvement, as they pafs not through the fame
exercifes as in a claffical education. Let us enter thofe
academies where the way to a complete education leads
not through the thorny and rugged paths.of claffical
literature; let us attend to the exercifes which the
polite teachers caufe their pupils to perform. Do
they inlift on laborious induftry or intenfe application?
No; they can communicate knowledge without re¬
quiring laborious ftudy. They profefs to allow their
pupils to enjoy the fweets of idlenefs, and yet render
them prodigies of Learning. But are their magnificent
promifes ever fulfilled ? Do they indeed cultivate the
underftandings of the young people intrufted to their
care? They do not: their care is never once dire£ted
to this important objeft. To adorn them with Ihowy
and fupcrficial qualities, is all that thofe gentlemen aim.
at. Hence, when their pupils come to enter the world
and engage in the duties of ahlive life, they appear de-
ftitute of every manly qualification. Though they have
attained the age and grown up to the lize of man¬
hood, their underftandings are ftill childilh and feeble:
they are capricious, unfteady, incapable of induftry
or fortitude, and unable to purfue any particular ob¬
ject with keen, unremitting perfeverance. That long1
feries of ftudy and regular application, which is requi-
file in order to attain Ikill in the ancient languages,
produces much happier effedls on the youthful mind.
The power of habit is univerfally felt and acknow¬
ledged. A* he who is permitted to trifle away the
earlitft part of his life in idlenefs or in frivolous oc¬
cupations, can fcarce be expedled to difplay any man¬
ly or vigorous qualities when he reaches a more ma¬
ture age; fo, on the contrary, he whofe earlier days
have been employed in exerciling his memory and fur-
nilhing it with valuable treafures, in cultivating his
judgment and reafoning powers by calling the one to
make frequent diftindtions between various objects,,
and the other to. deduce many inferences from the
comparifon of the various obje&s prefented to the un-
derftanding, and alfo in ftrengthening and improving
the acutenefs of his moral powers by attending to hu¬
man a&ions and chara&ers, and diftinguifhiag betweea
them, as virtuous or vicious, as mean or glorious : he
who has thus cultivated his powers, may be naturally
E D U [ 3 5 2 1 E D XT
T-iunt^n, espe'ded to diftinguifh himfdf when he comes to per-
w^--v--1 _■ £orm jjjg part jn a£t;ve lifet by prudence, afitivity,
firinnefs, perfeverance, and moft of the other noble qua¬
lities which can adorn a human chara&er. But in the
courfe of aclafiical education, the powers of the mind
receive this cultivation: and therefore thefe happy ef-
fefts may be expe&ed to follow from it. The repe¬
titions which are required afford improving exercife
to the memory, and (tore it with the moft valuable
treafures: the powers of the underftanding are em¬
ployed in obferving the diilindtiotis between words;
in tracing words to the fubftances and qualities in na¬
ture which they are ufed to reprefent* in comparing
the words and idioms of different languages, and in
tracing the laws of their analogy and conftru&iont
while our moral faculties are at the fame time impro¬
ved, by attending to the characters which are defcri-
bed, and the events and adtions which are related, in
thofe books which we are dire&ed to perufe in order
to acquire the ancient languages. We affert there¬
fore, that the ftudy of the ancient languages is par¬
ticularly ufeful far improving and ftrengthening all the
powers of the mind ; .and, by that means, for prepa¬
ring us to adl our part in life in a becoming man¬
ner : and this our readers will readily agree with us
in confidering as a weighty argument in behalf of that
plan of education.
^Tund of But if, after all, claffical learning is ftill to be given
nft-ful and up, where fliall we find the fame treafures of moral
kr^wfd e elegance,arid of ufeful hiftorical knowledge,
which "an-6 which the celebrated writers of Greece and Rome af-
cient au- ford ? Will you content yourfelf with the modern wri-
■thors af- ters of Italy, France, and England ? Or will you deign
ford. tQ furvey the beauties of Homer and Virgil through
the medium of a tranflation ? No furely; let us pene¬
trate to thofe fources from which the modern writers
have derived moft of the excellencies which recommend
them to our notice; let us difdain to be impofed upon
;by the whims or the ignorance of a tranflator.
Jupat intcgros acceikre fontes.
Farther, claffical learning has long been cultivated
among us; and both by the ftores of knowledge which
it has conveyed to the mind, and the habits which it
has impreffed, has contributed in no fmall degree to
form many illuftrious characters. In reviewing the
annals of our country, we will fcarce find an eminent
politician, patriot, general, or philofopher, during the
two laft centuries, who did not fpend his earlier years
in the ftudy of the claffics.
Yet though we have mentioned thefe things in fa¬
vour of claffical literature, and were we to defeend
to minute particulars might enumerate many more
fa<fts and circumftances to recommend it; we mean
not to argue that it is abfolutely impoffible to be a
wife, a great, or a good man, unlefs you are flcilled
in Greek and Latin. Means may, no doubt, be ad¬
opted to infpire the young mind with virtuous dif-
politions, to call forth the powers of the youthful un¬
derftanding, and to imprefs habits of induftry and vi¬
gorous perfeverance, without having recourfe to the dif-
cipline of a grammar fchool. But we cannot help think¬
ing, for the reafons which we have ftated to our rea¬
ders, that a claffical education is the moft likely to
produce thefe happy effe&s.
As we are afterwards to take particular notice of
N° 109.
the courfe of education moft fuitahle for thofe who Education.'
are to occupy the humble ftations in fociety, we flrall
not here inquire whether it be proper to introduce them
to an acquaintance with the Greek and Latin claffics.
VI. Qn the Education of People of Rank and Fc rtune. ^
Those whom the kindnefs of Providence has placed Dudes of
in an elevated ftation, and in affluent circumftances,
fo that they feem to be born rather to the enjoymentr
of wealth and honours than to aft in any particular
profeifion or employment, have notwithftanding a cer-d
tain part affigned them to perform, and many import¬
ant duties to fulfil. They are members of fociety,
and enjoy the proteflion of the civil inflitutions ot
that fociety to which they belong ; they muft there¬
fore contribute what they can to the fupport of thofe
inftitutions. The labours of the induftrieus poor are
necefiary to fupply them with the luxuries of life ;
and they muft know how to diftribute their wealth
with prudence and generofity among the poor. They
enjoy much leifure ; and they ought to know how to
employ their leifure hours in an innocent and agreeable
manner. Befides, as their circumftances enable them
to attrafl the regard and refpeff of thofe who are pla¬
ced in inferior ftations, and as the poor are ever ready
to imitate the condudt of their fuperiors ; it is ne-
ceffary that they endeavour to adorn their wealth and
honours by the moft eminent virtues, in order that
their example may have an happy influence on the
manners of the community.
There education ought therefore to be conduced
with a view to thefe ends. After what we have urged
in favour of a claffical education, our readers will na¬
turally prefume that we regard it as highly proper for
a man of foitune. The youth who is deftined to the How t®
enjoyment of wealth and honours, cannot fpend his form the
earlier years more advantageoufly than in gaining aa.temF’er
acquaintance with the elegant remains of antiquity.
The benefits to be derived from claffical learning are tune>
peculiarly neceflary to him. Care muft be taken to
preferve him from acquiring an haughty, fierce, im¬
perious temper. The attention ufually paid to the
children of people of fortune., and the foolifli fondnefs
with which they are too often treated, have a direft
tendency to infpire them with high notions of their
own importance, and to render them pafiionate, over¬
bearing, and conceited. But if their temper acquire
this bias even in childhood, what may be expe&ed
when they advance towards manhood, when their at¬
tention is likely to be oftener turned to the dignity
and importance of that rank which they occupy, and
to the pitiful humility of thofe beneath them ? Why,
they are likely to be fo proud, infolent, refentful,
and revengeful, as to render themfelves difagreeable and
hateful to all who know them ; and be£des, to be in¬
capable of thofe delightful feelings which attend hu¬
mane, benevolent, and mild difpofitions. Let the man
of fortune, therefore, as he is concerned for the future -
happinefs and dignity of his child, be no lefs careful
to prevent him from being treated in fuch a manner
as to be infpired with haughtinefs, caprice, and info-
lence, than to prevent his mind from being foured by
harfh and tyrannical ufage.
The manly exercifes, as they are favourable to the
health, the ftrength, and even the morals; fo they are
highly
E D U r 353 1 E D U
Education. htgMy worthy of engaging the attention of the young
‘■'“'“v  gentleman. Dancing, fencing, running, horfeman-
fliip, the management of the mulket, and the motions
of military difcipline, are none of them unworthy of
occupying his time, at proper feafons. It is unne-
ceffary to point out the advantages which he may de¬
rive from dancing; thefe feem to be pretty generally
underftood. Perhaps our men of fortune would be
afhamed to make ufe of their legs for running ; but
occafions may occur, on which even this humble ac-
complifhment may be ufeful. Though we wiih not to
fee the young man of fortune become a jockey; yet
to be able to make a graceful appearance on horfe-
back, and to manage his horfe with dexterity, will
not be unwgrthy of his ftation and character. If times
of public danger fhouli arife, and the ftate fhould call
for the fervices of her fubjefts againft any hoftile at¬
tack, they whofe rank and fortune place them in
the moft eminent ftations will be firfl. expected to ftand
forth; but if unacquainted with thofe exercifes which
are connected with the military art, what a pitiful
figure mull they make in the camp, or on the field of
battle?
Law. As the' man of fortune may perhaps enjoy by he¬
reditary right, or may be called by the voice of his
fellow-citizens, to a feat among the legiflative body of
his country ; he ought in his youth to be carefully
inftrufted in the principles of her political conftitution,
and of thofe laws by which his own rights and the
rights of his fellow-citizens are determined and fecu-
ted. x
rhilofophy. Natural philofophy, as being both highly ufeful and
entertaining, is well worthy of the attention of all
who can afford to appropriate any part of their time
to fcientific purfuits; to the man of fortune, a tafte for
natural philofophy might, often procure the moft de¬
lightful entertainment. To trace the wonders of the
planetary fyftems, to mark the procefs of vegetation,
to examine all the properties of that fine element
which we breathe, to trace the laws by which all the
different elements are confined to their proper func¬
tions, and above all to apply the principles of natu¬
ral philofophy in the cultivation of the ground, are
amufements which might agreeably and innocently oc¬
cupy many of the leifure hours of the man who enjoys
a fplendid and independent fortune,
and Neither do we fuppofe civil hiftory and the prin-
rnoraTi cipks of morals to be overlooked. Without being ac¬
quainted with thefe, how could any juft or accurate
knowledge of the laws and political conttitution of his
country be acquired by the young gentleman ? Hiftory
expofes to our obfervation the fortune and the aftions
of other human beings, and thus fupplies in fome mea-
fure the place of experience; it teaches prudence,
and affords exercife to the moral fenfe. When hittory
condefcends to take notice of individuals, they are al-
moft-always fuch as have been eminent for virtue, for
abilities, or for the rank which they held in life ; to
the rich and great it ought to fpeak with peculiar ef¬
ficacy, and they ought to be carefully invited to liften
to its voice.
Such then is the manner in which we wifh the edu¬
cation of young men of rank and fortune to be con¬
duced, in order that they may be prepared for en¬
joying their opulence and honours with becoming dig>
oity. Let them be early inured to habits of vigorous
Voi.VI. Part. I.
induftry and perfevering firmnefs, by palling through a Education,
regular courfe of claffical learning in a free fchool; let
them play and converfe with their equals, arid not be
permitted to form high ideas of their own importance,
nor to domineer over fervants or inferiors: Let them
be carefully inftructed in the principles of morality and
religion : Let them be taught the manly exercifes:
Let them be carefully informed of the nature of the
political conftitution of their country, and of the ex¬
tent of thofe civil and political rights which it fecures to
them and their fellow-citizens : Let them be called to
trace the annals of mankind through the records of
hiftory ; to mark the appearances and operations of
nature, and to amufe themfelves by purfuing thefe to-
their general caufes. We fay nothing of caufing the
young man of fortune to learn fome mechanical art:
We think Ikill in a mechanical art might now and then
afford him an innocent and pleafing amufement; but
we do not confider it as abfolutely neceffary, and there¬
fore do not infill on his acquiring it. With thofe
accomplilhments we hope he might become an ufeful
member of fociety, might adorn the rank and fortune
to which he is born, and might find wealth and high
ftation a bleffing, not a curfe. It is peculiarly unfor¬
tunate for our age and country, that people of rank
and fortune are riot fo ftudious that their children ac¬
quire thefe as the more fuperficial accomplilhments.
VII. On the Education of People dejlgnedfor a Mercan¬
tile Employment, and for the humbler Occupations in Life
not particularly connected with Literature.
Were modern literature in a lefs flourilhing ftate J
were the Englilh and French languages adorned with
fewer eminent poetical, hiftorical, and philofophical
compofitions; we might perhaps infill on it as ne¬
ceffary to give the boy, who is defigned for a mercan¬
tile employment, a claffical education. At prefent
this does not appear abfolutely neceffary ; yet we do 74
not prefume to forbid it as improper. Even the Elegant li-
merchant will fcarce find reafon to repent his ha-t£riture*
ving been introduced to the acquaintance of Plato
and Cicero. But Hill, if the circumftances of the
parent, or any other juft reafon, Ihould render it
inconvenient to fend the young man who is intend¬
ed for trade to a free fchool to ftudy the ancient
languages, means may be eafily adopted to make up
for his lofs. Confine him not to writing and accounts
alone. Thefe, though particularly ufeful to the mer¬
chant, have no great power to reftrain the force of
evil paffions, or to infpire the mind with generous and
virtuous fentiments. Though you burden him not
with Latin and Greek, yet ftrive to infpire him with
a tafte for ufeful knowledge and for elegant literature.
Some of the pureft and moll elegant ot our poets, the
excellent periodical works which have appeared in our
language, fuch as the Spectator, the Adventurer, the
Mirror, and the compofitions of our Britilh hiftorians,
together with foqie of the bell tranllations of the daf¬
fies which we poffefs; thefe you may with great pro¬
priety put into^iis hands. They will teach him how
to think and reafon juftly, and to ex<prefs himfelf in
converfation or in writing with corre&nefs and ele¬
gance : they will refine and polilh his mind, and raife
him above low and grofs pleafures. And as no man,
who has any occafion to fpeak or write, ought to be
entirely ignorant of the principles of grammar, you will
Y y - therefore
E D U [ 3
Education, therefore be careful to inftruft the young man who is
l" defigned for a mercantile occupation in the grammar
of his mother-tongue.
. . 7S A facred regard to his engagements, and an honefty
b which may prevent him from taking undue advantages
or exafting unreafonable profits, are the virtues which
a merchant is moft frequently called to exercife : punc¬
tuality and integrity are the duties moft particularly
incumbent on the mercantile profeflion. Temptations
will now and then arife to feduce the merchant to the
violation of thefe. But if fuperior to every fuch temp¬
tation, he is one of the moft illuftrious charafters, and
is likely to be one of the moft fuccefsful merchants.
From his earlieft years, then, labour to' infpire the
child whom, you intend for trade with a facred regard
for truth and juftice : let him be taught to view deceit
and fraud, and the violation of a promife, with abhor¬
rence and difdain. Frugality is a virtue which, in the
prefent age, feems to be antiquated or profcribed.
Even the merchant often appears better Ikilled in the
arts of profufion than in thofe of parfimony. The
mifer, a charafter at no time viewed as amiable, is at
prefent beheld with double deteftation and contempt.
Yet, notwithftanding thefe unfavourable circumftan-
ces, fear not to imprefs on the young merchant habits
of frugality. Let him know the folly of beginning
to fpend a fortune before he have acquired it. Let him
be taught to regard a regular attention to confine his
expences within due bounds, as one of the firft virtues
. which can adorn his chara&er.
tnduftry. Frugality and induftry are fo clofely connefted, that
when we recommend the one of them to the merchant,
we will be naturally underftood to recommend the o-
ther alfo. It is eafy to fee, that, without induftrious
application, no man can reafonably expe&to meet with
fuccefs in the occupation in which he engages : and if
the merchant thinks proper to leave his bufinefs to the
management of clerks and fhop-keepers, it is not very
probable that he will quickly accumulate a fortune. It
is, therefore, no lefs negeflary, that he who is intended
for trade be early accuftomed to habits of fober appli¬
cation, and be carefully reftrained from volatility and
levity, than that he be inftru&ed in writing, arithmetic,
and keeping of accounts.
With thefe virtues and qualifications the merchant is
likely to be refpe&able, and not unfuccefsful, while he
continues to profecute his trade ; and if, by the blef-
fing of Providence, he be at length enabled to accumu¬
late a moderate fortune, his acquaintance with elegant
literature, and the virtuous habits which he has acqui¬
red, will enable him to enjoy it with tafte and dignity.
Indeed, all the advantages which a man without tafte,
or knowledge, or virtue, can derive from the pofleffion
of even the moft fplendid fortune, are fo inconfiderable,
that they can be no adequate reward for the toil which
he undergoes, and the mean arts which he pra&ifes in
acquiring it. At the head of a great fortune a fool
can only make himfelf more ridiculous, and a man of
a wicked and vicious charafter more generally abhorred,
than if fortune had kindly concealed their crimes and
jy follies by placing them in a more obfcure ftation.
Education A confiderable part of the members of fociety are
perfons placed in fuch circumftances, that it is impoffible for
'eftra"ksW" t^em t0 rece*ve t^e advantages of a liberal education.
* ra" s' The mechanic and the hujtbandman, who earn a fubfift-
,4 ] E D U
ence by their daily labour, can feldom afford, whatever Education,
parental fondnefs may fuggeft, to favour their children v—*
with many opportunities of literary inftruftion. Con¬
tent if they can provide them with food and raiment
till fuch time as they acquire fufficient ftrength to la¬
bour for their own fupport, parents in thofe humble
circumftances feldom think it neceffary that they ihould
concern themfelves about giving their children learning.
Happily it is not requifite that thofe who are deftined
to fpend their days in this low fphere fhould be fur-
niftied with much literary orfcientific knowledge. They
may be taught to read their mother tongue, to write,
and to perform fome of the moft common and the moft
generally ufeful operations of arithmetic : for without
an acquaintance with the art of reading, it will fcarce
be poffible for them to acquire any rational knowledge
of the do&rines and precepts of religion, or of the du¬
ties of morality ; the invaluable volume of the facred
fcriptures would be fealed to them : we may allow
them to write, in order that they may be enabled to
enjoy the fweet fatisfa&ion of communicating accounts
of their welfare to their abfent friends ; and, befides,
both writing and arithmetic are necefl’ary for the ae-
complifliment of thofe little tranfa&ions which pafs a-
mong them. It would be hard, if even the loweft and
poore ft were denied thefe fimple and eafily acquired
branches of education ; and happily that degree of fkill
in them which is neceffary for the labourer and the me¬
chanic may be atained without greater expence than
may be afforded by parents in the meaneft circumftan¬
ces. Let the youth who is born to pafs his days ia
this humble ftation be carefully taught to confider ho-
neft patient induftry as one of the firft of virtues : let
him be taught to regard the fluggard as one of the moft
contemptible of chara&ers: teach him contentment
with his lot, by letting him know that wealth and ho¬
nour feldom confer fuperior happinefs : Yet fcruple not
to inform him, that if he can raife himfelf above the
humble condition to which he was born, by honeft arts,
by abilities virtuoufly exerted, he may find fome com¬
fort in affluent circumftances, and may find reafon to
rejoice that he has been virtuous, induftrious, and ac¬
tive. In teaching him the principles of religion, be
careful to fhow him religion as intimately conne&ed
with morality: teach him none of thofe myfterious
do&rines, whofe foie tendency is to fofter that enthu-
fiafm which naturally prevails among the vulgar, and
to perfuade them that they may be pious without being
virtuous. Labour to infpire him with an invincible
abhorrence for lying, fraud, and theft. Infpire him
with an high efteem fof chaftity, and with an awful
regard to the duties of a fon, an hulband, and a father.
Thus may he become refpedlable and happy, even in
his humble ftation and indigent circumftances ; a cha-
ratter infinitely fuperior, in the eyes of both God and
man, to the rich and great man who mifemploys his
wealth and leifure in fliameful and vicious purfuits.
VIII. jOm the Education of the Female Sex.
The ab ft rafts which we have given of fome of tne
moft celebrated and original treatifes on education, as
well as ourown obfervations on this fubjeft, have been hi¬
therto either relative to the education of both the fexes,
or direfted chiefly to the education of the male fex.
But as there is a natural difference between the charac-
6 ters
E D U [
Education, ters of the two' fexes, and as there are certain duties
peculiar to each of them; it is eafy to fee that the educa¬
tion of the boy and that of the girl cannot, ought not, to
be conduced precifely in the fame manner. And fince
the duties of the female fex are fo important to fociety,
and they form fo confiderable a part of our fpecies;
their education, therefore, merits the higheft attention.
in infancy, the inftinfts, the difpofitions, and the
faculties of boys and girls feem to be nearly the fame.
They difcover the fame curiofity, and the fame difpo-
fition to a&ivity. For a while they are fond of the
fame fports and amufements. But by and by, when we
begin to make a diftindtion in their drefs ; when the
girl begins to be more confined to a fedentary life un-
der her mother’s eye, while the boys are permitted to
Similarity ramble about without doors; the diftindtion between
ofthecha- their charadters begins to be formed, and their tafte
rasters of ancj manners begin to become different. The boy now
inthefirft im>tates t*le art3 an^ ^le a&ive amufements of his fa-
perioJ of ther ; digs and plants a little garden, builds a houfe
Me. in miniature, thoots his bow, or draws his little cart ;
while the girl, with no lefs emulation, imitates her mo¬
ther, knits, fews, and dreffes her doll. They are no
longer merely children : the one is now a girl; the o-
ther a boy. This tafte for female arts, which the girl
fo eafily and naturally acquires, has been judicioufly ta¬
ken notice of by Rouffeau, as affording an happy op¬
portunity for inftrudting her in a very confiderable part
of thofe arts which it is proper to teach her. While
the girl is bufied in adorning her doll, ftie infenfibly be¬
comes expert at needle-work, and learns how to adjuft
her own drefs in a becoming manner. And therefore,
if ftie be kindly treated, it will not be a matter ot diffi¬
culty to prevail with her to apply to thefe branches of.
female education. Her mother or governefs, if ca¬
pable of managing her with mildnefs and prudence, may
teach her to read with great facility. For being
already more difpofed to fedentary application than the
boy of the fame age, the confinement to which fire
muft fubmit in order to learn to read will be lefs irkfome
to her. Some have pretended that the reafoning
powers of girls begin to exert themfelves fooner than
thofe of^boys. But, as we have already declared our
opinion, that the reafoning powers of children of both
fexes begin to difplay themfelves at a very early period.;
fo we do not believe that thofe of the one fex begin to
appear, or attain maturity, fooner than thofe of the
other. But the different occupations and amufements in
which we caufe them to engage from their earlieft years,
naturally call forth their powers in different manners,
■and perhaps caufe the one to imitate our modes of
fpeaking and behaviour fooner than the other. How¬
ever, as we wiffi both boys and girls to learn the art of
reading at a very early age, even as foon as they are ca¬
pable of any ferious application; fo we wifh girls to be
taught the art of writing, arithmetic, and the principles
of religion and morals, in the fame order in which thefe
are inculcated on boys.
We need not point out the reafons which induce us
to regard thefe as accomplilhments proper for the fe¬
male fex : they feem to be generally confidered as not
only fuitable, but neceffary. It is our moll important
privilege, as beings placed in a fituation different from
that of the inferior animals, that we are capable of
religious fentiments and religious knowledge j it there-
25S ] E D u
fore becomes us to communicate religious inftiuiffion Education.
with no lefs affiduity and care to the youth of the fe-  ^
male fex than to thofe of our own. Belides, as the care
of children during their earlier years belongs in a par¬
ticular manner to the mother 5 fhe, therefore, whom
nature has deftined to the important duties of a mo¬
ther, ought to be carefully prepared for the proper dif-
charge of thofe duties, by being accurately inftrufted,
in her youth, in fuch things as it will be afterwards
requifite for her to teach her children.
Ladies have fometimes diltinguilhed themfelves as
prodigies of learning. Many of the moft eminent
geniufes of the French nation have been of the female
fex. Several of our countrywomen have alfo made *‘gra<j;(£on
refpeftable figure in the republic of letters. Yet we how far
cannot approve of giving girls a learned education, coming in
To acquire the accompliihments which are more pro-la(fies‘
per for their fex, will afford fufficient employment for
their earlier years. If they be inftrufted in the gram¬
mar of their mother-tongue, and taught to read and
fpeak it with propriety ; be taught to write a fair
hand, and to perform with readinefs the moft ufeful
operations of arithmetic j if they be fnftrudled in the
nature of the duties which they owe to God, to them¬
felves, and to fociety ; this will be almoft all the lite¬
rary inftru&ion neceffary for them. Yet we do not
mean to forbid them an acquaintance with the litera¬
ture of their country. The periodical writers, who
have taught all the duties of morality, the decencies of
life, and the principles of tafte, in fo elegant and plea-
fing a manner, may with great propriety be put into
the hands of our female pupil. Neither will we deny
her the hiftorians, the moft popular voyages and travels,
and fuch of our Britiffi poets as may be put into her
hands without corrupting her heart or inflaming her
paffions. But could our opinion or advice have fo
much influence, we would endeavour to perfuade our
countrymen and countrywomen to banifh from among
them the novelifts, thofe panders of vice, with no lefs
determined feverity than that with which Plato excludes
the poets from his republic, or that with which the
converts to Chriftianity, mentioned in the A<fts, con¬
demned their magical volumes to the flames. Unhap¬
pily, novels and plays are almoft the only fpecies of
reading in which the young people of the prefent age
take delight; and nothing has contributed more effec¬
tually to bring on that diffolutenefs of manners which
prevails among all ranks.
But we will not difcover fo much aufterity as to ex¬
press a wiffi that the education of the female fex ftrould
be confined folely to fuch things as are plain and ufe- ^
ful. We forbid not-thofe accomplifhments whkh 0rnament»
are merely ornamental, and the defign of which is al accom-
to render them amiable in the eyes of the other pliftinrents.
fex. When we confider the duties for which they
are deftined by nature, we find that the art of plea-
fing conftitutes. no inconfiderable part of thefe; and
it would be wrong, therefore, to deny them thofe
arts, the end of which is to enable them to pleafe*
Let them endeavour to acquire tafte in drefs : to
drefs in a neat graceful manner, to fuit colours rto her
complexion, and the figure of her clothes to her ftiape,
is no fmall accompliftrment for a young woman. She
who is rigged out by the tafte and dexterity of her
maid and her milliner, is nothing better than a doll
Y y 2 feat
E D U [ 356
fent abroad to public places as a fample of their handy-
1 E D U
t .. .. . , Such are the hints which have occurred to us on the Educatiorr.
work. Dancing is a favourite exercife ; nay, we might education proper for the female fex, as far as it ought  
almoft call it the favourite ftudy of the fair fex : So to be conduced in a manner different from that of the
many pleafmg images are affociated with the idea of male.
Drawing.
dancing; drefs, attendance, balls, elegance and grace
of motion irreliftible, admiration, and courtthip : and
thefe are fo early inculcated on the young by mothers
and maids, that we need not be furprifed if little Mifs
conlider her leffon of dancing as a matter of much nfore
importance than either her book or fampler. And in¬
deed, though the public in general feem at prefent to
place too high a value on dancing ; and though the
undue eftimation which is paid to it feems owing to
that tafte for diffipation, and that rage for public amufe-
ments, which naturally prevail amid fuch refinement
and opulence ; yet ilill dancing is an accompliihment
which both fexes may cultivate with confiderable ad¬
vantage. It has an happy effedt on the figure, the air,
and the carriage ; and we know not if it be not fa¬
vourable even to dignity of mind : Yet, as to be even
a firft-rate poet or painter, and to value himfelf on
his genius in thefe arts, would be no real ornament to
the charafter of a great monarch ; fo any very fuperior
fkill in dancing muff ferve rather to difgrace than to
adorn the lady or the gentleman. There are fome arts
in which, though a moderate degree of ikill may be
ufcful or ornamental, yet fuperior tafte and knowledge
are rather hurtful, as they have a tendency to feduce
us from the more important duties which we owe to
ourfelves and to fociety. Of thofe, dancing feems to
be one : It is faid of a certain Roman lady, by an
eloquent hiftorian, “ that file was more {killed in dan¬
cing than became a modeft and virtuous woman.”
Mufic, alfo, is an art in which the youth of the fe¬
male fex are pretty generally inftru&ed ; and if their
voice and ear be fuch as to enable them to attain any
excellence in vocal mufic, it may conduce greatly to
increafe their influence over our fex, and may afford a
pleafing and elegant amufement to their leifure hours.
The harpfichord and the fpinnet are inftruments often
touched by female hands; nor do we prefume to for¬
bid the ladies to exercife their delicate fingers in calling
forth the enchanting founds of thefe inftruments. But
ftill, if your daughter have no voice or ear for mufic,
compel her not to apply to it.
Drawing is another accomplifhment which general¬
ly enters into the plan of female education. Girls are
ufually taught to aim at fome fcratches with a pencil:
but when they grow up, they either lay it totally afide,
or elfe apply to it with fo much affiduity as to negleft
IX. Public and private Education.
One queftion ufually difcuffed by the writers on this
fubjedft has not hitherto engaged our attention. . It is.
Whether it be moft proper to educate a young man
privately, or fend him to receive his education at a public
fchool ? This-queftion has been fo often agitated, and
by people enjoying opportunities of receiving all the
information which experience can furniftv on the fubjett,
that we cannot be expected to advance any new argu¬
ment of importance on either fide. Yet we may ftate
what has been urged both on the one and the other. 84
They who have confidered children as receiving tbeir Arguments
education in the houfe and under the eye of theirparents, educatioir
and as fecluded in a great meafure from the fociety of
other children, have been fometimes led to confider this
fituation as particularly favourable for their acquiring
ufeful knowledge, and being formed to virtuous habits.
Though we reap many advantages from mingling in
focial life, yet in fociety we are alfo tainted with ma¬
ny vices to which he who paffes his life in folitary re¬
tirement is a ftranger. At whatever period of life we
begin to mix with the world, we ftill find that we have
not yet acquired fufficient ftrength to refift thofe tempta¬
tions to vice with which we are there affailed. But if
we are thus ready to be infeded with the contagion of
vice, even at any age, no other argument can be ne-
ceffary to fhow the propriety of confining children from
thofe dangerons fcenes in which this infedion is fo ea-
fily caught. And whoever furveys the ftate of morals
in a public fchool with careful and candid attention,
even though it be under the management of the moil
virtuous, judicious, and afliduous teachers, will find
reafon to acknowledge, that the empire of vice is efta-
blifhed there not lefs fully than in the great world.
Nothing, therefore, can be more negligent or inhu¬
man, than for parents to expofe their children to thofe
fedudions which a great fchool prefents, at a time
when they are ftrongly difpofed to imitate any example
fet before them, and have not yet learned to diftinguifh
between fuch examples as are worthy of imitation, and
thofe which ought to be beheld with abhorrence. Even
when under the parent’s eye, from intercourfe with
fervants and vifitors their native innocence is likely to
fuffer confiderably. Yet the parent’s care will be much
more likely to preferve the manners of his child uncor-
their more important duties. We do not confider {kill rupted in his own houfe, than any affiduity and watch.-
in drawing, any more than {kill in poetry, as an ac- fulnefs of his teachers in a fchool.
compliftiment very neceffary for the ladies; yet we agree
with Rouffeau, that as far as it can contribute to im¬
prove their tafte in drefs, it may not be improper for
them to purfue it. They may very properly be taught
to {ketch and colour flowers ; but we do not wifti them
to forget or lay afide this as foon as the drawing-mafter
is difmiffed: let them retain it to be ufeful through life.
Though pride can never be lovely, even in the faireft
female form; yet ought the young woman to be care-
The morals and difpofitions of a child ought to be
the firft objeds of our concern in conduding his edu¬
cation : but to initiate him in the principles of ufeful
knowledge is alfo an important objed ; and it will be
happy, if in a private education virtue be not only
better fecured, but knowledge alfo more readily ac¬
quired, than in a public. But this adually happens.
When one or two boys are committed to the care of a
judicious tutor, he can watch the moft favourable fea-
fully impreffed with a due refped for herfelf. This fons for communicating inftrudion ; he can awake cu-
will join with her native modefty to be the guardian of riofity and command attention by the gentle arts of
her virtue, and to preferve her from levity and impro¬
priety of conduit
infinuation: though he ftrive not to inflame their breafts
with emulation) which leads often to envy and invete-
4 rate
E D U [ 357 1 E D U
Education rate hatred ; yet he will fucceed in rendering learning
I.,."-, — , pleailng by other means lefs likely to produce unfa¬
vourable efte&s on the temper and difpofitions of his
pupils. As his attention is not divided among a num¬
ber, he can pay more regard to the particular difpo¬
fitions and turn of mind of each of his pupils . he
Can encourage him who is modeft and flow, and reprefs
the. quicknefs and volatility of the other ; and he can
call forth and improve their powers, by leading them
at one time to view the fcenes of nature and the changes
which fhe fucceffively undergoes through the varying
- feafons ; at another, to attend to fome of the moll en¬
tertaining experiments of natural philofophy ; and again
alluring them artfully to their literary exercifes. With
thefe he may mix fome adlive games ; and- he may af
fume fo much of the fondnefs of the parent, as to join
in them with his little pupils. ‘ Thefe are certainly cir-
cumilances favourable both to the happinefs and to the
literary improvement of youth ; but they are peculiar
to a private education. Befides, in a private educa¬
tion, as children fpend more of their time with grown
up people than in a public ; thofe, therefore, who re¬
ceive a domeftic education, fooner acquire our manner
of thinking, of expreffing ourfelves, and of behaving,
in our ordinary intercourle with one another. For the
very fame reafon for which girls are often obferved to
be capable of prudence and propriety of behaviour at
an earlier age than boys, thofe boys who receive a fa¬
mily education will begin fooner to think and aft like
men, than thofe who pafs their earlier days in a public
feminary. And though you educate your fon at home,
there is no reafon why he (hould be more accuftomed
to domineer over his inferiors, or to indulge a capri¬
cious or inhumane difpofition, than if he were brought
up among fifty boys, all of the fame age, fize, and rank,
with himfelf. He may alfo, in a private education,
exercife his limbs with the fame aftivity as in a public
one. He cannot, indeed, engage in thofe fports for
which a party of companions is neccffary ; but Hill
there are a thoufand objefts which will call forth his
aftivity: if in the country, he will be difpofed to
fifh, to climb for bird-nefts, to imitate all that he fees
performed by labourers and mechanics : in ftiort, he
will run, leap, throw and carry ftones, and keenly exert
himfelf in a variety of exercifes, which will produce
the moft favourable, effefts on the powers both of his
mind and body. It may indeed be poffible for you to
oppofe the defigns of nature fo effeftually, if you take
pains for that purpofe, as to reprefs the natural aftivity
of your child or pupil,' and caufe him to pine away his
time in liftlefs indolence ; but you will thus do violence
to his difpofitions, as well as to thofe inftinfts which
nature has ■ for wife purpofes implanted in his bread.
And the bad confequences which may'refult from this
management are not to be confidered as the natural ef¬
fefts of a domedic education, but as the effefts of an
education carelefsly or imprudently conducted.
But there is another conlideration which will per¬
haps be dill more likely than any of thofe which we
have hitherto urged, to prevail with the fond parent
to give his child a private education. As the infant
who is abandoned by its mother to the care of an hire¬
ling nurfe, naturally transfers its affeftion from the
unnatural parent to the perfon who fupplies her room
and performs the duties incumbent upon her ; fo the Education,
boy who is banifhed from his parent’s houfe at a time v " J‘.
when he has fcarce begun to know the relation in which
he Hands to his father and mother, brothers or fiders,
foon ceafes to regard them with that fondnefs which
he had contrafted for them from living in their com¬
pany and receiving their good offices. His refpeft,
his affeftion, and his kindnefs, are bedowed on new
objefts, perhaps on his mader or his companions; or
elfe his heart becomes felfifh and deditute of every ten¬
der and generous feeling; and when the gentle and
amiable jtffeftions of filial and fraternal love are thus,
as it were, torn up by the roots, every evil paffion
fprings up, with a rapid growth, to fupply their place.
The boy returns afterwards to his father’s houfe : but
he returns as a dranger ; he is no longer capable of
regarding his parents and relations with the fame ten-
dernefs of affeftion. He is now a dranger to that fi¬
lial love which fprings up in the bread of the child
who is condantly fenfible of the tender care of his pa¬
rents, and fpends his earlier years under their roof, in
fuch a manner as to appear the effeft of indinft rather-
than of habit. Selfifh views are now the only bond
which attaches him to his parents and relations; and.
by coming under their influence at fo early a period of
life, he is rendered for ever incapable of all the molt
amiable virtues which can adorn human nature. Let
the parent, therefore, who loves his child, and wifhea-
to obtain from him a mutual return of affeftion, be¬
ware of excluding him from his houfe, and devolving!-
the foie charge of him upon another, in his child¬
hood.
Thefe views reprefent a private education as the molt
favourable to virtue, to knowledge, and to the mutual
affeftion which ought always to unite the parent and
his child. But let us now liden to the arguments
which are ufually urged in behalf of a public educa-.
ti0n* • Cj
In the fird place, it has been afferted, that a public Arguments
education is much more favourable than a private tOfor pUbiic
the pupil’s improvement in knowledge, and much education,
more likely to infpire him with an ardour for learning.
In a private education, with whatever affiduity and
tendernefs you labour to render learning agreeable to
your pupil, dill it will be but an irkfome talk. You
may confine him to his books but for a very fliort fpace
in the courfe of the day, and allow him an alternation
of dudy and recreation. Still, however, you will ne¬
ver be able to render his books the favourite objefts of
his attention. He will apply to them with reluftance
and carelefs indifference : even while he feems enga¬
ged on his leflbn, his mind will be otherwife occupied ;
it will wander to the fcenes where he purfues his diver-
fions, and to thofe objefts which have attrafted his de¬
fires. If the period during which you require his ap¬
plication be extremely fliort; during the fird part of
it, he will dill be thinking of the amufements from
which you have called him, and regretting his con¬
finement ; during the ladr he will fondly anticipate
the moment when he is to be fet at liberty, and think
of new amufements. Again, if you confine him du¬
ring a longer period, dill more unfavourable effefts
will follow. Peevifhnefs, dulnefs, and a determined
averfion to all that bears the name of literature^ will i
be
E D U [ 358 J E D U
Filucatinn. be naturally imprefied on his mind by fuch Ueatment.
How can it be otherwife ? Books poffefs fo few of
thofe qualities which recommend any objeA to the at¬
tention of children, that they cannot be naturally a-
greeable. They have nothing to attraft and detain
the eye, the ear, or any of the fenfes ; they prefent
things with which children are unacquainted, and of
■which they know not the value: children cannot look
beyond the letters and words, to the things which thefe
reprefent ; and even though they could, yet is it much
more pleafing to view feenes and obje&s as they exift
originally in nature, than to trace their images in a
faint and imperfeft reprefentation. It is vain, there¬
fore, to hope that children will beprevailed with to pay
attention to books by means of any allurements which
books can of themfelves prefent. Other means mud
be ufed ; but thofe in a private education you cannot
command. In a public feminary, the fituation of
mafters with refpeft to their pupils is widely different.
When a number of boys meet together in the fame
fchool, each of them foon begins to feel the impulfe
of a principle which enables the mafter to command
their attention without difficulty, and prompts them
to apply with cheerful ardour to talks which would
■otherwife be ■extremely irkfome. This principle is a
generous emulation, which animates the bread with
the defire of fuperior excellence, without infpiring en¬
vy or hatred of a competitor. When children are pru¬
dently managed in a great fchool, it is impollible for
them not to feel its impulfe. It renders their talks
fcarce lefs agreeable than their amufemer.ts, and diredts
their adlivity and curiofity to proper objefts. View
the fcholar at a public fchool, compoling his theme,
or turning over his di&ionary ; how alert! how cheer¬
ful ! how indefatigable ! He applies with all the eager-
nefs, and all the perfeverance, of a candidate for one
cf the mod honourable places in the temple of fame.
Again, behold and pity that poor youth who is con¬
fined to his chamber with no companion but his tutor ;
none whofe fuperiority can provoke his emulation, or
whofe inferiority might flatter him with thoughts of
his own excellence, and thus move him to preferve by
indudrious application the advantages which he has
already gained. His book is before him ; but how
languid, how lidlefs his podure ! how heavy and dull
his eye ! Nothing is expreffed in his countenance but
dejedlion or indignation. Examine him concerning
his leflbn ; he replies with confulion and hefitation. Af¬
ter a few minutes obfervation, you cannot fail to be
convinced that he has fpent his time without making
any progrefs in learning; that his fpirits are now broken,
his natural cheerfulnefs dedroyed, and his bread arm¬
ed with invincible prejudices againd all application in
the purfuit of literary knowledge. Befides, in a fchool
there is fomething more than emulation to render learn¬
ing lefs difagreeable than it naturally is to children.
The flighted obfervation of life, or attention to our
own conduft in various circumdances, will be fufficient
to convince us, that whenever mankind are placed in
circumdances of didrefs, or fubje&ed to any difagree¬
able redraint, that which a Angle perfon bears with
impatience or deje&ion will make a much lefs impref-
fion on his mind if a number of companions be joined
with him in his differing or reftraint. It is edeemed
a piece of much greater feverity to confine a pvifoner
in a folitary cell, than when he is permitted to mix Education.
with others in the fame uncomfortable fituation. A 
journey appears much lefs tedious to a party of travel¬
lers, than to him who beats the path alone. In the
fame manner, when a number of boys in a great fchool
are all buffed on the fame or on fimilar talks, a fpirit
of indudry and perfeveranee is communicated from
one to another over the whole circle; each of them
infenfibly acquires new ardour and vigour ; even though
he feel not the fpur of emulation, yet, while all are
bufy around him, he cannot remain idle. Thefe are
fafts obvious to the moil carelefs obferver.
Neither are public fchools fo unfavourable to th;
virtue of their members as they have been reprefented
to be. If the maders are men of virtue and prudence,
careful to fet a good example before their pupils, at¬
tentive to the particular character and behaviour of
each individual among them, firm to punifli obdinate
and incorrigible depravity, and even to expel thofe who
are more likely to injure the morals of others than to
be reclaimed themfelves, and at the fame time eager
to applaud and to encourage amiable and virtuous dif-
pofitions wherever they appear; under the govern¬
ment of fuch maders, a public fchool will not fail to
be a fchool of virtue. There will no doubt be par¬
ticular individuals among the pupils of fuch a femi¬
nary, whofe morals may be corrupt and their difpofi-
tions vicious; but this, in all probability, will arife
from the manner in which they were managed before
entering the fchool, or from fome other circumdances,
rather than from their being fent for their education
to a public fchool. Again, at a public fchool young
people enjoy much greater advantages for preparing
them to enter the world, than they can pofiibly be fa¬
voured with if brought up in a private and folitary
manner. A great fchool is a miniature reprefentation
of the world at large. The objects which engage the
attention of boys at a fchaol are different from thofe
which occupy their parents; the views of the boys
are lefs extenfive, and they are not yet capable of pro-
fecuting them by fo many bafe and mean arts : but, in
other refpefts, the two feenes and the aftors upon
them nearly refemble each other; on both you behold
contending paffions, oppofite interefts, vveaknefs, cun¬
ning, folly, and vice. He therefore who has perform¬
ed his part on the miniature feene, has rehearfed as it
were for the greater; if he has acquitted himfelf well
on the one, he may be alfo expefted to diftinguifh him¬
felf on the other; and even he who has not diffinguiflied
himfelf at fchool, at lead enters the world with fupe¬
rior advantages wh*n viewed in comparifon with him
who has fpent his earlier days in the ignorance and fo¬
il tude of a private and domedic education. Befides,
when a number of boys meet at a public feminary of
education, feparated from their parents and relations;
nearly of the fame age, engaged in the fame dudies,
and fond of the fame amufements; they naturally con-
traft friendffiips with one another which are more cor¬
dial and fincere than any that take place between
perfons farther advanced in life. A friendffiip is often
formed between two boys at fchool which continues
through life, and is productive of the happied confe-
quences to each of them. While at fchool, they mu¬
tually afiid and encourage each other in their learning;
and their mutual affeClion renders their talks lefs bur-
denfome
E D U [ :
Edocation. denfome than they might otherwife find them. As
they advance in life, their fricndihip Hill continues to
produce happy effects on their fentiments and condu&J
perhaps they are mutually ufeful to each other by in-
tereft or by perfonal afiiilance in making their way in
the world ; or when they are engaged in the cares
and buftle of life, their intercourfe and conefpondence
with each other may contribute much to confole them
amid the vexations and fatigues to which they may be
expofed.
Such are the chief arguments ufually adduced in fa¬
vour of a public education. When we compare
them with thofe which have been urged to re¬
commend a private education, we will perhaps find
that each has its peculiar advantages. A public
education is the more favourable to the acquifition of
knowledge, to vi'gour of mind, and to the formation
of habits of induftry and fortitude. A private educa¬
tion, when judicioufly conducted, will not fail to be
peculiarly favourable to innocence and to mildnefs of
difpofition ; and notwithftanding what has fometimes
been advanced by the advocates for a public educa¬
tion, it is furely better to keep youth at a diftance
from the feduftions of vice till they be fufficiently
armed againft them, than to expofe them to them at an
86 age when they know not to what dangers they lead, and
A medium are wholly unable to refift them. Were we to give
twoWeerUhe credit to the fpecious talk of the two par¬
ties, either a private or a public education would
form chara&ers more like to angels than to thofe men
whom we ordinarily meet in the world: but they
fpeak with the ardour of enthufiafts ; and therefore we
mull lillen with caution both to the fafts which they
adduce, and to the inferences which they draw. Could
we, without expofing children to the contagion of a
great town, procure'for them the advantages of both
a public and a private education at the fame time, we
would by this means probably fucceed bell in icnder-
iag them both refpe&able fcholars and good men. If
we may prefume to give our opinion freely, we would
advife parents never, except when fome unavoidable
neceffity of circumllances obliges them, to expel their
children from under their own roof till they be advan¬
ced beyond their boyilh years : let the mother nurfe
her own child ; let her and the father join in fuperin-
tending its education: they may then expedl to be
rewarded, if they have a fled their parts aright, by com¬
manding the gratitude, the affedlion, and the refpeCl
of their child, while he and they continue to live to¬
gether. Let matters be fo ordered, that the boy may
refide in his father’s houfe, and at the fame time at¬
tend a public fchool: but let the girl be educated
wholly under her mother’s eye.
X. On Travel.
Travel7con- Another, quellion which has been often difeuf-
* iidered In fed comes here under our review. The philofophers
general. 0f ancient Greece travelled in fearch of knowledge.
Books were then fcarce, and thofe few which were
to be obtained were no very rich treafuries of ufe¬
ful information. The rhapfodies of a poet, the rude
legends of fome ill-informed and fabulous hiftorian,
or the theories of fanciful philofophers, were all that
they could afford. Thales, Lycurgus, Solon, Plato, tra¬
velled, feeking that knowledge among more civilized
i59 1 E D U
nations which they could not find in their native ebun-Education.
try. In the courfe of their travels, they heard the lec-' r-W
tures of celebrated philofophers; confulted the priefts,
who were the guardians of the traditions of antiquity,
concerning the nature and origin of thofe traditions;
and obferved the inftitutions of thofe nations which
were moil renovbied for the wifdom of their legifla-
ture. When they fet out to vifit foreign countries,
they feem to have propofed to themfelves a certain
end ; and by keeping that end fteadily in view during
the courfe of their travels, they gained fuch improve¬
ment as to be able on their return to command the
veneration of their countrymen by means of the know¬
ledge which they were enabled to communicate. Many
befides the philofophers of ancient Greece have tra¬
velled for improvement, and have fucceeded in their
views. But ancient hiftory does not relate to us, that
travelling was confidered by the Greeks or Romans as
neceffary to finifh the education of their young men
of fortune before they entered the feenes of aftive life.
It is true, after Greece became a province of the Ro¬
man empire, and the Romans began to admire the
fcience and elegance of Greece, and to cultivate Gre¬
cian literature, the young noblemen of Rome often
repaired to Rhodes and Athens to complete their ftu-
dies under the mafters of philofophy and eloquence
who taught in thofe cities. But they went thither
with the fame views with which our youth in modern
times are fent to free fchools and univerfities, not to
acquire knowledge by the obfervation of nature, of the
inftitutions, manners, and cultoms of nations; but mere¬
ly to hear lectures, read books, and perform exercifes.
In modern times, a few men of refleftion and expe¬
rience have now and then travelled for improvement i
but the greatefl part of our travellers, for a long time,
were enthufiaflic devotees who went in pilgrimage to
vifit the fhrine or relics of fome favourite faint; fol-
diers, who wandered over the earth to deftroy its in¬
habitants; or merchants, whofe bufinefs as faftors be¬
tween widely diflant countries and nations led them to-
brave every danger in traverfing from one corner of the
globe to another. But fince the nations of modern
Europe have begun to emerge from rudenefs, igno¬
rance, and fervile depreffion, they have formed one
great commonwealth, the members of which are fcarce
lefs intimately connected with each other than were
the Hates of ancient Greece. The confequence of
this mutual conneftion and dependence is, that almoft
all the nations of Europe have frequent intercourfe with
one another ; and as fome of them are and have long
been more enlightened and refined than others, thofe na¬
tions who have attained the higheft degrees of civiliza¬
tion and refinement have naturally attra&ed the admira¬
tion and homage of the reft. Their language has been *
ftudied, their manners and arts have been adopted', and
even their drefs has been imitated. Other nations have
thronged to pay the homage due to their fuperior
merit, and to ftudy under them as mafters. Hence
has arifen the practice which at prefent prevails among
us of fending our youth to complete their education
by travelling, before we introduce them to aftive life,
or require them to engage in bufinefs. Formerly young
men were not fent to travel till after they had proceed¬
ed through the forms of a regular education, and had
at leaft attained fuch an age that they were no longer
V>
E D U L 360 ] E D U
Education, to be confidered as mere boys. But the progrefs of
luxury, the defire of parents to introduce their chil¬
dren into the world at an early age that they may
early attain to wealth and honours, and various
other caufes, have gradually introduced the pra&ice
of fending mere boys to foreign countries, under pre¬
tence of affording them opportunities of (baking off
prejudices, of ftoring their minds with truly ufeful
knowledge, and of acquiring thofe graceful manners
and that manly addrefs which will enable them to ac¬
quit themfelves in a becoming mariner when they are
called to the duties of aftive life. How much tra¬
velling at fuch an early age contributes to fulfil the
views of parents, a flight furvey of the fenate-houfe,
the gambling-houfes, the race-courfe, and the cock¬
pit, will readily convince the fagacious ofcferver.
But we wi(h to fofter no prejudices againft. neigh¬
bouring nations; we entertain no fuch prejudices in
favour of Britain, as to wi(h to confine our country¬
men within the fea-girt ifle. Let us inquire, what ad¬
vantages may be gained by travelling, and at what age
it may be moll proper to fet out in purfuit of thofe
88 advantages.
Travel ne- After all that bookiffi men have urged, and not-
thtfaZ uifi whhftanding all that they may continue vehemently
tio^ofm " t0 urge> in behalf of the knowledge to be derived from
knowledge, their beloved books; it muff (till be acknowledged, that
books can teach us little more than merely the lan¬
guage of men. Or, if we (hould grant that books are
of higher importance, and that language is the lead
valuable part of the knowledge which they teach, yet
Hill we need to beware that they lead us not affray ;
it is better to examine nature with the naked eye, than
to view her through the fpedf acles of books. Neither
the theories or experiments of philofophers, nor the
narratives of travellers, nor the relations of hiftorians,
though fupported by a numerous train of authorities,
are worthy of implicit credit. You retire from the
world, confine yourfelf for years to your clofet, and
read volume after volume, hiftorians, philofophers, and
poets; at laft you fancy that you have gained an im-
menfe (lore of knowledge: But leave your retirement,
return into the world, compare the knowledge which
you have treafured up with the appearances of nature ;
you will find that you have laboured in vain, that it is
only the femblance of knowledge which you have ac¬
quired, and will not ferve for a faithful guide in life,
nor even enable you to diftinguifli yourfelf for literary
merit. Compare the relations of travellers with one
another; how feldom do they agree when they defcribe
the fame fcenes and the fame people ! Turn your at¬
tention to the moft refpe&able hiftorians, compare
their accounts of the fame events; what difagreement!
what contrariety! Where (hall truth be founch? Liften
to the cool, the candid philofophers ; what contradic¬
tory theories do they build on the fame fyftem of fads!
We agree, then, that it is better to feek knowledge
by a&ual obfervation and experiment, than to receive
it at fecbnd-hand from the information of others. He
who would gain an acquaintance with the beauties of
external nature, muft view them with his own eyes;
he who would know the operations of the human un-
de. (landing, muft refled upon what paffes in his own
mind; he who would know the cuilctms, opinions,
N° 109.
and manners of any people," muft mingle with them, Education,
muft obferve their condud, and liften to their conver-, —■» ' ^
fation. The arts are acquired by adual pradice; the
fciences by adual obfervation in your own perfon, and
by deducing inferences from your obfervations.
If therefore to extend our knowledge can contri¬
bute in any degree to render us happier, wifer, or
better ; travelling, as being more favourable to know¬
ledge than the ftudy of books, muft be highly advan¬
tageous. Get well acquainted with your own coun¬
try ; with the manners, the cuftoms, the laws, and the
political fituation of your countrymen: Get alfo a
knowledge of books ; for books would not be altoge¬
ther ufelefs, though they could ferve no other purpofe
but to teach us the language in which mankind ex-
prefs themfelves: And then, if your judgment have at¬
tained maturity; if curiofity prompt you; if your con-
ftitution be robuft and vigorous, and your fpirits live¬
ly ; you may imitate the Solons, Homers, and Pla¬
to’s of old, and vifit foreign countries in fearch of know¬
ledge, and with a view to bring home fomething which
may be of real utility to yourfelf and your country.
You will, by this time, be fo much mafter of the lan¬
guage of your own country, that you will not lofe it
while you are learning the languages of foreign nations;
your principles of tafte and of right and wrong will
be fo formed and fixed, that you will not defpife any
inftitution or cuftom or opinion merely becaufe it pre¬
vails not in your own country; nor yet will ;you be
ready to admire and adopt any thing, merely becaufe
it prevails among a foreign nation who are diftinguifti-
ed for profound and extenfive knowledge, or for ele¬
gance of tafte and manners. No; you will diveft
yourfelf of every prejudice, and judge only by the
fixed unalterable principles which determine the dif-
tinftion between right and wrong, between truth and
falfehood, between beauty and deformity, fublimity
and meannefs. Your object will not be to learn exotic
vices, to mingle in frivolous amufements, or to form
a catalogue of inns. Your views, your inquiries, will
have a very different direction. You will attend to
the ftate of the arts, of the fciences, of morals, man¬
ners, and government; you will alfo contemplate with
eager delight, the grand or beautiful fcenes of nature,
and examine the vegetable productions of the various
regions through which you pafs, as well as the different
tribes of animals which inhabit them; you will obferve
what blefiings the beneficence of nature has conferred on
the inhabitants of each particular divifion of the globe,
and how far the ingenuity and induftry of man have ta¬
ken advantage of the kindnefs of nature. Thus fur-
veying the face of the earth, and conlxdering how ad¬
vantages and difadvantages are balanced with each 0-
ther through every various region and climate front one
extremity of the globe to another; you will admire
and revere that impartiality with which the Author of
nature has diftributed his benefits to the whole human
race. When from the chilly climes and ftubborn foil
of the north, you turn your eyes tQ the fertile, ge¬
nial regions of the fouth, where every tree is loadedr
with exquiiite fruits, and every vegetable is nouriftr-
ing and delicious; you will be pleafed to find, that the
inhabitants of the north, by their fuperior ingenuity
and vigour, are able to raife themfelves to circumftancea
no
E D U [ 361 j E D U
E^ueation. no lefs confortable and refpe&able than thofe which
the nations inhabiting between the tropics enjoy: when
you behold the French fhaking off the yoke of def-
potifm, and afpiring to the fweets of liberty as well as
their Britilh neighbours; you will be pleafed to fee, that
the natural gaiety and cheerfulnefs of the former nation
render them not incapable of the energy of the latter.
You will be pleafed to view the remains of antiquity,
and the noble monuments of art; but you will think
it below you to trifle away your time in gazing at pa¬
laces and churches, and colle&ing rufty medals and
fragments of marble; you will feek the fociety of emi¬
nent men, and eagerly cultivate an acquaintance with
the moft diftinguiflied artifts and men of fcience who
adorn the nations among whom you may happen to
fojourn : Knowing that the knowledge which is to
be acquired in great towns, is by no means an ade¬
quate compenfation for the vicious habits which you
are liable to contratt in them ; and befides, that the
luxuries, the arts, the manners, the virtues, and the
vices of all great towns are nearly the fame, fo that
when you have feen one, you have feen all others; you
will avoid taking up your refidence for any confider-
able time in any of the great towns through which
you have occafion to pafs in the courfe of your tra-
vrels. The traveller who has attained the previous ac-
complilhments which we have mentioned as neceflary,
who fets out with the views which we have fuppofed
him to entertain, and who condufts his travels in this
manner, cannot fail to return home enriched with
much ufeful knowledge ; he cannot but derive more
real improvement from travelling, than he could have
gained by fpending the fame period of time in folitary
Itudy : when he returns to his native country, he will
appear among his countrymen as more than a philo-
fopher ; a fage, and a benefactor. His knowledge is
fo extenlive and accurate, his views are fo liberal and
enlarged, and he is fo fuperior to prejudices, without
beingthe enemy of any ufeful eftablilhments, that he will
be enabled to command univerfal efteem, byiperforming
his part in life with becoming dignity and propriety,
and perhaps to render his name illuftrious, and his
memory dear to future times, by fome important fer-
vices to the community to which he belongs, or even
gp to mankind in general.
Circum- But though we have thus far, and we hope for ob-
ftances that vious and folid reafons, decided in favour of travelling,
render tra- as being more likely than a folitary application to
profitable" hooks, to furnifli the mind with ufeful and ornamen-
tothe tal knowledge; yet we do not fee that our Britilh
youth of youth either take care to furnifli themfelves with the
the prefent previous knowledge which we confider as indifpen-
^c‘ fably neceflary in order to prepare them for travelling
with advantage, or fet out with proper views, or pro-
fecute their travels in a prudent, judicious manner.
After receiving a very imperfeCt education, in which
religious and moral inftruC'tion are almoft wholly ne-
gleCled, and no means are ufed to infpire the youth¬
ful mind with folid, virtuous, manly qualities; but
every art is tried to make, the young man appear learn¬
ed, while his mind is deflitute of all ufeful information,
and to teach him to aflume the confidence of manhood
before he has attained even to a moderate degree of
ienfe and prudence ;—after an education -condufted
Vol.VI. Parti.
in this manner, and with thefe views, the {tripling is Education,
fent abroad to view the world, and is expeCted to re- -v~—J
turn home a finiftied character, an ornament and a
comfort to his parents and all his connections. He
is hitherto unacquainted, perhaps, even with the Ample
events of the hiftory of his native country ; and either
totally ignorant of claflical literature, or but very fu-
perficially inftruCted in it. He has not yet viewed
with a difcerning eye the manners and cuftoms pre¬
vailing among his countrymen ; he knows not the na¬
ture of the government under which he lives, nor the
fpirit of thofe laws by which his civil conduCt mull be
regulated. He has no fixed principles ; no clear, dif-
tinCl views. But to fupply all his wants of this na¬
ture, he is put into the hands of a travelling governor,
who is to be entirely fubmifiive to his will, and yet to
ferve him both for eyes and intelleCl. This governor
is generally either fome macaroni officer who is confi-
dered as well bred, and thought to know the world j
or elfe, perhaps, fome cringing fon of literature, who
having fpent much time among his books, without
acquiring fuch ftrength or dignity of mind as to raife
him above frivolity of manners and converfation or
pitiful fawning arts, is therefore regarded as happily
qualified for this important charge. This refpeClable
perfonage and his pupil are Ihipped off for France,
that land of elegant diflipation, frivolity, and faflrion.
They travel on with eager impatience till they reach
the capital. There the young man is induftrioufly
introduced to all the gay feenes which Paris can dif-
play. He is, at firft, confounded ; by and by his
fenfes are fafeinated; new defires are] awaked in his
bread ; all around him he fees the fons of diflipation
wallowing in debauchery, or the children of vanity
fluttering about like fo many gawdy infeCls. The
poor youth has no fixed principles : he has not been
taught to regard vanity as ridiculous, or to turn from
vice with abhorrence. No attempt is made to allure
him to thofe objects, an attention to which can alone '
render travelling truly beneficial. Hitherto his mind
had been left almoff wholly uncultivated ; and now,
the feeds of vice are plentifully fown in it. From one
great town he is conveyed to another, till he vifit al-
mod every place in Europe where profligacy of man¬
ners has attained to any uncommon height. In this
happy courfe of education he probably continues to
purfue improvement till he is well acquainted with
mod of the pod-roads, the principal inns, and the great
towns at lead in France and Italy ; and perhaps till
he has worn out his conditution, and rendered his
mind totally incapable of any generous fentiments or
fober refle&ion. He then revilits his native country,
to the inexpreflible happinefs of his parents, who now
eagerly long to embrace their all-accomplifhed child.
But how miferably are the poor folks difappointed,
when they find his conditution waded, his underdand-
ing uninformed, his heart deflitute of every manly or
generous fentiment; and perceive him to poflefs no
accompliftiment, but fuch as are merely fuperficial?
Perhaps, however, his parents are prevented by their
partiality both for their child and for the means
which they have adopted in conducing his education,
from viewing his character and qualifications in a
true light. Perhaps they overlook all his defers, or
Z z confider
E D U [ 3^2 ] E D U
E3ucat?on. eonfider them as ornaments, and regard their dear
Y—. £on as t|ie 0f perfedtion. But, unfortunate¬
ly, though they be blind to the hideous deformity
of the monfter which they have formed, they cannot
hinder it from being confpicuous to others; though
they may view their fon’s charadter as amiable and
refpe&able, they cannot render it ufeful, they cannot
prevent it from being hurtful to fociety. Let this
youth whofe education has been thus wifely con¬
duced, let him be placed at the head of an opulent
fortune, advanced to a feat in the legiflative body of
his country, or called to aC in any public character;
how will he diftinguifh himfelf ? As the virtuous pa¬
triot, the hcneft, yet able ftatefman, the fkilful general,
or the learned, upright judge ? How will he enjoy his
fortune ? Will he be the friend of the poor, the heady
fupporter of the laws and conftitution under whofe pro-
te&ion he lives? Will he Ihow himfelf capable of
enjoying otium cum dignitate? If we reafon by the ufual
laws of probability, we cannot expeC that he fhould:
and if we obferve the manners and principles of our men
of wealth and high birth who have been brought up in
this manner, we find our reafonings confirmed.
Such are the opinions which candid obfervation
leads us to entertain with regard to the advantages
which may be gained by travelling.
He wHofe mind has been judicionfly cultivated, and
who has attained to maturity of judgment, if he fet out
on his travels with a view to obtain real improvements,
and perfift invariably in the profecution of that view,
cannot but derive very great advantage from travel-
ling.
But again, thofe young men whofe minds have not
been previoufly cultivated by a judicious education,
who fet out without a view to the acquifition of real
knowledge, and who wander among foreign nations,
without attention to any thing but their luxuries, their
fellies, and their vices ; thofe poor young men cannot
gain any real improvement from their travels.
Our countrymen, who travel for improvement, do
not appear to derive fo much advantage from their
travels as were to be wiflred, becaufe they generally re¬
ceive too fuperficial an education, fet out at too early
a period of life, and direC not their views to objeCsof
real utility and importance.
XI. On Knowledge of the World, and Entrance
into Life.
9° 7 .
Unhappy Much has been faid concerning the utility of a
tooMrly knowledge of the world, and the advantage of acqui-
introduc. ring k at an early period of life. But thofe who have
tion into the moft earneftly recommended this knowledge of the
the world wor]a) have generally explained themfelves in fo inac¬
curate a manner concerning it, that it is difficult to
underftand what ideas they affix to it. They feem to
wifh, that, in order to acquire it, young people may
be early made acquainted with all the vices and follies
of the world, introduced into polite company, carried
to public places, and not confined even from the ga¬
ming-table and the ftews. Some knowledge of the
world may, no doubt, Be gained by thefe means. But
it is furely dearly purchafed; nor are the advantages
which can be derived from it fo confiderable, as to
tempt the judicious and affeftionate parent to expofe
his child to the infe&ion of vanity, folly, and vice, for
their fake. Carry a boy or girl into public life at the Education.
age of fourteen or fifteen ; ffiow them all the feenes of  
fplendid vanity and diffipation which adorn London or
Paris; tell them of the importance of drefs, and of
the ceremonies of good breeding and the forms of in-
tercourfe ; teach them that fafhionable indifference and
affurance which give the ton to the manners of our fine
gentlemen and fine ladies of the prefent age. What
effects can you expedf the feenes into which you intro¬
duce them, and the myfteries which you now teach
them, to produce on the minds of the children? They
have a direft tendency to infpire them with a tafte for
vanity, frivolity, and diffipation. If you wifh them to
be like the fooiifh, the diffipated, and the gay, you
are likely to obtain your putpofe ; but if, on the con¬
trary, your views are to prepare them for difeharging
the duties of life, you could not adopt more improper
means: for though they be well acquainted with all
thofe things on which you place fo much value, yet
they have not thereby gained any acceffion of ufeful
knowledge. They are not now more able than before
to eilimate the real value of objects; nay, their judge¬
ment is now more liable than before to be milled in
eftimating the value of the objefts around them. Lux¬
ury, vanity, and fafhion, have ftamped on many things
an ideal value. By mingling at an early age in thofe
feenes of the world where luxury, vanity, and fafhion
reign with arbitrary fway, young people are naturally
impreffed with all thofe prejudices which thefe have
a tendency to infpire. Inftead of acquiring an ufeful
knowledge of the world, they are rendered incapable
of ever viewing the world with an unprejudiced and
difeerning eye. If poffible, therefore, w-e fhould ra¬
ther labour to confine young people from mingling in
the feenes of gay and diffipated life till after they have
attained maturity of age and judgment. They will
then view them in a proper light, and perhaps be
happy enough to efcape the infectious contagion of
But there is another and a more valuable knowledge What*
of the world, which we ought induftrioufly to com-knowledge
municate to them as foon as they are capable of recei-^ a
ving it. As foon as they are made thorougly ac-
quainted with the diftinftions between right and wrong, communi-
between virtue and vice, between piety and impiety, cated to
and have become capable of entering into our reafon-y?un2 P6®*1
ings; we ought then to inform them concerning the-
various eftablifhments and inflitutions which exift in fo¬
ciety ; concerning the cuftoms, opinions, and manners
of mankind; and concerning the various degrees of
llrength or weaknefs of mind, of ingenuity or dullnefs,
of virtuous or vicious qualities, which diferiminate thofe
characters which appear in fociety. We ought alfo to
feize every opportunity which may be prefented of
exemplifying our leffons by inftances in real life. We
muff point out to them thofe circumftances which'
have led mankind to place an undue value on fome ob¬
jects, while they appretiate others much below their
real utility and importance. Thus let us fortify their
judgments againft that impreffion which the dazzling
novelty of the feene, and the force of paffion, will be
apt to produce; and communicate to them a know¬
ledge of the world, without expofing them impru¬
dently to the contagion of its vices and follies.
When at length the period arrives at which they
5 muff
E D W [ 3^3 ] E D W
Edulcora- mr.ft be emancipated from fubje&ion, and committed
t*011 to the guidance of their own confcience and reafon,
Edwards an<* t^°^e principles which we have laboured to in-
v, War culcate on their minds ; let us warn them of the dan¬
gers to which they are about to be expofed ; tell them
of the glory and the happinefs to which they may at¬
tain ; infpite them, if pofllble, with difdain for folly,
vanity, and vice, whatever dazzling or enchanting
forms they may alfume ; and then difmifs them to en¬
rich their minds with new ftores of knowledge by vi-
fiting foreign nations; or, if that fhould be inconveni¬
ent, to enter immediately on the duties of fome ufeful
employment in active life.
LDULCORATION, properly fignifies the render¬
ing fubftances more mild. Chemical edulcoration con-
fids almoft always in taking away acids and other fa-
line fubftances ; and this is effefted by walhing the bo¬
dies to which they adhere in a large quantity of water.
The wafliing of diaphoretic antimony, powder of al-
garoth, &c. till the water comes off quite pure and
infipid, are inftances of chemical edulcoration.—In
pharmacy, juleps, potions, and other medicines, are
faid to be edulcorated, by adding fugar or fyrup.
EDWARD, the name of feveral kings of England.
See (Hifioryof) England.
EDWARDS (George), fellow of the royal and an¬
tiquarian focieties, was born at Stratford, a hamlet be¬
longing to Weftham in Effex, on the 3d of April 1694.
After having fpent fome time at fchool, he was put
apprentice to a tradefman in Fenchurch-ftreet. His
mafter, who was eminent both for his piety and fkill in
the languages, treated him with great kindnefs; but
about the middle of his apprenticefhip, an accident
happened which totally put a flop to the hopes of
young Edwards’s advancing himfelf in the way of trade.
Dr Nicolas, a perfon of eminence in the phyfical world,
and a relation of his mafter’s, happened to die. The
Doftor’s books were removed to an apartment occu¬
pied by Edwards, who eagerly employed all his leifure-
hours, both in the day and great part of the night, in
perufing thofe which treated of natural hiftory, fculp-
ture, painting, aftronomy, and antiquities. The reading
of thefe books entirely deprived him of any inclination
for mercantile bufinefs he might have formerly had, and
he refolved to travel into foreign countries. In 1 7 1 6, he
vifited moft of the principal towns in Holland, and in
about a month returned to England. Two years after,
he took a voyage to Norway, at the invitation of a
gentleman who was difpofed to be his friend, and who
was nephew to the mafter of the fhip in which he em¬
barked. At this time Charles XII. was befieging Fre¬
deric, ihall; by which means our young naturalift was
hindered f om making fuch excurlions into the coun¬
try as otherwife he would have done, for the Swedes
were veryr careful to confine fuch ftrangers as could not
give a good account of themfelves. But notwithftand-
ing all his precaution, he was confined by the Danifh
guard, who iuppofed him to be a fpy employed by the
enemy to get intelligence of their deligns. However,
by obtaining teltimonials of his innocence, a releafe was
granted. In 17x8 he returned to England, and next
year vifited Paris by the way of Dieppe. During his
Hay in this country he made two journeys of 100 miles
each; the firft to Chalons in Champagne, in May 1720;
the j'econd on foot, to Orleans and Blois; but an edift
happening at that time to be iffued for fecuring va- Edwards,
grants, in order to tranfport themfelves to America, asv——y—^
the banks of the Mifiiflippi wanted population ; our au¬
thor narrowly efcaped a weftern voyage. On his ar¬
rival in England, Mr Edwards clofely purfued his fa*
vourite itudy of natural hiftory, applying himfelf to
drawing and colouring fuch animals as fell under his
notice. A ftridt attention to natural, more than pic*
turefque beauty, claimed his earlieft care : birds firll
engaged his particular attention; and having pur-
chafed fome of the beft pictures of thefe fubje&s, he
was induced to make a few drawings of his own ; which
were admired by the curious, who encouraged our
young naturalift to proceed, by paying a good price
for his early labours. Among his firft patrons and bene*
faftors may be mentioned James Theobalds, Efq; of
Lambeth ; a gentleman zealous for the promotion of
fcience. Our artift, thus unexpectedly encouraged, in-
creafed in fkill and afiiduity ; and procured, by his ap¬
plication to his favourite purfuit, a decent fubfiftence and
a large acquaintance. However, he remitted his in-
duftry in 1731 ; when, in company with two of his re¬
lations, he made an excurfion to Holland and Brabant,
where he collected feveral fcarce books and prints, and
had an opportunity of examining the original pictures of
feveral great mafters at Antwerp, Bruffels, Utrecht, and
other cities. In December 1 733, by the recommenda¬
tion of the great Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, prefident of the
college of phyficians, he was chofen librarian, and had
apartments in the college. This office was peculiarly a*
greeable to his tafte and inclination, as he had the oppor¬
tunity of a conftant recourfe to a valuable library, fill¬
ed with fcarce and curious books on the fubjeCts of na¬
tural hiftory, which he fo affiduoufly ftudied. By de¬
grees he became one of the moft eminent ornithologifts
in this or any other country. His merit is fo well
known in this refpeCt, as to render any eulogium on his
performances unneceflary : but it may be obferved, that
he never trufted to others what he could perform him¬
felf ; and often found it fo difficult to give fatisfaCtion
to his own mind, that he frequently made three or four*
drawings to delineate the objeCI in its moft lively cha¬
racter, attitude, and reprefentation. In 1 743, the firft
volume of the Hiftory of Birds was publiffied in quarto.
His fubfcribers exceeding even his moft fanguine expec¬
tations, a fecond volume appeared in 1747. The third
volume was publifhed in 1750. 101751, the fourth vo¬
lume came from the prefs. This volume being the laft
he intended to publiffi at that time, he feems to have
confidered it as the moft perfeCt of his productions in
natural hiftory; and therefore devoutly offered it up to
the great God of nature, in humble gratitude for all
the good things he had received from him in this world.
Our author, in 1758, continued his labours under a
new title, viz. Gleanings of Natural Hijlory. A fe¬
cond volume of the Gleanings was publifhed in 1760.
The third part, which made the feventh and laft volume
of his works, appeared in 1764. Thus our author, af¬
ter a long feries of years, the moft ftudious application,
and the moft extenfive correfpondence to every quarter
of the world, concluded a work which contains eno-ra*
vings and defcriptions of more than 600’fubjeds in na¬
tural hiftory, not before delhribed or delineated. He
like wife added a general index in French and Engliih;
which wasafterwards perfected, with the Linnasan names,
Z z 2 by
EEC [ 364 ] E F F
Id wards by that great naturalift Linnaeus himfelf, who frequently
11 honoured him with his friendlhip and correfpondence.
leckhout. gojne tjme after Edwards had been appointed
library-keeper to the royal college of phyficians, he
was, oh St Andrew’s day, in the year 1750, prefented
with an honorary compliment by the prefident and
council of the royal fociety, with the gold medal, the
donation of Sir Godfrey Copley, Bart, annually given
on that day to the author of any new difcovery in art
or nature, in confideration of his natural hiftory juft
then completed. A copy of this medal he had after¬
wards engraved, and placed under the title in the firft
volume of his hiftory. He was a few years afterwards
elected fellow of the royal fociety, and of the fociety
of antiquaries, London ; and alfo a member of many
of the academies of fciences and learning in different
parts of e.urope. In compliment to thefe honorary
ditlinttions from fuch learned bodies, he prefented ele¬
gant coloured copies of all his works, to the royal col¬
lege of phyficians, the royal fociety, the fociety of an¬
tiquarians, and to the Britifti mufeum ; alfo to the
royal academy of faences at Paris, from whom he re¬
ceived the moft polite and obliging letter of thanks by
their then fecretary Monlieur Defouchy. His collec¬
tion of drawings, which amounted to upwards of 900,
were purchafed by the earl of Bute. They contain a
great number of Bntifh as well as foreign birds, and
other animals hitherto not accurately delineated or de-
fcribed- .ifter the publication of the laft work, being
arrived at his 70th year, he found his light begin to fail,
and his hand loft its wonted fteadinefs. He retired from
public employment to a little houfe which he purcha¬
fed at Plaiftow ; previous to which, he difpofed of all
the copies, as well as plates, of his works. The conver-
fation of a few feledt friends, and the perufal of a few
feledt books, were the amufement of the evening of his
life ; and now and then he made an excuriion to fome
of the principal cities in i'.ngland, particularly to Bri-
ftol, Bath, Exeter, and Norwich. Some years before
his death, the alarming depredations of a cancer, which
Baffled all the efforts of phyfical fkill, deprived him of
the light of one of his eyes': he alfo fuffered much
from the Hone, a complaint to which at different pe¬
riods of his life he had been fubjedt. Yet it has been
remarked, that, in the levereft paroxyfms of mifery,
he was fcarcely known to utter a Angle complaint.
Having completed his 80th year, emaciated with age
and ficknefs, he died on the 23d of July 1773, <Lfer-
vedly lamented by a numerous acquaintance.
EDYSTONE light-house, lying off Plymouth
harbour, was lirft ere died by the corporation of the
Trinity-houfe in 1696 ; in confideration of which, the
mafters, &c. of Englilh (hipping agreed to pay one
penny a ton outwards and inwards. It was demolifti-
ed by the ftorm of 1703, and re-eredled by adt of par¬
liament in the 4th of queen Anne, and the. fame duty
on tonnage of Ihips granted for its fupport; which law
was enforced in the 8th of June. It has been fince
deftroyed and rebuilt.
EECKPIOUT (Gerbrant Vander), hiftory and por¬
trait painter, was born at Amfterdam in 1621, and
was a difciple of Rembrandt; whofe manner of defign-
ing, colouring, and penciling, he imitated fo nearly,
that it is difficult to diftinguilh between feveral of his
paintings and thofe of his mailer. He painted after na¬
ture, and with fuch a force as only nature can equal: his Eel
touch and his colouring are the fame as Rembrandt’s; but li “
he rather excelled him in the extremities of his figures. Efferve-
His principal employmentwab for portraits; and in thofe fctnce' .
he was admirable: but he furpaffed all his cotemporaries, v
in the power he had of painting the mind in the coun¬
tenance. But although Eeckhout painted portraits to
fo great a degree of perfection, yet was he much more
pleafed to paint hiltorical fubjedts, and he executed them
with equal fuccefs. In that ftyle his compofition is rich
and full of judgment; the diftribution of his mafles of
light and (hadow is truly excellent; and in the opi¬
nion of many connoiffeurs, he had more tranfparence
in his colouring, and better expreflion, than his mafter.
He died in 1674.
EEL, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Murjena.
EEL-FiJhing. See Bobbing and Sniggling.
The filver-eel may be catched with feveral forts
of baits, as powdered-beef, garden-worms, minnows,
hens-guts, fiffi-garbage, &c. The moil proper time
for taking them is in the night, faftening your line to
the bank Tides, with your laying-hook in the water:
or a line may be thrown with good (lore of hooks,
baited and plumbed, with a float to difeover where the
line lies, that they may be taken up in the morning.
Microfcopic Eels. See Animalcule, n° 8.
Eels in Vinegar, are fimilar to thofe in four pafte.
The tafte of vinegar was formerly thought to be occa.
fioned by the biting of thefe little animals, but that
opinion has been long ago exploded. Mcntzelius fays,
he has obferved the actual transformation of thefe little
creatures into flies • but as thi- hath never been obfer¬
ved by any other perfon, nor is there an inftance of
fuch a transformation in any other animalcule, it feems
probable that Mentzelius hath been miitaken in his ob-
fervations.
EEL-Spear, a forked inftrument with three or four
jagged teeth, ufed for catching of eels: that with the
four teeth is beft, which they (trike into the mud at
the bottom of the river, and if it ftrike againft any eels
it never fails to bring them up.
EFFARE', or Effs aye', in heraldry, a term ap¬
plied to a bead rearing on < its hind-legs, as if it were
frighted or provoked.
EFFECT, in a general fenfe, is that which refults
from, or is produced by, any caufe. See Cause.
EFFEMINATE, womaniih, unmanly, voluptuous.
Effeminate (ejfeminati), according to the vulgate,
are mentioned in feveral places of feripture. The word
is there ufed to fignify fuch as were confecrated to fome
profane god, and proftituted themfelves in honour of
him. The Hebrew word kadejh, tranflated ejfeminatusy
properly fignifies confecrated, and hence was attributed
to thofe of either fex, who publicly proftituted them-
felves in honour of Baal and Aftarte. Mofes exprefs-
ly forbids thefe irregularities among the Ifraelites; but
the hiftory of the Jews (hows, that they were notwith-
(landing frequently praftifed. Levit. xxiii. 18.
EFFENDI, in the Turkiffi language, fignifies ma-.
Jler: and accordingly it is a title very extenfively ap¬
plied; as, to the mufti and emirs, to the priefts of
mofques, to men of learning, and of the law. The
grand chancellor of the empire is called reis-ejfendi.
EFFERVESCENCE, an inteftine motion excited
betwixt the parts of two bodies of different natures,
when
Efflore-
E F F [ 365 1 E F F
when they reciprocally diflblve each other. Efferve-
fcences are commonly attended with bubbles, vapours,
fmall jets of the liquid, and a hiffing noil'e ; and thefe
phenomena are occaficned by the air which at that time
difengages itfelf. Sometimes alfo they are accompa¬
nied w’ith a great degree of heat, the caufe of which is
not fo well known.
Formerly the word fermentation, was alfo applied to
effervefcences ; but now that word is confined to the
motion naturally excited in animal and vegetable mat¬
ters, and from which new combinations among their
principles take place.
EFFIGY, the portrait, figure, or exadl reprefenta-
tion of a perfon.
Effigy, is alfo ufed for the print ©r impreffion of
a coin, reprefenting the prince’s head who ftruck it.
Effigy, to execute or degrade in, denotes the execu¬
tion or degradation of a condemned contumacious cri¬
minal, who cannot be apprehended or feized. In
France, they hang a pi&ure on a gallows or gibbet,
wherein is reprefented the criminal, with the quality or
manner of the punifhment : at the bottom is written
the fentence or condemnation. Such perfons as are
fentenced to death are executed in effigy.
EFFLORESCENCE, among phylicians, the fame
with exanthema. See Exanthema.
EFFLORtscENcr, in chemiitry, denotes the forma¬
tion of a kind of mealy powder on the furface of cer¬
tain bodies. Efflorefcence is occafioned either by de-
compofition or drying The efflorefcence which hap¬
pens to cobalt and martial pyrites is of the firft; and
that obferved on the cryftals of marine alkali, Glauber’s
fait, &c. of the latter kind. An efflorefcence is fome-
times alfo a fpecies of cryftallization, the nature of
which is not well underftood; as, the beautiful vegeta¬
tions which (hoot up from vitriolated tartar acidulated
either with the vitriolic or nitrous acids, the faline fpr-
culse which are obferved to (hoot from fait butter,
&c.
Befides the common cryftallization of falls, all of
them have the property of appearing in the form of an
efflorefcence, or fmall faline fpiculse, when mixed with
any thick fubftance, particularly lime. Whatever fait
happens to be made ufe of, there is little or no differ¬
ence in the efflorefcence. Thus, in butter very much
faked, the fea-falt fhoots in the form of long fpiculae,
though the fea-falt itfelf never fhoots but in the form of
cubical cryftals. In like manner, Glauber’s fait will ap¬
pear in the form of an efflorefcence, as well as the foffile
alkali, &c. nor will the form of the cryftals of the ef¬
florefcence be perceptibly different from thofe of fea-
falt. The efflorefcences which we fee very commonly
Upon walls are in general Glauber’s fait. In fome
cafes (but feldom in fuch efflorefcences as we have ex¬
amined) they are compofed of foffile alkali. The rea-
fon of thefe differences is not known. In almoft all
cafes of this kind there Teems to be a real growth of
fait. On one fpot of a plafter wall about two feet
fquare, which we obferved particularly, this growth
was very evident. The produce was a true Glauber’s
fait; and by frequently taking off the efflorefcence,
eight ounces were procured; nor did the prolific vir¬
tue of the wall feem to be in the leaft impaired by the
wafte.
EFFLORESCENTIA, in botany, (from efforcfco
to bloom) ; the precife time of the year and month in
which every plant ftiows its firft flowers.
Some plants flower twice a-year, as is common be¬
tween the tropics; others oftener, as the monthly rofe.
The former are called by botaniits bifera: the latter,
muitifer*. J ■
1 he time of flowering is determined by the degree of
heat which each fpecies requires. Mezereon and fnow-
drop produce their flow ers in February ; primrofe, in
the beginning of March ; the greater number of plants,
during the month of May ; corn, and other grain, in
the beginning of June ; the vine, in the middle of the
fame month ; ieveral compound flowers, in the months
of July and “ ugult; laftly, meadow-faffron flowers in
the month of Oftober, and announces the Ipeedy ap¬
proach of winter.
Grafs oh Parnaffus always flowers about the time of
cutting down the hay ; and in Sweden, the different
fpecies ox thiftle, mountain-lettuce, fuccory, and bal-
fam, feldom flower till after the fummer folftice : the
country-men even know, as by a kalendar, that the fol¬
ftice is paft when thefe plants begin to produce their
flowers.
The temperature of the feafons has a mighty influ¬
ence both in accelerating and retarding the flowering
of plants. All plants are earlier in warm countries :
hence fuch as are cultivated out of their native foil,
never flower till the heat of the climate, or fituation in¬
to which they are removed, is equal to that under the
influence of which they produced flowers in their own
country. For this reafon, all exotics from warm cli¬
mates are later in this country than many plants which
it naturally produces.
In general, we mav obferve, that the plants of the
coldeft countries, and thofe produced on the mountains
in all climates, being of equal temperature, flower a-
bout the fame time, viz: during- our fpring in Eu¬
rope.
Plants that grow betwixt the tropics, and thofe of
temperate climates, flower during our fummer.
Plants of temperate climates, fituated under the fame
parallel of latitude with certain parts of Europe, but'
removed much farther to the weft, fuch as Canada, Vir¬
ginia, and Miffiffippi, do not produce flowers till au¬
tumn.
Plants of temperate climates in the oppofite hemi-
fphere to Europe, flower during our winter, which is
the fummer of thefe regions.
Linnaeus and Adanfon have given a fketch of the
different times in which plants flower at Upfal and
Paris,
EFFLUVIUM, in phyfiology,' a terra much ufed
by philofophers and phyficians, to exprefs the minute
particles-which exhale from mod, if not all, terreftrial
bodies, in form of infenfible vapours.
EFFRONTES, in church-hiftory, a feft of here¬
tics, in (534, who feraped their forehead with a knife
till it bled, and then poured oil info the wound. This
ceremony ferved them inftead of baptifm. They are
likewife faid to have denied the divinity of the Holy
Spirit.
EFFUSION, the pouring out of any liquid thing
with fome degree-of force. In the ancient heathen fa-
crificeff
EffuGon
II
EgK-
EGG [ 366 ] E G L
crifices there were divers efFufions of wine and other li ¬
quors, called libations.
Effusjon, or Fusion, in allronomy, denotes that
part of the fign Aquarius, reprel'ented on celeftial
globes and planifpheres, by the water iffuing out of the
urn of the water-bearer.
EFT, in zoology, the Englifh name of the common
lizard. See Lacerta.
EGERIA, or JEgeria, a nymph held in great
veneration by the Romans. She was-courted by Nu-
ma Pompilius; and according to Ovid, Ihe became his
wife. This prince frequently vifited her ; and that he
might introduce his laws and new regulations into the
Hate, he folemnly declared before the Roman people,
that they were previoufly fan&ified and approved by
the nymph Egeria. Ovid fays, that Egeria was fo dif-
-confolate at the death of Numa, that (he melted into
-tears, and was changed into a fountain by Diana. She
is reckoned by many as a goddefs who prefided over
the pregnancy of women; and fome maintain that ihe
is the fame as Lucina.
EGG, in phyfiology, a body formed in certain fe¬
males, in which is contained an embryo or fetus of
the fame fpecies, under a cortical furface or fhell. The
exterior part of an egg is the fhell; which in a hen, for
■indance, is a white, thin, and friable cortex, including
all the other parts. The fhell becomes more brittle by
being expofed to a dry heat. It is lined every where
with a very thin but a pretty tough membrane, which
dividing at, or very near, the obtufe end of the egg,
forms a finall bag, where only air is contained. In new-
laid eggs this follicle appears very little, but becomes
larger when the egg is kept.
Within this are contained the albumen or white, and
the vitellus or yolk; each of which have their different
•virtues.
The albumen is a cold, vifcous, white liquor in the
egg, different in confiftence in its different parts. It is
obferved, that there are two dicfinft albumens, each
of which is inclofed in its proper membrane. Of thefe
one is very thin and liquid : the other is more denfe
and vifcous, and of a fomewhat whiter colour ; but,
in old and ftale eggs, after fome days incubation, in¬
clining to a yellow. As this fecond albumen covers
the yolk on all fides, fo it is itfelf furrounded by the
other external liquid. The albumen of a fecundated
egg, is as fweet and free from corruption, during all
the time of incubation, as it is in new-laid eggs ; as?s
alfo the vitellus. As the eggs of hens confift of
two liquors feparated one from another, and diflin-
guifhed by two branches of umbilical veins, one of
which goes to the vitellus, and the other to the albu¬
men ; fo it is very probable that they are of different
natures, and confequently appointed for different pur-
pofes.
When the vitellus grows warm with incubation, it
.becomes more humid, and like melting wax or fat ;
•whence it takes up more fpace. For as the fetus increa-
fes, the albumen infenfibly wafles away and conden-
fes: the vitellus, on the contrary, feems to lofe little
or nothing of its bulk when the fetus is perfected, and
only appears more liquid and humid when the abdomen
of the fetus begins to be formed.
The chick in the egg is firft nourifhed by the albu-
-Snen; and when this is confumed, by the vitellus, as
with milk. If we compare the chalazae to the extre- Egg
mities of an axis paffing through the vitellus, which is II
of a fpherical form, this fphere will be compofed of ESlon'
two unequal portions, its axis npt paffing through its 'r^
centre; confequently, fince it is heavier than the white,
its fmailer portion muft always be uppermoft in all po-
iitions of the egg.
The yellowifh white round fpot, called cicatricula,
is placed on the middle of the fmaller portion of the
yolk; and therefore, from what has been faid in the
laft paragraph, muft always appear on the fuperior part
of the vitellus.
Not long before the exclufion of the chick, the
whole yolk is taken into its abdomen ; and the (hell,
at the obtufe end of the egg, frequently appears crack¬
ed fome time before the exclufion of the chick. The
chick is fometimes obferved to perforate the fhell with
its beak. After exclufion, the yolk is gradually waft¬
ed, being conveyed into the fmall-guts by a fmall
duft.
Eggs differ very much according to the birds that
lay them, as to their colour, form, bignefs, age, and
the different way of dreffing them : thofe moft ufed
in food are hens eggs; of which, fuch as are new-laid
are be ft.
As to the prefervation of eggs, it is obferved that
the egg is always quite full when it is firft laid by the
hen ; but from that time it gradually becomes lefs and
lefs fo, to its decay : and however eompadt and clofe
its fhell may appear, it is neverthelefs perforated with
a multitude of fmall holes, though too minute for the
difcernment of our eyes, the effect of which is a daily
decreafe of matter within the egg, from the time of its
being laid; and the prefpiration is much quicker in hot
weather than in cold.
To preferve the egg frefh, there needs no more
than to preferve it full, and flop its tranfpiration ; the
method of doing which is, by flopping up thofe pores
with matter which is not foluble in watery fluids: and
on this principle it is, that all kinds of varnifh, pre¬
pared with fpirit of wine, will preferve eggs frefti for
a lopg time, if they are carefully rubbed all over the
fhell: tallow, or mutton fat, is alfo good for this pur-
pofe ; for fuch as are rubbed over with this, will keep
as long as thofe coated over with varnifh.
Artificial Method of Hatching Eggs. See Hatch¬
ing.
EGINA. See^GifiA.
EGINHART, fecretary to the emperor Charles
the Great, was a German. He is the moft ancient
hiftorian of that nation, and wrote very eloquently for
a man of the 9th century. It is faid, that he inlinuated
himfelf fo well into the favour oflmma, daughter to
Charles the Great, that he obtain* d from her whatever
he defined. Charles the Great, having found out the
intrigue, did not do as Augullus, who is thought to
have banifhed Ovid becaufe he believed him to be too
much favoured by Julia; for he married the two lovers
together, and gave them a fine eftate in land.
EGLANTINE, in botany. See Rosa.
EGLON, a king of the Moabites, who oppreffed
the Ifraelites for 18 years (Judges iii. 12—14.) Cal-
met confounds this fervitude of the Hebrews with that
under Chufan-rufhathaim, making it to fubfift only
eight years, from the year of the world 2591 to 2599;
whereas
E G Y [ 367 ] E G Y
Egra whereas this fervitude under Eglon lafted t 8 years, and
II commenced in the year of the world 2661, and 62
1Egypt' years after they had been delivered by Othniel from
w—tjie fubjeftion of Chulhan-rulhathaim.
EGRA, a town of Bohemia, formerly imperial, but
now fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria. It contains a
great number of able artificers, and is famous for its
mineral waters. Wallenlttin, the emperor’s general,
was affafilnated here in 1634. The French .became
mafters of this town in 1741 ; but afterwards being
blocked up, they were forced to capitulate on Septem¬
ber 7th, 1743* It is looked upon as a town of the
greateft confequence in Bohemia, except Prague. It
is feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 50. 21.
EGRET, in ornithology, a fpecies of ardea. See
Ardea.
EGYPT, an extenfive country of Africa, lying be¬
tween 30° and 36° of eaft longitude, and between 210
and 3 i° of north latitude. It is bounded by the Medi¬
terranean on the north; by the Red-fea and Ifthmus of
Suez, which divide it from Arabia, on the eaft ; by
Abyffinia or Ethiopia, on the fouth; and by the de¬
farts of Barca and Nubia, on the weft; being 600 miles
in length from north to fouth, and from 100 to 200
in breadth from eaft to weft.
As a nation, the Egyptians may with juftice lay
claim to as high antiquity as any in the world. The
country was moft probably peopled by Mizraim the
1 fon of Ham and grandfon of Noah. — By its ancient
Different inhabitants it was called Chemia, and is ftill called
names. Chemi in the language of the Copts or native Egyp¬
tians ; and this name it is fuppofed to have received
from Ham the fon of Noah. In feripture, we find it
moft generally named Mi-zraim; though in the Pfalms
it is ftyled the land of Ham.—To us it is belt known
by the name flgypt, the etymology of which is more
uncertain.— Some derive it from JEgyptus, a fuppofed
king of the country : others fay it fignifies no more
than “ the land of the Copts Hia in Greek figni-
fying a country, and JEcoptos being eafily foftened into
JEgyptus.—The moft probable opinion, however, feems
to be, that it received this name from the blacknefs of
its foil, and the dark colour both of its river and inha¬
bitants : for fuch a blackilh colour is by the Greeks
called agyptios from gyps, and tgyps “ a vulture and
by the Latins, fubvulturius. For the fame reafon, o-
ther names of a fimilar import have been given to this
1 country by the Greeks; fuch as Aerla, and Melambo-
lus : the river itfelf was called Melo or Melas; by the
Hebrews, Shihor; and by the Ethiopians, Siris; all
of which fignify “black.”
Ancient Egypt is by fome divided, into two parts,
the Upper and Lower Egypt: by others into three, the
Upper Egypt, properly fo called, or Thebais; the Middle
Egypt, or Hepianomis ; and the Lower Egypt, the beft
part of which was the Dtlla, or'that fpace encoropaf-
fed by the branches of the Nile. SeeTnEBAis, &c.
The Egyptians, like the Chinefe, pretend to an ex-
ceffive antiquity, pretending to have records for ten,
twenty, or even fifty thoufand years. Thus their hi-
ftory is fo much involved in obfeurity and fable, that
for many ages it mull be palled over in filence—The
firft mortal-king whom the Egyptians own to have
reigned in that country, was Mates or Matas. At
what time he reigned, it would be to very little pur- Evypt-
pole to inquire. He had been preceded, however, by >
a fet of immortals, who it feems left him the kingdom
in a very bad fituation : for the whole country, except
Thebais, was a morafs; the people alf© were entirely
deftitute of religion, and every kind of knowledge
which could render their life comfortable and happy.
Menes diverted the courfe of the Nile, which before
that time had walhed the foot of a fandy mountain
near the borders of Libya, built the city of Memphis,
inftrudted his fubje&s, and did other things of a fimL
lar kind which are ufually attributed to the founders
of kingdoms.
From the time of Menes, the Egyptian chronology invaded by.
is filled with a lift of 330 kings, who reigned iqoothe (hep--
years, but did nothing worthy of notice.—The firftller^s•
diftindt piece of hiftory we find concerning Egypt, is
the irruption of the Shepherds, by whom the country
was fubdued ; but whether this revolution happened' ,
during the vaft interval of indolence above mentioned,
or before or after, cannot be known. The affair is
thus related by Manetho. It happened, in the reign
of Timaus king of Egypt, that God being difpleafed
with the Egyptians, they fuffered a great revolution :
for a multitude of men, ignoble in their race, took
courage, and, pouring from the eaft into Egypt, made
war with the inhabitants; who fubmitted to them with¬
out refiftance. The fhepherds, however, behaved with
the greateft cruelty ; burnt the cities, threw down the
temples of the gods, and put to death the inhabitants,
carrying the women and children into captivity. This
people came from Arabia, and were called Hycfos, or
king-Jhepherds. They held Egypt in fubjedlion for 259
years; at the end of which period, they were obliged
by a king of Upper Egypt, named Aonofts, or Theth-
nwfts, to leave the country. This prince’s father had,
it feems, gained great advantages over them, and Ihut
them up in a place called Abar'is, or Avar is, contain¬
ing 10,000 acres of land. Here they were clofely be-
fieged by Amofis, with an army of 400,000 men; but
at laft the king, finding himfelf unable to reduce them
by force, propofed an agreement, which was readily
accepted. In confequence of this agreement, the (hep-
herds withdrew from Egypt with their families, to the
number of 240,000 ; and, taking the way of the de¬
fart, entered Syria: but fearing the Affyrians, who were
then very powerful, and mafters of Afia,. they enter¬
ed the land of Judaea, and built there a city capable
of holding fo great a multitude, and called it Jerufakm,
According to Mr Bruce, the (hepherds who invaded
Egypt were no other than the inhabitants of Barbary.
They were, he fays, carriers to the Cufhites who lived
farther to the fouth. The latter had built the many
(lately temples in Thebes and other cities of Egypt;
though, according to him, they had no dwelling-places
but holes or caves in the rocks. Being a commercial
people, they remained at home colledling and. prepa¬
ring their articles, which were difperfed by the bara-
bers or (hepherds already mentioned. Thefe, from the
nature of their employment, lived in moveable habi¬
tations, as the Tartars do at this day. By the He¬
brews, he tells us, they w,\re called phut, but Jhepherds
by every other people; and from the name baraber, the
word Barbary is derived. By their employment, which
was the difperfing the Arabian and African goods all1
over
E G Y [ 368 ] EG Y
EtfTpt. over the continent, they had become a great and of trial of their abilities againft the Arabians. In this Egypt.
—v— powerful people ; and from their oppofite difpofitions expedition Sefoftris proved fuccefsful* and in the end -v~"
and manners, became very frequently enemies to the fubdued that people who had never before been con-
Egyptians. To one Salatis our author afcribes the quered. He was fent to the weft ward, and conquered
deftruftion of Thebes in Upper Egypt, fo much cele- the greateft part of Africa ; nor could he be flopped
brated by Homer for its magnificence. But this cer- in his career till he arrived at the Atlantic ocean*
tainly cannot be the cafe; for Homer wrote long af- Whilft he was on this expedition, his father died;
ter the time of Jofeph: and we find that even then and then Sefoftris refolved to fulfil the prediction of
the Egyptians had the ftiepherds in abhorrence, in all- Vulcan, by aftually conquering the whole world. As
probability becaufe they had been grievoufly opprefled he knew that this muft take up a long time, he pre-
by them. Mr Bruce counts three invafions of thefe pared for his journey in the beft manner poffible. The
people; the firft, that of Salatis already mentioned, who kingdom he divided into 36 provinces, and endeavour-
overthrew the firft dynafty of Egyptian kings from Me- ed to fecure the affeCtions of the people by gifts both
nes, and deftroyed Thebes: the fecond was that of of money and land. He forgave all who had been
Sabacco or So; for according to him this was not guilty of offences, and difeharged the debts of all
the name of a Angle prince, but of a people, and figni- his foldiers. He then conftituted his brother Arais
TiesJhepherds: and the third, after the building of Mem- the fupreme regent; but forbad him to ufe the diadem,
phis, where 240,000 of them were befieged as above and commanded him to offer no injury to the queen
mentioned. But accounts of this kind are evidently or her children, and to abftain from the royal concu-
inconfiftent in the higheft degree ; for how is it pof- bines. His army confifted of 600,000 foot, 24,000
iible that the third invafion, antecedent to the building horfe, and 27,000 chariots. Befides thefe land-forces,
of Jerufalem, could be pofterior to the. feco?id, if the he had at fea two mighty fleets; one, according to Dio-
latter happened only in the days of Hezekiah ? dorus, of 400 fail. Of thefe fleets, one was defigned
In thefe early ages, however, it would feem that the to make conquefts in the weft, and the other in the
-kingdom of Egypt had been very powerful and its do- eaft ; and therefore the one was built on the Mediter-
minion very widely extended; fince we find it faid, that ranean and the other on the Red Sea. The firft of
the BaSrians revolted from Ofymandyas, another E- thefe conquered Cyprus, the coaft of Phoenicia, and
gyptian king of very high . antiquity, and of whofe feveral'of the iflands cdheA. Cyclades : the other con-
.wealth the moft marvellous accounts are given. quered all the coafts of the Red Sea ; but its progrefs
After an unknown interval of time from this mo- was flopped by flioals and difficult places which the na-
.11 arch, reigned Sefoftris. He was the firft great war- vigators could not pafs, fo that he feems not to have
.rior whofe conquefts are recorded with any degree of made many conquefts by fea.
diftinctnefs. In what age of the world he lived, is With the land-forces Sefoftris marched againft the
uncertain. Some chronologers, among whom is Sir Ethiopians and Troglodites; whom he overcame, and
Ifaac Newton, are of opinion, that he is the Sefac obliged them to pay him a tribute of gold, ebony, and
or Shilhak, who took Jerufalem in the reign of Re- ivory. From thence he proceeded as far as the pro-
hoboam the fon of Solomon. Others, however, place montory of Dira, which lay near the ftfaits of Babel-
Eim much earlier; and Mr Whifton will have him mandel, where he fet up a pillar with an infeription in
to be the Pharaoh who refufed to part with the If- facred charatters. He then marched on to the coun-
raelites, and was at laft drowned in the Red Sea. Mr try where cinnamon grows, or at leaft to fome country
Bryant endeavours to prove that no fuch perfon ever where cinnamon at that time was brought, probably
.exifted; but that in his hiftory, as well as that of many fome place in India ; and here he in like manner fet
ancient heroes, we have an abridgement of that of the up pillars, which were to be feen for many ages after.
.Cufhites or Babylonians, who fpread themfelves over As to his farther conquefts, it is agreed by almoft all
great part of the known world, and every where authors of antiquity, that he over-ran and pillaged the
brought the people in fubje&ion to them. His reign whole continent of Afia, and fome part of Europe,
is reckoned the moft extraordinary part of the Egyp- He croffed the Ganges, and eredted pillars on its
,tian hiftory; and the following feems to be the leaft banks ; and from thence he is faid to have marched
fabulous account that can be got of it. The father of eattward to the very extremity of the Afiatic conti-
Sefoftris was told in a dream, by the god Vulcan, that nent. Returning from thence, he invaded the Scy-
his fon, who was then newly born, or perhaps ftill thians and Thracians; but all authors do not agree
unborn, fhould be lord of the whole earth. His fa- that he conquered them. Some even affirm, that he
ther, upon the credit of this vifion, got together all was overthrown by them with great flaughter, andob-
the males in the land of Egypt that were born on the liged to abandon a great part of his booty and mili-
fame day with Sefoftris; appointed nurfes and pro- tary ftores. But whether he had good or bad fuc-
per perfons to take care of them, and had them treat- uefs in thefe parts, it is a common opinion that he
ed like his own child ; being perfuaded that they who fettled a colony in Colchis. Herodotus, however, who
had been the conftant^companions of his youth would gives the moft particular account of the conquefts of
prove the moft faithful minifters and foldiers. As this monarch, does not fay whether the colony was
they grew up, they were inured to laborious exercifes; defignedly planted by .Sefoftris ; or whether part of
and, in particular, were never permitted to tafte any his army loitered behind the reft, and took up their
food till they had performed a courfe of 180 furlongs, refidcuce in that legion. From his own knowledge,
upwards of 22 of our miles. When the old king ima- he alferts, that the inhabitants of that country were
•gined they were Efficiently educated in the martial undoubtedly of Egyptian defeent. This was evident
•way he deiigned them to follow, they were fent by way from the perfonal refemblance they bore to the Egyp-
NoH0. ' 1 tiajis*
£ G Y [ 369 J E G Y
Egypt tians, who were fwarthy-complexloned and frizzle-
haired ; but more efpecially from the conformity of
their cuftoms, particularly circumcifion.
The utmoft boundary of this mighty monarch’s con-
quefts, however, was in the country of Thrace; for
beyond this country his pillars were no where to be
feen. Thefe pillars he was accuftomed to fet up in
every country which he conquered, with the following
infcription, or one to the fame purpofe : “ Sefollris,
king of kings, and lord of lords, fubdued this coun¬
try by the power of his arms.” Befides thefe, he left
alfo ftatues of himfelf; two of which, according to
Herodotus, were to be feen in his time; the one on the
road between Ephefus and Phocsea, and the other be¬
tween Smyrna and Sardis: they were armed after the
Ethiopian and Egyptian manner, holding a javelin in
one hand and a bow in the other. Acrofs the breaft
they had a line drawn from one (houlder to the other,
with the following infcription ; “ This region I ob¬
tained by thefe my {boulders.” They were miltaken
3 for images of Memnon.
Returns to The reafons given by Sefoftris for his returning into
%}'Pt> Egypt from Thrace, and thus leaving the conqueft of
the world unfiniflied, were the want of provifions for
his army, and the difficulty of the paffes. Moft pro¬
bably, however, his return was haftened by the intel¬
ligence he received from the high prieft of Egypt, con¬
cerning the rebellious proceedings of his brother; who,
encouraged by his long abfence, had affumed the dia¬
dem, violated the queen, and alfo the royal concu¬
bines. On receiving this news, Sefoftris haftened from
Thrace ; and at the end of nine years came to Pelu-
fium in Egpyt, attended by an innumerable multitude
of captives taken from many different nations, and
loaded with the fpoils of Afia. The treacherous bro¬
ther met him at this city ; and' it is faid, with very
little probability, that Sefoftris accepted of an invita¬
tion to an entertainment from him. At this he drank
freely, together with the queen and the reft of the
royal family. During the continuance of the enter¬
tainment, Armais caufed a great quantity of dried
reeds to be laid round the apartment where they were
to fleep; and as foon as they were retired to reft fet
fire to the reeds. Sefoftris perceiving the danger he
was in, and that his guards, overcharged with liquor,
were incapable of affifting him, ruffied through the
flames, and was followed by his wife and children.
In thankfgiving for this wonderful deliverance, he
made feveral donations to the gods, particularly to
Vulcan the god of fire. He then took vengeance on
his brother Armais, faid to be the Danaus of the
Greeks, who, being on this occafion driven out of
^ Egypt, withdrew into Greece.
His great Sefoftris now laid afide all thoughts of war, and ap-
works. plied himfelf wholly to fuch works as might tend to the
public good, and his own future reputation. In or¬
der to prevent the incurfions of the Syrians and Ara¬
bians, he fortified the eaft fide of Egypt with a wall
which ran from Pelufium through the defert to Helio¬
polis, for 1874- miles. He raifed alfo an incredible
number of vaft and lofty mounts of earth, to which he
removed fuch towns as had before been fituated too
low, in order to fecure them from the inundations of
the Nile. All the way from Memphis to the fea he
dug canals which branched out from the Nile ; and not
Von.VI. Parti.
only made an eafier communication between different Egypt,
places, but rendered the country in a great meafure im- v""""
paffable to any enemy. He ere&ed a temple in every
city in Egypt, and dedicated it to the fupreme deity
of the place ; but in the courfe of fuch a great under¬
taking as this necefiarily muft have been, he took care
not to employ any of his Egyptian fubjeds. Thus he
fecured their affedion, and employed the vaft multi¬
tude of captives he had brought along with him ; and
to perpetuate the memory of a tranfadion fo remark¬
able, he caufed to be infcribed on all thefe temples,
“ No one native laboured hereon.” In the city of
Memphis, before the temple of Vulcan, hejaifed fix
gigantic ftatues, each of one ftone. Two of tEtm we're
30 cubits high, reprefenting himfelf and his wife ; the
other four were 20 cubits each, and reprefented his
four ions. Thefe he dedicated to Vulcan in memory
of his above mentioned deliverance. He raifed alfo two
obelilks of marble 120 cubits high, and charged them
with infcriptions, denoting the greatnefs of his power,
his revenues, &c.
The captives taken by Sefoftris are faid to have been
treated with the greateil barbarity ; fo that at laft they
refolved at all events to deliver themfelves from a fer-
vitude fo intolerable. The Babylonians particularly
were concerned in this revolt, and laid wafte the coun¬
try to fome extent; but being offered a pardon and
a place to dwell in, they were pacified, and built for
themfelves a city which they called Babylon. Towards
the conquered princes who waited on him with their
tribute, the Egyptian monarch behaved with unparal¬
leled infolence. On certain occafions he is faid to have
unharneffed his horfes, and, yoking kings together,
made them draw his chariot. One day, however, ob-
ferving one of the kings who drew his chariot to look
back upon the wheels with great earneftnefs, he afked
what made him look fo attentively at them? The un¬
happy prince replied, “ O king, the going round
of the wheel puts me in mind of the viciffitudes of for¬
tune : for as every part of the wheel is uppermoft and
lowermoft by turns, fo it is with men ; who one day fit
on a throne, and on the next are reduced to the vileft
degree of flavery.” This anfwer brought the infulting
conqueror to his fenfes ; fo that he gave over the prac¬
tice, and thenceforth treated his captives with great hu¬
manity. At length this mighty monarch loft his fight, h;3 dScltjli
and laid violent hands on himfelf.
After the death of Sefoftris, we meet with another
chafm of an indeterminate length in the Egyptian
hiftory. It concludes with the reign of Amafis or
Ammofis; who being a tyrant, his fubjefts. joined Ac-
tifanes the king of Ethiopia to drive him out.—Thus
A&ifanes became matter of the kingdom ; and after
his death follows another chafm in the hiftory, during
which the empire is faid to have been in a ftate of
anarchy for five generations.—This period brings us
down to the times of the Trojan war. The reigning
prince in Egypt was at that time called Cetes; by the
Greeks, Proteus. The priefts reported that he was a
magician ; and that he could affume any ffiape he plea-
fed, even that of fire. This fable, as told by the 0r; of
Greeks, drew its origin from a cuftom among the E- the fable of
gyptians, perhaps introduced by Proteus. They were Proteus,
ufed to adorn and diftinguifti the heads of their kings
with the reprefentations of animals or vegetables, or
3 A even
Egypt-
7
Arrival of
Paris and
Helen in
Egygt.
8
Egypt con¬
quered by
Sahbaco.
9,
Remark¬
able ftory
©f Sethon.
E G Y [ 37° ] E G Y
even with burning ineenfe, in order to ftrike the be¬
holders with the greater awe. Whilil: Proteus reigned,
Paris or Alexander, the fon of Priam king of Troy,
was driven by a ftorm on the coaft of Egypt, with
Helen, whom he was carrying off from her hufband.
But when the Eygptian monarch heard of the breach
of hofpitality committed by Paris, he feized him, his
miilrefs, and companions, with all the riches he had
brought away with him from Greece. He detained
Helen, with all the effects belonging to Menelaus her
hufband, promifing to reftore them to the injured party
whenever they were demanded ; but commanded Paris
and his companions to depart out of his dominion in
three days, on pain of being treated as enemies. In
what manner Paris afterwards prevailed upon Proteus
to reftore his miftrefs, we are not told ; neither do we
know any thing further of the tranfa&ions of this
prince’s reign nor of his fucceffors, except what has
entirely the air of fable, till the days of Sabbaco the
Ethiopian, who again conquered this kingdom. He
began his reign with an aft,of great cruelty, caufrng
the conquered prince to be burnt alive : neverthelefs, he
no fooner faw himfelf firmly*eftablifhed on the throne
of Egypt, than he became a new man ; fo that he is
highly extolled for his mercy, clemency, and wifdom.
He is thought to have been the So mentioned in fcrip-
ture, and who entered into a league with Hofhea
king of Ifrael againft Shalmanefer king of Affyria. He
is faid to have been excited to the invafion of Egypt by
a dream or vifion, in which he was allured, that he
Ihould hold that kingdom for 50 years. Accordingly,
he conquered Egypt, as had been foretold; and at the
expiration of the time above mentioned, he had another
dream, in which the tutelar god of Thebes acquainted
him, that he could no longer hold the kingdom of
Egypt with fafcty and happinefs, unlefs he maffacred
the priefts as he paffed through them with his guards.
Being haunted with this vifion, and at the fame time
abhorring to hold the kingdom on fuch terms, he fent
for the priefts, and acquainted them with what feemed
to be the will of the gods. Upon this it was concluded,
that it was the pleafure of the Deity that Sabbaco
fliould remain no longer in Egypt; and therefore he
immediately quitted that kingdom, and returned to
Ethiopia.
Of slmfias, who was Sabbaco’s immediate fucceffor,.
we have no particulars worth notice. After him reign¬
ed one Sethon, who was both king and prieft of V ul-
can. He gave himfelf up to religious contemplation ;
and not only neglefted the military clafs, but deprived
them of their lands. At this they were fo much in-
cenfed, that they entered into an agreement not to bear
arms under him \ and in this ftate of affairs Sennache¬
rib king of Affyria arrived before Pelufium with a.
mighty army. Sethon now applied to his foldiers, but
in vain: they unanimoufly perfifted inrefufing to march
under his banner. Being therefore deftitute of all hu¬
man aid, he applied to the god Vulcan, and requefted
him to deliver him from his enemies. Whilft he was
yet in the temple of that god, it is faid he fell into a
deep fleep ; during which, he faw Vulcan Handing at
his fide, and exhorting him to take courage. Hepro-
mifed, that if- Sethon would but go out againft the
Affyrians, he fhould obtain a complete viftory over
them. Encouraged by this afliirance, the king affem»
bled a body of artificers, (hop-keepers, and labourers j Egypt.
and, with this undifciplined rabble, marched towards  *■—■*“*
Pelufium. He had no occafion, however, to fight; for
the very night after his arrival at Pelufium, an innu¬
merable multitude of field-rats entering the enemies
camp, gnawed to pieces the quivers, bowftrings, and
(hield-ftraps. Next morning, when Sethon found the
enemy difarmed, and on that account beginning to fly,,
he purfued, them to a great diftance, making a terrible
(laughter. In memory of this extraordinary event, a
ftatue of Sethon was erefted in the temple of Vulcan,
holding in one hand a rat, and delivering the£e words :
“ Whofoever beholdeth me, let him be pious.”
Soon after the death of Sethon, the form of govern-,
ment in Egypt was totally changed. The kingdom
was divided into twelve parts, over which as many of
the chief nobility prefided. This diviiion, however, Re;j,n 0f
fubfifted but for a (hort time. Pfammitichus, one ofpf. mmiti-
the twelve, dethroned all the reft, 15 years after the chus.
divifion had been made. The hiftory now begins to
be divefted of fable; and from this time may be ac¬
counted equally certain with that of any other nation.
The vaft conquefts of Sefoftris were now no longer
known ; for Pfammitichus pofleffed no more than the.
country of Egyptitfelf. It appears, indeed, that none
of the fucceffors of Sefoftris, or even that monarch him¬
felf, had made ufe of any means to keep in fubjeftion
the countries he had once conquered. Perhaps, in¬
deed, his defign originally was rather to pillage than to .
conquer; and therefore, on his return, his vaft empire,
vaniftied at once. Pfammitichus, however, endeavoured-
to extend his dominions by making war on his neigh¬
bours ; but by putting more confidence in foreign au¬
xiliaries than in his own fubjefts, the latter were fo
much offended, that upwards of 200,000 fighting men
emigrated in a body, and took up their refidence in,
Ethiopia To repair this lofs, Pfammitichus earneftly
applied himfelf to the advancement of commerce ; and.
opened his ports to all ftrangers, whom he greatly ca-
refl'ed, contrary to the cruel maxims of his predecef-
fors, who refufed to admit them into the country. He.
alfo laid fiege to the city of Azotus in Syria, which
held out for 29 years againft the whole ftrength of the
kingdom ; from which we may gather, that, as a war-,
rior, Pfammitichus was by no means remarkable. Heu
is reported to have been the firft king of Egypt that
drank wine. He alfo fent to difcover the fprings of.,
the Nile ; and is faid to have attempted to difcover the
naoft ancient nation in the world by the following me-,
thod. Having procured two newly born children, he
caufed them to be brought up in fuch a manner that
they never heard a human voice. He imagined that
thefe children would naturally fpeak the original lan¬
guage of mankind : therefore, when, at two years of
age, they pronounced the khrygian-word beccos (or
fome found refembling it), Which fignilies bread,_ he
concluded that the Phrygians were the molt ancient
people in the world. #
Nechus, the .fon and fucceflbr of Pfammitichus, ia Succeeded
the Pharaoh-Necha of fcripture, and was a prince of an by Nechu*. .
enterprifing and warlike genius, in the beginning of
his reign, he attempted to cut through the ifthmus of
Suez, between the Red-Sea and the Mediterranean ;
but, through the invincible obftacles which natute has.
thrown in the way of fuch undertakings, he was obli-.
g,ed
E G Y
chadnez-
zar.
$gypt. ged to abandon the enterprise, after having loft x 20,000
^  men in the attempt. After this he fent a fhip, man¬
ned with feme expert Phoenician mariners, on a voyage
to explore the coatls of Africa. Accordingly, they
performed the voyage ; failed round the continent of
A frica i and after three years returned to Egypt, where
their relation was deemed incredible.
His wars The moft remarkable wars in which this king was
* ; . jofiali engaged, are recorded in the facred writings. He went
a"'H M-K"- againft the king of Affyria, by the divine com-
■mand, as he himfelf told Joiiah; but being oppofed by
; this king of Judtea, he defeated and killed him at Me-
giddo; after which he fet up, in that country, king
Jehoiakim, and impofed on him an annual tribute of 100
talents of fdver and one talent of gold. He then pro¬
ceeded againft the king of Affyria; and weakened him
fo much, that the empire was foon after diffolved.
Thus he became mafter of Syria and Pheenicia ; but
in a ftiort time, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon eame
-againft him with a mighty army. The Egyptian mo¬
narch, not daunted by the formidable appearance of
-his antagonift, boldly ventured a battle; but was over¬
thrown with prodigious daughter, and Nebuchadnez¬
zar became mafter of all the country to the very gates
13 of Pelufium.
Aprics a The reign of Apries, the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scrip-
tore, prefents is with a new revolution in the Egyp-
jrince.U t^an affa‘rs- He is reprefented as a martial prince,
and in the beginning of his reign very fuccefsful. He
took by ftorm the rich city of Sidon; and having over¬
come the Cypriots and Phoenicians in a fea-fight, re¬
turned to Egypt laden with fpoil. This fuccefs pro¬
bably incited Zedekiah king of Judasa to enter iifto an
alliance with him againft Nebuchadnezzar king of
Babylon. The bad fuccefs of this alliance was fore¬
told by the prophet Jeremiah; and accordingly it hap¬
pened. For Nebuchadnezzar having fat down with
his army before Jerufalem, Apries marched from E-
gypt with a defign to relieve the city ; but no fooner
did he perceive the Babylonians approaching him, than
lie retreated as faft as he could, leaving the Jews ex-
pofed to the rage of their mercilefs enemies; who were
thereupon treated as Jeremiah had foretold; and by
this fttp Apries brought upon himfelf the vengeance
Bad confe- denounced by the fame prophet.—The manner in which
-^uences of thefe predictions were fulfilled is as follows : The Cy-
1ns al ia ce reneans, a colony of the Greeks, being greatly ftrength-
liah 'Zede*ene^ b7 a numerous fupply of their countrymen under
their third king Battus ftyled the Happy, and encou¬
raged by the Pythian oracle, began to drive out their
Libyan neighbours, and (hare their poffeffions among
themfelves. Hereupon Andican king of Libya fent
a fubmiffive embafly to Apries, and implored his pro¬
tection againft the Cyreneans. Apries complied with
his requeft, and fent a powerful army to his relief.
The Egyptians were defeated with great daughter; and
thofe who returned complained that the army had been
fent off by Apries in order to be deftroyed, and that
he might tyrannize without controul over the remain-
Hbfiibje&sder of his fubjeCts. This thought catching the atten-
revolt. tion of the giddy multitude, an almoft univerfal defec¬
tion enfued. Apries fent one Amafis, a particular
friend, in whom he thought he could confide, to bring
back his people to a fenfe of their duty. But by this
friend he was betrayed; for Auiaiis, taking the tjp-
l 371 1
E G Y
portunity of the prefent ferment, caufed himfclf to be Egypt-
proclaimed king. Apries then difpatched one Patar-
bemis, with orders to take Amalis, and bring him alive
before him. This he found impoffible, and therefore
returned without his prifoner; at which the king was
fo enraged, that he commanded Patarbemis’s nofe and
ears to be cut off. This piece of cruelty completed his
ruin; for when the reft of the Egyptians who conti¬
nued faithful to Apries beheld the inhuman mutilation
of fo worthy and noble a perfon as Patarbemis was,
they to a man defened Apries, and went over to A-
mafis.
Both parties now prepared for war; the ufurper ha¬
ving under his command the whole body of native E-
gyptians; and Apries only thofe lonians, Carians, and
other mercenaries whom he could engage in his fer-
vice. The army of Apries amounted only to 30,000;
but, though greatly inferior in number to the troops
of his rival, as he well knew that the Greeks were much
fuperior in valour, he did not doubt of victory. Nay,
fo far was Apries puffed up with this notion, that he
did not believe it was in the power even of any God
to deprive him of his kingdom. The two armies foon
met, and drew up in order of battle near Memphis. A Apries <le-
bloody engagement enfued; in which, though the army feaxed and
of Apries behaved with the greateft refolution, they
were at laft overpowered with numbers, and utterly de- Amafis?
feated, the king himfelf being taken prifoner. Amafis
now took poffeffion of the throne without oppofition.
He confined Apries in one of his palaces, but treated
him with great care and refpeCl. The people, how¬
ever, were implacable, and could not be fatisfied while
he enjoyed his life. Amafis, therefore, at laft found
himfelf obliged to deliver him into their hands. Thus
the prediction received its final completion : Apries
was delivered up to thofe ivho fought his life; and who
no fooner had him in their power, than they ftrangled
him, and laid his body in the fepulchre of his ance-
ftors. 17
During thefe inteftine broils, which muft have great- Egypt in¬
ly weakened the kingdom, it is probable that Nebu- ,
chadnezzaf invaded Egypt. He had been for 13 years neZjar>
before this employed in befieging Tyre, and at laft had
nothing but an empty city for his pains. To make
himfelf fome amends, therefore, he entered Egypt, mi-
ferably haraffed the country, killed and carried away
great numbers of the inhabitants, fo that the country
did not recover from the effeCts of this incurfion for a
long time after. In this expedition, however, he feems
not to have aimed at any permanent conqueft, but to
have been induced to it merely by the love of plunder,
and of this he carried with him an immenfe quantity
to Babylon. 18
During the reign of Amafis, Egypt is faid to have Happy ad-
been perfectly happy, and to have contained 20,000
populous cities. That good order might be kept a- Amafis.
mong fuch vaft numbers of people, Amafis enaCted a
law, by which every Egyptian was bound once a-year
to inform the governor of his province by what means
he gained his livelihood ; and if he failed of this, to
put him to death. The fame puniftiment he decreed to
thofe who could not give a fatisfaCtory account of
themfelves.
This monarch was a great, favourer of the Greeks,
and married a woman of Grecian extract. To many
3 A 2 Greek
Offends
Cambyfes
king of
JPeifia,
*o
And Poly¬
crates ty¬
rant of
£amos.
a*
Igypt in-
^aded by
Cambyfts.
E G Y r 37* ] E G Y
Greek cities, as well as particular perfons, he made
confiderable prefents. Befide thefe, he gave leave to
the Greeks in general to come into Egypt, and fettle
either in the city of Naucratis, or carry on their trade
upon the fea-coafts ; granting them alfo temples, and
places where they might eredf temples to their own
deities. He received alfo a vifit from Solon the cele¬
brated Athenian lawgiver, and reduced the ifland of
Cyprus under his fube&ion.
This great profperity, however, ended with the death
of Amafis, or indeed before it. The Egyptian mo¬
narch had fome how or other incenfed Cambyfes
king of Perfia. The caufe of the quarrel is uncertain;
but whatever it was, the Perfian monarch vowed the
deftruftion of Amafis. In the mean time Phones of
Halicarnaffus, commander of the Grecian auxiliaries in
the pay of Amafis, took fome private difguft; and lea¬
ving Egypt, embarked for Perfia. He was a wife and
able general, perfectly well acquainted with every thing
that related to Egypt; and had great credit with the
Greeks in that country. Amafis was immediately fen-
fible how great the lofs of this man would be to him,
and therefore fent after him a trufty eunuch with a
fwift galley. Phanes was accordingly overtaken in
JLycia, but not brought back ; for, making his guard
drunk, he continued his journey to Perfia, and prefent-
ed himfelf before Cambyfes; as he was meditating the
deftruction of the Egyptian monarchy.
At this dangerous crilis alfo, the Egyptian monarch
imprudently made Polycrates the tyrant of Samos his
enemy. This man had been the moll remarkable per¬
haps of any recorded in hillory, for an uninterrupted
courfe of fuccefs, without the intervention of one fingle
unfortunate event. Amafis, who was at this time in
llridt alliance with Polycrates, wrote him a letter, in
which, after congratulating him on his profperity, be
told him that he was afraid left his fucceffes were too
many, and he might be fuddenly thrown down into
the greateft mifery. For this reafon he advifed him
voluntarily to take away fomething from his own hap-
pinefs; and to call away that which would grieve him
moil if he was accidentally to lofe it. Polycrates fol¬
lowed his advice, and threw into the fea a fignet of
ineftknable value. This, however, did not anfwer the
intended purpofe. The .fignet happened to be fwai-
lowed by a filh, which was taken a few days after¬
wards, and thus was reftored to Polycrates. Of this
Amafis was no fooner informed, than, confidering Po¬
lycrates as really unhappy, and already on the brink of
deftru£lion, he refolved to- put an end to the friendlhip
which fublifted between them. For this purpofe he
difpatched an herald to Samos, commanding him to
acquaint Polycrates, that he renounced his alliance,
and all the obligations between them; that he might
not mourn his misfortunes with the farrow of a friend.
Thus Amafis left Poiycrates at liberty to adt againft
him, if he chofe to do fo;' and accordingly he offered
tq affill Cambyfes with a fleet of fliips in his Egyptian
expedition.,
Amafis had not, however, the misfortune to fee the
calamities of his country. He died about 525 years
before Chrift, after a reign of 44 years ; and left the
kingdom to his fon Pfammenitus, juft as Cambyfes was
approaching the frontiers of the kingdom. The new
prince was fcai ce hated on the throne, when the Per-
fians appeared. Pfammenitus drew together what forces Egypt,
he could, in order to prevent them from entering the 1 1 "v—
kingdom. Cambyfes, however, immediately laid fiege
to Pelufium, and made himfelf mailer of it by the fol¬
lowing ftratagem : he placed in the front of his army
a great number of cats, dogs, and other animals that
were deemed facred by the Egyptians. He then at¬
tacked the city, and took it without oppofition ; the
garrifon, which confifted entirely of Egyptians, not
daring to throw a dart or ihoot an arrow againft
their enemies, left they fhould kill fome of the holy
animals.
Cambyfes had fcarce taken poflefilon of the city,
when Pfammeniuis advanced againit him with a num'e- „
rous army. But before the engagement, the Greeks Cruelty and
who ferved under Pfammenitus, to ihow their indig- defeat of
nation againft their treacherous countryman Phanes, ES>’P-
brought his children into the camp, killed them in the Uan8*
prefence of their , father and of the two armies, and
then drank their blood. The Perfians, enraged at fo
cruel a fight, fell upon the Egyptians with the utmoft
fury, put them to flight, and cut the greatell part of
them in pieces. Thofe who efcaped fled to Memphis,
where they were foon after guilty of a horrid outrage.
Cambyfes fent a herald to them in a ihip from Mity-
lene : but no fooner did they fee her come into the
port, than they flocked down to the fliore, deftroyed
the fhip, and tore to pieces the herald and all the crew;
afterwards carrying their mangled limbs into the city,
in a kind of barbarous triumph. Not long after, they
were obliged to furrender ; and thus Pfammenitus fell
into the hands of his inveterate enemy, who was now
enraged beyond meafure at the cruelties exercifed upon
the children of Phanes, the herald, and the Mitylenean
failors.
The rapid fuccefs of the Perfians ftruck with fuch Their
terror the Libyans, Cyreneans, Barcaeans, and other dreadful
dependents or allies of the Egyptian monarch, that Put£flim®nt
they immediately fubmitted. Nothing now remained ^
but to ciifpofe of the captive king, and revenge on him
and his fubjects the cruelties which they had commit¬
ted. This the mercilefs vidtor executed in the feverell
manner. On the 10th day after Memphis had been
taken, Pfammenitus and the chief of the Egyptian no¬
bility were ignominioufly fent into one of the fuburbs
of that city. The king being there feated in a pro¬
per place, law his daughter coming along in the habit
of a poor flave with a pitcher to fetch water from the
river, and followed by the daughters of the greateft
families in Egypt, all in the fame miferable garb, with
pitchers in their hands, drowned in tears, and loudly
bemoaning their miferable fituation. When the fathers
faw their daughters in this diftrefs, they burft into tears,,
all but Pfammenitus, who only call his eyes on the
ground and kept them fixed there. After the young,
wome*, came the fon of Pfammenitus, with 2000 of
the young nobility, all of them with bits in their mouths
and halters round their neck, led to execution. This,
was done to expiate the murder of the Perfian herald
and the Mitylenean failors; for Cambyfes caufed ten
Egyptians of the firft rank to be publicly executed for
every one of thofe that had been flain. Pfammenitus,
however, obferved the fame eondudt as before, keep¬
ing his eyes ftedfaftly fixed on the ground, though all
the Egyptians around him made the loudeil lamenta¬
tions,,
E G Y [ 373 ] E G Y
Egypt tions. A little after this he faw an intimate friend and
companionf^now advanced in years, who having been
plundered of all he had, was begging his bread from
door to door in the fuburbs. As foon as he faw this
man, Pfammenitus wept bitterly ; and calling out to
him by his name, ftruck himfelf on the head as if he
had been frantic. Of this the fpies who had been fet
over him to obferve his behaviour, gave immediate no¬
tice to Cambyfes, who thereupon fent a 'mdfenger to
inquire the caufe of fuch immoderate grief. Pfamme¬
nitus anfwered, That the calamities of his own family
confounded him, and were too great to be lamented by
any outward ligns of grief; but the extreme diltrefs
of a bofom friend gave more room for refiedtioni and
therefore extorted tears from him. With this anfwer
Cambyfes was fo affected, that he fent orders to pre¬
vent the execution of the king’s fon ; but thefe came
too late, for the young prince had been put to death
before any of the reft. Pfammenitus himfelf was then
fent for into the city, and reftored to his liberty : and
had he not fhowed a defire of revenge, might perhaps
have been trufted with the government of Egypt; but
being difcovered hatching fchemes againft the go¬
vernment, he was feizcd, and condemned to drink
a4 bull’s blood.
Egypt be- The Egyptians were now reduced to the loweft de-
comes a ^ gree 0f flavery. Their country became a province of
thePerfian t^le Perfian empire: the body of Amahs their late king
and after- was taken out of his grave ; and after being mangled
wards of in a Ihocking manner, was finally burnt. But what
the Grecian feeme(l more grievous than all the reft, their god Apis
empire. wag an{j ^js prieft8 ignominioufly fcourged; and
this infpired the whole nation with fuch an hatred to
the Perfians, that they could never afterwards be re¬
conciled to them. As long as the Perfian empire fub-
fifted, the Egyptians could never lhake off their yoke.
They frequently revolted indeed, but Were always over¬
thrown with prodigious lofs. At laft they fubmitted,
without oppofition, to Alexander the Great : after
his death, Egypt again became a powerful kingdom;
.though fince the conqueft of it by Cambyfes to tlie
prefent time, it hath never been governed but by fo¬
reign princes, agreeable to the prophecy of Ezekiel,
“ There lhall be no more a prince of the land of E-
15 gypt”
Afligned to On the death of Alexander the Great, Egypt, to-
Ptolemy gether with Libya, and that part of Arabia which
Lagus, \vh.>l>orclers on Egypt, were affigned to Ptolemy Lagus as
tWeTof 1 6 g°Yernor under Alexander’s fon by Roxana, who was
y.ng but newly born. Nothing was farther from the inten¬
tion of this governor, than to keep the provinces in
trail for another. He did not, however, affume the
title of king, till he perceived his authority fo firmly
eftablifhed that it could not be ftiaken; and this did
not happen till 19 years after the death of Alexander,
when Antigonus and Demetrifts had unfuccefsfully at¬
tempted the conqueft of Egyj t.
Trom the time of his-fir ft eftablifhment on the throne,
Ptokmy, who had affumed the title of Soter, reigned
20 years; which added to the former 19, make up the
39 years which hiftorians commonly allow him to have
reigned alone.-\-In the 39th year of his reign, he made
©ne of his fons, named Philadelphus, partner in the em¬
pire ; declaring him his fucceffor, to the prejudice of his
tide ft fan named Ctraunus; being excited thereto by
his violent love for Berenice Philadelphus’s mother. Eg7P*>
When the fucceffion was thus fettled, Ceraunus imme-  »
diately quitted the court; and fled at laft into Syria,
where he was received with open arms by Seleucus Ni-
cator, whom he afterwards murdered.
The moft remarkable tranfa&ion of this reign was
the embellithing of the city of Alexandria, which Pto¬
lemy made the capital of his new kingdom, and of which
an account is given under the article Alexandria.
About 284 years before Chrift, died Ptolemy Soter,
in the 41ft year of his reign, and 84th of his age. He
was the heft prince of his race ; and left behind him
an example of prudence, juftice, and clemency which
few of his fucccffors chofe to follow. Belkles the pro¬
vinces originally alfigned to him, he has added to his
empire thofe of Casio-Syria, Ethiopia, Pamphylia, 26
Lycia, Caria, and fome of the Cyclades. His fuc- Succeeded:
ceffor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added nothing, to the
extent of the empire ; nor did he perform any thing e P u9*
worthy of notice except embelliftu’ng further the city
of Alexandria, and entering into an alliance with the
Romans. In his time, one Magas, the governor of
Libya and Cyrene, revolted; and held thefe province*
as an independent prince, notwithftanding the utmoft
efforts of Ptolemy to reduce him. At laft an accom¬
modation took place; and a marriage was propofed be¬
tween Berenice, the only daughter of Magas, and Pto¬
lemy’s eldeft fon. The young princefs was to receive
all her father’s dominions by way of dowry, and thu*
they would again be brought under the dominion of
Ptolemy’s family. But before this treaty could be
put in execution, Magas died ; and then Apamea, the
princefs’s mother, did all flie could to prevent the
match. This, however, ftie was not able to do; tho*
her efforts for that purpofe produced a deftructive war
of four years continuance with Antiochus Theus king
of Syria, and the adding of a cruel tragedy in the fa¬
mily of the latter. See Syria. 27
About 246 years before Chrift, Ptolemy Philadel- Ptolemy
phus died; and was fuccee.led by his eldeft fon Ptole- F-liergete3 *
my, who had been married to Berenice the daughter
of Magas, as above related. In the beginning of his4
reign, he found himfelf engaged in a war w ith Antio-
clms Theus king of Syria.. From this he returned
victorious, and brought with him 250oftatues and pic¬
tures, among which w'ere many of the ancient Egyp¬
tian idols, which had been carried aw'ay by Cambyfes
into Perfia. Thefe were reftored by Ptolemy to their
ancient temples : in memory of which favour, the E-
gyptians gave him the furname of Euergetes, or the
Beneficent. In this expedition he greatly enlarged his
dominions, making himfelf mafter of all the countries
that lie between mount Taurus and the confines of
India. An account of thefe conquefts was given by
himfelf, inferibed on a monument, to the following
effeft. “ Ptolemy Euergetes, having received front
his father the fovereignty of Egypt, Libya, Syria,
Phtenice, Cyprus,Lycia, Caria, and the other Cyclades,
affemblcd a mighty army of horfe and foot, with a great
fleet, and elephants, out of Trogloditia and Ethiopia;
fome of which had been taken by h:s father, and the
reft by himfelf, and brought from thence, and trained
up for war; with this, great force he failed into Afia;
and having conquered all the provinces which lie ou
this fide the Euphrates, Cilicia, Pamphyiia, Ionia, the
3 Hellefpont,,
E G Y
Hellcfpont, and Thrace, he croffed that river with all
the forces of the conquered countries, and the kings
of thofe nations, and reduced Mefopotamia, Babylo¬
nia, Sufxa, Perfia, Media,.and all the country as far as
Baftria.”
On the king’s-return from this expedition, he paffed
through Jerufalem, where he offered many facrifices
to the God of Ifrael, and ever afterwards expreffed a
great favour for the jewifh nation. At this time, the
Jews were tributaries to the Egyptian monarchs, and
■paid them annually 20 talents of fdvcr. This tribute,
however, Onias, who was then high prieft, being of a
very covetous-difpofition, had for along time neglefted
to pay, ’ fo that the arrears amounted to a very large
fum. Soon after his return, therefore, Ptolemy fent
one of his courtiers nanSgd Athtnwn to demand the
money, and defired him to acquaint the Jews that he
would make war upon them in cafe of a refufal. A
young man, however, named Jofeph, nephew to O-
nias, not only found means to avert the king’s anger,
hut even got himfelf chofen his receiver-general, and
by his faithful difcharge of that important truft, con¬
tinued in high favour with Ptolemy as long as he
lived.
Ptolemy Euergetes having at laft concluded a peace
with Seleucus the fucceffor of Antiochus Theus king
of Syria, attempted the enlargement of his dominions
on the fouth fide. In this he was attended with fuch
fuccefs, that he made himfelf mafter of all the coafts of
the Red Sea, both on the Arabian and Ethiopian
iides, quite down to the ftraits of Babel-mandel. On
his return he was met by ambaffadors from the Achas-
ans, imploring his affiftance againft the Etolians and
Lacedemonians. This the king readily promifed them :
but they having in the mean time engaged Antigonus
king of Macedon to fupport them, Ptolemy was fo
much offended, that he fent powerful fuccours to Cleo*
menes king of Sparta; hoping, by that means, to
humble both the Achseans and their new ally Antigo-
tleomenes nus* In this, however, he was difappointed 5 for Cleo-
Jcing of menes, after having gained very confiderable advan-
Spartatakes tages over the enemy, was at lall entirely defeated in
kattk Sellafia, and obliged to take refuge in
Ptolemy’s dominions. He was received by the Egyp¬
tian monarch with the greateft demonftrations of kind-
iirefs ; a yearly penfion of 24 talents was affigned him,
with apromife of reftoring him to the Spartan throne;
but before this could be accomplifhed, the king of E-
gypt died, in the 27th year of his reign, and was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Ptolemy Philopater.
Thus we have feen the Egyptian empire brought to
a very great height of power; and had the fucceeding
monarchs been careful to preferve that ftrength of em¬
pire tranfmitted to them by Euergetes, it is very pro¬
bable that Egypt might have been capable of holding
[ 374 1
•E G Y
at court} and being now unable to bear the diflblutt Egypt-
manners which prevailed there, he jfrefledr .Philopater ^—y***^
to give him the afhfiance he had promifed for reftoring
him to the throne of Sparta. This he the rather in-
lifted upon, becaufe he had received advice that Anti¬
gonus king of Macedon was dead, that the Achaeana
were engaged in a war with the Etolians, and that the
Lacedemonians had joined the latter againft the Achas-
ans and Macedonians. Ptolemy, when afraid of his
brother Magas, had indeed promifed to affift the king
of Sparta with a powerful fleet, hoping by this means
to attach him to his own intereft: but now when Magas
was out of the wray, it was determined by the king, or
rather his minifters, that Cleomenes Ihould not be af-
fifted, nor even allowed to leave the kingdom ; and
this extravagant refolution produced the defperate at¬
tempt of Cleomenes, of which an account is given in
the hiftory of Sparta.
Of the diforders which now enfued in the govern¬
ment, Antiochus king of Syria, furnamed the Great,
took the advantage, and attempted to wreft from Pto¬
lemy the provinces of Ccelo-Syria and Paleftine. But
in this he was finally difappointed ; and might ealily
have been totally driven out of Syria, had not Ptolemy
been too much taken up with his debaucheries to think
of carrying on the war. The difeontent occafioned by
this piece of negligence foon produced a civil war in
his dominions, and the whole kingdom continued in
the utmoft confufion till his death, which happened in
the 17th year of his reign and 37th of his age.
During the reign of Philopater happened a very ex- £xtraorcj;.
traordinary event with regard to the Jews, which is nary ftory
mentioned in the Maccabees*7. The king of Egypt,concerning
while on his Syrian expedition, had attempted to en-,
ter the temple of Jerufalem; but being hindered
the Jews, he was filled with the utnroft rage agarnit
the whole natron. On his return to Alexandria, he
refolved to make thofe who dwelt in that city feel the
firft effefts of his vengeance. He began with publilhing
a decree, which he caufed to be engraved on a pillar
ere&ed for that purpofe at the gate of his palace, ex¬
cluding all thofe who did not facrifice to the gods wor-
flripped by the king. By this means the Jews were
debarred from fuing to him for juftice, or obtaining
his prote£tion when they happened to ftand in need of
it. By the favour of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy
Soter and Euergetes, the Jews enjoyed at Alexandria
the fame privileges with the Macedonians. In that
metropolis the inhabitants were divided into three
ranks or clafies. In the firft Were the Macedonians,
or original founders of the city, and along with them
were enrolled the Jews ; in the fecond were the mer¬
cenaries who had ferved under Alexander; and in
the third the native Egyptians. Ptolemy now, to
be revenged of the Jews, ordered, by another decree.
the balance againft Rome, and after the deftruCtion of that they fhovld be degraded from the firft rank, and
Carthage prevented that haughty city from becoming enrolled among the native Egyptians. By the fame
miftrefs of the world. But after the death of Ptolemy decree it was enatled, that all of that nation Ihould ap-
Euergetes, -the Egyptian empire, being governed only pear at an appointed time before the proper officers, in
by weak or wretous .monarchs, quickly declined, and
from that time-makes no confpicuous figure in hiftory.
*9 . „
ytolemy Ptolemy Philopater began his reign with the murder
a crueTt61" k'S brother; after which, giving himfelf up to all
iam?6 ty* manncr of licentioufn<fs, the kingdom fell into a kind
of anarchy. Ckomenes the Spartan king ftill rdided
order to be enrolled among the common people ; that
at tire time of their inrollment they ftrould have the
mark of an ivy leaf, the badge of Bacchus, imprefled
with a hot iron on their faces; that all who were thus
marked firould be made flaves ; and, laitly, that if any¬
one fhould ftand OUt.againft this decree, he fhould be
z immediately
E G Y [ 375 1
Egypt, immediately put to death. That he might not, however, or ‘‘ the great-bellied,
1 feem an enemy to the whole, nation, he declared, that
thofe who facrificed to his gods fhould enjoy their for¬
mer privileges, and remain in the fame dais. Yet, not-
withftanding this tempting offer, 300 only out of many
thoufand Jews who lived in Alexandria could be pre¬
vailed upon1 to abandon their religion in order to fave
tfaemfelves from flavery.
The apoftates were immediately excommunicated by
their brethern : and this their enemies conilrued as
done in oppofition to the king’s order; which threw
the tyrant into fuch a rage, that he refolved to extir¬
pate the whole nation, beginning with the Jews who
lived in Alexandria, and other cities of Egypt, and
proceeding from thence to Judaea and Jerufalem itfelf.
In confequence of this cruel refolution, he commanded
all the Jews that lived in any part of Egypt to be
. brought in chains to Alexandria, and there to be fhut
up in the Hippodrome, which was a very fpacious
place without the city, where the people ufed to ai-
femble to fee horfe-races and other public diverfions.
He then fent for Herman mailer of the elephants;
and commanded him to have 500 of thefe animals ready
again ft the next day, to let loofe upon the Jews in the
2 G Y
on account of the prominent Egypt,
belly which by his gluttony and luxury he had acqui- 1 —1
red. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however.
drove out Phyfcon, and reftored the whole kingdom, and reigns
except Pelufium, to Philometor. His defign was to jointly with
kindle a war betwixt the two brothers, fo that he*1*5 *}rotlier*
might have an opportunity of feizing the kingdom for
himfelf. For this reafon he kept to himfelf the city
of Pelufium; which being the key of Egypt, he might
at his pleafure re-enter the country. But Philometor,
apprifed of his defign, invited his brother Phyfcon to
an accommodation; which was happily effedled by their
filler Cleopatra. In virtue of this agreement, the bro¬
thers were to reign jointly, and to oppofe to the utmoft
of their power Antiochus, whom they confidered as a
common enemy. On this the king of Syria invaded
Egypt with a mighty army, but was prevented by the--
Romans from conquering it. 33 7
The two brothers were no fooner freed from, the ap-Pifferenc®
prehenfions of a foreign enemy than they began
quarrel with each other. Their differences foon came'brot}ierS(}e>
to fuch a height, that the Roman fenate interpofed^cidcd by
But before the ambalfadors employed to inquire into-th6 Rotn2tt
Hippodrome. But when the elephants were prepared the merits of the caufe could arrive in Egypt, Phyfcon1
for the execution, and the people were alfembled in
great crowds to fee it, they were for that day difap-
pointed by the king’s abfence. For, having been late
up the night before with fome of his debauched
had driven Philometor from the throne, and obliged
him to quit the kingdom.. On: this-the dethroned
prince fled to Rome, where he appeared meanly dref-
fed, and without attendants. He was very .kindly re¬
panions, he did net awake till the time for the Ihew ceived by the fenate; who were fo well fatisfied of the
was over, and the fpeftators returned home. He
therefore ordered one of his fervants to call him early
on the following day, that the people might not meet
with a fecond difappointment. But when the perfon
awaked him according to his order, the king was not
yet returned to his fenfes; having withdrawn, exceed¬
ingly drunk, only a fhort time before. As he did not
remember the order, he therefore fell into a violent
palfion, and threatened with death the fervant who h?d
injuftice done him, that they immediately decreed his >
relloration. He was recondudted accordingly; and,
on the arrival of the ambaffadors in Egypt, an accom¬
modation between the two brothers was negoeiated.
By this agreement, Phyfcon was put in pofleflion of
Libya and Cyrene, and Philometor pf all Egypt and
the illand of Cyprus ; each of them being declared in¬
dependent of the other in the dominion allotted to
them. The treaty, as ufual, was. confirmed with.oaths
awaked him ; and this caufed the Ihew to be put olf. and facrifices, and was broken almoft as foon as made.
till the third day. At laft the king came to the Hip¬
podrome attended with a vaft multitude of fpedlators;
but when the elephants were let loofe, inftead of fall¬
ing upon the Jews, they turned their rage againft the
Phyfcon was difiatisfied with his lhare of the dominions j
and therefore fent ambalfadors to Rome, .defiring that
the illand of Cyprus might be added to his other pof-
w ^ felfions. This could not be obtained by the. ambalfadors 5 ;
fpe&ators and foldiers, and deftroyed great numbers of and therefore Phyfcon went to Rome in perfon. His
them. At the fame time, fome frightful appearances demand was evidently unjuft ; but the Romans, confi-ifland of
which were feen in the air fo terrified the king, that he- dering that it was their intereft to weaken the ppwer of --vprus ad—
commanded the Jews to be immediately fet at liberty, Egypt as much as pofiible, without further.ceremonyJuLe<1 to •
and reftored them to their former privileges. No fooner adjudged the ifiand to him. ^ ^ ?on*
•Were they delivered from this danger than they demand- Phyfcon fet out from Rome with two'ambalfadors;
ed leave to put to death fuch of their nation as had a- and arriving in Greece on his way to Cyprus, he raifed
bandoned their religion ; and this being granted, they there a great number of mercenaries, with a defign to
difpatched the apoftates without excepting a fingle fail immediately to that illand and conquer it. But
3* man. the Roman ambafladors telling him, that they were
Ptolemy Philopater was fucceeded by Ptolemy Epiphanes; commanded to put him in poflelfiou of it by fair means
Philometor anj ^e, after a reign of 24 years, by Ptolemy Philo- and not by force, he difmilfed his army, and returned
fonerby1* metor* In the beginning of his reign, a war com- to Libya, while one of the ambalfadors proceeded to
Antiochus, menced with the king of Syria, who hadfeized on the Alexandria-. Their defign was to bring the two bro-
and Phyf- provinces of-Ccele-Syria and Paleftinein the preceding thers to an interview on the frontiers of their domU
cnn ra,ied reign., In the epurfe of this war, Philometor was ei-- nions, and-there to fettle matters in an amicable man-
ther voluntarily delivered up to Antiochus. or taken net. But the ambalfador who went to Alexandria,
prifoner. But however this was, the Alexandrians found Philometor very averfe from compliance with the
defpairing of his ever being able to recover his liberty, decree of the fenate. Fie put off the ambaffador fo ■
raifed to the throne his brother Ptolemy, who took the long, that Phyfcon fent the other alfo to Alexandria, ,
name of Euergetes II. but was afterwards called Phyfcon, hoping that the joint perfuafions of the two would ' in¬
duce -
n railed
to the
throne.
Philometor
refufes to
comply.
Rebeilion
again ft
Phyfcon.
37
He is de¬
feated and
taken pri-
foner by.
Philome¬
tor.
E G Y [3;S] E G Y
duce Phllometor to comply. But the king, after en¬
tertaining them at an irnmenfe charge for 40 days, at
lall plainly refufed to fubmit, and told the ambaffadors
that he was refolved to adhere to the firll treaty. With
this anfwer the Roman ambaffadors departed, and were
followed by others from the two brothers. The fenate,
however, not only confirmed their decree in favour of
Phyfcon, but renounced their alliance with Philometor,
and commanded his ambaffador to leave the city in five
days.'
In the mean time, the inhabitants of Cyrene haying
heard unfavourable accounts of Phyfcon’s behaviour
during the fhort time he reigned in Alexandria, con¬
ceived fo ftrong an averfion againft him, that they re¬
folved to keep him out of their country by force of
arms. On receiving intelligence of this refolution,
Phyfcon dropped all thoughts of Cyprus for the pre-
fent; and haitened with all his forces to Cyrene, where
he foon got the better of his rebellious fubjedts, and
eftablifhed himfelf in the kingdom. His vicious and
tyrannical conduft, however, foon eftranged from him
the minds of his fubjedis, in fuch a manner, that fome
of them entering into a confpiracy againft him, fell
upon him one night as he was returning to his palace,
wounded him in feveral places, and left him for dead
on the fpot. This he laid to the charge of his bro¬
ther Philometor; and as foon as he was recovered, took
another voyage to Rome. Here he made his com¬
plaints to the fenate, and fhowed them the fears of his
wounds, accufing his brother of having employed the
affaffins from whom he received them. Though Phi¬
lometor was known to be a man of a moft humane and
mild difpofition, and therefore very unlikely to have
been concerned in fo black an attempt; yet the fenate,
being offended at his refufing to fubmit to their decree
concerning the ifland of Cyprus, hearkened to this falie
accufation; and carried their prejudice fo far, that they
not only refufed to hear what his ambaffadors had to lay,
but ordered them immediately to depart from the city.
At the fame time, they appointed five commiffioners to
conduft Phyfcon into Cyprus, and put him in poffef-
fion of that illand, enjoining all their allies in thole
parts to fupply him with forces for that purpofe.
Phyfcon having by this means got together an army
which feemed to him to be fufficient for the accom-
plilhment of his defign, landed in Cyprus; but being
there encountered by Philometor in perfon, he was
entirely defeated, and obliged to Ihelter himfelf in a
city called Here he was clofely befieged,
and. at hmobliged to furrender. Every one now ex-
pedfed that Phyfcon would have been treated as he
deferved; but his brother, inftead of punilhLng, retlo-
red him to the government of Libya and Cyrene, ad¬
ding fome other territories inftead of the ifland of Cy¬
prus, and promifing him his daughter in marriage.
Thus an end was put to the war between the two bro¬
thers; for the Romans were alhamed any longer to
oppofe a prince who had given fuch a fignal inftance of
hisjuftice and clemency.
On his return to Alexandria, Philometor appointed
one Archias governor of Cyprus. But he, foon after
the king’s departure, agreed with Demetrius king of
Syria, to betray the ifland to him for 500 talents.
The treachery was difeovered before it took effedt; and
the traitor, to avoid the punilhment due to his crime,
N°xio. '
laid violent hands on himfelf. Ptolemy being offended Egypt.
with Demetrius for this attempt on Cyprus, joined  
Attains king of Pergamus, and Ariarathes king of
Cappadocia, in fetting up a pretender to the crown of
Syria. This was Alexander Balas ; to whom he even
gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, after he had
placed him on the throne of Syria. But he, notwith-
ftanding thefe and many other favours, being fufpeded
of having entered into a plot againft his benefa&of,
Ptolemy became his greateft enemy ; and marching
againft him, routed his army in the neighbourhood of
Antioch. He did not, however, long enjoy his vic- Death8«f
tory ; for he died in a few days after the engagement, philome-
of the wounds he had received. tor.
On the death of Philometor, Cleopatra the queen
defigned to fecure the throne for her fon. But fome
of the principal nobility declaring for Phyfcon, a civil
war was about to enfue, when matters were compro-
mifed on condition that Phyfcon Ihould marry Cleo¬
patra, that he Ihould reign jointly with her during his
life, and declare her fon by Philometor heir to the
crown. Thefe terms were no fooner agreed upon than Monftrrm*
Phyfcon married Cleopatra, and, on the very day of wickednefs
the nuptials, murdered her fon in her arms.—This was Phyfron.
only a prelude to the cruelties which he afterwards
pra&ifeJ on his fubje&s. He was no fooner feated on
the throne, than he put to death all thofe who had
ftiown any concern for the murder of the young prince.
He then wrecked his fury on the Jews, whom he
treated more like flaves than fubjefts, on account of
their having favoured the caufe of Cleopatra. His own
people were treated with little more ceremony. Num¬
bers of them were every day put to death for the final-
left faults, and often for no fault at all, but merely to
gratify his unhuman temper. His cruelty towards the
Alexandrians is particularly mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Alexandria.— In a fhort time, being wearied of
his queen, who was alfo his filler, he divorced her; and
married her daughter, who was alfo called Cleopatra,
and whom he had previoufly ravifhed. In fhort, his
behaviour was fo exceedingly wicked, that it foon be- Heifdriven
came quite intolerable to his fubje&s; and he was obli- out.
ged to fly to the ifland of Cyprus with his new queen,
and Memphitis, a fon he had by her mother.
On the flight of th& king, the divorced queen was
placed on the throne by the Alexandrians; but Phyfcon,
fearing left a fon whom he had left behind fhould be ap¬
pointed king, fent for him into Cyprus, and clufed him
to be affaffmated as foon as he landed. This .provoked
the people againft him to fuch a degree, that they pulled
down and dafhed to pieces all the ftatues which had been
eredled to him in Alexandria. This the tyrant fuppofed
to have been done at the inftigation of the queen, and
therefore refolved to revenge it on her by killing his own
fon whom he had by her. He therefore, without the Murder*
leaft remorfe, caufed the young prince’s throat to be his fon.
cut; and having put his mangled limbs into a box,
fent them as a prefent to his mother Cleopatra. The
meffenger with whom this box was fent, was one of
his guards. He was ordered to wait till the queen’s
birth-day, which approached, and was to be celebrated
with extraordinary pomp ; and in the midft of the ge¬
neral rejoicing, he was to deliver the prefent.
The horror and deteftation occafioned by this un¬
exampled piece of cruelty cannot be expreffed. An
army
Phyfcon i-e-
ilored.
43
Ptolemy
Lathyrus
driven out
and Alex¬
ander fet
up.
E G Y [ 377 1. EG Y
army was foon raifed, and the command of It given to During thefe didurbances, Apian king of Cyrenai- Egypt.
J one Marfyas, whom the queen had appointed general, ca, the fon of Ptolemy Phyfcon by a concubine, ha-   !
and enjoined to take all the necefiary fteps for the de- ving maintained peace and tranquillity in his dominions p . 45 •
fence of the country. On the other hand, Phyfcon, during a reign of 21 years, died, and by his will left beq^eathid
having hired a numerous body of mercenaries, fent his kingdom to the Romans: and thus the Egyptian to the Ro-
them, under the command of one Hegelochus, againft empire was confiderably reduced and circumfcribed. mans,
the Egyptians. The two armies met on the frontiers .Lathyrus being now delivered from all competitors, 4^
of Egypt, on which a bloody battle enfued; but at turned his arms againfl the city of Thebes, which had xhJbes
laft the t gyptians wrere entirely defeated, and Marfyas revolted from him. The king marched in perfon ruined.
was taken prifoner. Every one expeded that the cap- againft the rebels; and, having defeated them in a
tive general would have been put to death with the fe- pitched battle, laid clofe fiege to their city. The in-
vereft torments; but Phyfcon, perceiving that his cru- habitants defended themfelves with great refolution for
cities only exafperated the people, refolved to try whe- three years. At laft, however, they were obliged to
ther he could regain their affeftions by lenity; and fubmit, and the city was given up to be plundered by
therefore pardoned Marfyas, and fet him at liberty.— the foldiery. They left every where the moft melan-
Cleopatra, in the mean time, being greatly diftreffed choly monuments of their avarice and cruelty ; fo that
by this overthrow, demanded affiitance from Deme- Thebes, which till that time had been one of the moft
trius king of Syria, who had married her eldeft daugh- wealthy cities of Egypt, was now reduced fo low that
ter by Philometor, promifing him the crown of Egypt it never afterwards made any figure.
for his reward. Demetrius accepted the propofal About 76 years before Chrift, Ptolemy Lathyrus Alexander
without hefitation, marched with all his forces into E- was fucceeded by Alexander II. He was the fon of h»cc«:d9
gypt, and there laid fiege to Pelufium. But he being the Ptolemy Alexander for whom Lathyrus had been Lat ^rus’
no lefs hated in Syria than Phyfcon was in Egypt, the driven out; and had met with many adventures. He
people of Antioch, taking advantage of his abfence, was firft fent by Cleopatra into the ifland of Cos, with
revolted againft him, and were joined by moft of the a great fum of money, and all her jewels; as thinking
other cities in Syria. Thus Demetrius was obliged that was the fafeft place where they could be kept,
to return; and Cleopatra, being now in no condition to When Mithridates king of Pontus made himfelf matter
oppofe Phyfcon, fled to Ptolemais, where her daughter of that ifland, the inhabitants delivered up to him the
the queen of Syria at that time refided. Phyfcon was young Egyptian prince, together with all the trea-
then reftored to the throne of Egypt, which he enjoyed fores. Mithridates gave him an. education foitable to
without further moleftation till his death; which hap- his birth ; but he, not thinking himfelf fafe with a
pened at Alexandria, in the 29th year of his reign, prince who had Ihed the blood of his own children,
and 67th of his age. fled to the camp of Sylla the Roman dictator, who
To Phyfcon fucceeded Ptolemy Lathyrus, about was then making war in Afia. From that time he Hr
122 years before Chrift; but he had not reigned long, ved in the family of the Roman general, till news was
before his mother, finding that he would not be entirely brought to Rome of the death of Lathyrus. Sylla
governed by her, by falfe furmifes ftirred up the A- then fent him to Egypt to take poffeflion of the throne,
lexandrians, who drove him from the throne, and placed But, before his arrival, the Alexandrians had chofen
on it his youngeft brother Alexander. Lathyrus after Cleopatra for their fovereign. To compromife matters,
this was obliged to content himfelf with the govern- however, it was agreed, that Ptolemy fliould marry 4g
ment of Cyprus, which he was permitted to enjoy in her, and take her for his partner in the throne. This Marries
quiet. Ptolemy Alexander, in the mean time, finding was accordingly done; and 19 days after the marriage, Cleopatra,
he was to have only the ihadow of fovereignty, and the unhappy queen was mujrdered by her hulband, who "
that his mother Cleopatra was to have all the power, for 15 years afterwards ftiowed himfelf fuch a monfter
Hole away privately from Alexandria. The queen of wickednefs, that a general inforre&ion at laft en-
ufed every artifice to bring him back, as well knowing foed among his fobjetfts, and he was obliged to fly to
that the Alexandrians would never foffer her to reign Pompey the Great, who was then carrying on the war
alone. At laft her fon yielded to her intrealies ; but againft Mithridates king of Pontus. But Pompey re-
foon after, underftanding that flie had hired affaffins to fufing to concern himfelf in the matter, he retired to
difpatch him, he caufed her to be murdered. the city of Tyre, where he died fome months after.
The death of the queen was no fooner known to the When he was forced to fliut himfelf up in the city
Alexandrians, than, difdaining to be commanded by of Tyre, Alexander had fent ambafladors to Rome, in
a paricide, they drove out Alexander, and recalled La- order to influence the fenate in his favour. But, dy-4e^
thyrus.—-The depofed prince for fome time led a ram- ing before the negociation was finifhed, he made overkingdom te
bling life in the ifland of Cos ; but having got toge- by his laft will all his rights to the Roman people, de- foe Ro-
ther fome Ihips, he, the next year, attempted to return daring them heirs to his kingdom : not out of any af-mans*
into Egypt. But being met by Tyrrkus, Lathyrus’s fedion to the republic; but with a view to raife dif-
admiral, he was defeated, and obliged to fly to Myra putes between the Romans and his rival Auletes, whom
in Lycia. From Myra he fleered his courfe towards the Egyptians had placed on the throne. The will
Cyprus, hoping that the inhabitants would place him was brought to Rome, where it occalioned warm de-
011 the throne, inftead of his brother. But Choreas, bates. Some were for taking immediate pofleflion of
another of Lathyrus’s admirals, coming up with him the kingdom. Others thought that no notice fhould
while he was ready to land, an engagement enfued, in be taken of fuch a will, becaufe Alexander had no
which Alexander’s fleet was difperfed, and he himfelf right to difpofe of his dominions in prejudice of his foe-
hilled. ceflbr, and to exclude from the crown thofe who were
Vmi. VI. Part i. 3 B of
E G Y [ 378 ] E G Y
o£ the royal blood of Egypt. Cicero represented, that on this notice, Cato would immediately come and wait Egypt*
J fuch a notorious impofition would debafe the majefty of upon him ; but the proud Roman told the meffenger,
the Roman people, and involve them in endlefs wars that if the king of Egypt had any thing to fay to Ca-
and difputes ; that the fruitful fields of Egypt would to, he might, if he thought proper, come to his houfe.
be a ftrong temptation to the avarice of the people,
■who would infill on their being divided among them ;
and laftly, that by this means the bloody quarrels a-
bout the Agrarian laws would be revived. Thefe rea-
fons had fome weight with the Senate ; but what chief-
Accordingly the king went to pay him a vifit; but was
received with very little ceremony by Cato, who did
not even vouchfafe to rife out of his feat when he came 53
into his prefence. When Auletes had laid his affairs Cato’s ad-
before this haughty republican, he was blamed by himvicett,hicI*
ly prevented them from Seizing on Egypt at this time for leaving Egypt, the richell kingdom in the world,
was, that they had lately taken poffelfion of the king- in order to expofe himfelf, as he faid, to the indigni-
■'Chara&er
dom of Bithynia in virtue of the will of Nicomedes,
and of Cyrene and Libya by the will of Apion,
They thought, therefore, that if they Ihould, on the
like pretence, take poffeffion of the kingdom of Egypt,
this might too much expofe their defign of Setting up
a kind of univerfal monarchy, and occafion a formi¬
dable combination againft them.
Auletes, who was now raifed to the throne by the
ties he would meet with at Rome. There Cato told
him, that nothing was in requeft but wealth and gran¬
deur. All the riches of Egypt, he faid, would not be
Sufficient to fatisfy the avarice of the leading men in
Rome. He therefore advifed him to return to Egypt;
and ftrive, by a more equitable conduct, to regain
the affections of his people. Lie even offered to re-
conduCt him thither, and employ his good offices in
of Auletes Egyptians, is faid to have furpaffed all the kings that his behalf. But though Ptolemy was fenfible of the
k . r 1 • • .1 CC • ru: -  'T'U-  • . f .l;. _j • 'r .1 . r • - 1 1 j • .1 1 •
the new went before him in the effeminacy of his manners. The
name Auletes, which fignifies the futeplayer, was gi¬
ven him becaufe he piqued himfelf on his fkill in per¬
forming upon that inftrument, and was not affiamed
even to contend for the prize in the public games. Pie
propriety of this advice, the friends he had with him
diffuaded him from following it, and accordingly he
fet out for Rome.
On his arrival in this metropolis, the king found, to Infamous
his great concern, that Casfar, in whom he placed his conduit.o£
took great pleafure in imitating the manners of the greateft confidence, was then in Gaul. He was recei-Aulete**
Bacchanals; dancing in a female drefs, and in the ved, however, by Pompey with great kindnefs. He
fame meafures that they ufed during the folemnity of affignedhim an apartment in his own houfe, and omitted
their god Bacchus ; and hence he had the furname of nothing that lay in his power to ferve him. But, not-
the New Dionyfius or Bacchus. As his title to the withflariding the protection of fo powerful a man, Au-
crown was difputable (he being only the fon of a letes was forced to go from houfe to houfe like a pri-
concubine), the firit care of Auletes was to get him- vate perfon, foliciting the votes of the fenators. Af-
g! felf acknowledged by the Romans, and declared their ter he had fpent immenfe treafures in procuring a
Ssacknow- ally. This was obtained by applying to Julius Caefar, ftrong party in the city, he was at laft permitted to
ledged by wb0 was at that time conful, and immenfely in debt, lay his complaints before the fenate ; and at the fame
R° Czefar being glad of fuch an opportunity of raifing time there arrived an embaffy from the Alexandrians,
"3nan3’ money, made the king of Egypt pay pretty dear for confifting of 100 citizens, to acquaint the fenate with
his alliance. Six thoufand talents, a fum equal to the reafons of their revolt. ^
L. 1,162,500 Sterling, were paid partly to Caefar him- When Auletes firft fet out for Rome, the Alexan-Berenice
fary for obtaining the confent of the people. Though on the throne his daughter Berenice ; and fent an
the revenues of Egypt amounted to twice this fum, baffy into Syria to Antiochus Afiaticus, inviting him
yet Auletes found it impoffible for him to raife it with- into. Egypt to marry the queen, and reign in partner-
out feverely taxing his fubjeCts. This occafioned a ge¬
neral difeontent; and while the people were almoft
ready to take up arms, a moll unjuft decree paffed at
Rome for feizing the ifland of Cyprus. When the A-
lexandrians heard of the intentions of the republic, they
preffed Auletes to demand that ifland as an ancient ap¬
pendage of Egypt; and, in cafe of a refufal, to de¬
clare war againtl that haughty and imperious people,
fhip with her. Antiochus was dead before the arrival
of the ambaffadors ; upon which the fame propofal was .5
made to his brother Seleucus, who readily accepted it. She mnrries
This Seleucus is deferibed by Strabo as monftroufly de- Seleucus,
formed in body, and ftill more fo in mind. The
gyptians nicknamed him Cyhtofacies, or the Scullion ; a
name which feemed more fit for him than any other.
He was fcarce fettled on the throne, when he gave a
who, they now faw, though too late, aimed at no- fignal inftance of his fordid and avaricious temper,
thing lefs than the fovereignty of the world. With Ptolemy the firft had caufed the body of Alexander the
this requeft the king refufed to comply ; upon which Great to be depofited in a coffin of maffy gold. This
5*
Is driven
from the
his fubje&s, already provoked beyond meafure at the
taxes with which they were loaded, flew to arms, and
furrounded the palace. The king had the' good luck
to efcape their fury, and immediately leaving Alexan-
throne, and^ia, fet fajl for Rome.
the king feized upon ; and by that means provoked his
wife Berenice to fuch a degree, that fhe caufed him to
be murdered. She then married one Archelaus, high Marries
prieft of Comana in Pontus, who pretended to be the Archelaujj
fon of Mithridates the Great; but was, in-fadl, only
In his way to that city, he landed on the ifland.of the fon of that monarch’s general.
Rhodes, where the famous Cato at that time was, be- Auletes was not a little alarmed on hearing of thefe
ing on his way to Cyprus, to put the unjuft decree of tranfadlions, efpecially when the ambaffadors arrived,
the fenate in execution. Auletes, defirous to confer who he feared would overturn all the fchemes he had
■with a man of his prudence, .immediately fent to ac- laboured fo much to bring about. The embafly was
quaint him with his arrival. lie imagined^ that, up- headed by one Dion, a celebrated academic philofopher,
* who
E G Y [ 379 ] E G Y
Egypt- who had many powerful friends at Rome. But Ptolemy der to procure the money he had been obliged to bor- Egypt,
‘“'"■■'v—~ found means to get both him and moft of his followers row while in a Hate of exile. Thefe oppreflions and
5® alfaffinated ; and this intimidated the reft to fuch a de- exa£Uons the cowardly Egyptians bore with great pa- Bere^|ce
murders the gree> that they durft not execute their commifllon, or, tience, being intimidated by the garrifon which Gabi- p"et"IC
Egyptian for fome time, even demand juftice. for the murder of nius had left in Alexandria. But neither the fear of death, aad
ambaffa- their colleagues. the Romans, nor the authority of Ptolemy, could make the people
<ior3< The report of fo many murders, however, at laft them put up an affront offered to their religion. A Ro-°PPreffecl*
fpread a general alarm. Auletes, fure of the protec- man foldier happened to kill a cat, which was a
tion of Pompey, did not fcruple to own himfelf the
perpetrator of them. Nay, though an aftion was
mal held facred and even worlhipped by the Egyptians;
and no fooner was this fuppofed facrilege known, than
commenced againft one Afcitius an affaflin who had the Alexandrians made a general infurredlion, and, ga-
ftabbed Dion the chief of the embaffy above mentioned,
and the crime was fully proved ; yet he was acquitted
by the venal judges, who had all been bribed by Pto¬
lemy. In a fhort time, the fenate paffed a decree, by
which it was ena&ed, that the king of Egypt ftiould
Hisrcftora-be reftored by force of arms. All the great men in
.^ndecreei Rorne were ambitious of this commiifion ; which, they
.v f p p- well knevv> would be attended with immenfe profit.
Their contefts on this occafion took up a confiderable
time; and at laft a prophecy of the Sybil was found
out, which forbad the afiifting an Egyptian monarch
with an army. Ptolemy, therefore, wearied out with fo
■by the fe¬
nate.
thering together in crowds, made their way through
the Roman guards, dragged the foldier out of hi*
houfe, and, in fpite of all oppofition, tore him in
pieces.
Notwithftanding the heavy taxes, however, which
Ptolemy laid on his people, it doth not appear that he
had any defign of paying his debts. Rabirius, who,
as we have already obferved, had lent him immenfe Ingratitude-
fums, finding that the king affe&ed delays, took a of Auletes,.
voyage to Egypt, in order to expoflulate with him in
perfon. Ptolemy paid very little regard to his expo-
ftulations ; but cxcufed himfelf on account of the bad
long a delay, retired from Rome, where he had made ftate of his finances. For this reafon he offered to
make Rabirius colleftor-general of his revenues, that he
might in that employment pay himfelf. The unfor¬
tunate creditof accepted the employment for fear of
lofing his debt. But Ptolemy, foon after, upon fome
frivolous pretence or other, caufed him and all his fer-
vants to be clofely confined. This bafe condudl exaf-
perated Pompey as much as Rabirius; for the former
had been in a manner fecurity for the debt, as the mo¬
ney had been lent at his requeft, and the bufinefs tranf-
afted at a country houfe of his near Alba. How-
s Rabirius had reafon to fear the worft, he took
himfelf generally odious, to the temple of Diana at
Ephefus, there to wait the decifion of his fate. Here
he remained a confiderable time : but as he faw that the
fenate came to no refolutiori, tho’ he had folicited them
by letters fo to da; at laft, by Pompey’s advice, he ap¬
plied to Gabinius the proconful of Syria. This Gabi-
nius was a man of a moft infamous charafter, and ready
to undertake any thing for money. Therefore, though
it was contrary to an exprefs law for any governor to
go out of his province without pofitive orders from the
fenate and people of Rome, yet Gabinius ventured to
60 tranfgrefs this law, upon condition of being well paid the firft opportunity of making his efcape, glad to get
Gabinius for his pains. As a recompence for his trouble, how- off with life from his cruel and faithlefs debtor. To
ever, he demanded IQ,©00 talents; that is, L. 1,937,500 complete his misfortunes, he was profecuted at Rome
him for a Sterling. Ptolemy, glad to be reftored on any terms, as foon as he returned, i. For having enabled Ptole-
greatfum. agreed to pay the above mentioned fum ; but Gabinius my to corrupt the fenate with fums lent him for that
would not ftir till he had received one-half of it. This purpofe. 2. For having debafed and difhonoured the
obliged the king to' borrow it from a Roman knight chara&er of a Roman knight, by farming the reve-
named Caius Rabirius Po/lbumius ; Pompey interpofing nues, and becoming the fervant of a foreign prince,
his credit and authority for the payment of the capital 3. For having been an accomplice with Gabinius, arid
and intereft. fharing with him the 10,000 talents which that pro-
Gabinius now fet out for Egypt, attended by the cowiful had received for his Egyptian expedition. By
famous Mark Anthony, who at this time ferved in the the eloquence of Cicero he was acquitted ; and one of
army under him. He was met by Archelaus, who the heft orations to be found in the writings of that
fince the departure of Auletes had reigned in Egypt author was compofed on this occafion. Gabinius was
jointly with Berenice, at the head of a numerous ar- alfo profecuted ; and, as Cicero fpoke againft him, he
my. The Egyptians were utterly defeated, and Ar- very narrowly efcaped death. He was, however, con-
chelaus taken prifoner in the firft engagement. Thus demned to perpetual baniftiment, after having been
Gabinius might have put an end to the war at once : ftripped of all he was worth. He lived in exile till the
but his avarice prompted him to difmifs Archelaus on time of the civil wars, when he was recalled by Cxfar,
his paying a confiderable ranfom ; after which, pre- in whofe fervice he loft his life.
tending that he had made his efcape, frefti fums were de- Auletes enjoyed the throne of Egypt about foifri .eaSlu,
manded from Ptolemy for defraying the expences of the years after his i-e-eftabliftiment; and at his. death left chil.Iren to
war. For thefe fums Ptolemy was again obliged to his children, a fon and two daughters, under the tul-the care cf
61 apply t0 Rabirius, who lent him what money he tion of the Roman people. The name of the fon wasthe Ro*
Archelaus wanted at a very high intereft. At laft, however, Ar- Ptolemy^ thofe of the daughters were Cleopatra andmailS‘
“ndk'lf d c^e^aus was and killed, and thus Ptolemy a- /Irfmoe. This was the Cleopatra who afterwardsbe-
1 6 ‘ gain became mafter of all Egypt. came fo famous, and had fo great a fhare in the civil
No fooner was Auletes firmly fettled on the throne, wars of Rome. As the tranfa&ions of the prefeiit
than he put to death his daughter Berenice, and op- reign, however, are fo clofely conne&ed with the af- >.'
preffed his-people with, the moft cruel exadions, in or- fairs of Rome, that they cannot be well underftood
“ ■ 3 B 2 without
E G Y [ 380 1 E G Y
Egypt, without knowing the Gtuation of the Romans at that
  time, we refer for an account of them to the Hijlory
65 of Rome.
State of E- With Gkopatra ended the family of Ptolemy Lagus,
gypt till irsi the founder of the Grecian empire in Egypt, after it
thekhalify^at country in fubjeftion for the fpace of
of Cairwar. 294 years. From this time Egypt became a province
of the Roman empire, and continued fubjedt to the
emperors of Rome or Conftantinople. In the year
642, it was conquered by the Arabs under Amru Ebn
al As, one of the generals of the khalif Omar. In
the year 889, an independent government was fet up
in this kingdom by Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who rebelled
againft Al Mokhadi khalif of Bagdad. It continued
to be governed by him and his fucceffors for 27 years,
when it was again reduced by Al Mo&afi khalif of Bag¬
dad. In about 30 years after, we find it again an in¬
dependent ftate, Being joined with Syria under Maho-
tnet Ebn Taj, who had been appointed governor of
thefe provinces. This government, however, was al-
fo but ftiort-lived ; for in the year 968 it was conquer¬
ed by Jawhar, one of the generals of Moez Ledinillah,
the Fatemite khalif of Cairwan in Barbary. See Bar.-
bary, n° 34.
Moez No fooner was Moez informed of the fuccefs of his
takes pof- general, than he prepared with all expedition to go and
feflion of take p0{fe{fion of his new conqueft. Accordingly he
ordered all the vaft quantities of gold which he and his
predeceffors had amaffed, to be call into ingots of the
fize and figure of the mill-ftones ufed in hand-mills, and
conveyed on camels backs into Egypt. To fhow that
he was fully determined to abandon his dominions in
Barbary, and to make Egypt the refidence of himfelf
and his fucceflbrs, he caufed the remains of the three
former princes of his race to be removed from Cair¬
wan in Barbary, and to be depofited in a Itarely mofque
eredted for that purpofe in the city of Cairo in Egypt.
This was a molt effectual method to induce his fuccef-
his
ktng<i<
fors to refide in Egypt alfo, as it was become an efta-
blilhed cuftom and duty among thofe princes frequent¬
ly to pay their refpedlful vifits to the tombs of their
, ancellors.
Will not To eftabliih himfelf the more effe&ually in his new
fuffer pray- dominions, Moez fuppreffed the ufual prayers made in
ers to be the mofques for the khalifs of Bagdad, and fubftituted
khalif'of1*6 hi* own name *n tiie*r This was complied wkh,
■Bagdad” not only in Egypt and Syria, but even throughout all
Arabia, the city of Mecca alone excepted. The con-
fequence was, a fchifm in the Mahommedan faith,
which continued upwards of 2CO years, and was at¬
tended with continual anathemas, and fometimes de-
ftru&ive wars between the khalifs of Bagdad and of
Egypt.—Having fully eftablifhed himfelf in his king¬
dom, he died in the 45th year of his age, three years
after he had left his dominions in Barbary; and was
fucceeded by his fon Abu Al Manfur Barar, furnamed
Aziz Billah.
The new khalif fucceeded to the throne at the age
of 21 ; and committed the management of affairs en¬
tirely to the care of Jawhar, his father’s long expe-
Unfuccefs r^enced general and prime minifter. In 978, he fent
ful expedi- tins famous warrior to drive out Al Aftekin, the emir
tion into of Damafcus. The Egyptian general accordingly
Syria. formed the fiege of that place ; but at the end of two
months, was obliged to raife it, on the approach of an
army of Karmatians under the command of Al Hakem. Egypt.-
As Jawhar was not flrong enough to venture an en-  v—^
gagement with thefe Karmatians, it was impoffible for
him to hinder them from effecting a junction with the
forces of Al Aftekin. He therefore retreated, or ra¬
ther fled, towards E^ypt with the utmoft expedition ;
but being overtaken by the two confederate armies, he
was foon reduced to the laft extremity. He was, how¬
ever, permitted to refume his march, on condition that
he paffed under Al Aftekin’s fword and Al Hakem’s
lance ; and to this difgraceful condition Jawhar found
himfelf obliged to lubmit. On his arrival in Egypt,
he immediately advifed Al Aziz to undertake an expe¬
dition in perfon into the eaft, againft the combined ar¬
my of Turks, Karmatians, and Damafcenes, under the
command of Al Aftekin and Al Hak^m. The khalif
followed his advice ; and advancing againft his enemies,
overthrew them with great (laughter. Al Aftekin
himfelf efcaped out of the battle ; but was afterwards
taken and brought to Al Aziz, who made him his
chamberlain, and treated him with great kindnefs.
Jawhar, in the mean time, was difgraced on account of
his bad fuccefs; and in this difgrace he continued till
his death, which happened in the year of our Lord 990,
and of the Hegira 381. ^
This year Al Aziz having received advice of the Aleppo te.
death of Saado’dawla prince of Aleppo, fent a formi-fiegedwi K
dable army under the command of a general namedout fucc'-*>*
Manjubekin, to reduce that place. Lulu, who had
been appointed guardian to Saado’dawla’s fon, tijiding
himfelf preffed by the Egyptians, who carried on the
fiege with great vigour, demanded affiftance from the
Greek emperor. Accordingly, he ordered a body of
troops to advance to Lulu’s relief. Manjubekin, being
informed of their approach, immediately raifed the
fiege, and advanced to give them battle. An obfti-
nate engagement enfued, in which the Greeks were at
laft overthrown with great (laughter. After this vic¬
tory, Manjubekin puftied on the fiege of Aleppo
very brilkly; but finding the place capable of defend¬
ing itfelf much longer than he at firft imagined, and
his provifions beginning to fail, he raifed the fiege.
The khalif upon this fent him a very threatening let¬
ter, and commanded him to return before Aleppo. He
did fo ; and continued the fiege for 13 months; during
all which time it was defended by Luld with incredible
bravery. At laft, the Egyptians hearing that a nume¬
rous army of Greeks was on their way to relieve the
city, they raifed the fiege, and fled with the utmoft
precipitation. The Greeks then took and plundered
fome of the cities which Al Aziz pofleffed in Syria ;
and Manjubekin made the bed of his way to Damaf¬
cus, where he fet up for himfelf. Al Aziz being in¬
formed of this revolt, inarched in perfon againft him
with a confiderable army ; but being taken ill by the
way, he expired, in the ziftyear of his reign and 424
of his age.
Al Aziz was fucceeded by his fon Abu Al Manfur,
furnamed Al Hakem; who, being only 11 years of age,
was put under the tuition of an eunuch of approved
integrity.
This reign is remarkable for nothing fo much as theSt,.ar,^e
madnefs with which the khalif was feized in the latter madnefs of
part of it. This manifefted itfelf firft by his iffuingthe khaJil
many prepofterous edi&s; but at length grew to fuch A1
E G Y [ 381 ] E G Y
Egypt, a height, that he fancied himfelf a god, and found no
fewer than 16,000 perfons who owned him as fuch.
Thefe were moftly the Dararians, a new fed fprung
up about this time, who were fo called from their chief,
Mohammed ^Ebn Ithmael, f'urnamed Darari. He is
iuppofed to have infpired the mad khalif with this im¬
pious notion ; and, as Darari fet up for a fecond Mo¬
des, he did not fcruple to affert that A1 Hakena was the
great Creator of the univerfe. For this reafon, a zea¬
lous Turk ftabbed him in the khaltf’s chariot. His
death was followed by a three days uproar in the
city of Cairo ; during which, Darari’s houfe was pull¬
ed down, and many of his followers maffacred. The
led, however, did not expire with its author. He
left behind him a difciple named Hamza, who, being
encouraged by the mad khalif, fpread it far and wide
through, his dominions. This was quickly followed by
an abrogation of all the Mahommedan falls, feftivals,
•and pilgrimages, the grand one to Mecca in particular;
fo that the zealous Mahometans were now greatly a-
larmed, as juftly fuppofing that A1 Hakem defigned
entirely to fupprefs the worlhip of the true God, and
introduce his own in its place. From this apprehen-
fion, however,.they were delivered by the death of the
klialif; who was aflaffinated, by a contrivance of his own
filler, in the. year 1020.
A1 Hakem was fucceeded by his fon A1 Thaher,
who reigned 15 years; and left the throne to a fon un¬
der feven years «f age, named A1 Moitanfer Billah.—
In the year 104 x, a revolt happened in Syria; but A1
Moitanfer having fent a powerful army into that coun¬
try, under the command of one Anujhteldn, he not
only reduced the rebels, but confiderably enlarged the
Egyptian dominions.in Syria..
AlMoftar- In 1054, a Turk, named A1 BafTafiri, having quar-
fer attempts relied with the vizir A1 Kayem khalif of Bagdad, fled
^ to Egypt, and put himfelf under the protedlion of
A1 Moftanfer. The.latter, imagining this would be a
favourable opportunity for enlarging his dominions, and
perhaps feizing on the city of Bagdad, fupplied Baffa-
firi with money and troops. By this affiltance, he was
enabled to pofl’efs himfelf of Arabian Irak, and rava-
Khalif of that province to the very gates of Bagdad. On
Ba^d.id af- this, A1 Kayem wrote, to Togrol Beg, or Tangroli-
fiftedby pix, the Turkilh fultan, who pofTefled very extenfive
TpgrolBeg.
in the eaft, to come to his affillance.. The-
fultan immediately complied with his.req.ueft, and foon
arrived at Bagdad with a formidable army and 18 ele¬
phants. Of this Baffafiri. gave notice to A1 Moftan¬
fer, and.intreated.him to exert .himfelf further for his
fupport againft fo powerful an enemy. This was ac¬
cordingly done, but nothingj^orthy of notice happened
till the year 1058. At this time Baflafiri having
found means to excite Ibrahim the fultan’s brother to
a revolt, Togrol Beg was obliged to employ all his
Bagdad ta- ^orce againft him. This gave BafTafiri an opportunity
ken. of feizing on the city of Bagdad itfelf; and the unfor¬
tunate khalif, according to fome, was taken prifoner,
or, according to others, fled out of the city. Baftafiri,
on his entry, canfed A1 Moftanfer to be immediately
proclaimed khalif in all quarters of the city. A1 Kay-
em’s vizir he caufed to be led on a camel through the
ftreets of Bagdad, drefled in a woollen gown, with a
high red bonnet, and a leathern collar about his neck.; s
roan laftiing him all the. way behind. Then being fewed
queft of
Bagdad.
up in a bull’s hide, with the horns placed over his Egypt,
head, and hung upon hooks, he was beaten without ^
ceafing till he died. The imperial palace was plun¬
dered, and the khalif himfelf detained a clofe pri-
fotier. _ _ 74
This fuccefs was but fliort-lived ; for, in xoyp, To-The khalif
grol Beg defeated his brother Ibrahim, took him pri-r«ft<-ied,
foner, and ftrangled him with a bow-firing. He then
marched to Bagdad, which Baffafiri thought proper to
abandon at his approach. Here the khalif A1 Kayem
was delivered up by Mabras/ the governor of a city
called Haditha, who had the charge of him. The
khalif was immediately reftored to his dignity ; which
Baffafiri no fooner underftood, than he again advanced
towards the city. Againft him Togrol Beg fent a
part of his army under fome of his generals, while he
himfelf followed with the reft. A battle enfued, in
which the army of Baffafiri was defeated, and he him¬
felf killed. His head was brought to Togrol Beg,
who caufed it to be carried on a pike through the
ftreets of Bagdad. ^
Thus the hopes of A1 Moftanfer were entirely fru- Decline of t
ftrated ; and from this period we may date the declen- the Egyp-
fion of the Egyptian empire under the khalifs. They UaBenlP‘re*
had made themfelves mafters of almoft. all Syria ; but
no fooner was Baffafici’s bad fuccefs known, than the
younger part of the citizens of Aleppo revolted, and
let up Mahmud Azzo’dawla, who immediately laid
fiege to the citadel. A1 Moftanfer fent a powerful
army againft him, which Azzo’dawla entirely defeat¬
ed, and took the general himfelf prifoner ; and foon
after this, he made himfelf mafter both of the city and
citadel, with all. their dependencies. In his new do-
miniona he behaved with the greateft cruelty, deftroy-
ing every thing with fire and fword, and making fre¬
quent incurfions into. the. neighbouring provinces,
which he treated in the fame manner. .
Thia diftafter .was foonTollowed by others ftill more Terrible fe-<
terrible. In 1066, a famine raged over all.Egypt and miae antl
Syria, with fuch fury, that dogs and cats were fold forPla£ue’
four or five Egyptian dinars each, and other provifions
in proportion. Multitudes of people died in Cairo for
want, of food. Nay, fo great was the fcarcity, that
the vizir had but one.fervantleft who was able to attend
him to the khalif’s palace, and to whom he gave the
care of his horfe when he alighted at the gate. But,
at his return, he was furprifed to find that the horfe
had been carried off, killed, and eaten by the famiftied
people. Of this he complained to the khalif; who
caufed. three of them who had carried off the horfe to -
be hanged. Next day, however, he was ftill more fur¬
prifed to hear, that all the flefti had been picked off the
bones of the three unhappy criminals, fo that nothing
but the Ikeletons were left. And to fuch a degree of
mifery %vere the inhabitants, not only in Cairo but .,
through all Egypt, reduced, that the carcafes of-thofe
who died were fold , for food at. a great price, inftead
of being buried. All this time the khalif fliowed the
greateft. kindnefs and beneficence towards his unhappy
fubje&s, ;infomuch that of 10,000 horfes, mules, and
camels, which he had in his ftables when the famine
began, he had only three left when it was removed.
The famine was followed by a plague; and this by Invaded hf,-
an invafion of the Turks under Abu Ali A1 Hafan the Turks.
Naferod’dawla, the v$ry general who had been fent a-
gainft
7 8
Jemlalem
taken.
A revolu¬
tion in the
E G Y [ 382 ] E G Y
gainft the rebel Azzo’dawla and defeated by him.
He began with befieging the khalif in his own palace;
and the unhappy prince, being in no condition to make
refiftance, was obliged to buy himfelf off at the ex¬
pence of every thing valuable that was left in his ex-
haulled capital and treafury. This, however, did not
hinder thefe mercilefs plunderers from ravaging all
the Lower Egypt from Cairo to Alexandria, and com¬
mitting the moft horrid cruelties through that whole
traft.—This happened in the years 1067 and 1068;
and in 1069 and 1070, there happened two other re¬
volts in Syria : fo that this country was now almoft
entirely loft.
In 1095 died the khalif AlMoftanfer, having reign¬
ed 60 years; and was fucceeded by his fon Abul Ka-
fem, furnamed A1 Moftali.—The moft remarkable
tranfattion of this prince’s reign, was his taking the
city of Jerufalem from the Turks in 1098 : but this
fuccefs was only of ftiort duration; for it was, the fame
year, taken by the crufaders.
From this time to the year 1x64, ^ Egyptian hi-
ftory affords little elfe than an account of the intefline
broils and contefts between the vizirs or prime mini-
fters, who were now become fo powerful, thaf they
had in a great meafure ftripped the khalifs of their ci¬
vil power, and left them nothing but a fhadow of fpi-
ritual dignity. Thefe contefts at laft gave occafion to
a revolution, by which the race of Fatemite khalifs
was totally extinguiftied. This revolution was accom-
plifhed in the following manner.—One Shawer, having
overcome all his Competitors, became vizir to A1 A-
ded, the eleventh khalif of Egypt. He had not been
long in poffeffion of this office, when A1 Dargam, an
officer of rank, endeavoured to deprive him of it.
Both parties quickly had recourfe to arms; and a battle
enfued, in which Shawer was defeated, and obliged
to fly to Nuroddin prince of Syria, by whom he was
gracioufly received, and who promifed to reinftate him
in his office of vizir. As an inducement to Nuroddin
to aflift him more powerfully, Shawer told him that
the crufaders had landed in Egypt, and made a con-
fiderable progrefs in the conqueft of it. He promifed
alfo, that, in cafe he was reinftated in his" office, he
would pay Nuroddin annually the third part of the re¬
venues of Egypt; and would, befides, defray the whole
expence of the expedition.
As Nuroddin bore an implacable hatred to the Chri-
fiians, he readily undertook an expedition againft them,
for which he was to be fo well paid. He therefore
fent an army into Egypt under the command of Shawer
and a general mmcd. dfadoddin. Dargam, in the mean
time, had cut off fo many generals whom he imagi¬
ned favourable to Shawer’s intereft, that he thereby
weakened the military force of the kingdom, and in a
great meafure deprived himfelf of the power of refift¬
ance. He was therefore eafily overthrown by Afa-
doddin, and Shawer reinftated in the office of vizir.
The faithlefs minifter, however, no fooner faw himfelf
firmly eftabliftied in his office, than he refufed to fulfil
his engagements to Nuroddin by paying the ftipulated
fums. Upon this, Afadoddin feized Pelufium and fame
other cities. Shawer then entered into an alliance with
the crufaders, and Afadoddin was befieged by their com¬
bined forces in Pelufium. Nuroddin, however, having
invaded the Chriftian dominions in Syria, and taken a
ftrong fortrefs called Harem, Shawer and his confede¬
rates thought proper \o hearken to fome terms of ac¬
commodation, and Afadoddin was permitted to depart
for Syria.
In the mean time, Nuroddin, having/fubdued the
greateft part of Syria and Mefopotamia, refolved to
make Shawer feel the weight of his refentment, on
account of his perfidious conduct. He therefore
fent back Afadoddin into Egypt with a fufficient force,
to compel Shawer to fulfil his engagements : but this
the vizir took care to do before the arrival of Afadod¬
din ; and thus, for the prefent, avoided the danger.
It was not long, however, before he gave Nuroddin
freffi occafion to fend this general againft him. That
prince had now driven the crufaders almoft entirely
out of Syria, but^was greatly alarmed at their progrefs
in Egypt; and confequentiy offended at the alliance
which Shawer had concluded with them, and which
he ft ill perfifted in obferving. This treaty was alfo
thought to be contrived on purpofe to prevent Shawer
from being able to fulfil his promife to Nuroddin, of
fending him annually a third of the revenues of Egypt.
Nuroddin therefore again difpatchcd Afadoddin into
Egypt, in the year 1166, with a fufficient force, and
attended by the famous Salahaddin, or Saladin, his
own nephew. They entered the kingdom without op-
pofition, and totally defeated Shawer and the crufa¬
ders. They next made themfelves mailers of Alex¬
andria ; and, after that, over-ran all the Upper Egypt.
Saladin was left with a confiderable garrifon.in Alex¬
andria ; but Afadoddin was no fooner gone, than the
crufaders laid fiege to that city. This at laft obliged
Afadoddin to return to its relief. The great Ioffes he
had fuftained in this expedition probably occafioned
his agreeing to a treaty with Shawer, by which he
engaged to retire out of Egypt, upon being paid a
fum of money.
Afadoddin was no fooner gone, than Shawer enter¬
ed into a frefh treaty with the Franks. By this new
alliance he was to attack Nuroddin in his own domi¬
nions, as he was at that time engaged in quelling fome
revolters, which would effe&ually prevent his fending
any more forces into Egypt.' This treaty fo provoked
the Syrian prince, that he refolved to fufpend his o-
ther conquefts for fome time,-and exert his whole
ftrength in the conqueft of Egypt. g0
By this time the crufaders had reduced Pelufium, Conqueft*
and made a confiderable progrefs in the kingdom, as £f.the cru"
well as in fome other countries, through the divifionsla erS'
which reigned among the Mahometan princes. In
fuch places as they conquered, they put almoft every
body to the fvvord, Chriitians as well as Mahometans;
felling their prifoners for flaves, and giving up the
towns to be plundered by the foldiers. From Pelu¬
fium they marched to Cairo ; which was then in no
pofture of defence, and in the utmoft confufion, by
reafon of the divifions which reigned in it. Shawer,
therefore, as fopn as he heard ®f their approach, cau-
fed the ancient quarter called Mefr to be fet on fire,
and the inhabitants to retire into the other parts. He
alfo prevailed upon thejthalif to folicit the affiftance
of Nuroddin; which the latter was indeed pretty much
inclined of himfelf to grant, as it gave him the fairell
opportunity he could have wilhed for, both of driving
the crufaders out of .Egypt, and of feizing tire king¬
dom
•sgm-
(E G Y [ 383 1
dom to hlmfelf. For this purpofe he had already raifed tempt; as it
• an army of 60,000 horfe under his general Afadoddin;
and, on the receipt of A1 Aded’s meffage, gave them
orders to fet out immediately. The crufaders were
now arrived at Cairo ; and had fo clofely befieged that
place, that neither Shawer nor the khalif knew any
thing of the approach of the Modem army which was
haftening to their relief. The vizir, therefore, find¬
ing it impofiible to hold out long againft the enemy,
had recourfe to his old fubterfuge of treaties and high
promifes. He fent the enemy 100,000 dinars, and
prbmifed them 900,000 more, if they would faife the
fiege; which they, dreading the approach of Afadod-
din, very readily accepted.
The army of Nuroddin now approached the capital
repulfed by by hally marches, and were every where received with
Nu1 odclm°^g^ateft demonftrations of joy. Afadoddin, on his
prince of arrival at Cairo, was invited by A1 Aden to the royal
JDamafcus. palace, where he was entertained in the moil magnifi¬
cent manner, and received feveral prefents ; nor were
Saladin and the other principal officers lefs magnifi¬
cently treated. Shawer alfo, confcious of his perfidious
conduct, was uo lefs affiduous in attending punftually
upon him. .But having invited the general and fome
Egypt.
.
They a
E G Y
ight very readily produce a revolt in fa¬
vour of A1 Aded; or if it did not, it gave Saladin an
opportunity of engroffing even that i'mall remnant of
power which was left to the khalif. A1 Aded, how¬
ever, was not fenfible of his difgrace; for he was on
his death-bed, and pad recovery, when Nuroddin’s 01
ders were executed. After his death, Saladin feized 0 „„ „ „ „„
ad his wealth and valuable effe&s ; which confifted ofefl'eftsof
jewels of prodigious fize, fumptuous furniture, a library1115 khafif*
containing 100,000 volumes, &c. His family he caufed
to be clofely confined in the moil private and retired
part of the palace ; and either manumitted his flaves,
or kept them for himfelf, or difpofed of them to o-
thers.
Saladin was now arrived at the higheft pitch of
wealth, power, and grandeur. He was, however, ob¬
liged to behave with great circumfpe&ion with regard
to Nuroddin; who ftill continued to treat him as his
vaflal, and would not fuffer him to difpute the lead of
his commands. He relied for advice chiefly on his fa¬
ther Ayub ; who was a confummate politician, and very g
ambitious of feeing his fon raifed to the throne of E-Afplresto
gypt. He therefore advifed Saladin to continue iledr the crqwcy
faft in his refolutions; and, whilft he amufed Nurod-
others to an entertainment, he had formed a fcheme of din with feigned fubmiffions, to take every method in
having them feized and murdered. The plot, however,
being difcovered, Shawer himfelf had his head cut off,
and Afadoddin was made vizir in his ftead. He did
not, however, long enjoy his new dignity ; for he died
two months and five days after his inftalment, being
Paladin be- fucceeded in his office of vizir by his nephew Saladin.
comes vizir The new vizir was the youngeft of all the grandees
® who afpired to that office, but had already given fome
fignal proofs of his valour and conduct. What deter¬
mined the khalif to prefer him to all the reft is not
known ; but it is certain that fome of them were highly
difpleafed with his promotion, and even publicly de¬
clared that they would not obey him. In order to gain
his power to fecure himfelf in the pofleffionof fo valuable
a kingdom. Nuroddin himfelf, however, was too great
a mafter in the art of diffimulation to be eafily impo-
fed on by others; and therefore, though he pretended
to be well pleafed with Saladin’s conduct, he was .all
this time railing a powerful army, with which he was
fully determined to invade Egypt the following year.
-But while he meditated this expedition, he was feized
with a quinfy at the caftle of Damafcus, which put an.
end to his life, in the year 1173.
Saladin, though now freed from the apprehenfions
of fuch a formidable enemy, dared not venture to af-
fume the title of Sovereign, while he faw the fuccefibr
thefe to his intereft, therefore, Saladin found it -necef- of Nuroddin at the head of a very powerful army, and
fary to diftribute among them part of the vaft treafures
left by his uncle; by which means he foon governed
Egypt without controul, as had been cuftomary with
the vizirs for fome time before. Soon after his being
inftalled into the office of vizir, he gave a total defeat
to the negroes who guarded the royal palace, and had
oppofed his eleftion ; by which means, and a ftrong
earrifon he had placed in the caftle of Cairo, his power
became firmly eftablilhed. Though he had not the
leaft intention of continuing in hrS allegiance to Nu¬
roddin, he did not think it prudent at firft to declare
himfelf. He fent for his father, however, and the reft
of his family, who were in Nuroddin’s dominions, in
order, as he faid, to make them partakers of his gran¬
deur and happinefs. Nuroddin did not think proper
no lefs defirous than able to difpoflefs him. For this
reafon his firft care was to fecure to himfelf an afylum,
in cafe he ftiould be obliged to leave Egypt altogether.
For this pur pofe he chofe tlrl kingdom of Nubia ; but
having difpatched his brother Malek Turanlhah thi¬
ther, at the head of a confiderable army, the latter
was fo much ftruck with the fterility and defolate ap¬
pearance of the country, that he returned without at- gy
tempting any thing. Saladin then fent his brother into Subdues TV-
Arabia Felix, in order to fubdue that country, whichr^3
had been for fome time held by Abdalnabi an Arabian
prince. Malek entered the country without oppofi-
tion ; and having brought Abdalnabi to a general ac¬
tion, entirely defeated him, took him prifoner, and
threw him into irons. He then over-ran and reduced
to deny this requeft ; though, being already jealous of under fubje&ion to Saladin great part of the country,
„    r J* T ~ a. L. _ *. L • r   ^ 1 *  r n _ 01 * r . rr* ^
the great power of Saladin, he infilled that his family
ffiould confider him only as one of his generals in E-
gypt-
A good underftanding fubfifted between Nuroddin
and Saladin for fome time, which did not a little con¬
tribute to raife the credit of the latter with the Egyp¬
tians. In 11 fig, Nuroddin fent him orders to omit
the name of A1 Aded, the khalif of Egypt, in the pub¬
lic prayers, and fubftitste that of the khalif of Bagdad
in its place. This was at any rate a dangerous at-
taking no fewer than 80 caftles or fortreffes of confi¬
derable ftrength.
After this good fortune, Saladin., now fare of a con¬
venient place of refuge in cafe of any misfortune, af- 35
fumed the title of Sultan or fovereign.of Egypt; and Aflumes.
was acknowledged as fuch by the greater part of thet> e ‘klecf
ftates. The zeal of the Egyptians for the Fatemitef;,luffi‘
khalifs, however, foon produced a rebellion. One
Kanz, or Kanzanaddo'wla, governor of a city in Upper
Egypt, aflembled a great army of blacks, or rather
d fwarthy
E G Y [. 3*4 ] ^ G Y
t'-KYl'i- &,vatthy" natives ; and marching dire^Iy into the lower
country, was there joined by great numbers of other
Egyptians. Againft them Saladin difpatched his
brother Malek, who foon defeated and entirely difper-
fed them. This, however, did not prevent another in-
furreftion under an impoftor, who pretended to be
David the fon of A1 Aden the laft Fatemite khalif,
and had collefted a body of ieo,ooo men. But be¬
fore thefe had time to do any great damage, they were
furprifed by the fultan’s forces, and entirely'defeated.
Above 300 were publicly hanged, and a vaft number
periflied in the field, infomuch that it was thought
' icarce a fourth part of the whole body efcaped.
About this time Saladin gained a confiderable ad*
vantage over the crufaders, commanded by William II.
king of Sicily. That prince had invaded Egypt with
a numerous fleet and army, with which he laid clofe
fiege to Alexandria both by fea and land. Saladin,
irowever, marched to the relief of the city with fuch
furprifing expedition, that the crufaders were feized
•with a fudden panic, and fled with the utmoft precipi¬
tation, leaving all their military engines, ftores, and
• baggage behind.
Saladin In 11 year 1175, the inhabitants of Damafcusbeg*
made Cove- ged of Saladin to accept the fovereignty of that city
reign of Da-ancl its dependencies; being jealous of the minifter,
13 ‘"“S' who had the tuition of the reigning prince, and who
governed all with an abfolute fway. The application
was no fooner made, than the fultan fet out with the
utmoft celerity to Damafcus, at the head of a chofen
detachment of 700 horfe. Having fettled his affairs in
that city, he appointed his brother Saif A1 I flam go¬
vernor of it; and fet out for Hems, to which he imme¬
diately laid fiege. Having made himfelf mailer of this
place, he then proceeded to Hamah. The city very
foon furrendered, but the citadel held out for fome time.
Saladin pretended that he accepted the fovereignty of
Damafcus and the other places he had conquered, only
as deputy to A1 Make A1 Saleh, the fucceffor of Nu-
roddin, and who was then under age ; and that he was
defirous of fending Azzoddin, who commanded in the
citadel, with a letter to Aleppo, where the young prince
refided. This fo pleafed Azzoddin, that he took the
oath of fidelity to Saladin, and immediately fet out
with the fultan’s letter. He had not, however, been
long at Aleppo before he was by the minifter’s orders
thrown into prifon ; upon which his brother, who had
been appointed governor of the citadel Hamah in his
abfence, delivered it up to Saladin without further ce¬
remony. The fultan then marched to Aleppo, with
a defign to reduce it; but, being vigoroufly repulfed
in feveral attacks, he was at laft obliged to abandon the
.enterprife. At the fame time, Kamfchlegin, A1
Malek’s minifter or vizir, hired the chief of the Bata-
* See /^/-nifts, or Affaffins#, to murder him. Several attempts
>• were made in confequence of this application ; but all
of them, happily for Saladin, mifearned.
After raifing the fiege of Aleppo, Saladin returned
to Hems, which place the crufaders had invefted. On
his approach, however, they thought proper to retire ;
after which, the fultan made himfelf mafter of the
ftrong caftle belonging to that place, which, before,
he had not been able to reduce. This was foon fol¬
lowed by the reduction of Baalbec; and thefe rapid
■conquefts fo alarmed the minifters of A1 Malek, that,
N°lio. 4
entering into a combination with fome of the neigh- Ettrr*-
bouring princes, they raifed a formidable army, with r
which they defigned to crufh the fultan at once. Sa- Defeats hij
ladin, fearing the event of a war, offered to cede Hemsenemk*.
and Hamah to A1 Malek, and to govern Damafcus
only as his lieutenant: but thefe terms being rejedled,
a battle enfued ; in which the allied army was utterly
defeated, and the ihattered remains of it fliut up in the
city of Aleppo. This produced a treaty, by which
Saladin was left mafter of all Syqa, excepting only the
city of Aleppo and the territory belonging to it.
In 1176 Saladin returned from the conqueft of Syria, Receives %
and made his triumphal entry into Cairo. Here, ha- terrible o-
ving refted himfelf and his troops for fome time, he^ert^™wr
began to encompafs the city with a wall 29,000 cubits jrufa(}er5,
in length, but which he did not live to finifh. Next
year he led a very numerous army into Paleftine a-
gainft the crufaders. But here his ufual good fortune
failed him. His army was entirely defeated. Forty
thoufand of his men were left dead on the field; and
the reft fled with fo much precipitation, that, having
no towns in the neighbourhood where they could Ihel-
ter themfelves, they traverfed the vaft defart between
Paleftine and Egypt, and fcarce Hopped till they
reached the capital itfelf. The greateft part of the
army by this means periflied ; and as no water was to
be had in the defart above mentioned, almoft all the
beafts died of thirft before the fugitives arrived on the
confines of Egypt. Saladin himfelf feemed to have been
greatly intimidated; for in a letter to his brother A1
Malek, he told him, that “ he was more than once
in the moft imminent danger; and that-God, as he
apprehended, had delivered him from thence, in order
to referve him for the execution of fome grand and im¬
portant defign.”
In the year 1182, the fultan fet out on an expedi¬
tion to Syria with a formidable army, amidft the ac¬
clamations and good wifhes of the people. He was,
however, repulfed with lofs both before Aleppo and AI
Mawfel, after having fpent much time and labour in
befieging thefe two important places.
In the mean time, a moft powerful fleet of Euro- The Chri-
pean fliips appeared on the Red Sea, which threatened ftians re¬
tire cities of Mecca and Medina with the utmoft dan-ceive ^ f
ger. The news of this armament no fooner reach- e e
ed Cairo, than Abu Beer, Saladin’s brother, who
had been left viceroy in the fultan’s abfence, caufed
another to be fitted out with all fpeed under the
command of Lulu, a brave and experienced officer;
who quickly came up with them, and a dreadful
engagement enfued. The Chriftians were defeated
after an obftinate refiftance, and all the prifoners
butchered in cold blood. This proved fuch a terrible
blow to the Europeans, that they never more ventured
on a like attempt.
In 1183, Saladin continued to extend hisconquefts. Sa|a(|jn.g
The city of Amida in Mefopotamia furrendered to him rapid con-
in eight days ; after which, being provoked by fome quefts.
violences committed by the prince of Aleppo, he re-
folved at all events to make himfelf mafter of that
place. He was now attended with better fuccefs than
formerly ; for as his army was very numerous, and he
pufhed on the fiege with the utmoft vigour, Ama-
doddin the prince capitulated, upon condition of being
allowed to poffefs certain cities in Mefopotamia which
Egrpt-
E G Y [ 385 1 E G Y
EgP!4- had formerly belonged to him, and being ready toat-
' tend the fultan on whatever expedition he pleafed. Af¬
ter the conqueft of Aleppo, Saladin took three other
cities, and then marched againft his old enemies the
crufaders. Having fent out a party to reconnoitre the
enemy, they fell in with a confiderable detachment of
Chriftians; whom they eafily defeated, taking about
100 prifoners, with the lofs of only a fingle man on
their fide. The fultan, animated by this firft inftance
of fuccefs, drew up his forces in order of battle,
and advanced againll the crufaders, who had affem-
bled their whole army at Sepphoris in Galilee. On
viewing the fultan’s troops, however, and perceiving
them to be greatly fuperior in ftrength to what they
had at firft apprehended, they thought proper to de¬
cline an engagement, nor could Saladin with all his
{kill force them to it. But though it was found im-
poffible to bring the crufaders to a decifive engage¬
ment, Saladin found means to harafs them great¬
ly, and deftroyed great numbers of their men. He
carried off alfo many prifoners, difmantled three
of their ftrongeft cities, laid wafte their territories,
and concluded the campaign with taking another
ftrong town.
Chriftians For three years Saladin continued to gain ground
totally de- on the crufaders, yet without any decifive advantage ;
feated. but in 1187, the fortune of war was remarkably un¬
favourable to them. The Chriftians now found them-
felves obliged to venture a battle, by reafon of the
cruel ravages committed in their territories by Saladin,
and by reafon of the encroachments he daily made on
them. Both armies therefore being refolved to exert
their utmoft efforts, a moft fierce and bloody battle
enfued. Night prevented vi&ory from declaring on
either fide, and the fight was renewed with equal ob-
ftinacy next day. The victory was ftill left undecided;
but the third day the fultan’s men finding themfelves
furrounded by the enemy on all fides but one, and
there alfo hemmed in by the river Jordan, fo that there
was no room to fly, fought like men in defpair, and
at laft gained a moft complete viftory. Vaft numbers
of the Chriftians periftied on the field. A large body
found means to retire in fafety to the top of a neigh¬
bouring hill covered with wood; but being furrounded
by Saladin’s troops, who fet fire to the wood, they
were all obliged to furrender at difcretion. Some of
them were butchered by their enemies as foon as they
delivered themfelves into their hands, and others thrown
into irons. Among the latter were the king of Jeru-
falem himfelf, Arnold prince of A1 Shawbec and A1
Carac, the mafters of the Templars and Hofpitalers,
with almoft the whole body of the latter. So great
was the confternation of the Chriftians on this occafion,
that one of Saladin’s men is faid to have taken 30 of
them prifoners, and tied them together with the cord
of his tent, to prevent them from making their efcape.
The mafters of the Templars and Hofpitalers, with the
knights adting under them, were no fooner brought
into Saladin’s prefence, than he ordered them all to be
cut in pieces. He called them AJfafins or Batan'ijls ;
and had been wont to pay 50 dinars for the head of
every Templar or Hofpitaler that was brought him.
After the engagement, Saladin feated himfelf in a
magnificent tent, placing the king of Jerufalem on his
right hand, and Arnold prince of A1 Shawbec and A1
Voi. VI. Part I.
Carac on his left. Then he drank to the former, who
was at that time ready to expire with thirft, and at
the fame time offered him a cup of fnow-water. This
was thankfully received; and the king immediately
drank to the prince of A1 Carac, who fat near him.
But here Saladin interrupted him with fome warmth:
“ I will not (fays he) fuffer this curfed rogue to drink;
as that, according to the laudable and generous cuftom
of the Arabs, would fecure to him his life.” Then,
turning towards the prince, he reproached him with
having undertaken the expedition while in alliance with
himfelf, with having intercepted an Egyptian caravan
in the time of profound peace, and maflacring the
people of which it was compofed, &c.v Notwithttand-
_ing all this, he told him, he would grant him his life,
if he would embrace Mahometanifm. This condition,
however, was refufed ; and the fultan, with one ftroke
of his fcimeter, cut off the prince’s head. This great¬
ly terrified the king of Jerufalem ; but Saladin affured
him he had nothing to fear, and that Arnold had
brought on himfelf a violent death by his want of com¬
mon honefty. 93
The crufaders being thus totally defeated and dif-His lui ther
perfed, Saladin next laid fiege to Tiberias, which ca- con8uefts‘
pitulated in a ftiort time. From thence he marched
towards Acca or Ptolemais, which likewife furrendered
after a ftiort fiege. Here he found 4000 Mahometan
prifoners in chains, whom he immediately releafed.
As the inhabitants enjoyed at prefent a very extenfive
trade, the place being full of merchants, he found there
not only vaft fums of money, but likewife a great va¬
riety of wares exceedingly valuable, all which he feized
and applied to his own ufe. About the fame time
his brother A1 Malec attacked and took a very ftrong
fortrefs in the neighbourhood ; after which the fultan
divided his army into three bodies, that he mic'h". „i.i,
the greater facility over-run the territories of the
Chriftians. Thus, in a very ftiort time, he*mad£ him¬
felf mafter of Neapolis, Caefarea, Sepphoris, and other
cities in the neighbourhood of Ptolemais, where his
foldiers found only women and children, the men ha¬
ving been all killed or taken prifoners. His next
conqueft was Joppa, which was taken by ftorm after a
vigorous refiftance. Every thing being then fettled,
and a diftribution made of the fpoils and captives, Sa¬
ladin marched in perfon againft Tebrien, a ftrong for¬
trefs in the neighbourhood of Sidon; which was taken
by affault, after it had fuftained a fiege of fix days.
No fooner was he mafter of this place, than he ordered
the fortrefs to be razed, and the garrifon put to the
fword. From Tebrien the vi&orious fultan proceeded
to Sidon itfelf; which, being deferted by its prince,
furrendered almoft on the firft fummons. Berytus
was next invefted, and furrendered in feven days. A-
mong the prifoners Saladin found in this place the
prince of a territory called Hobeil, who by way of ran-
fom delivered up his dominions to him, and was of
confequence releafed. About the fame time, a Chri-
ftian ftiip, in which was a nobleman of great courage
and experience in war, arrived at the harbour of Pto¬
lemais, not knowing that it was in the hands of Sala¬
din. The governor .might eafily have fecured the
veffel; but negle&ing the opportunity, ftie efcaped
to Tyre, where the above mentioned nobleman, toge¬
ther with the prince of Hobeil, contributed not a little
3 C to
E G Y
l ?S6 ]
^gyp4* to retrieve the affairs of the Chrlflians, and enable them
~' to make a ftand for folir years after.
Saladin In the mean time went on with his con-
E G Y
quefts. Having made hitnfelf mafter of Afcalon after means of prefervlng that city, and alfo of re-eftablifh-
Gnifaders
retrieve
their af¬
fairs.
had defended Jerufalem, and moft of the other fbr-
treffes taken by Saladin, having retreated to Tyre, '
formed there a very numerous body. This proved the
Egypf.
a fiege of 14 days, he next inverted Jerufalem. The
garrifon was numerous, and made an obftinate defence;
but Saladin having at laft made a breach in the walls
by fapplng, the befieged defired to capitulate. This
was at iirft refufed ; upon which the Chrirtian ambaf-
fador made the following fpeech: “ If that be the cafe,
know, O fultan, that we who are extremely numerous,
and have been reftrained from fighting like men in de-
fpair only by the hopes of an honourable dhpitulation,
will kill all our wives and children, commit all our
wealth and valuable effefts to the flames, maflacre 5000
ing their affairs for the prefent. For, having re¬
ceived powerful fuccours from Europe, they were en¬
abled in 1189 to take the field with 30,000 foot and
2000 horfe. Their firft attempt was upon Alexan-
dretta 5 from whence they diflodged a ftrong party of
Mahometans, and made themfelves mailers of the place
with very little lofs. They next laid fiege to Ptole-
mais; of which Saladin had no fooner received intelli¬
gence, than he marched to the relief of the place. Af¬
ter feveral Ikirmilhes with various fuccefs, a general en¬
gagement enfued, in which Saladin was defeated with
prifoners now in our hands, leave not a Angle bead of the lofs of 10,000 men. Thieenabled the Chriftians
burden or animal of any kind belonging to us alive,
and level with the ground the rock you efteem facred,
together with the temple A1 Akfa. After t|ya., we
will fally out upon you in a body ; and doubt not bti'
to carry on the fiege of Ptolemais with greater \
gour; which place, however, they were not able to re¬
duce for the fpace of two years.
This year the fultan was greatly alarmed by an ac-
we fhall either cut to pieces a much greater number of count that the emperor of Germany was advancing to
you than we are, or force you to abandon the fiege.” Conftantinople with an army of 260,000 men, in or-
This defperate fpeech had fuch an effe£t upon Saladin, der to a flirt the other crufaders. This prodigious ar-
tbat he immediately called a council of war, at which
all the general officers declared, that it would be moft
proper to allow the Chriftians to depart unmolefted.
The fultan therefore allowed them to n.arch out freely
and fecurely with their wives, children, and effects;
after which he received ten dinars from every man ca¬
pable of paying that fum, five from every woman, and
two from every young perfon under age. For the
poor v/ho were not able to pay any thing, the reft
of the inhabitants railed the fum of 30,000 dinars.
mament, however, came to nothing. The multitude
was fo reduced with ficknefs, famine, and fatigue, that
fcarce 1000 of them reached the camp before Ptole¬
mais. The fiege of that city was continued, though
with bad fuccefs on the part of the Chriftians. They
were repulfed in all their attacks, their engines were
burnt with naphtha, and the befieged always received
fupplies of provifions in fpite of the utmoft efforts of
the befiegers; at the fame time that a dreadful famine
and peftilence raged in the Chriftian camp, which fome-
Moft of the inhabitants of Jerufalem were efcorted times carried of 200 people a-day.
by a detachment of Saladin’s troops to Tyre ; and
fuon after, he advanced with his army againft that
In 1191, the Chriftians received powerful fuccours Richard’I.
from Europe. Philip II. of France, and Richard I.of Englan<*
place. As the port was blocked up by a fquadron of of England (from his great courage furnamed Caur de
five men of war, Saladin imagined that he ftrould ea- Lion), arrived before the camp at Ptolemais. The lat-
fily become mafter of it. But in.thishe found himfelf ter was efteemed the braveft and moft enterprizing of
miftaken. For, one morning by break of day, a Chri- all the generals the crufaders had ; and the fpirits of
Ilian fleet fell upon his fquadron, and entirely defeated his foldiers were greatly elated by the thoughts of ac-
if ; nor did a Angle veffel cfcape their purfuit. A ting under fuch an experienced commander. Soon af-
confiderable number of the Mahometans threw them- ter his arrival, the Englifli funk a Mahometan ftiip of
felves into the fea during the engagement; moft of vaft fize, having on board 650 foldiers, a great quantity
whom were drowned, though fome few efcaped. A- of arms and provifions, going from Berytus to Ptole-
bout the fame time Saladin himfelf was vigoroufly re¬
pulfed by land; fo that, after callirig a council of war,
s thought proper to raife the fiege.
mais. Of the foldiers and failors who navigated this
veffel, only a Angle perfon efcaped; who being taken
prifoner by the Englifli, was difpatched to the fultan
In 1188, Saladin, though his conquefts were not fo with the news of the difafter. The befieged ftill de¬
rapid and confiderable as hitherto, continued ftill fu-
perior to his enemies. He reduced the city of Lao-
dicea and fome others, together with many ftrong caf*
tles; but met alfo with feveral repulfes. At laft he
took the road to Antioch; and having reduced all the
fended themfelves with the greateft refolution ; and
the king of England happening to fall fick, the ope¬
rations of the befiegers were confiderably delayed. On
his recovery, however, the attacks were renewed with
fuch fury, that the place was every moment in danger
iortreffes that lay in his way, many of which had been of being taken by affault. This induced them to fend
deemed impregnable, Bohemond prince of Antioch a letter to Saladin, informing him, that if they did
was fo much intimidated, that he defired a truce for not receive fuccours the very next day, they would be
feven or eight months. This Saladin found himfelf obliged to fubmit. As this town was the fultan’s
obliged to comply with, on account of the prodigious principal magazine of arms, he was greatly affetled
fatigues his men had fuftained, and becaufe his auxili¬
aries now demanded leave to return home.
with the account of their diftrefs, efpecially as he
found it impofiible to relieve them. The inhabitants.
All thefe heavy Ioffes of the Chiiftians, however, therefore, found themfelves under a necelfity of fur-
proved in fome refpedls an advantage, as they were rendering the place. One of the terms of the capitu-
thus obliged to lay afide their animofities, which had lation was, that the crufaders ftiould receive a very
originally proved the ruin of their affairs. Thofe who confiderable fum of money from Saladin, in confe-
E G Y
[ 387 1
E G Y
Eprpt. quence of their delivering up the Mahometan priioners Roman pretorian bands, they turned their arms againft Egypt,
they had in their hands. This article Saladin refufed their mailers, and in 1250 depofed and murdered the
to comply with; and in confequence of his refufal,
Richard caufed 3000 of thofe unfortunate men to be
llaughtered atrDnce.
After the reduction of Ptolemais, the king of Eng-
khalif, as has been already, related.
The Mamlouks having got poifeHion of the govern¬
ment, and neither underilanding nor putting a value
upon any thing befides the art of war, every fpecies of
land, now made generaliffimo of the crufaders, took learning decayed in Egypt, and a great degree of bar-
the road to Afcalon, in order to befiege that place; barifm was introduced. Neither was their empire of
after which, he intended to make an attempt upon Je- long duration notwithftanding all their martial abilities,
ruialem itfelf. Saladin propofed to intercept his paf- The reafon of this was, that they were originally only
fage, and placed himfelf in the way with an army of a fmall part of the fultan of Egypt’s (landing forces.
300,000 men. On this occafion was fought one of As a numerous Handing army was neceflary in a coun-
Defeats Sa- the greateft battles of that age. Saladin was totally
ladin. defeated, with the lofs of 40,000 men ; and Afcalon
try where the fundamental maxim of government was,
that every native mud be a (lave, they were at firll at
foon fell into the hands of the crufaders. Other fieges a lofs how to adl; being juftly fufpicious of all the rell
were afterwards carried on with fuccefs, and Richard of the army. At lait they refolved to buy Chriftian
even approached within fight of Jerufalem, when he
found, that, by.reafon of the weakened ftate of his ar¬
my, and the divifions which prevailed among the of¬
ficers who commanded it, he (hould be under the ne-
ceffity of concluding a truce with the fultan. This
was accordingly done in the year 1192 ; the term w'as,
three years, three months, three weeks, three days,
and three hours; foon after which the king of England
fet out on his return to his own dominions.
(laves, and educate them in the fame way that they
themfelves had formerly been. Thefe were commonly
brought from Circaflxa, where the people, though they
profdfed Chridianity, made no fcruple of felling then-
children. When they were completed in their military
education, thefe foldiers were difpofed of through all
the fortrelfes eredted in the country to bridle the inha¬
bitants; and becaufe in their language fuch a fort was
called Borg:, the new militia obtained the name of
In 1193 Saladin died, to the inexprefiible grief of Borgites. By this expedient the Mamlouks imagined
all true Mahometans, who held him in the utmod
neration. His dominions in Syria and Baleftine were
(hared out among his children and relations into many
petty principalities. His fon Othman fucceeded to
they would be able to fecure them (elves in the fove-
reignty. But in this they were miitaken. In procefs
of time, the old Mamlouks grew proud, infolent, and iso
; x     lazy: and the Borgites, taking advantage of this, Driven out
the crown of Egypt; but as none of his fucceflbrs role upon their mailers, deprived them of the govern-tlle B°r*
r? m *    * r01 ’’ ‘1*"1 J1— ment, and transferred it to themfelves about the year^ltes*
1382.
The Borgites, as well as the former, affumed the
name of Mamlouks; and were famous for their valour
poffefied the enterprifing genius of Saladin, the hiftory
from that time to the year 1250 affords nothing re-
Mamiouks markable. At this time the reigning fultan Malek A1
become Salek was dethroned and (lain by the Mamelucs or Mam-
mailers of as they are called, a kind of mercenary foldiers and ferocity of conduft. They were almoit perpetu-
who ferved under him. In confequence of this revolu- ally engaged in wars either foreign or domdlic ; and
tion, the Mamelucs became mailers of Egypt, and chofe their dominion laded till the year 1517, when they were
1 fultan from among themfelves.—Thefe Mamlouks are
thought to have beenyoungTurksorTartars,fold topri-
vate perfons by the merchants, from whom they were
bought by the fultan, educated at his expence, and em¬
ployed to defend the maritime places of the kingdom.
The reafon of this inditution originally was, that the na¬
tive Egyptians were become fo cowardly, treacherous,
and effeminate, from a long courfe of (lavery, that they
v ere unfit for arms. The Mamlouks, on the contrary,
made mod excellent foldiers; for having no friends
but among their own corps, they turned all their
Account of thoughts to their own profeflion. According to
them. M. Volney, they came originally from Mount Cau-
invaded by Selim the Turkifh fultan. The Mamlouks Egy^con-
defended themfelves with incredible valour; notwith- quered by
(landing which, being overpowered by numbers, theySelila-
were defeated in every engagement. The fame year,
their capital, the city of Cairo, was taken, with a ter¬
rible (laughter of thofe who defended it. The fultan
was forced to fly; and, having colle&ed all his force,
ventured a decifive battle. The moll romantic efforts of
valour, however, were infuflicient to cope with the in¬
numerable multitude which compofed theTurkifli army.
Mod of his men were cut in pieces, and the unhappy
prince himfelf was at lad obliged to take (belter in a
marfh. He was dragged from his hiding place, where
cafus, and are difiinguiflied by the flaxen colour of he had dood up to the (houlders in water, and foon af-
their hair. Here they were found by the crufaders,
and were by them called Mamelucs, or more correctly
Mamlouks. The expedition of the Tartars in 1227
proved indirectly the means of introducing them into
Egypt. Thefe horrible conquerors, having (laughter-
ed and maffacred till they were weary, brought along
with them an immenfe number of (laves of both fexes,
with whom they filled all the markets in Afia. The
ter put to death. With him ended the glory, and
almod the exidence, of the Mamlouks, who were now
every where fearched for and cut in pieces.
This was the lail great revolution in the Egyptian
affairs; a revolution very little to the advantage of the
natives, who may well doubt whether their ancient or
modern conquerors have behaved with the greater de¬
gree of barbarity. Selim gave a fpecimen of his go-
Turks, taking advantage of the opportunity, purcha- vernment, the very day after his being put in full pof-
fed about 12,000 young men, whom they bred up in felfion of it by the death of Tuman Bey the unfortu-
the profeffion of arms, in which they foon attained 1
great perfection; but becoming mutinous, like the
by the death of Tuman Bey the unfortu¬
nate fultan above mentioned. Having ordered a theatre
to be ere&ed with a throne upon it on the banks of the
3 C 2 Nile,
E G Y
[ 388 1
E G Y
Egypt.
New f .rr
of gov
Nile, he caufed all the prifoners, upwards of 30,000
' in number, to be beheaded in his prefence, and their
. *u* ., bodies thrown into the river.
•ruelty.n Notwithftanding this horrid cruelty of Selim, he
did not attempt the total extermination of the race of
Mamlouks, though this would have been quite agree¬
able to the maxims ofTurkifh policy; but in the pre-
fent cafe he feems to have recoUedfed, that if he eila-
blifiled a pacha in Egypt with the fame powers with
which he inverted thofe of other parts, he would be
ioj inder ftrong temptations to revolt by reafon of the
1 diftance from the capital. He therefore propofed a
' new form of government, by which the power being
tToduced by dirtributed among the different members of the ftate,
Selim. 3 fhould preferve an equilibrium, fo that the dependence
of the whole fhould be upon, himfelf. With this view,
he chofe from among the Mamlouks who had efcaped
the geneial maffacre, a divan, or council of regency,
confiding of the pacha and chiefs of the feven military
corps. The former was to notify to this council the
orders of the Poite, to fend the tribute to Conftanti-
nople, and provide for the fafety of government both
external and internal; while, on the other hand, the
members of the council had a right to rejeft the orders
of the pacha, or even of depofing him, provided they
could affign fufficient reafons. All civil and political
ordinances mult alfo be ratified by them. Befides
this, he formed the whole body into a republic ; for
which purpofe he iffued an edict to the following pur-
pofe : “ Though, by the help of the Almighty, we
have conquered the whole kingdom of Egypt with our
invincible armies; neverthelefs our benevolence is will-
ing to grant to the 24 fangiacs (a) of Egypt a repub¬
lican government, with the following conditions,
His edi<5l
For a re-
public.
of cafiz (c) or meafures of corn, viz. 600,000 of wheat Egypt,
and 400,000 of barley.  v——
“ VII. The republic, fulfilling thefe articles, fhall
have a free government over all the inhabitants of E-
gypt, independent of our lieutenant; but fhall execute
the laws of the country with the advice of rhe mollah
or high prieft under our authority and that of our fuc-
ceffors.
“ VIII. The republic fhall be in poffeffion of the
mint as heretofore; but with this condition, that it fhall
be under the infpeftion of our lieutenant, that the coin
may not be adulterated.
“ IX. That the republic fhall elect a Jbeik bellet
out of the number of beys, to be confirmed by our
lieutenant; and that the faid fheik bellet fhall be-our
reprefentative, and fhall be efteemed by all our lieute¬
nants, and all our officers both of high and low rank,
as the head of the republic ; and if our lieutenant is
guilty of oppreffion, or exceeds the bounds of his au¬
thority, the faid fheik bellet fhall reprefent the grie¬
vances of the republic to our Sublime Porte : but in
cafe any foreign enemy or enemies difturb the peace of
the republic, we and our fucceffors engage to protect
it with our utmoft power until peace is re-ertablifhed,
without any coft or expence to the republic.
“ Given and figned by our clemency to the republic
of Egypt.” _ • I0j
Thus the power of the Mamlouks ftill continued in The Turk,
a very confiderable degree, and by degrees increafed power
fo much as to threaten a total lofs of dominion to the noV alm°rt
Turks. During the laft 50 years, the Porte having y
relaxed from its vigilance, fuch a revolution has taken
place, that the Turkifh power is now almoft reduced
to nothing. But in order to underftand this, we mufl
“ I. That our fovereignty fhall be acknowledged by confider the way in which the race of Mamlouks is
the republic; and in token of their obedience, our lieu¬
tenant fhall be received as our reprefentative : but to
do nothing againrt our will or the republic ; butj
continued or multiplied in Egypt. This is not in the
ordinary way, by marriage: on the contrary, M. Vol-
ney affures us, that “ during 550 years in which there why the
the contrary, fhall co-operate with it for its welfare on have been Mamlouks in Egypt, not one of them has children of
all occafions. Or if he fhall attempt to infringe any left fubfifting iffue ; all their children perifh in the firftthc Mam-
of its privileges, the republic is at liberty to fufpend or fecond defcent. Almoft the fame thing holds good IpurksTu
him from his authority, and to fend to our Sublime
Porte a complaint againft him, &c.
II. In time of war, the republic fhall provide
1.2,000 troops at its own expence, to be commanded
by a fangiac or fangiacs.
“ III. The republic fhall raife annually and fend to
our Sublime Porte the fum of 560,000 aflany (b), ac¬
companied by a fangiac, who fhall have a fatisfadlory
receipt, &c.
“ IV. The fame fum to be raifed for the ufe of Me¬
dina, and Kiabe or Mecca.
“ V. No more troops or janizaries fhall be kept by
the republic in time of peace than 14,000 ; but in
time of war they may be increafed to oppofe our and
the republic’s enemies.
“ VI. The republic fhall fend annually to our gra¬
nary, out of the produce of the country, one million
with regard to the Turks; and it is obferved, thatdieTL
they can only fecure the continuance of their families gypt.
by marrying women who are natives, which the Mam¬
louks have always difdained. The means by which
they are perpetuated and multiplied are the fame by
which they were firft eftablifhed, viz. by flaves brought
from their original country. From the time of the
Moguls this commerce has been continued on the
banks of the Cuban and Phafis in the fame manner as
it is carried on in Africa, by the wars among the ho-
ftile tribes, and the mifery or avarice of the inhabi¬
tants, who fell their children to ftrangers. The flaves
thus procured are firft brought to Conftantinople, and.
afterwards difperfed through the empire, where they
are purchafed by tire wealthy. When the Turks fub-
dued Egypt (fays M. Volney), they fhould undoubt¬
edly have prohibited this dangerous traffic ; their omit¬
ting
(a) Thefe langiacs are the governors of provinces.
(b) Each of thefe coins is in value about half a crown Englifh ; and the tribute finee that time has been
augmented to 800,000 aflany, or about L. 100,000 Sterling.
(c) Each cafiz weighs 25 occa, and each occa is equal to two pounds ten ounces Englifn avoirdupoife
weight. 1
E G Y [
ting which feems about to difpoflefs them of their c
J quell, and which feveral political errors have long been
preparing.
“ For a confiderable time the Porte had neglected
the affairs of this province; and in order to reftrain the
Pachas, had fuffered the divan to extend its power till
the chiefs of the janizaries and azabs were left without
control. The foldiers themfelves, become citizens
by the marriages they had contracted, were no longer
the creatures of Conftantinople ; and a change intro-
389 1 E G Y •
cafus ; from whom, next to the Circaffians, the Haves Egypt-
molt valued by the Turks, and other nations who deal
in that commodity, are to be obtained. Having been
brought to a public fale at Cairo, Ali Bey was bought
by two Jew brothers named Ifaac and Youfef, who 10»
made a prefent of him to Ibrahim Kiaya. At this He is 7
time he is fuppofed to have been about 13 or 14 years bought and
old, and was employed by his patron in offices fimilar ud ‘ffte?-
to thofe of the pages belonging to European princes. iCava™ im
The ufual education was alfo given him ; viz. that of
duced into their difcipline Hill more increafed thefe learning to manage a horfe well; fire a carbine and pi-
diforders. At firtt the feven military corps had
common treafury; and though the fociety was rich,
individuals, not having any thing at their own difpofal,
could effeCt nothing. The chiefs, finding their power
diminilhed by this regulation, had intereft enough to
get it abolilhed, and obtained permiffion to poffefs di-
llind property, lands, and villages. And'as thefe
lands and villages depended on the Mamlouk governors,
i necelfary to conciliate them to prevent their
ftol; throw the djerid, a kind of dart ufed in the di-
verfions of that country, and which fhall be afterwards
defcribed. He was alio taught the exercife of the
fabre, and a little reading and writing. In all the
feats of aftivity juil mentioned, he difcovered fuch
impetuofity, that he obtained the furname of Djendali,
or “ madman and, as he grew up, difcovered an
ambition proportionable to the activity difplayed in
his youth. About the age of 18 or 20, his patron
oppreffions. From that moment the beys acquired an gave him his freedom ; the badge of which among the
afcendancy over the foldiers, who till then had treated Turks is the letting the beard grow, for among that
107
Authority
ufurped by
Ibrahim
108
Hiltory of
Alt Bey.
them with difdain; and this could not but continually
increafe, fince their governments procured them con¬
fiderable riches. Thefe they employed in creating
themfelves friends and creatures. They multiplied
their Haves; and after emancipating them, employed
all their intereft to promote them to various employ,
ments, and advance them in the army. Thefe upftarts,
retaining for their patrons the fame fuperftitious vene¬
ration common in the Eaft, formed faCtions implicitly
devoted to their pleafure.” Thus, about the year
1746, Ibrahim, one of thekiayas(D) of the janizaries,
rendered himfelf in reality mafter of Egypt; having
managed matters fo well, that of the 24 beys or fan-
giacs eight were of his houfehold. His influence too
was augmented by always leaving vacancies in order to
enjoy the emoluments himfelf; while the officers and
foldiers of his corps were attached to his intereft; and
his power was completed by gaining over Rodoan, the
moil powerful of all the colonels, to his intereft. Thus
the Pacha became altogether unable to oppofe him,
and the orders of the Sultan were lefs refpeCled than
thofe of Ibrahim. On his death in 1757, his family,
i. e. his enfranchifed flaves, continued to rule in a de-'
fpotic manner. Waging war, however, among each
other, Rodoan and feveral other chiefs were killed;
until, in 1766, Ali Bey, who had been a principal
aftor in the difturbances, overcame his enemies, and
Egypt.
Of this man there are various accounts. The follow¬
ing is that given by M. Volney. He begins with obfer-
ving, that the private hittory of the Mamlouks in general
muft be fubjeCt to great uncertainty, by reafon of their
grow, tor among t
people it is thought proper only for women and flaves
to want a beard. By his kind patron alfo he was pro¬
moted to the rank of kachef or governor of a diftridt,
and at laft eledled one of the 24 beys. By the death
of Ibrahim in 1757, he had an opportunity of fatis-
fying his ambition ; and now engaged in every fcheme
for the promotion or difgrace of the chiefs, and had a
principal (hare in the ruin of Rodoan Kiaya above
mentioned. Rodoan’s place was quickly filled by
another, who did not long enjoy it; and in 1762 Ali
Bey, then ftyled Shaik-el-JBeled, having got Abdelrah-
man, the poifefibr at that time, exiled, procured him-
felf to be eledled in his room. However, he foon flrared ,^e
the fate of the reft, being condemned to retire to nifhed, but’
Gaza. This place, being under the dominion of areturns>an<f
Turkifh pacha, washy no means agreeable; for whichtJ’rolvs
reafon Ali having turned off to another place, kept yoke.
himfelf concealed for fome time, until in 1766 his7
friends at Cairo procured his recal. On this he ap¬
peared fuddenly in that city; and in one night killed
four of the beys who were inimical to his deligns, ba-
niihed the reft, and affumed the whole power to him¬
felf. Still, however, his ambition was not fatisfied;
and he determined on nothing lefs than to throw off
his dependence on the Porte altogether, and become
fultan of Egypt. With this view he expelled the
pacha, refufed to pay the accuftomed tribute, and in
for fome time rendered himfelf abfolute mafter of the year 1768 proceeded to coin money in his own name,
Fcr’7T'1' The Porte being at that time on the eve of a danger¬
ous war with Ruffia, had not leifure to attend to the
proceedings of Ali Bey ; fo that the latter had an op¬
portunity of. going forward with his enterprizes very
. . vigoroufly. His firft expedition was againft an Ara-Overcomes
being generally carried otttrom their parents at a time ot bian prince named Hammam ; agatnft whom he lent an Arabian
his favourite Mohammed Bey, under pretence thatP^6*
the former had concealed a treafure entrulled with him
by Ibrahim Kiaya, and that he afforded protection to
rebels. Having deftroyed this unfortunate prince, he
next began to put ia execution a plan propofed to him
by
life when they can remember but little or nothing of their
parents; and he remarks, that they are like wife unwilling
to communicate the little they may happen to remember.
It is moll commonly fuppofed, however, that Ali Bey
was born among the Abazans, a people of Mount Cau-
(d) Thefe were the commanding officers of the janizaries, azabs, &c. who after the firft year laid downr
their empljyments, and became veterans, with a voice in the divan.
E G Y
Egypt- by a young Venetian merchant, of rendering Gedda,
v~~ the port of Mecca, an emporium for all the commerce
ProVfes toof Inc^a5 an<^ even imagined he fliould be able to make
makeMec-tt16 Europeans abandon the palfage to the Indies by
m- the Cape of Good Hope. With this view, he fitted
[ 390 1
E G Y
The reader mufl not here figure to himfelf a number Egypt.
of complicated and artificial movements; fuch as thofe  v—«i
which, within the lalt century, have reduced war with 1I5
us to a fcience of fyftem and calculation. The Afiatics^j'^*
are unacquainted with the firft elements of this condudf. thad of
porium of out fpme veffels at Suez; and manning them with Their armies are mere mobs, their marches ravages, —.
Mamlouks, commanded the bey Haffan to fail with their campaigns inroads, and their battles bloody frays.011 war*
’ them to Gedda, and feize upon it, while a body of The llrongett or the moft adventurous party goes in
cavalry under Mohammed Bey advanced againlt the quell of the other, which frequently flies without ma-
town. Both thefe commifiions were executed accord- king any refiftance. If they lland their ground, they
ing to his wifh, and Ali became quite intoxicated with engage pell-mell, difeharge their carbines, break their
his fuccefs. Nothing but ideas of conquell how occu- fpears, and hack each other with their fabres; for they-
pied his mind, without confidering the immenfe dif-
proportion between his own force and that of the
Grand Signior. Circumftances, k mull be owned,
were at that time very favourable to his fchemes. The
Sheik Daher was in rebellion againll the Porte in
Syria ; and the pacha of Damafcus had fo exafperated
Y13 the people by his extortions, that they were ready for
His expedT- a ceVo}t. Having therefore made the neceffary prepa-
Syrfl
rations, Ali Bey difpatched in 1770 about 500 Mam-
louks to take polfeffion of Gaza, and thus fecure an
entrance into Paleftine. Ofman the pacha of Damafcus,
however, no fooner heard of the invafion than he prepared
have feldom any cannon, and when they have, they are
but of little fervice. A panic frequently diffufes itfelf
without caufe; one party flies, the other Ihouts vic¬
tory; the vanquilhed fubmit to the will of the conque¬
ror, and the campaign often terminates without a
battle.
“ Such, in a great meafure, were the military ope¬
rations in Syria in the year 1771. The combined ar¬
my of A!i Bey and Sheik Daher marched to Damaf¬
cus. The Pachas waited for them ; they approach¬
ed, and, on the 6tli of June, a decifive adlion took
place: the Mamlouks and Safadians rulhed on the
for war with the utmoll diligence, while the troops of Turks with fuch fury, that, terrified at their courage,
Ali Bey held themfelves in readinefs to fly on the firll they immediately took to flight, and the Pachas were
attack. They were relieved from their embarraffment not the lall in endeavouring to make their efcape. The
by Sheik Daher, who haltened to their affillance, while allies became mailers of the country, and took poflef-
Ofman fled without even offering to make the leall re- fion of the city without oppofition, there being
fillance; thus leaving the enemy mailers of all Paleiline
without linking a llroke. About the end of February
1771, the grand army of Ali Bey arrived; which, by
Il4 the reprefentations made of it in Europe, was fuppo-
Volney’s fed to confilt of 60,000 men. M. Volney, however,
account of informs us, that this army was far from containing
his army. g0)000 fddiers; though he allows that there might be
two-thirds of that number, who were clafied as follows:
1. Five thoufand Mamlouks, conllituting the whole
ther walls nor foldiers to defend it. The callle alone
refilled. Its ruined fortifications had not a fingle can¬
non, much lefs gunners ; but it was furrounded by a
muddy ditch, and behind the ruins were polled a few
mulketeers; and thefe alone were fufficient to check
this army of cavalry. As the befieged, however, were
already conquered by" their fears, they capitulated the
third day, andthe place wastobe furrenderednext morn¬
ing, when, at day-break, a moll extraordinary revolu-
effeftive part of the army. 2. Fifteen hundred Arabs tion took place.’' , ,5
from Barbary on foot, conllituting the whole infantry This was no lefs than the defe&ion of Mohammed Defe6Hon
of the army. Befides thefe, the fervants of the Mam- Bey himfelf, whom Ofman had gained over in a con-®ey<
louks, each of whom had two, would conllitute a ference during the night. At the moment, therefore,genera *
body of 10,000 men. A number of other fervants that the fignal ef furrender was expedled, this treache¬
rous general founded a retreat, and turned towards E-
gypt with all his cavalry, flying with as great precipi¬
tation as if he had been purfued by a fuperior army.
Mohammed continued his march with fuch celerity,
that the report of his arrival in Egypt reached Cairo
only fix hours before him. Thus Ali Bey found him¬
felf at once deprived of all his expectations of con¬
quell ; and what was worfe, found a traitor whom he
durll not punilh at the head of his forces. A fudden
reverfe of fortune now took place. Several veffels laden
with corn for Sheik Daher were taken by a Ruflian
privateer ; and Mohammed Bey, whom he defigned to
have put to death, not only made his efcape, but was fo
well attended, that he could not be attacked. His fol¬
lowers continuing d'aily to increate in number, Moham¬
med foon became fufficiently ftrong to march towards Jl7
Cairo ; and, in the month of April having de- He is dri-
would conftitute a body of about 2000 ; and the reft
of the number would be made up by futlers and other
ufual attendants on armies. It was commanded by
Mohammed Bey the friend of Ali. “ But (fays our
author) as to order and difeipline, thefe mult not be
mentioned. The armies of the Turks and Mamlouks
are nothing but a confufed multitude of horfemen,
without uniforms, on horfes of all colours and fizes,
without either keeping their ranks or obferving any
regular order.” This rabble took the road to Acre,
leaving wherever they palled fufficient marks of their
rapacity and want of difeipline. At Acre a jun&ion
was formed with the troops of Sheik Daher, conlill-
ing of 1500 Safadians (the name of Shaik Daher’s
fubje&s, from Safad, a village of Galilee, originally
under his jurifdiclion). Thei'e were on horfeback, and
accompanied by 1200 Motualis cavalry under the com¬
mand of Sheik Nafif, and about IOOO Mogrebian in¬
fantry. Thus they proceeded towards Damafcus,
while Ofman prepared to oppofe them by another ar¬
my equally numerous and ill regulated: and M. Vol-
ne • gives the following defeription of their operations.
5 .
city fword in hand, while the latter had fcarce time to^th°diffi-
make his efcape with 800 Mamlouks. With difficulty cuity gets
he was enabled to get to Syria by the affillance of into Syria.
Sheik Daher, whom he immediately joined with the
troops
E G Y f 39t ] E G Y
Egypt, troops he had with him. The Turks under Ofman polteflion of, and then marched towards a fortified Egypt.
were at that time befieging Sidon, but raifed the fiege town named Yafa. The hiftory of this fiege M. Vol- “v—^
 l -r.L- _ii:.j   r ney gjveg as a fpec;men 0f the Afiatic manner of con- 122
dufting operations of that kind. “ Yafa (fays he),thefiegeof
the ancient Joppa, is fituated on a part of the coatt, Yafa: a *
the general level of which is very little above the fea. fpecimen of
Defeats theon t^ie approach of the allied army, confiding of about
Turks, and yooocavalry. ThoughtheTurkifh armywasatleaft three
retrieves times their number, the allies did not hefitate to attack
his affairs, them, and gained a Complete vi&ory. Their affairs
now began to wear a more favourable afpeft; but the
military operations were retarded by the fiege of Yafa.
The city is built on an eminence, in the form of a fu-the ^atic
gar loaf, in height about 130 feet perpendicular. The
» place which had revolted; and which, though defend- houfes, diftributed on the declivity, appear rifing above towns. "
ed only by a garden wall, without any ditch, held out each other, like the fteps of an amphitheatre. On the
fummit is a fmall citadel, which commands the town ;
the bottom of the hill is furrounded by a v
for eight months. In the beginning of 1773 it capi>
tulated, and Ali Bey began to think of returning to
Cairo. For this purpofe Sheik Daher had promifed
to furnifh him with fuccoms ; and the Ruffians, with
T19 whom he had now contrafted an alliance, made him a
He is rum- promife of the like kind. Ali, however, ruined every
Cwrntnpa by his own impatience. Deceived by an aftro1-
tience. * loger, who pretended that the aufpicious moment when
he was highly favoured by the liars was juft arrived, he
would needs fet out without waiting for the arrival of
his allies. He was alfo farther deceived by a ftratagem
of Mohammed, who had by force extorted from the
friends of Ali Bey letters preffing his return to Cairo,
where the people were weary of his ungrateful Have,
and wanted only his prefence in order to expel him.
Confiding in thefe promifes, Ali Bey imprudently fet
out with his Mamlouks and 1500 Safadians given him
by Daher; but had no fooner entered the defert which
feparates Gaza from Egypt, than he was attacked by
a body of 1000 chofen Mamlouks who were lying in
wait for his arrival. They were commanded by a
all without
a rampart, of 12 or 14 feet high, and two or three in
thicknefs. The battlements on the top are the only-
tokens by which it is diftinguifhed from a common
garden wall. This wall, which has no ditch, is envi¬
roned by gardens, where lemons, oranges, and citrons
grow in this light foil to a moft prodigious fize. The
city was defended by five or fix hundred Safadians and
as many inhabitants, who, at the fight of the enemy,
armed themfelves with their fabres and mufkets; they
had likewife a few biafs cannon, 24 pounders, without
carriages ; thefe they mounted as well as they could,
on timbers prepared in a hurry; and fupplying the
place of experience by hatred and courage, they replied
to the fummons of the enemy with menaces and cannon-
fhot.
“ Mohammed, finding he muft have recourfe to
force, formed his camp before the town ; but was fo
little acquainted with the bufinefs in which he was en-
gaged, that he advanced within half cannon-ftiot. The
young Bey, named Mourad; who, being enamoured bullets, which ftiowered upon the tents, apprizing him
of the wife of Ali Bey, had obtained a promife of her of his error, he retreated ; and, by making a frefh ex-
from Mohammed, in cafe he could bring him her periment, was convinced he was ftill too near. At
hufband’s head. As foon as Mourad perceived the dull length'he difcovered the proper diftance, and fet up his
by which the approach of Ali Bey’s army was announ- tent, in which the moft extravagant luxury was dif-
ced, he ruihed upon him, attacked and took prifoner played: around it, without any order, were pitched
Ali Bey himfelf, after wounding him in the forehead
with a fabre. Being condu&ed to Mohammed Bey,
the latter pretended to treat him with extraordinary re-
fpeft, and ordered a magnificent tent to be erefted for
him ; but in three days he was found dead of his
wounds, as was given out; though fome affirm, per-
i4o ^aPs w*t'1 equal reafon, that he was poifoned.
fucceded After the death of Ali Bey, Mohammed Bey took up-
by Moham-on him the fupreme dignity ; but this change of mailers
sied Bey. proved of very little fervice to the Egyptians. At
firft he pretended to be only the defender of the rights
of the Sultan, remitted the ufual tribute to Conftan-
tinople, and took the cuftomary oath of unlimited obe¬
dience ; after which he folicited permiffion to make war
upon Sheik Daher, the ally of Ali Bey. The reafon
of this requeft was a mere perfonal pique ; and as foon
as it was granted, he made the moft diligent prepara¬
tions for war. Having procured an extraordinary
train of artillery, he provided foreign gunners, and
gave the command of them to an Englilhman named
Robinfon. He brought from Suez a cannon 16 feet
thofe of the Mamlouks, while the Barbary Arabs form¬
ed huts with the trunks and branches of the orange and
lemon-trees, and the followers of the army arranged
themfelves as they could: a few guards were diftribu¬
ted here and there ; and, without making a fingle en¬
trenchment, they called themfelves encamped.
“ Batteries were now to be ereiled ; and a fpot of
riiing ground was made choice of to the fouth-eaft-
ward of the town, where, behind fome garden walls,
eight pieces of cannon were pointed, at 200 pace$
from the town; and the firing began, notwithftanding
the mufketry of the enemy, who, from the tops of
the terraces, killed feveral of the gunners.
It is evident that a wall only three feet thick, and
without a rampart, muft foon have a large breach in it;
and the queftion was not how to mount, but how to
get through it. The Mamlouks were for doing it on
horfeback; but they were made to comprehend that
this was impoflible ; and they confented, for the firft
time, to march on foot. It muft have been a curious
fight to fee them, with their huge breeches of thick
ditioiTa- lonS> which had for a confiderable time remained ufe- Venetian cloth, embarrafled with their tucked up
gainrtSheik» and at length, in the month of February 1776, beniches, their crooked fabres in hand, and piftols
Daher. he appeared in Syria with an army equal in number to hanging to their fides, advancing and tumbling among
that which he had formerly commanded when in the the ruins of the wall. They imagined that they had
fervice of Ali Bey. Dahcr's forces, defpairing of be- conquered every difficulty when this obftacle was fur-
ing able to cope with fuch a formidable armament, mounted; but the befieged, who formed a better
abandoned Gaza, which Mohammed immediately took judgment, waited till they arrived at the empty fpace
betweea
E G Y [ 393 J E G Y
*gypt* between the city and wall; where they aflailed them
< y—from (.jjg terraces and windows of the houfes with fuch
a fliower of bullets, that the Mamlouks did not lo much
as think of fetting them on fire, but retired under a
perfuafion that the breach was utterly impracticable,
fince it was impoffible to enter it on horfeback. Morad
Bey brought them feveral times back to the charge,
but in vain.
“ Six weeks pafied in this manner; and Moham¬
med was didrafted with rage, anxiety, and defpair.
The beiieged however, whofe numbers were diminifh-
ed by the repeated attacks, became weary of defend¬
ing alone the caufe of Daher. Some perfons began
to treat w ith the enemy; and it was propofed to aban¬
don the place, on the Egyptians giving hodages. Con¬
ditions w’ere agreed upon, and the treaty might be
confidered as concluded, when, in the midd of the fe-
curity occafioned by this belief, fome Mamlouks en-
113 tered the town ; numbers of others followed their ex-
The town ample, and attempted to plunder. The inhabitants
taken and defended themfelves, and the attack recommenced:
jantsmaffa- the wl10le army then rufhed into the tow n, which fuf-
ered. fered all the horrors of war; women and children,
young and old men, were all cut to pieces, and Moham¬
med, equally mean and barbarous, caufed a pyramid
formed of the heads of thefie unfortunate fofferers to
be raifed as a monument of his viftory.”
By this difaffer the greateil terror and confternation
were every where diffufed. Sheik Daher himfelf fled,
and Mohammed foon became mafter of Acre alfo.
Here he behaved with his ufual cruelty, and abandoned
the city to be plundered by his foldiers. The French
merchants claimed an exemption, and it was procured
with the utmoft difficulty : nor was even this likely to
be of any confequence; for Mohammed, informed that
the treafures of Ibrahim Kiaya of Daher had been
depofited in that place, made an immediate demand
of them, threatening every one of the merchants with
tia death if the treafmes were not inftantly produced. A
day was appointed for making the refearch; but before
this came, the tyrant himfelf died of a malignant fever
after two days illnefs. His death was no fooner known
than the army made a precipitate retreat, fuch as has
been already mentioned from Damafcus. Sheik Da¬
her continued his rebellion for fome time, but was at
lall entirely defeated, and his head fent to Conftanti-
nople by Haffan Pacha the Turkifh high-admiral.
Hiftorv of The death of Mohammed was no fooner known in
Egypt from Egypt, than Morad Bey haflened to Cairo in order
that time to difpute the fovereignty with Ibrahim Bey, who had
to the year,’keen entrufted with the government on his departure
from that place for Syria. Preparations for war were
made on both fides; but at lad, both parties finding
that the conted mud be attended with great difficulty,
as well as very uncertain in the event, thought pro¬
per to come to an accommodation, by which it was
agreed that Ibrahim ffiould retain the title of Shaik El
Bekd, and the power was to be divided between them.
But now the beys and others who had been promoted
by Ali Bey, perceiving their own importance totally
annihilated By this new faftion, refolved to diake off
the yoke, and therefore united in a league under the
title of the Houfe of Alt Bey. They condufted their mat-
terswith fo much filence and dexterity, that both Mo¬
rad and Ibrahim W7ere obliged to abandon Cairo, In
IJO.
Death of
Moham¬
med Bey,
a fhort time, however, they returned and defeated their Egypt.
enemies though three times their number; but not-  v-—J
withftanding this fuccefs, it was not in their power
totally to fupprefs the party. This indeed was owing
entirely to their unikilfulnefs in the art of war, and
their operations for fome time were very trifling. At
laft, a new combination having been formed among
the beys, five of them were fentenced to banifhment
in the Delta. They pretended to comply with this
order, but took the road of the defert of the Pyra¬
mids, through which they were purfued for three days
to no purpofe. At laft they arrived fafe at Miniah,
a village lituated on the Nile, 40 leagues above Cairo.
Here they took up their refidence, and being matters
of the river, foon reduced Cairo to diftrefs by inter¬
cepting its provifions. Thus a new expedition became
neceffary, and Ibrahim took the command of it upon
himfelf. In the month of Oftober 1783, he fet
out with an army of 3000 cavalry; the two armies
foon came in fight of each other, but Ibrahim thought
proper to terminate the affair by negociation. This
gave fuch offence to Morad, who fufpefted fome plot
again ft himfelf, that he left Cairo. A war betwixt
the two rivals was now daily expefted, and the armies
continued for 25 days in fight of each other, only fe-
parated by the river. Negociations took place; and ,thc
five exiled beys, finding themfelves abandoned by Mo¬
rad, took to flight, but were fpurfued and brought
back to Cairo. Peace feemed now to be re-eftablifhed;
but the jealoufy of the two rivals producing new in¬
trigues, Morad was once more obliged to quit Cairo
in 1784. Forming his. camp, however, direftly at
the gates of the city, he appeared fo terrible to Ibrahim,
that the latter thought proper in his turn to retire to the
defert, where he remained till March 1785. A new
treaty then took place; by which the rivals agreed to
fhare the power between them, though there was cer¬
tainly very little probability that fuch a treaty would
be long obferved. Since that time we have no ac¬
counts of any remarkable tranfaftion in Egypt; nor
indeed can we reafonably expeft any thing of confe¬
quence in a country where matters are managed, as
M. Volney expreffes himfelf, by a feries of “ cabals,
intrigues, treachery, and murders.”
Of late Egypt has been vifited by feveral travellers,
all of whom have published deferiptions of the coun¬
try, its produftions, inhabitants, iScc. The lateft are
M. Savary, M. Volney, the baron de Tott, and Mr
Bruce; and from the accounts publiftied by thofe
gentlemen the following geographical defeription is
principally compiled. 12g
This country is ftill divided into two principal parts. Account of
called the Upper and Lower Egypt. According to M. thecountry.
Savary, the former is only a long narrow valley begin¬
ning at Sienna and terminating at Cairo. It is bound¬
ed by two chains of mountains running from north to
fouth, and taking their rife from the laft cataraft of
the Nile. On reaching the latitude of Cairo they fe-
parate to the right and left} the one taking the di¬
rection of mount Colzoum, the other terminating in
fome fand-banks near Alexandria the former being
compofed of high and iteep rocks, the latter of fandy
hillocks over a bed of calcareous ftone. Beyond thefe
mountains are deferts bounded by the Red Sea on the
eaft, and ou the weft by other parts of Africa; having
in
Egypt.
127
Coaft of £-
gypt tx-
trfmcly
128
Of the fer¬
tility of an¬
cient and
modern
Egypt.
E G Y [ 39.3 I E G Y
in the middle that long plain which, even where widefl, ing them by removing the mud depofited by the river Egypt,
is not more than nine leagues over. Here the Nile fince the Turks have made themfelves mailers of E- -y—
Is confined in its courfe betwixt thefc infuperable bar- gypt, the country they pafs through would be again
riers, and during the time of its inundation overflows fertilized, and the Delta recover a third of its great-
the country all the way to the foot of the mountains} nefs.” up
and Mr Bruce obferves that there is a gradual Hope Concerning this ifland, it has been the opinion of a Savary1*
from the bed of the river to thofe mountains on both great many, even from very ancient times, that it was
Tides. The baron de Tott fays, that the mountains four produced by the mud brought down by the inunda-1 (,nfif the
leagues from the Nile, and facing Cairo, “ are only a tions of the Nile ; and this opinion we find adopted in Delta,
ridge of rocks about 40 or 50 feet high, which divide the ftrongeft manner by M. Savary. His account of
Egypt from the plains of Libya; which ridge accom- the fuppofed rife of the Delta, and indeed of the
panics the courfe of the river, at a greater or lefler ^reateft part of Egypt, is to the following purpofe.
diftance, and feems as if only intended to ferve as a In thofe early ages where hiftory has not fixed any
bank to the geneial inundation.” epoch, a certain people defeended from the mountains
Lower Egypt, according to M. Savary, compre- near the catarafts, into the valley overflowed by the
bends all the country between Cairo, the Mediterra- Nile, and which was then an uninhabitable morafs
nean, the Ifthmus of Suez, and Libya. “ This im- overgrown with reeds and canes. In what manner, or
menfe plain (fays he) prefents on the borders of its from what motive, thefe people were induced to de-
parching fands a ftripe of lands cultivated along the feendfrom their ancient habitations to fuch a place, or
canals of the river, and in the middle a triangular ifland how they found means to penetrate into a morafs
to which the Greeks gave the name of Delta;” at the which he exprefsly tells us was impenetrable, we are not
top of the angle of which the Baron de Tott informs informed, neither is it to our prefent purpofe to in-
us the rocks of Libya and the coafts of Arabia open quire. At that time, however, the fea bathed the
and recede from each other towards the call and weft, feet of thofe mountains where the pyramids are built,
parallel to the Mediterranean. This great extent of and advanced far into Libya. It covered alfo part,
country, from the kingdom of Barca to Gaza, is ei- of the Ifthmus of Suez, and every part of what we
ther overflowed by the river, or capable of being fo; now call the Delta formed a great gulph. After
which thus fertilizes in a high degree a trail of conn- many ages the Egyptians, by what means is un¬
try feemingly devoted to perpetual barrennefs on ac- known, at leaft not fpecified by our author (though
count of the want of rain and the heat of the cli- they ought to have been fo, as the country it feems was
mate. then overflowed not only by the river but by the ocean).
According to the teftimonies of both Mr Bruce formed canals to carry off the ftagnant waters of the
and M. Volney, the coaft of Egypt is fo extremely low, Nile 3 oppofed ftrong dykes to its ravages ; and, tired
that it cannot be difeovered at fea till the mariners of dwelling in the caverns of rocks, built towns and ci-
come within a few leagues of it. In ancient times the ties upon fpots elevated either by nature or art. AI-
failors pretended to know when they approached this ready the river was kept within its bounds, the habi-
country by a kind of black mud brought up by their tations of men were out of the reach of its inundations,
founding-line from the bottom of the fea: but this and experience had taught the people to forefee and
notion, though as old as the days of Herodotus, has announce them. One of the kings of Egypt under-
been difeovered to be a miftake by Mr Bruce ; who took to change the courfe of the river. After running
found the mud in queftion to arife while the veffcl was 150 leagues between the barriers already mentioned,
oppofite to the deferts of Barca. All along the coaft meeting with an unfurmountable obftacle to the right,
of Egypt a ftrong current fets to the eaftward. it turned fuddenly to the left; and taking its courfe
In former times Egypt was much celebrated for to the fouthward of Memphis, it ead its waters thro’
1- its fertility ; and there is great reafon to believe, that' the fands of Libya. The prince we fpeak of caufed a
were the fame pains beftowed upon the cultivation of new bed to be dug for it to the eaft of Memphis; and
the ground, and the diftribution of the waters of the by means of a large dyke obliged it to return between
Nile in a proper manner, the fame fertility would ftill the mountains, and difeharge itfelf into the gulph
be found to remain. The caufe ofdecreafe in ithepro- that bathes the rock on which the caftle of Cairo is
duce of Egypt we ftiall deferibe in the words of M. built. The ancient bed of the river was Hill to be feen
Savary. “ The canals,” fays he, fpeaking of the in the time of Herodotus, and may even be traced at
Delta, “ which ufed to convey fertility with their wa- this day acrofs the deferts, palling to the weftward of
ters, are now filled. The earth no longer watered, the lakes of Natrum. The Arabs ftill bellow upon it
and continually expofed to the burning ardour of the the name of BabrBela ma, “ or fea without water,” and
fun, is converted into a barren fand. In thofe places it is now almoft choaked up. To the labours of this
where formerly were feen rich fields and flourifliing monarch Egypt is indebted for the Delta. A reflux
towns, on the Pelufiac, the Tariftic, and the Mende- of the fea was occafioned by the enormous weight of
Can branches, which all ftrike out from the canal of the waters of the Nile, which precipitated themfelves
Damietta, nothing is to be found at this day but a into the bottom of the gulph. Thus the fands and
few miferable hamlets, furrounded by date-trees and mud carried along with them were collect'd into heaps;
by deferts. Thefe once navigable canals are now no and thus the Delta, at firft very inconfiderable, rofe
more than a vain refemblance of what they were : they out of the fea of which it repelled the limits. It was
have no communication with the lake Menzall, but a gift of the river, and it has fince been defended from
what is merely temporary, on thef fwelling of the Nile; the attacks of the ocean by raifing dykes around it. Five
they are dry the^ remainder of the year. By deepen- hundred years before the Trojan war, according to He-
Vol. VI. Part I. •-'-3D rodotus.
Eitfpt.
E G Y
rodotus, the Delta was in its infancy ; eight cubits of
water being then fufficient to overflow it. Strabo tells
us, that boats palled over it from one extremity to the
other; and that its towns,built.upon artificialeminences,
refembled the iflands of the Egean Sea. At the time
that Herodotus vifited this country, 15 cubits were ne-
ceflary to cover all the Lower Egypt; but the Nile then
overflowed the country for the fpace of two days jour¬
ney to the right and left of the illand. Under the Roman
empire, 16 cubits performed the fame effeft. When
the Arabs came to have the dominion, 17 cubits were
reqaifite ; and at this day i 8 are neceflary to pro¬
duce a plentiful crop; but the inundation Hops at Cai¬
ro and the neighbouring country, without being ex¬
tended ovet the Lower Egypt. Sometimes, however,
the Nile rifes to 22 cubits ; and the caufe of this phe-
notnehon is the mud for*' fo many years accumulated
no the ifland. Here, in the fpace of 3284 years, we
fee the Delta elevated 14 cubits. Our author wrote in
1777, and informs us that he twice made the tour of
the illand during the time of the inundation. “ The river
(fays he) flowed in full ftreams in the great branches
of Rofetta and Damietta, as well as in thofe which
pafs through the interior part of the country ; but it
did not overflow the lands, except in the lo ver parts,
where the dykes were pierced For the purpofe of wa¬
tering the plantations of rice. We mult not, how¬
ever, imagine, as feveral travellers pretend, that thfs
illand will continue to rife, and that it will become
unfruitful. As it owes its increafe to the annual
fettling of the mud conveyed thither by the Nile,
when it ceafes to be overflowed it will no longer in-
create in height, for it is demonllrated that culture is
not fufficient to raife land.
“ It is natural to imagine that the Delta has in-
cteafed in length as well as in height; and of this we
may look upon the following fa£t to be a remarkable
proof. Under the reign of Pfammiticus, the Mile-
fians, with 30 veffels, landed at the mouth of the Bol-
bitine branch of the Nile, now called that of Rofetta,
where they fortified themfelves. There they built a
town called Metelis, the fame as Fao'ue, which, in the
Coptic vocabularies, has preferved the name of MeJJil.
This town, formerly a fea-port, is now nine leagues
diftant from the fea ; all which fpace the Delta has in-
creafed in length from the time of Pfammiticus to the
prefent. Homer, in his Odyffey, puts the following
words in the mouth of Menelaus. ‘ In the ftormy fea
which waffies Egypt, there is an ifland called Pharos.
Its diftance from the (hone rs filch, that a vefiel with a
fair wind may make the paffage in a day.* From the
way in which he fpeaks of this ifland in other places,
alfo, we may fuppofe that the ifland of Pharos, in his
time, was not lefs than 20 leagues diflant from the E-
gyptian coaft, though now it forms the port of Alex¬
andria; and this fentiment is confirmed by the moft
ancient writers.
What prodigious changes great rivers occafion on
the furface of the globe ! How they elevate, at their
mouths, iflands which become at length large portions
of the continent! It is thus that the Nile has formed
ahnoft all the Lower Egypt, and created out of the
waters the Deha, which is 90 leagues in circumfe-
yence. It is thus that the Meander, conftantly repel¬
ling the waves of the Mediterranean, and gradually fill-
E G Y
ing up the gulph into which it falls, has placed in the Egypt,
middle of the land the town of Miletis, formerly a ce- —v"-"'
lebrated harbour. It is thus that the Tigris and the
Euphrates, let loofe from the Armenian hills, and
fweeping with them in their courfe the fands of Me-
fopotamia, are imperceptibly filling up the Perfian
gulph.”
Thefe are the reafons affigned by M. Savary for vir Bruce’s
thinking that the Delta, as well as the greatell part of reafons for
the Lower Egypt, have been produced by the Nile ; die con-
but this opinion is violently contefted by other latetrary 0f,‘*
travellers, particularly Mr Bruce, who has given anion*
pfetty long diflertation upon it, as well as many occa-
fional remarks through the courfe of his work. He
begins with obferving, t. That the country of Egypt
is entirely a valley bounded by rugged mountains;
whence it might feem natural to imagine that the Nile,
overflowing a country of this kind, would be more
ready to wafli away the foil than to add to it. 2. It is
obferved by Dr Shaw, and the fame is confirmed by
our author, that there is a gentle flope from the middle
of the valley to the foot of the mountains on each fide;
fo that the middle, in which is the channel of the Nile,
is really higher than any other part of the valley.
Large trenches are cut acrofs the country from the
channel of the river, and at right angles with it, to the
foot of the mountains. 3. As the river fwells, the ca¬
nals become filled with water, which naturally defeend-
ing to the foot of the mountains, runs out at the far¬
ther end, and overflows the adjacent level country.
4. When the water, having attained the loweft ground,
begins to ftagnate, it does not acquire any motion by
reafon of the canal’s being at right angles with the
channel of the Nile, unlefsin the cafe of exceffive rains
in Ethiopia, when the water by its regurgitation again
joins the ftream. In this cafe, the motion of the cur¬
rent is communicated to the whole mafs of waters, and
every thing is fwept away by them into the fea. 5. It
has been the opinion of feveral authors, that there was
a neceffity for meafuring the height of the inundation on
account of the quantity of mud brought down annually
by the waters, by which the land-marks were fo covered,
that the proprietors could not know their own grounds
after the river fubfided. But whatever might be the rea¬
fon of this covering of the land-marks in ancient times, it
is certain that the mud left by the Nile could not be fo
in the time of Herodotus, or during any period of
time affigned by that hiftorian ; for he affigns only
one foot of increafe of foil throughout Egypt in an
hundred years from the mud left by the river : the in-
creafe during one year, therefore, being only the hun¬
dredth part of a foot, could not cover any land-mark
whatever. Belides, the Egyptian lands are at this day
parted by huge blocks of granite, which frequently
have gigantic heads at the ends of them ; and thefe
could not, at the rate mentioned by Herodotus, be
covered in feveral thoufand years. 6. The Nile does not
now bring down any great quantity of mud ; and it is
abfurd to fuppofe that it can at prefent bring down as
much as it did foon after the creation, or the ages imme¬
diately fucceeding the deluge. Throughout Abyffinia,
according to the teftimony of our author, the channel
of every torrent is now worn to the bare rock, and al-
moft every rivulet runs in a hard llony bed, all the loofe
earth being long ago waited away; fo that an annual
3 ao&
[ 394 1
E G Y C 395 1 E G Y
Ep7T‘- and equable increafe of the earth from the fediment of
the waters is impoffible. 7. Our author made a great
number of trials of the water of the Nile during the
time of its inundation in different places. At Baf-
boch, when juft coming down from the cultivated
parts of Abyffinia, and before it enters Sennaar, the
fediment is compofed of fat earth and fand, and its
quantity is exceedingly fmall. At the jun&ion of the
Nile and Aftaboras the quantity of fediment is very
little augmented ; confifting ftill of the fame materials,
but now moftly fand. At Syene the quantity of fe¬
diment was almofi nine times greater than before; but
w as now compofed almoft entirely of fand, with a very
fmall quantity of black earth. The conclufxon of our
author’s experiments, however, is different from what
we fliould have been led to expe& from thofe juft men¬
tioned. “ The experiment at Rofetta (fays he) -was
not fo often repeated as the others : but the refult was,
that in the ftrength of the inundation the fediment
confifted moftly of fand ; and, towards the end, was
much the greater part earth. I think thefe experiments
conclufive, as neither the Nile coming frefh from A-
byffinia, nor the Atbara, though joined by the Mareb,
like wife from the fame country, brought any great
quantity of foil from thence.”
8. Our author goes on to obferve, that had the Nile
brought down the quantities of mud which it has been
faid to do, it ought to have been moft charged with it
at Syene ; as there it contained the whole that was to
be conveyed by it into Egypt. Inllead of this, how¬
ever, the principal part of the fediment at this place
was fand; and this is very naturally accounted for from
the vafl quantities of fand taken up by the winds in
the deferts between Gooz and Syene. Here our tra¬
veller frequently faw vaft pillars of this kind of fand,
which is fo fine and light as to form an impalpable
powder, traverfing the defert in various direftions.
Many of thefe were driven upon the river ; and when
it became calm in the evening, fell down into it en¬
tirely; thus affording materials for the many fandy
iflands to be met with in the Nile.
9. Mr Bruce adopts the opinion of thofe who fup-
pofe that there has been a continual decreafe of water
fince the creation of the world. In this cafe, there¬
fore, if the land of Egypt had been continually increa-
fing in height while the water that was to cover it de-
creafed ; there muft have been frequent famines on ac¬
count of the want of a fufficient inundation. But fo
far is this from being the cafe, that, according to the
teftimony of feveral Arabian MSS. there had not,
when Mr Bruce was in Egypt, been one fcarce feafon
from the lownefs of the inundation for 34 years; tho’
during the fame fpace they had three times experienced
a famine by too great an abundance of w'ater, which
carried away the millet.
10. If there had been fuch an increafe of land as
Herodotus and others fuppofe, it muft now have been
very perceptible in fome of the moft ancient public
monuments. This, however, is by no means the cafe.
The bafe of every obelilk in Upper Egypt is to this
day quite bare and viiible. Near Thebes there are ftill
extant two Coloffal ftatues, plainly defigned for nilo-
meters, and which ought by this time to have been
almoft covered with earth; but notwithftanding the
length of time thefe have remained there, they are ftill
bare to the very bafe.
The llrongsft argument which the advocates for the Egypt,
increafe of land of Egypt can make ufe of is, that —
the meahires by which the quantity of inundation
is determined are fmaller now than in former times;
and thefe fmall meafures are faid to have 'been in¬
troduced by the Saracens. On this Mr Bruce very Qp;nions 0f
jullly obferves, that frich an expedient could not various au-
have anfwered any good purpofe ; as no decreafe ofthor3 con-
the meafure could have augmented, the quantity
corn produced by the ground. M. Savary obferves, ^,[e ;n aB.
that, to render his calculation concerning the growth cieut tunc*,
of land in Egypt abfolutely exaft, it would be ne-
ceffary to determine the precife length of the Greek,
Roman, and Arabian cubit; and even to know the
different alterations which that meafure had under¬
gone among thefe people : But this nicety he thinks
needlefs; looking upon the. general faff to be fully efta-
bliftied by what he had faid before. Mr Bruce, how¬
ever, has treated the fubjefl with much greater accura¬
cy. He obferves, that from the fituation of Canopus,
the diftance betwixt Egypt and Cyprus, and the ex-
tenfion of the land to the northward, it appears that no
addition of any confequence has been made to it for
3000 years paft. The only argument left for the in¬
creafe of land therefore muft be taken from the nilo-
meter. The ufe of this inllrument was to determine
the quantity of inundation, that fo it might be known
whether the crop would be fufficient to enable the
people to pay the taxes exacted of them by the fovereig n
or not. The firft ftep was to know what fpace of
ground was overflowed in a given number of years;
and this being determined by menfuration, the next
thing was to afeertain the produce of the ground up¬
on an average. Thus becoming acquainted with th«
greateft and leaft crops produced, together with the
exa& extent of ground overflowed, they were furuifh-
ed with all the neceffary principles for conftrudling a
nilometer; and nothing now remained but to ered a
pillar in a proper place, and divide it exactly into cu¬
bits. This was accordingly done; the pillar was firft
divided into cubits and thefe again were fubdivided into
digits. The firft divifion of this kind was undoubtedly
that mentioned in feripture, and called the cu&i/ of a
man ; being the length of the arm from the middle of
the round bone in the elbow to the point of the middle
finger; a meafure ftill in ufe among all rude nations.
As no ftandard could be found by which this meafure
might be exactly determined, authors have differed very
much concerning the true length of the cubit when
reduced to our feet and inches. Dr Arbuthnot rec¬
kons two cubits mentioned in feripture ; one of them
containing one foot nine inches and tVuV an inch »
the other one foot and a f°ot > but Mr Bruce
is of opinion that both of thefe are too large. He
found, by menfuration, the Egyptian cubit to be ex-
attly one foot five inches and three-fifths of an inch;
and Herodotus mentions, that in his time the cubit ufed
for determining the increafe of the Nile was the Samian
cubit, about 18 of our inches. The latter alfo informs
us, that in the time of Moeris, the minimum of increafe
was 8 cubits, at which 1 time all Egypt below the city
of Memphis was overflowed; but that in his time 16
or at leaft 15 cubits were neceffary to produce the
fame effect. But to this account Mr Bruce objects,
that Herodotus could have no certain information con¬
cerning the nilometer, becaufe he himfelf fays that the
3 D 2 priefts,
E G Y [ 39<5 J E G Y
Egypt' priefl*, who alone had accefs to it, would tell him no-
l" ’r~*' thing of the matter. Herodotus alfo informs us, that
in the time of Moeris, great lakes were dug to cafr-y
off the waters of the inundation ; and this fuperfluous
quantity Mr Bruce fuppofes to have been conveyed in¬
to the defert for the ufe of the Arabs, and that by
fuch a vaft drain the rife of the water on the nilometer
would undoubtedly be diminifhed. But even granting
that there was fuch a difference between the rife of
the water in the time of Moeris and in that of Hero¬
dotus, it does not appear that any thing like it has
appeared ever fince. btrabo, who travelled into Egypt
400 years after the time of Herodotus, found that
eight cubits were then the minimum, as well as in
the time of Moeris. From fome paffages in Strabo,
however, it appears that it required a particular exer¬
tion of induftry to caufe this quantity of water pro¬
duce a plentiful crop ; but there is not the leaft reafon
to fuppofe, that the very fame induftry was not ne-
ceffary in the time of Moeris; fo that ftill there is
not any increafe of land indicated by the nilometer.
About 100 years afterwards, when the emperor Adrian
vifited Egypt, we are informed from unqueftionable
authority, that 16 cubits were the minimum when the
people were able to pay their tribute; and in the fourth
century, under the emperor Julian, 15 cubits were the
ftandard ; both which accounts correfpond with that
of Herodotus. Eaftly, Procopius, who lived in the
time of Juftinian, informs us, that 18 cubits were then
requifite for a minimum.
No ircreafe From thefe accounts, fo various and difcordant, it is
th 'f"d « 0^V*0US no certain conclufion can be drawn. It
can reafon- 13 not *n^ee(l eafy to determine the reafon of this dif-
ably befuj’-fcrence in point of fact. The only conje&ure we can
pofed; offer is, that as it appears that by proper care a fmall-
er quantity of water will anfwer the purpofe of produ¬
cing a plentiful crop, fo it is not unreafonable to fup¬
pofe that at different periods the induftry of the people
has varied fo much as to occafion the difagreement in
queftion. This would undoubtedly depend very much
upon their governor; and indeed Strabo informs us
that it was by thft care of the governor Petronius, that
fuch a fmall quantity of water was made to anfwer the
purpofe. The conclufion drawn by Mr Bruce from
the whole of the accounts above related, is, that from
them it is moft probable that no increafe of land has
been indicated by the nilometer from the time of Moe-
ris to that of Juftinian.
Nor in On the conqueft of Egypt by the Saracens, their
more mo- barbarous and ftupid khalif deftroyed the nilometer, cau-
dern times. gng another to be built in its ftead, and afterwards fix¬
ed the ftandard of paying tribute confiderably below
what it had ufually been. The Egyptians were thus
kept in continual terror, and conftantly wratched the
new nilometer to obferve the gradual increafe or de-
creafe of the water. On this he ordered the new
nilometer to be deftroyed, and another to be con-
ftrufted, and all accefs to it to be denied to the people.
Which prohibition is ftill continued to Chriftians ;
though our author found means to get over this obftacle,
and has given a figure of the inftrument itfelf. That the
people might not, however, befupjrofed to remain in total
ignorance of their fituation, he commanded a proclama¬
tion to be daily made concerning the height of the
water, but in fuch an unintelligible manner that no¬
body was made any ..’ifer ; nor, according to our au¬
thor, is the proclamation underftood at this day. From Egypt,
his own obfervatlons, however, Mr Bruce concludes,
that 1 5 cubits are now the minimum of inundation,
and as this coincides with the accounts of it in the
times of Herodotus and Adrian, he fuppofes with
great probability, that the fame quantity of water has
been neceffary to overflow this country from the earlieft
accounts to the prefent time.
It now remains only to take notice of what is faid M
by M. Savary concerning the former diftance of the ry>'80piniOI1
illand of Pharos from the land to which it is now join-concerning
ed. With regard to his other affertions concerning the rl'c ifle
city of Metelis having been once a lea-port, M. Volney
proves that he has quoted Strabo unfairly, and confe-y^ney^
quently no ftrefs is to be laid upon them. The prin¬
cipal, indeed the only, evidence therefore which remains,
is the paflage already quoted from Homer, viz. that
“ the ifland of Pharos is as far diltant from one of the
mouths of the Nile as a veffel can fail in one day before
the wind/’ “ But (fays M. Volney) when Homer
fpeaks of the diftance of this ifland, he does not mean
its diftance from the (bore oppofite, as that traveller
(M. Savary) has tranflated him, but from the laud of
Egypt and the river Nile. In the fecond place, by a
day’s fail we muft not underftand that indefinite fpace
which the veffels, or rather the boats, of the ancient
Greeks, could pafs through in a day; but an accurate
and determined meafure of 540 ftadia. This meafure
is afeertained by ^uerodotus, and is the precife diftance
between Pharos and the Nile, allowing, with M. d’An-
ville, 27,000 toifes to 540 ftadia. It is therefore fan
from being proved, that the increafe of the Delta or of
the continent was fo rapid as has been reprefented 4
and, if we were difpofed to maintain it, we Ihould ftill
have to explain how this ftiore, which has not gained
half a league from the days of Alexander, ftiould have
gained eleven in the far ftiorter period from the time
of Menelaus to that conqueror. The utmoft extent of
the encroachment of this land upon the fea, however,
may be learned from the words of Herodotus; who in¬
forms us, that the breadth of Egypt, along the fea-
coaft, from the gulph of Plinthine to the lake Serbonis
near mount Cafius, is 3600 ftadia; and its length from
the fea to Heliopolis 1500 ftadia.” Allowing there¬
fore the ftadium of Herodotus to be between 50 and
51 French toifes, the 1500 ftadia juft mentioned are
equal to 76,000 toifes; which, at the rate of 57,000 to
a degree, gives one degree and near 20 minutes and an
half. But from the aftronomical obfervations of M. Nie¬
buhr, wtio travelled for the king of Denmark in 1761,
the difference of latitude between Heliopolis, now called'
Matarea, and the fea, being one degree 29 minutes at
Damietta, and one degree 24 minutes at Kofetta, there
is a difference on one fide of three minutes and an half,
or a league and an half encroachment; and eight minutes
and an half, or three leagues and an half on the other.”
Thus the difpute concerning the augmentation of the
land of Egypt by the Nile feems to be abfolutely decided;
and the encroachments of it on the fea fo trifling, that we
may juftly doubt whether they exift, or whether we are
not entirely to attribute the apparent differences to thofa
which certainly take place betwixt the ancient and mo¬
dern menfuration. M. Volney gives a very particular
defeription of the face of the country ; but takes notice
of the inconveniences under which travellers labour iiv
this country, by which it is rendered extremely difficult
to
E G Y [ 397 1 E G Y
Egypt, to fay any thing certain with regard to the nature of
'"—-y  the foil or mineral- produftions Thefe arife from the
barbarity and fuperftition of the people, who imagine
all the Europeans to be magicians and forcerers, who
come by their magic art to difcover the treafures which
the genii have concealed under the ruins. So deep
rooted is this opinion, that no perfon dares walk alone
in the fields, nor can he find anyone willing to accom¬
pany him ; by which means he is confined to the
banks of the river, and it is only by comparing the ac¬
counts of various travellers that any fatisfa&ory know-
I3j ledge can be acquired.
Volney’s According to this author, the entrance into Egypt
account of at Rofetta prefents a moil delightful profpect, by the
tlr n °* PcrPetual verdure of the palm-trees on each fide, the
^e coun- orcjiarcjs waterecl by the river, with orange, lemon,
and other fruit-trees, which grow there in vail abun¬
dance ; and the fame beautiful appearance is continued
all the way to Cairo. As we proceed farther up the
river, he fays, that nothing can more refemble the ap¬
pearance of the country than the marihes of the lower
Loire, or the plains of Flanders: inftead, however, of
the numerous trees and country-hpufes of the latter,
we muft imagine fome thin woods of palms and fyca-
mores, with a few villages of mud-walled cottages,
built on artificial mounds. All this part of Egypt is
very low and flat, the declivity of the river being fo
gentle, that its waters do not flow at a greater rate
than one league in an hour. Throughout the coun¬
try nothing is to be feen but palm-trees, Angle or in
clumps, which become more rare in proportion as you
advance; with wretched villages compofed of huts
with mud-walls, and a boundlefs plain, which at dif¬
ferent feafons is an ocean of frelh water, a miry morafs,
verdant field, or a dufty defert; and on every fide an
extenfive and foggy horizon, where the eye is wearied
and difgufted. At length, towards the jundlion of the
two branches of the river, the mountains of Cairo are
difcovered on the call; and to the fouth-weft three
detached mafles appear, which from their triangular
form are known to be the pyramids. We now enter
a valley which turns to the fouthward, between two
chains of.parallel eminences. .Thatto the call, which
extends to the Red Sea, merits the name of a moun¬
tain from its fteepnefs and height, as well as that of a
defert from its naked and favage appearance. Its name
in the Arabic language is Mokattam, or the hrwn-
mountain. The weftern is nothing but a ridge of rock
covered with fand, which has been very properly term¬
ed a natural mound or caufeiuay. In fhort, that the
reader may at once form an idea of this country, let
him imagine on one fide a narrow fea and rocks; on
the other, immenfe plains of fand; and in the middle,
a river, flowing through a valley of 150 leagues in
length and from three to feven wide, which at the di-
ftance of 30 leagues from the fea feparates into two
arms; the branches of which wander over a foil aim oft
free from obltacles, and void of declivity.
From comparing his own obfervations with thofe of
other travellers, our author concludes, that the bafis of
all Egypt from jlfouan (the ancient Syene) to the Me¬
diterranean, is a continued bed of calcareous ftone of
whitifh hue, and fomewhat foft, containing the fame
kind of Ihells met with in the adjacent feas, and which
forms the immenfe quarries extending from Saouadi to
Manfalout for the fpace of more than 25 leagues, ac- Egypt,
cording to the teftimony of Father Sicard.
Mr Bruce, however, gives us a much more particular ^ Bruce’s
account of the fources from whence were derived the account of
vaft quantities of marble met with in the remains of the deferts,
ancient buildings in this country. Thefe he difcovered marble,
during his journey from Kenne to Cofleir on the ™°unUm8»
Sea, before he took his expedition to Abyffinia. He
gives a molt difmal idea of the deferts through which he
paffed. What houfes he met with were conftru&ed,
like thofe M. Volney mentions, of clay, being no more
than fix feet ia diameter, and about ten in height.
The mountains were the moft dreary and barren that
can be imagined; and the heat of the fun fo great,
that two fticks rubbed together only for half a minute
would take fire and flame. In thefe burning regions
no living creature was to be met with, even the poifo-
nous ferpents and fcorpions not being able to find fub-
fiftence. The firft animal he faw was a fpecies of
ants in a plain called Hamra from the purple colour of
its fand; and it was remarkable that thefe infe&s were
of the fame colour with the fand itfelf. No water was
any where to be met with on the furface ; though at
a place called Legeta there were fome draw-wells, the
water of which was more bitter than foot itfelf. At
Hamra the porphyry mountains and quarries begin,
the ftone of which is at firft foft and brittle ; but the
quantity is immenfe, as a whole day was taken up in
palling by them. Thefe porphyry mountains begin in
the latitude of nearly 24 degrees, and continue along
the coaft of the Red Sea to about 220 30', when they
are fucceeded by the marble mountains ; thefe again
by others of alabafter, and thefe laft by bafaltic
mountains. From the marble mountains our author
fele&ed twelve kinds, of different colours, which lie
brought along with him. Some of the mountains ap¬
peared to be compofed entirely of red and others of
green marble, and by their different colours afforded
an extraordinary fpediade. Not far from the porphyry-
mountains the cold was fo great, that his camels died’
on his return from Abyffinia, though the thermome¬
ter ftood no lower than 420.
Near to Coffeir he difcovered the quarries whence
the ancients obtained thofe immenfe quantities of mar¬
ble with which they con drafted fo many wonderful
works. The firft place where the marks of their ope¬
rations were very perceptible, was a mountain much
higher than any they had yet paffed, and where the
ftone was fo hard that it did not even yield to the
blows of a hammer. In this quarry he obferved that'
fome dufts or channels for conveying water termina¬
ted; which, according to him, ffiows that water was
one of the means by which thefe hard ftones were cut-
in four days,, during which our author travelled among
thefe mountains, he fays, that he had “ paffed more
granite, porphyry, marble, and jafper, than would build.
Rome, Athens, Corinth, Syracufe, Memphis, Alex~
andria, and half a dozen fuch cities.” It appeared to
him that the pafiages between the mountains and.
which he calls defdes, were not natural but artificial
openings ; where even whole mountains had been cut
out, in order to preferve a gentle ftope towards the-
river. This defcent our author fuppofes not to be
above one foot in 5b; fo that the carriages muft have
gone very eafdy,.and rather required, fomething to re-
» tardl
E G Y l 398 ] E G Y
tard their velocity than any force to pull them for-
y—ward. Concerning the mountains in general, he ob-
ferves, that the porphyry is very beautiful Jo the eye,
and is difcovered by a fine purple fand without any
glofs. An unvariegated marble of a green colour is
generally met with in the fame mountain ; and where
the two meet, the marble becomes foft for a few inches,
but the porphyry retains its hardnefs. The granite
has a dirty brown appearance, being covered with fand;
but on removing this, it appears of a grey colour with
black fpots, with a reddiih caft all over it. The gra¬
nite mountains lie nearer to the Red Sea, and feem to
have afforded the materials for Pompey’s pillar. The
rednefs above mentioned feems to go off on expofure
to the air ; but reappears on working or poldhing the
ftone farther. The red marble is next to the granite,
though not met with in the fame mountain. There
is alfo a red kind with white veins, and vaft quantities
of the common green Terpentine. Some famples of
that beautiful marble named Ifdbella were likewife ob-
ferved; one of them of that yellowilh caft called qua-
ier-cohur, the other of the bluifh kind named dove-
cohur. The moft valuable kind is that named verde
■entice, which is found next to the Nile in the moun¬
tains of ferpentine. It is covered by a kind of blue
fleaky ftone, fomewhat lighter than a date, more beau¬
tiful than moft kinds of marble, and when polilhed
having the appearance of a volcanic lava. In thefe
quarries the verde antico had been uncovered in patches
of about 20 feet fquare. There were fmall pieces of
African marble fcattered about in feveral places, but
no rocks or mountains of it; fo that our author con¬
jectures it to lie in the heart of fome other kind. The
whole is fituated on a ridge with a defcent to the eaft
and welt; by which means it might eafily be conveyed
cither to the Nile or Red Sea, while the hard gravel
and level ground would readily allow the heavieft car¬
riages to be moved with very little force,
o Travellers have talked of an emerald mine in thefe
fed eme-P°" ^^rts ; but from the refearches of Mr Bruce, it does
raid mine, not appear to have any exiftence. In the Red Sea
indeed, in the latitude of 250 3', at a fmall diftance
from the fouth-weftern coaft, there is an ifland called
the Mountain of Emeralds; but none of thefe precious
ftones are to be met with there. Here, as well as on
the continent, there were found many pieces of a green
pellucid fubftance; but veined, and'much fofter than
rock-cryftal, though fomewliat harder than glafs. A
few yards up the mountain he found three pits, which
are fuppofed to have been the mines whence the an¬
cients obtained the emeralds ; but though many pieces
of the green fubftance above mentioned were met with
about thefe pits, no figns of the true emerald could be
perceived. This fubftance, however, he conjectures
Stones of a to ^ave ^een t^ie fmoragdus of the Romans. In the
curious a’-- mountains of Cofleir, as well as in fome places of the
peata ce." deferts of Nubia, our author found fome rocks exadtly
refembling petrified wood. .
The only metal faid by the ancients to be produced
in Egypt is copper. On the road to Suez are found
great numbersjof thofe ftones called Egyptian flints and
pellks, though the bottom is a hard, calcareous, and
fonorous ftone. Here alfo M. Volney tells us, that
the ftones above mentioned, and which referable petri¬
fied wood, are to be met with. Thefe, he fays, are
in the form of fmall log* cut Canting at the ends, and Efypf.
might eafily be taken for petrifactions, though he —v—
is convinced that they are real minerals.
F. Sicard mentions two lakes, from the water ofsattffic*.
which is produced annually a great quantity of fait
containing much mineral alkali; and M. Volney in¬
forms us, that the whole foil of this country is impreg¬
nated with fait; fo that, upon digging to fome depth
in the ground, we always meet with brackifh water
impregnated in feme degree with the mineral alkali as
well as with common fait. The two lakes mentioned
by Sicard are fituated in the defert to the weft of the
Delta; and are three or four leagues in length, and
about a quarter of a league in breadth, with a folid
and ftony bottom. For nine months in the year they
are without water; but in the winter time there oozes
out of the earth a reddiih violet-coloured water, which
fills the lakes to the height of five or fix feet. This
being evaporated by the return of the heat, there re_
mains a bed of fait two feet thick and very hard
which is broken in pieces with iron bars; and no lefs*
than 30,000 .quintals are procured every year from ~ I
thefe lakes. So great is the propenfity of the Egyp¬
tian foil to produce fait, that even when the gardens
are overflowed for the fake of watering them, the fur-
face of the ground, after the evaporation and abforp-
tion of the water, appears glazed over with fait. The
water found in the wells contains mineral alkali, ma¬
rine fait, and a little nitre. M. Volney is of opinion, v *4^ :|
that the fertile mould of Egypt, which is of a black moni(j 0f
colour, differs eflentially from that of the other parts; Etrypt not
and is derived from the internal parts of Ethiopia along originally
with the waters of the Nile. This feems to contradict
what he had before advanced again ft M. Savary con-£,j110p;at
cerning the irtcreafe of the land' of Egypt by means of
the waters of this river: but there is no reafbn at all
to fuppofe this kind of earth to be of a foreign origin;
it being always the refult ot vegetation and cultivation.
Even the moft barren and fandy fpots in the world, if
properly watered, and fuch vegetables planted in them
as would grow there, in time would be covered with
this black earth as well as others : and of this kind of
artificial formation of foil travellers give us a remark¬
able inftance in the garden of the monks at Mount
Sinai, where the country is naturally as barren as in
any place of the world. “ The monks of fjinai (fays
Dr Shaw), in a long procefs of time, have covered
over with dung and the fweepings of their convent
near four acres of naked rocks; which produce as
good cabbage, roots, fallad, and all kinds of pot-herbs,
as any foil and climate whatfoever. They have like¬
wife raifed olive, plum, almond, apple, and pear trees,
not only in great numbers, but of excellent kinds. The
pears particularly are cf fuch efteem at Cairo, that
there is a prefent of them fent every year to the ba-
Ihaw and peifons of the firft quality. Neither are
their grapes inferior in fize and flavour to any what¬
foever: it being fully demonftrated, by what this little
garden produces, how far an indefatigable induftry
can prevail over nature ; and that feveral places are ca¬
pable of culture and improvement which were intend¬
ed by nature to be barren, and which the lazy and floth-
lul have always fuffered to be fo.”
From this general account of the country, we may
reafonably conclude, that the natural fertility of E-
gypt
E G Y [ 399 ] E G Y
gypt is not diminifhed in modem times, provided the has one of thefe canals. In thofe parts of the eoun- Epypr.
■v—' fame pains were taken in the cultivation of it as for- try where the inundation does not reach, and where "v““
*4^ merly ; but this is not to be expefted from the pre- more water is required than it can furnilh, as for wa-
fertiKty of ^ent degenerate race of inhabitants. “ The Delta tering of gardens, they muft have rtcourfe to artificial
Egypt not (fays Mr Savary) is at prefent in the moft favourable meatus for railing it from the river. In former times
diminUhed. flate for agriculture. Wafhed on the eaft and weft th?y made life ofArchimcdes’s lerew*; but that is no a- • c;re y*,,
by two rivers formed by the divifion of the Nile, each difufed, and in place of it they have chofen the Perfian^-c/fo/wr
of which is as large and more deep than the Loire, in- wheel. This is a large wheel turned by oxen, having
terfefted by innumerable rivulets; it prefentsto the eye a rope hung with feveral buckets which fill as it goes
an immenfe garden, all the different compartments of round, and empty themfelves into a cittern at the top.
which maybeeafily watered. During the three months Where the banks of the river are high, they frequent-
that the Thebais is under water, the Delta poffeffes ly make a bafon in the fide of them, near which they
fields covered with rice, barley, vegetables, and winter fix an upright pole, and another with an axle acrofs
fruits. It is alfo the only part of Egypt where the the top of that, at.one end of which they hang a gieat
fame field produces two crops of grain within the ftone, and at the other a leathern bucket ; this bucket
141 ycar> the one °f r*ce> th6 other of barley.” being drawn down into the river by two men, is railed.
Method of The onlycaufe of all this fertility is the Nile, with- by tl^p defcent of the ftone, and emptied into a cittern.
_ purifying out which the whole country wpuld foon become an placed at a proper height. This kind of machine is
the water*’ un*nhabitable defert, as rain falls* very feldom in thii
^ Egypt Part of that world. It flows with a very gentle ftream
through the flat country, and its waters are veiy
muddy, fo that they muft have time to fettle, or even
require filtration before they can be drunk. For pu¬
rifying the water, the Egyptians, according to M.
Volney, ufe bitter almonds, with which they rub the
ufed chiefly in the upper parts of the country, where
the railing of water is more difficult than in places near
the fea. When any of their gardens or plantations
want water, it is conveyed from the citterns into little
trenches; and from thence conducted all round the beds
in various rills, which the gardener ealily flops by
raifing the mould agsinft them with his foot, and di-
veffel containing it, and then the water becomes light verts the current another way as he fees occafion,
and good ; but on what principle this ingredient afts, The rife of the inundation is meafured, as kas^,^4^
we cannot pretend to determine. Unglazed earthen already been obferved, by an inftrument adapted fordefa^cdsT
veffels filled with water are kept in every apartment; the purpofe, and called mlkeas, which we tranflate
which by a continual evaporation through their porous nilometer. Mr Bruce informs us, that this is placed be-
fubftance, render the contained fluid very cool even in tween Geeza and Cairo, on the point pf an ifland
the great eft heats*. The river continues muddy for fix named Rhoda, about the middle of the river, but
months; and during the three which immediately pre- fomewhat nearer to Geeza. It is a round tower with
cede the inundation, the ftream being reduced to an an apartment, in the middle of which is a cittern neatly
lined with marble. The bottom of this ciffern reaches
to that of the river, and there is a large opening by
which the water has free accefs to the inljde. The
rife of the water is indicated by an o&agonal column
of bkie and white marble, on which are marked 20
peeks or cubits of 22 inches each. The two lower moft
of thefe have no fubdivifions ; but each of the reft is
divided into 24 parts call digits; the whole height of
the pillar being 36 feet 8 inches.
When the river has attained its proper height, allo/the^w
inconfiderable till towards the end the canals are opened, and the whole country laid un-nahby
of June, when it is proclaimed by a public crier thro’ der water. During the time of the inundation a cer-which the
the ft reels of Cairo. About this time it has ufually tain vortical motion of the waters takes place; butwateris
rifen five or fix cubits; and when it has rifen to 16, notwithftanding this, the Nile is fo eafily managed,^iveyed>
great rejoicings are made, and the people cry out Waf- that many fields lower than the furface of its waters
fah Allah, that is, that God has given them abundance, are preferved from injury merely by a dam of moiflen-
This commonly takes place about the latter end of ed earth not more than eight or ten inches in thicknefs.
July, or at fartheft before the 20th of Auguft; and This method is made ufe of particularly in the Delta,
the fooner it takes place, fo much the greater are the when it is threatened with a flood,
hopes of a good crop. Sometimes, though rarely, As the Nile does not always rife to an height fuffi-
the neceffary increafe does not take place till later, cient for the purpofes of agriculture, the former fove-
In the year 1705, it did not fwell to 16 cubits till reigns of Egypt were at vaft pains to cut proper ca-
the 19th of September; the confequence of which nals in order to fnpply the deficiency. Some of thefe
was, that the country was depopulated by famine and are ftill preferved; but great numbers are rendered
peftilence. * ufelefs through the indolence or barbarity of their fuc-
We may eafily imagine that the Nile cannot over- ceffors. Thofe which convey the water to Cairo, into the
flow the whole country of itfelf in fuch a manner as to province of Fayoom, and to Alexandria, are beft taken
render it fertile ; for which reafon there are innumer- care of by government. The laft is watched by an
officer appointed for that purpofe, whofe office it is tp.
hinder the Arabs of Bachria, who receive this fuper-
fluous water, from turning it off before Alexandria be:
g«lT.
inconfiderable depth, becomes heated, green, fetid, and
full of worms. The Egyptians in former times paid
divine honours to the Nile, and ftiil hold it in great vene¬
ration. They believe its waters to be very nouriftiiqg,
and that they are fuperior to any in the world ; an
opinion very excufable in them, as they have no other,
and large draughts of cold water are among their high-
eft luxuries.
Of the This river, fwelled by the rains which fall in Abyf-
inmidation finia, begins to rife in Egypt about the month of May;
ef ihe Nile. {jUt t},e ;ncreafe j8 inconfidei
able canals cut from it acrofs the country, as has al¬
ready been obferved, by which the water is conveyed
to diftant places, and almoft every town or village
E G Y [ 400 ] E G Y
t Egypt- provided for, or opening it before the proper time,
-, which would hinder the increafe of the river. Tn like
manner, that which conveys the water to Fayoom is
watched, and cannot be opened before that of Cairo,
which is called the Canal of 'Trajan. A number of
other canals, only taken care of by thofe who derive
advantage from them, proceed from that arm of the
Nile which runs to Damietta, and fertilize the pro¬
vince of Sharkia ; which, making part of the iithmus
of Suez, is the moft conliderable of Egypt, and the
moil capable of a great increafe of cultivation. The
plains of Gaza which lie beyond, and are poffeiTed by
the Arabs, would be no lefs fertile, were it not for the
-exceffive inclination thefe people have to deftroy,1*o that
they make war even with the fpontaneous prod unions
of the earth. A number of other canals run through
the Delta ; and the veftiges of thofe which watered the
provinces to the eaftward and weftward, (how that in
former times thefe were the bed cultivated parts of
Egypt. “ We may alfo prefume (fays the Baron de
Tott), from the extent of the ruins of Alexandria, the
■conftru&ion of the canal, and the natural level of the
lands which encompafs the lake Mareotis, and extend
themfelves weilward to the kingdom of Barca, that this
country, at prefent given up to the Arabs, and almoft-
defert, was once fufficiently rich in productions of
every kind to furnilh the city of Alexandria with its
whole fubfiftance.”
Air and The air and climate of Egypt are extremely hot,
climate of not only from the height of the fun, which in fummer
approaches to the zenith, but from the wantof rain and
from the vicinity of thofe burning and fandy deferts
which lie to the fouthward. In the months of July and.
Auguft, according to M. Volney, Reamur’s thermo¬
meter Hands, even in the moft temperate apartments,
at the height of 24 or 25 degrees above the freezing
point; and in the fouthern parts it is faid to rife
ftill higher. Hence, he fays, only two feafons fhould
be diftinguiihed in Egpyt, the cool and the hot, or
fpring and fummer. The latter continues for the
greateft part of the year, viz. from March to Novem¬
ber or even longer ; for by the end of February the
fun is intolerable to an European at nine o’clock in
the morning. During the whole of this feafon, the air
feems to be inflamed, the fky fparkles, and every one
fweats profufely, even without the leaft exercife, and
when covered with the lighteft drefs. This heat is
tempered by the inundation of the Nile, the fall of
the night-dews, and the fubfequent evaporation ; fo
that fome of the European merchants, as well as the
natives, complain of the cold in winter. The dew we
fpeak of does not fall regularly throughout the fum¬
mer, as with us; the parched ftate of the countiy not
affording a fufficient quantity of vapour for this pur-
pofe. It is firft obferved about St John’s day (June
24th), when the river has begun to fwell, and confe-
quently a great quantity of water is railed from it
by the heat of the fun, which being foon condenfed
by the cold of the night air, falls down in copious
dews.
It might naturally be imagined, that as for three
months in the year Egypt is in a wet and marfliy
frtuation, the exceflxve evaporation and putrefaction of
the ilagnating waters would render it very unhealthy.
But this is by no means the cafe. The great drynefs
a9 no.
of the air makes it abforb vapours of all kind* with the Egypt,
utmoft avidity ; and thefe rifing to a great height,  v-”-"
are carried off by the winds either to the fouthward
or northward, without having time to communicate
any of their pernicious effefts. This drynefs is fo
remarkable in the internal parts of the country,
that fleih meat expofed to the open air does not
putrefy even in fummer, but foon becomes hard and
dry like wood. In the deferts there are frequently
dead carcafes thus dried in fuch a manner, and become
fo light, that one may eafily lift that of a camel with
one hand. In the maritime parts, however, this dry¬
nefs of the air is not to be expefted. They difeover the
fame ’degree of moifture which ufually attends fuch
fituations. At Rofetta and Alexandria, iron cannot
be expofed to the air for 24 hours without rutting.
According to M. Volney, the air of Egypt is alfo
ftrongly impregnated with falts ; for which opinion he
gives the following reafon. “ The ttones are corrod¬
ed by natrum (mineral alkali), and in moift places
long cryftallizations of it are to be found, which might
be taken for falt-petre. The wall of the Jefuits gar¬
den at Cairo, built with earth and bricks, is every where
covered with a cruft of this natrum as thick as a crown-
piece : and when this garden has been overflowed by
the waters of the kalidj (canal), the ground, after they
have drained off, appears fparkling on every fide with
cryftals, which certainly were not brought thither by the
water, as it (hows no fign of fait either to the tafte or by
diftillation.”—But whatever may be the quantity of
fait contained in the earth, it is certain that M. Vol-
ney’s opinion of its coming thither from the air cannot
be juft. The fait in queltion is exceffively fixed, and
cannot be diffipated into the air without the violent
heat of a glafs-houfe furnace ; and even, after this has
been done, it will not remain diffuftxl through the at-
mofphere, but quickly falls back again. No experi¬
ments have ever fhown that any fait was or could be
diffufed in the air, except volatile alkali, and this is
now known to be formed by the union of two perma¬
nently elaftic fluids; and it is certain that a faline
air would quickly prove fatal to the animals who
breathed it. The abundance of this kind of fait in
Egypt therefore only fhows, that by fome unknown
operation the heat of the fun forms it from the two
ingredients of earth and water, though we do not yet
underftand the manner, nor are able to imitate this na¬
tural operation. ,
To this faline property of the earth M. Volney a’why^xotie
feribes the exceffive quicknefs of vegetation in Egypt, plants will
which is fo great, that a fpecies of gourd called iaranot thrive
will, in 24 hours, feud forth fhoots of four inches in*n Egypt*
length ; but for the fame reafon, in all probability, it is
that no exotic plant will thrive in Egypt. The mer¬
chants are obliged annually to fend to Malta for their
garden feeds; for though the plants thrive very well
at firft, yet if the feed of them is preferved, and fown
a fecond year, they always come up too tall and
flender.
By reafon of the great drynefs of the air, Egypt i»
exempted from the phenomena of rain, hail, fnow,
thunder and lightning. Earthquakes are 'alfo feldom
heard of in this country; though fometimes they
have been very fatal and deftruclive, particularly one
in the year 1112. In the Delta, it never rains in
2 fummer,
E G Y f 401 ] E G Y
Egypt^ fummer, and very feldom at any other time. In 176r, manner into rain, and produce an inundation of the E*ypt.
-v however, fuch a quantity of ram unexpeftedly fell, Euphrates fimilar to that of the Nile, and immediately '    
that a great number of houfes, built with mud- fucceeding it. Mr Bruce had an opportunity ofafceZ
walls, tumbled entirely down by being foaked with the taming this faft in the month of Tune 1768 • for at that
water, to which they were unaccuftomed. In the time, while on a voyage from Sidon to Alexandria, he
Higher Egypt the rain is Hill lefs frequent; but the obferved great numbers of thin white clouds moving
people, lennble of the advantages which accrue from rapidly from the fouth, and in dired oppofition to the
it, always rejoice when any falls, however infufficient Etefian winds. r
to anfwer the purpofe. This deficiency of rain is Befides the ordinary winds here fpoken of, Einmt Is
i48 ^PPlied by the inundation and dews already men- infefted with the deflrudive blafts common to all warm
[ Caufe of turned. The latter proceed, as has already been countries which have deferts in their neighbourhood
the dews in faid, partly from the waters of the inundation and Thefe have been diftinguilhed by various names fnrh
Eevpt. partly from the fea. At Alexandria, after fun- as poifonous .winds, h of winds of the defert, Samiel the
fet, in the month of April, the clothes expofed to the <wind ofDamafcus,Kamftn, and Simoom. In Egypt ^hey 0f th^hot
an; and the terraces are foaked with them as if it had are denominated “ winds of 50 days,” becaufe they winds! 0t
rained. 1 hefe dews are more or lefs copious accord- moft commonly prevail during the eo days nreced
mg to the direftion of the wind. They are produced ing and following the equinox; though, fhould thev
in the greateft quantity by the wefterly and northerly blow conftantly during one half of that time an uni
winds, which blow from the fea ; but the fouth and verfal deftrudion would be the confequence ’ Of thefe
fouth-eaft winds, blowing over the deferts of Africa and travellers have given various defcriptions "m Volnev
Arabia, produce none. . fays, that the violence of their heat may be compared
The periodical return of winds from a certain quar- to that of a large oven at the moment of drawing out
„ ter 13 a ver7 remarkable phenomenon in this country, the bread. They always blow from the fouth • and are
hrityol the When the fun approaches the tropic of Cancer, they undoubtedly owing to the motion of the atmofchere
Ihift from the eaft to the north; and, during the over fuch vail tracds ofhotfand, where it cannot be
month of June, they always blow from the north or fupplied by a fufficient quantity of moifture When
north-weft. They continue northerly all the month they begin to blow, the iky lofes its ufual ferenity and
of July, varying only fometimes towards the eaft, and aifumes a dark, heavy, and alarming afpeft the’ fun
fometimes the contrary way. About the end of this himfelf laying afide his ufual fplendor, and becoming of
month, and during the whole of Auguft and Sep- a violet colour. This terrific appearance fcems not to
tember, they blow dire&ly from the north, and are be occafioned by any real haze or cloud in the atmo
but of a moderate ftrength, though fomewhat weaker fphere at that time, but folely to the vail quantity of
in the night than in the day. Towards the end of fine fand carried along by thofe winds, and which isfo
Egypt.
Remark¬
able regu-
September they return to the eaft, though they do not
abfolutely fix on that point, but blow more regularly
from it than any other except the north. As the fun
approaches the fouthern tropic, they become more va¬
riable and tempeftuous, blowing moft commonly from
the north, north-eaft, and weft, which they continue to
do throughout the months of December, January, and
February; and, during that feafon, the vapours raifed
from the Mediterranean condenfe into mift, or even
fometimes into rain. Towards the end of February,
exceifively inbtile that it penetrates every where. The
motion of this :nd is always rapid, but its heat is not
intolerable till after k has continued for fome time. Its
pernicious qualities are evidently occafioned by its ex-
ceffive avidity of moifture. Thus it dries and fhrivels
up the fkin; and by doing the fame to the lungs, will
in a IhoTt time produce fuffocation and death. The dan¬
ger is greateft to thofe of a plethoric habit of body, or
who have been exhaufted by fatigue; and putrefadlion
foon takes place in the bodies of fuch as are deilroyed
and in the fucceeding month, they more frequently blow by it. Its extreme drynefs is fuch, that water fnrink
from the fouth than from any other quarter. During led on the floor evaporates in a few minutes • all th“
fome part of the month of March and in that of April, plants are withered and ftripped of their leaves,• and a
they blow from the fouth, iouth-eaft, and fouth-weft; fever is inftantly produced in the human fpecies'bv the
fometimes from the north and eaft, the latter beco- fuppreffion of perfpiration. It ufually lafts three davs
ming moft prevalent about the end of that month, and but is altogether infupportable if it continue bevond
continuingduringthe whole of May. that time. The danger is greateft when the wind
It is to the long continuance of the north, winds, blows in fqualls, and to travellers who happen to be
formerly called the Etefums winds, that Egypt proba- expofed to its fury without any flicker. The bell me¬
thod in this cafe is to flop the nofe and mouth with an
handkerchief. Camels, by a natural inftina, bury
their nofes in the land, and keep them there till the
bly Owes its extreme drynefs, as well as part of the in
airs in undation by which it is fertilized. From the month
of April to July, there appear to be two immenfe cur-  ,    vfivii[ .. ^
heniaoc1" rfnts in the atmofphere, the under one blowing from fquall is over. The inhabitants^ who*have an oppor-
afioned by the n"nb> and uppfer from -the fouth. By the for- tunity of retiring to their houfes, inftantly fluit them-
wooppo. mer the vapours are raifed from the Mediterranean and felves up in'them, or go into pits made in the earth till
' fouthern parts of Europe, where they are carried over the deftrudlive Waft be over.
Abyffinia, diffolving there in immenfe deluges of rain ; The defeription of a blaft of this kind which over-
wlnle by the latter the fuperfluous vapours, or thofe took Mr Bruce in the defert of Nubia is ftill more ter¬
raced from the country of Abyffinia itfelf, are carried rible than that juft given from M. Yolney. We have
northward toward the fources of the Euphrates, already mentioned fomething of the pillars of movins-
Here the clouds coming from the fouth, defeending fand raifed by the winds in the defert. Thefe vvere ob-
mto the kwer part of the atmofphere, diffolve in like ferved by our traveller on this occafion in all their ter-
Vo1-VI. Part XL 3E t.fic
E G Y L 402 ] E G Y
Egypt, rific majefty. Sometimes they appeared to move flow-
- ly ; at other times with incredible fwiftnefs, fo that
they could not have been avoided by the fleeted horfe.
Sometimes they came fo near, that they threatened de-
dru&ion to the whole company Frequently the tops,
when arrived at an immenfe height, fo that they
were lofl in the clouds, fuddenly feparated from the
bodies, and difperfed themfelves in the air; and
fometimes the whole column broke off near the mid¬
dle, as if it had received a cannon (hot; and their
fize was fuch, that, at the didance of about three
miles, they appeared ten feet in diameter. Next day
they appeared of a fmaller fize, but more numerous,
and fometimes approached within two miles of the
company. The fun was now obfcured by them, and
the tranfmiffion of his rays gave them a dreadful ap¬
pearance, refembling pillars of fire. This was pro¬
nounced by the guide to be a fign of the approaching
Simoom or hot wind; and he direfted, that, when it came,
the people ihould fall upon their faces and keep their
mouths on the fand, to avoid the drawing in this per¬
nicious blad with their breath. On his calling out
that the Simoom was coming, Mr Bruce turned for a
moment to the quarter from whence it came, which
•as the fouth-ead. It appeared like a haze or fog of
purple colour, but lefs bright than the purple part
c the rainbow ; feemingly about 20 yards in breadth,
ad about 12 feet high from the ground. It moved
ith fuch rapidity, that before he could turn about and
tail upon his face, he felt the vehement heat of its cur¬
rent upon his face ; and even after it paffed over,
which was very quickly, the air which followed was of
fuch an heat as to threaten fuffocation. Mr Bruce had
unfortunately infpired fome part of the pernicious
blad ; by which means he almofl entirely lod his voice,
and became fubjedi to an adhmatic complaint, from
which he did not get free for two years. The fame
phenomenon occurred twice more on their journey thro’
this defert. The fecond time, it came from the fouth a
little to the ead: but it now feemed to have a (hade of
blue along with the purple, and its edges were lefs per-
fedlly defined ; refembling rather a thin fmoke, and ha¬
ving about a yard in the middle tinged with blue and
purple. The third time, it was preceded by an appear¬
ance of fandy pillars more magnificent than any they
had yet obferved ; the fun (hining through them in
fuch a manner as to give thofe which were neared a re-
femblance of being fpangled with flars of gold. The
fimoom which followed had the fame blue and purple
appearance as before, and was followed by a mod fuf-
focating wind for two hours, which reduced our travel¬
lers to the lowed degree of weaknefs and defpondency.
It was remarkable that this wind always came from the
fouth-eafl, while the fandy pillars, which prognodica-
ted its approach, affe&ed to keep to the wedward, and
to occupy the vad circular fpace inclofed by the Nile to
the weft of their route, going round by Chaigie to¬
wards Dongola. The heaps of fand left by them
when they fell, or raifed by the whirlwinds which car¬
ried them up, were 1 2 or 13 feet high, exaftly coni¬
cal, tapering to a fine point, and their bafes well pro-
portioned.
the ;n. The inhabitants of Egypt may now be didinguilhed
1 .abitams of into four didinft races of people.
I. The Arabst who may be fubqivided into three
claffes. I. The poderity of thofe who fettled here Egypt,
immediately after the conqueft of the country by '-—v—
Amrou Ebn A1 As the khalif Omar’s general. 2. The
Magrebians, or Weilern Arabs, who at different times
have migrated from the countries to the weftward
of Egypt, and are defcended from the Saracen con¬
querors of Mauritania. 3. The Bedouins, or Arabs
of the defert, known to the ancients by the name of
Scenites, or dwellers in tents. The firft of thefe claffes
are now found among the hu(bandmen and artizans;
and are didinguifhed from the others by being of a
more robud habit of body, as well as of a larger da-
ture than the others. They are in general five feet
four inches high; and many of them attain two or three
inches more, and are mufcular without being fiefliy.
Their countenances are almoft black, but their features
are not difagreeable ; and as thofe of the country do not
ally themfelves in marriage but with the people of their
owir tribe, their faces have all a Arong refemblance to
each other. This is not the cafe with fuch as live in
towns, by reafon of their promifcuous marriages. The
fecond clafs are more numerous in the Said, where they
have villages and even didindl fovereigns of their own.
Like the former, they apply themfelves to agriculture
and mechanical occupations. The Bedouins pafs their
lives among the rocks, ruins, and fequedrated places
where they can find water; fometimes uniting in tribes
and living in low fmoky tents, and drifting their ha¬
bitations from the defert to the banks of the river and
back again, as bed fuits their conveniency. Their
time of inhabiting the defert is the fpring; but after the
inundation they take up their refidence in Egypt, in or¬
der to profit by the fertility of the country. Some farm
lands in the country which they cultivate, but change
annually. In general, all thefe Bedouins are robbers,
and are a great terror to travellers as well as to the huf-
bandmen ; but though their number is edimated at not
lefs than 30,000, they are difperfed in fuch a manner
that they cannot attempt any thing of confequence.
II. The Copts are defcendants of thofe inhabitants of
Egypt whom the Arabs fubdued, and who were com-
pofed of original Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks. M.
Volney is of opinion that their name of Copts is only
an abbreviation of the Greek word Aigouptios, an
Egyptian. They are principally to be met with in the
Said, though fome alfo inhabit the Delta. They have
all a yellowifti duflcy complexion, puffed up vifage,
fwoln eyes, flat nofes, and thick lips; and in fa& the
exadl countenance of a mulatto. M. Volney, from a
view of the fphynx, and finding its features to be fuch
as is juft now defcribed, concludes, that the ancient E-
gyptians were real negroes; which he thinks is likewife
confirmed by a paffage in Herodotus, where he con¬
cludes, that the inhabitants of Colchis were defcended
from the Egyptians, “ on account of the blacknefs of
their (kins and frizzled hair.” M. Volney alfo re¬
marks, that the countenance of the negroes is fuch as
exattly reprefents that date of contradtion affumed
by our faces when ftrongly affedted by heat. The
eye-brows are knit, the cheeks rife, the eye-lids are
contradted, and the mouth diftorted; and this date
of contradtion to which the features of the negroes
are perpetually expofed in the hot climates they in¬
habit, is become particularly charadteriftic. Excef-
five cold and fnow produces the fame effedt; and hence
4 this.
E G Y [ 403 1 > E G Y
Egypt, this kind of countenance is alfo common among the
Tartars; while, in the temperate climates, the features
are proportionably lengthened, and the whole counte¬
nance expanded.
The Copts profefs the Chriftian religion, but follow
the herefy of the Eutychians, whence they have been
perfecuted by the Greeks; but having at laft got the
better of their adverfaries, they are become the depofi-
taries of the regifters of the lands and tribes. At Cairo
they are called writers ; and are the intendants, fecre-
taries, and colleftors for government. The head of
their clafs is writer to the principal chief; but they are
all hated by the Turks to whom they are Haves, as
well as by the peafants whom they opprefs. Their
language bears a great refemblance to the Greek; but
they have five letters in their alphabet, as well as a
number of words in their language, which may be con-
fideredas the remainsof the ancient Egyptian. Thefeare
found to bear a near refemblance to the dialers of fome
of the neighbouring nations, as the Arabic, Ethiopian,
Syriac, &c. and even of thofe who lived on the banks of
the. Euphrates. The language of the Copts, however,
has fallen into difufe for upwards of 300 years. On
the conquefl of the country by the Saracens, the latter
obliged the people to learn their language ; and about
the year 722 the ufe of the Greek tongue was pro¬
hibited throughout the whole of their empire: the
Arabic language then of courfe became univerfal; while
the others, being only met with in books, foon became
totally neglected, The true Coptic, therefore, though
there is a tranflation of the fcriptures and many books
of devotion written in it, is underftood by nobody,
not even the monks and priefts.
III. The Turks, who have the title of being mailers
of Egypt, but are chiefly to be met with atCairo, where
they poflefs the religious and military employments.
Formerly they poflefled alfo the pofts under govern¬
ment ; but thefe are now occupied by the fourth race
of inhabitants, viz.
IV. The Mamlouks. Of the origin of thefe we have al¬
ready given fome account: we have onlyr, therefore,
to relate fome of the moft. remarkable particulars con¬
cerning their conRitution and government, manners, &c.
Thefe people, as has already been mentioned, are
the real makers of Egypt; and in order tofecure them-
felves in the poReflion of the country, they have taken
feveral precautions. On&of the principal of thefe is
the degradation of the two military corps of azabs
and janizaries, both of which were formerly very for¬
midable. They have been able to effedt this only in
confequence of the corrupt and wretched government
of the Turks; for before the revolt of Ibrahim Kiaya,
the Turkilh troops, which ought to have confifled
of 40,000, were reduced to lefs than half that num¬
ber through the avarice and majverfation of their
officers. Their degradation was completed by Ali Bey;
who having firft difplaced all the officers who gave him
any umbrage, left their places vacant, and fo reduced
the confequence of the whole, that the azabs and ja¬
nizaries are now only a rabble of vagabonds, who dread
the Mamlouks as much as the meaneR of the populace.
The principal body of the Mamlouks refide at Cairo;
but many of them are difperfed through the country, in
order to keep up their authority, colledl the tribute,
and opprefs the people: yet it fhould feem very eafy
for the Porte to difpoflefs them of this ufurped autho- Egypt-
rity, as their number is fuppofed not to exceed 8500, v—^
including among thefe a great many youth .under 20
years of age.
The Mamlouks are all horfemen; and as war is ac¬
counted the only honourable employment among them,
it is reckoned dtfgraceful to walk on foot, none but
cavalry being accounted foldiers. The other inha¬
bitants are allowed only the ufe of mules and afles ;
and the fame mark of indignity is impofed upon Eu¬
ropeans ; though, by proper management and liberal
prefents, this may be got over. In the year 1776
lord Algernoun Percy afterwards lord Louvaine, and
the earl of Charlemont, obtained permiffion to ride up¬
on horfeback. The Mamlouks, however, are not incited
to this continual appearance on horfeback merely by
their fuppofed,fuperiority to the refl of the inhabitants;
it is rendered neceflary by their drefs, which is extre-
mely unwieldy and cumberfome. It conlifls of a v/ide Abfurd
Hurt of thin ydlowilh-coloured cotton ; over which is drefs and
a gown of Indian linen, or fome of the light Ruffs
Damafcus or Aleppo. Over this is a fecond covering tj,e
of the fame form and widenefs, with fleeves reaching louks.
down to the ends of the fingers. The former covering
is called antari, and the latter caftan. The caftan is
ufually made of filk or fome finer Ruff than the un¬
der garments; and both of them are faRened by a
long belt, which divides the whole drefs into two
bundles. Over all thefe they have a third, named djou-
ba, confifling of cloth without lining, and made
nearly fimilar to the others, but that the fleeves are
cut in the elbow. This coat is lined, fometimes even
in fummer, with fur; and as if all this was not fuffi-
cient, they have an outer covering called the lenicbet
which is the cloak or robe of ceremony; and fo com¬
pletely covers the body, that even the ends of the fingers
are not to be feen. Thus, when the beniche and o-
ther accoutrements are on, the whole body appears
like a long fack, with a bare neck and bald head cover¬
ed with a turban thruR out of it. This turban is call¬
ed a kaouk; and is of a cylindrical form, yellow', and
turned up on the outfide with a roll of muffin artifi¬
cially folded up. On their feet they have a fock of
yellow leather reaching up to the heels, flippers with¬
out any quarters, which confequently are always ready to
be left behind in walking. Laflly, to complete this ex¬
traordinary drefs, they have a kind of pantaloon or
trowfers, long enough to reach up to the chin, and fo
large that each of the legs is big enough to contain
the whole body; but that they may walk more at their
eafe under fuch a number of impediments, they tie all
the loofe parts of their drefs with a running faffi.
“ Thus fwaddled (fays M. Volney), we may imagine
the Mamlouks are not very aftive walkers; and thofe
who are n®t acquainted by experience with the pre¬
judices of different countries, will find it fcarcely pof-
lible to believe that they look on this drefs as exceed-
ly commodious. In vain we may objeft that it hinders
them from walking, and encumbers them unneceffarily
on horfeback ; and that in battle a horfeman once dif-
mounted is a loR man. They reply. It is the cujlotn,
and every obje&ion is anfwered.”
In the accoutrements of their horfes, the Mamlouks
are almoR equally abfurd. The faddle is a clumfy piece
of furniture, weighing with the faddle-cloths not lefs
3 E 2 ' than
E O Y [ 404 ] E G Y
Ipypt- than 25 pounds ; while the weight of the flirrups is
- never lefs than 9 or 10 pounds, nay, frequently ex¬
ceeds 13. On the back-part of the faddle rifes a truf-
fequin about eight inches in height, while a pummel
before proje&s four or five inches, in fuch a manner
as to endanger the breaft of the horfeman if he fliould
happen to ftoop. Inltead of a fluffed frame, they have
three thick woollen coverings below the faddle ; the
whole being faftened by a furcingle, which, inftead of
a buckle, is tied with leather thongs in very complica¬
ted knots, and liable to flip. Inflead of a crupper
they have a large martingale which throws them upon
the horfes fhoulders. The flirrups are made of cop¬
per, longer and wider than the foot, having circular
edges an inch high in the middle, and gradually decli¬
ning toward each end. The edges are fltarp, and ufed
.inftead of fpurs, by which means the poor animal’s fides
are much wounded. The weight of the furniture has
already been mentioned ; and is the more ridiculous as
the .Egyptian horfes are very fmall. The bridle is
equally ill contrived, and greatly injures the horfe’s
mouth, efpecially by reafon of the violent method they
have of managing the animal. Their ufual way is
to put the horfe to a full gallop, and fuddenly flop
him when at full fpeed. Thus checked by the bit. he
bends in his hind legs, ftiffens the fore ones, and moves
along as if he fcarce had joints in his body: yet, notwith-
flanding all thofe difadvantages, our author acknow¬
ledges that they are vigorous horfemen, having a mar-
tial appearance which pfeafes even ftrangers.
Their arm <■ In the choice of their arms they have (hown them-
educaiion, felves more judicious. Their principal weapon is an
&Q’ Englifh carbine about 30 inches long ; but fo large in
the bore, that it can difcharge 10 or 12 balls at a time,
which can fcarce fail of doing great execution even
from the moll unfkilful hand. Befides two large pif-
tols carried in the belt, they have fometimes a heavy
mace at the bow of the faddle for knocking down their
enemy j and by the (houlder-belt they fufpend a crook¬
ed fabre meafuring 24 inches in a ftraight line from the
hilt to the point, but 30 at leaft in the curve. The
reafon of the preference given to the crooked blade is,
that the effe£l of a ftraight one depends merely on the
foyce with which it falls, and is confined to a fmall
fpace, but that of a crooked one is continued longer
by the a£Hon of the arm in retiring. The Mamlouks
commonly procure their fabres from Conftantinople,
or other parts of Europe; but the beys rival each other
in thofe of Perfia and fuch as are fabricated of the an¬
cient fteel of Damafcus. For thefe they frequently
pay as high as 401. or 501. flerling; but though
it-muft be allowed that the edge of thefe weapons is
exquilitely keen, yet they have the defeft of being
almoft as brittle as glafs. The whole education and
employment of the Mamlouks confifts in the exercifi?
of thele weapons, or what is conducive to it ; fo that
we (hould imagine they might at laft become altoge¬
ther irrefiftible.. Every morning the greater part of
them exercife themfelves in a plain near Cairo, by firing
their carbines and piftols in the moft expeditious- man¬
ner, having an earthen veffel for a mark to Ihoot at;
and the perfon who breaks it is highly applauded by
the beys who attend in order to encourage them. Here
alfo they exercife themfelves in the ufe of the fabre, as
well as of the bow and arrows; though .they do not any
longer make ufe of thefe laft in their engagements. Their Egypt,
favourite diverfion is throwing the djerid; a word pro-
perly fignifying a reed, but which is generally made
ufe of to fignify any ftaff thrown by the hand after the
manner of the Roman pilum. In this exercife they
make ufe of the branches of the palm-tree frelh llripped.
Thefe branches, which have the form of the ftalk of an
artichoke, are about four feet long, and weigh five or
fix pounds. With thefe the cavaliers enter the lifts,
riding full fpeed, and throwing them afterwards at
each other from a confiderabie diftance. As foon
as the affailant has thrown his weapon, he turns his
horfe, and his antagonift purfues in his turn. The di¬
verfion, however, frequently turns out very ferious, as
fome are capable of throwing thefe weapons with force
fufficient to wound their antagonifts mortally. Alt
Bey wras particularly dexterous at this kind of fport,
and frequently killed thofe who oppofed him. All T
thefe military exercifes, however, are by no means fuf-Are not
ficient to render the Mamlouks formidable in the field, fi rniidabl®
In their engagements they have neither order, difci-'n war>
pline, nor even fubordination ; fo that their wars are
only fcenes of robbery, plunder; and tumultuary en¬
counters, which begin very often fuddenly in the it reets
of Cairo without the lealt warning. If the contention
happens to be transferred to the country, it is ftill car¬
ried on in the fame manner. The ftrongeft or moft
daring party purfues the other. If they are equal in
courage, they will perhaps appoint a field of battle,
and that without the leaft regard to advantages of fi-
tuation, but fighting in platoons, with the boldeft
champions at the head of each. .After mutual defian¬
ces the attack begins, and every one choofes out his
man. After difcbarging their fire-arms, if they have
an opportunity they attack with their fabres; and
fuch as happen to be difmounted are helped up agarh
by their fervants; but if nobody happens to be near,
the fervants will frequently kill them for the fake of the
money they carry about them. Of late, however,
the ordinary Mamlouks, who are all flaves to the reft,,
feem convinced that their patrons are the perfons prin¬
cipally interefted; for which reafon they reafonably e-
nough conclude that they ought to encounter the greateil
dangers. Hence they generally leave them to carry on
the difpute by themfelves ; and being always fine of
finding a mailer who will employ them, they generally
return quietly to Cairo until*fome new revolution takes
place.
The mode of living among the Mamlouks is exceed-'rheir ex-
ingly expenfive, as may eafily be conceived from what pen'.ve way
has already been related. There is not one of them°f living,
who does not coft above icqI. Sterling annually, and
many of them upwards of 2001. At every re¬
turn of the fall of Ramadan, their mailers mult give
them a new fuit of French and Venetian cloths, with
ftuffs from India and Damafcus. Frequently they re¬
quire new horfes and harnefs: they mull likewife have
piftols and fabres from Damafcus, with gilt llirrups, and
faddles and bridles plated with filver. The chiefs are
diftinguilhed from the. vulgar by the trinkets and pre¬
cious ftones they wear ; by riding Arabian horfes of
2pol. or 300I. value, wearing fhawls of Calhmitv in
value from 251. to 50I. each, with a variety of pehfies,.
the cheapeft of which cofts above 20I. Even the Eu¬
ropean merchants have given into this kind of extra-
vagance
E G Y L 4°5 1 E G Y
Egypt vagance ; fo that not one of them looks upon his war-
drobe to be decently furnilhed unlefs it be in value
500 1. or 6001.
Anciently it was cuftomary for the women to adorn
their Meads with fequins ; but this is now rejeded as
not fuificiently expenfiye. Inftead of thefe, diamonds,
emeralds, and rubies, are now fubilituted ; and to thefe
they add French duffs and laces. In other relpeds
the chara&er of the Mamlouks is almoft the word
Their bad that can be imagined Without affedion, tie, or
character, connedion with each other or with the ted of man¬
kind, they give themfelves up without control to the
mod enormous vices; and, according to M Volney,
they are at once ferocious, perfidious, feditious, bafe,
deceitful, and corrupted by every fpecies of debauch¬
ery, not excepting even the unnatural vice ; of winch
he tells us not one is free, this being the very fird
leffon each of them receives from his mader, all being
originally daves, as has already been mentioned.
Miferable ^ are t^e Preknt governors of Egypt, we
the may eafily judge that the condition of the common
Egyptians, people cannot be very agreeable. The greater part
of jthe lands indeed are in the hands of the Mamlouks,
beys, and profeffors of the law, the property of all
others being very precarious. Contributions are to be
paid, or damages repaired, every moment; and there
is neither right of fuccedion nor inheritance for real
property, but every thing mud be purchafed from go¬
vernment. The peafants are allowed nothing but what
is barely fufEcient to fudain life. They cultivate rice
and corn indeed, but are not at liberty to ufe either.
The only food allowed them is dora or Indian millet,,
from which they make a kind of tadelefs bread ; and
of this, with water and raw onions, confrds all their
fare throughout the year. They edeem themfelves
happy, therefore, if along with thefe they can fometimes
procure a little honey, cheefe, four milk, or a few
dates. They are very fond of fleihmeat and fat; nei¬
ther of which, however, they have an opportunity of
lading except at extraoidinary fedivals. Their or¬
dinary drefs confids of a dtirt of coarfe blue linen, and
■a clumfy black, cloak-; with a fort of black bonnet
over their heads ; and over all they wear a long ted
woollen handkerchief. Their arms, legs,, and breads,
are naked, and mod of them do not even wear draw¬
ers. They live in mud-walled huts of the mod mifer-
able condruftion, where they are expofcd to the in¬
conveniences of fmoke, heat, and unvvholefome air;
to all which are to be added the continual fears they
live in of being robbed by the Arabs, oppreffed by the
Mamlouks, or fome other grievous calamity. The on¬
ly converfation is concerning the intedine troubles and
mifery.of the country, murders, badinadoes, and exe¬
cutions, Here fentence of death is executed without
the lead delay or form of trial. The officers who go
the rounds in the dreets either by night or day, are
attended by executioners, who carry along with them
leathern bags for receiving the heads they cut off in
thefe expeditions. Even the appearance of guilt is
not neceffary to infer a capital punidiment; for fre¬
quently nothing more is req lilrte than the poflefiiorv of
wealth, or being fuppofed to poffefs it. In this cafe
the unfortunate perfon is fummoned before fome bey ;.
and when he makes his appearance, a fum of money
is demanded of him. If he denies that he poffeffes it,
he is thrown on his back, and receives two or. three
hundred blows on the foies of his feet, nay perhaps is EgvPf-
put to death without any ceremony. The only fecurity ■Y"“"
of thofe who poffefs any wealth in this country there¬
fore is, to pteferve as great an appearance of poverty as
Poffibk- . . . 159
Though the climate of Egypt is far from being un- Difeafcs
healthy; yet there are not a few difeafes which feemto prevalent
be peculiar to it, and to have their origin either from1" thls
the conditution of the atmofphcie, or the manner 0fLOuntry*
living of the inhabitants. One of thefe till lately has
been fuppofed to be the plague; which opinion we
find fupported by Dr Mead, who has endeavoured to
affign a natural reafon why it (hould take its origin in
this country. But it is now univerfally agreed, that
the plague never originates in the interior parts of E-
gypt, but always begins at Alexandria, paffing fuc-
ceffively from thence to Rofetta, Cairo, Damictta,
and the red of the Delta. It is likewife obferved, that
its appearance is always preceded by the arrival of fome
veffel trom Smyrna or Condantinople ; and that, if the
plague has been very violent in either of thefe cities,
the danger to Egypt is the greater. On proper in¬
quiry, it is found to be really a native of Condantinople;
from whence it is exported by the abfurd negligence
of the Turks, who refufe to take any care to prevent
the fpreading of the infe&ion. As they fell even the
clothes of the dead without the had ceremony, and
dups laden with this pernicious commodity are fent to
Alexandria, it is no wonder that it (hould foon make
its appearance there. As foon as it has reached Cairo,.
the European merchants (hut themfelves up with their
families in their khans or lodgings, taking care to have
no further communication with the city. Their pro-
vifions are now depolited at the gate of.ihe khan, and
are taken up by the porter with iron tongs ; who
plunges them into a barrel of water provided for the -
purpofe. If they have occafion to fpeak to any per-
ibn, they take care to keep at fuch a didance as to
avoid touching or even breathing upon each other.
By thefe precautions they certainly efcape the general
calamity, except by accident; and it not long ago
happened that the difeafe was conveyed by a cat into
the dwellings of the French merchants in -Cairo ; by
which two were infe&ed, and one died. In this man¬
ner they are imprifoned for three or four months,
without any other amufement than walking on their
terraces in the evenings, cards, or converfation with
one .another. There is a remarkable difference betwixt
the plague at Condantinople and in Egypt. In the
former, it is mod violent in fummer ; and in the latter
in winter, ending there always in the month of June-.
It is alfo remarkable, that the water-carriers of Egypt,
whofe backs are condantly wet from the nature of
their occupation, never have the plague. It ap¬
pears in Egypt every fourth or fifth year, when it.
makes fuch ravages as would depopulate the countiy,.
were it not for the vad concourfe of drangers which
arrive here every year from all parts of the Turkidi
empire.
A malady which feems in reality to be peculiar to
Egypt is blindnefs. This is fo common at Cairo, as
M. Volney infdrms us, that out of 100.people whom
he has met on the dreet, he might reckon 20 quite
blind ; 10 without the fight of one eye ; and 20 o-
thers with their eyes red, purulent, or blemiihed..
Almod every one, fays he, wears a fillet,. a token of
aa.
E G Y l 406 ] E G Y
•Egypt, an approaching or convalefcent ophthalmy. Ip confi-
“ v (kring the caufes of this diforder, he reckon? the fleep-
ing upon terraces to be a principal one. The fouth
*wind, he fays, cannot be the-caufe; otherwife the Be¬
douins would be equally fubjeft to it with the Egyp¬
tians themfelves : but what is with the greateft proba¬
bility to be afiigned as the caufe, according to our au¬
thor, is the very poor and little nutritive food which
the natives are obliged to ufe. “ The cheefc, four-
milk, honey, confe&ion of grapes, green fruits, and
raw vegetables (fays he), which are the ordinary food
of the people, produce in the flomach a diforder which
phyficians have obferved to affect the fight; the raw
ofiions, efpecially, which they devour in great quan-
•tities, have a peculiar heating quality, as the monks
•of Syria made me remark on myfelf. Bodies thus
nourifhed, abound in corrupted humours, which are
conftantly endeavouring a difcharge. Divei tedfrom the
ordinary channels, by habitual perfpiration, thefe hu¬
mours fly to the exterior parts, and fix themfelves where
they find the leaft refiftance. They therefore naturally
attack the head, becaufe the Egyptians, by (having it
once a-week, and covering it with a prodigioufly hot
-head-drefs, principally attradl; to it the perfpiration ;
and if the head receives ever fo flight an imprefiion of
cold on being uncovered, this perfpiration is fupprefs-
ed, and falls upon the teeth, or ftill more readily on
the eyes as being the tendered: part. It will appear
the more probable that the exceffive perfpiration of the
head is a principal caufe, when we refledt that the an¬
cient Egyptians, who went bare-headed, are not men¬
tioned by phyficians as being fo much afflidled with
ophthalmies; though we are informed by hiftorians
that fome of the Pharaohs died blind. The Arabs of
the defert alfo, who cover the head but little, efpe¬
cially when young, are alfo very little fubjedl to them.”
In this country blindnefs is often the confeque ice of
.the fmall-pox, a diforder very frequent and very fa¬
tal among the Egyptians ; and no doubt th more
dangerous on account of their abfurd method of treat¬
ing it, of which it is needlefs to enter into any difcuf-
iion in this place. They are not unacquainted with
•inoculation; but feem not to be fenfible of its advanta¬
ges, as they very feldom pradfife it.
To the fame .caufe, viz. unwholefome food,M. Vol-
ney afcribes the general deformity of the beggars, and
the miferable appearance of the children • which he
fays are no where fo wretched. “ Their hollow eyes,
pale and puffed faces, fwollen bellies, meagre extremi¬
ties, and yellow fkins, make them always feem as if
they had not long to live. Their ignorant mothers
pretend That this is the effedf of the evi/ eye of fome
envious perfon, who has bewitched them ; and this an¬
cient prejudice is flill general in Turkey : but the real
caufe is the badnefs of their food. In fpite of the ta-
lifmans, therefore, an incredible number of them pe-
rifh ; nor is any city more fatal to the population of the
neighbouring country than Grand Cairo.”
The venereal difeafe, which, for reafons beft known
to themfelves, the inhabitants call the blejfed evil, is fo
general at Cairo, that one half of the inhabitants are
infecfed. It is extremely difficult to cure, though the
fymptoms are comparatively very mild, infomuch that
people who are infedted with it will frequently live to
the age of 80 ; but it is fatal to children born with the
infedlion, and exceedingly dangerous to fuch as emi- -Egypt,
grate to a colder climate. —i-y——J
Befides thefe, there are two uncommon difeafes met
with in Egypt, vi%. a cutaneous eruption which returns
annually ; and a fwelling of the teflicles, which often
degenerates into an enormous hydrocele. The former
comes on towards the end of June or beginning of Ju¬
ly, making its appearance in red fpots and pimples all
over the body, occafioning a very troublefome itch¬
ing. The caufe of this diftemper, in M. Volney’s o-
pinion, is the corruption of the waters of the Nile,
which towards the end of April become very putrid,
as has already been obferved. After this has been
drunk for fome time, the waters of the inundation,
which are frefh and wholefome, tend to introduce
fome change in the blood and humours; whence a cuta¬
neous eruption is the natural confequence.
The hydrocele moft commonly attacks the Greeks
and Copts; and is attributed to the quantity of oil
they make ufe of, as well as to their frequent hot-
bathing. Our author remarks, that “ in Syria as
well as in Egypt, conftant experience has fhown, that
brandy diftilled from common figs, or from the fruit
of the fycamore tree, as well as from dates and the
fruit of the nopal, has a moft immediate effedf on
the tefticles, which it renders hard and painful the
third or fourth day after it has been drunk; and if
the ufe of it be not difcontinued, the diforder degene¬
rates into a confirmed hydrocele. Brandy diftilled
from dried raifins has not the fame effedt: this is al¬
ways mixed with anifeeds ; and is very ftrong, being
diftilled three times. The Chriftians of Syria and
the Copts of Egypt make great ufe of it ; the latter
efpecially drink whole bottles of it at their fupper. I
imagined this an exaggeration ; but I have myfelf had
ocular proofs of its truth, though nothing pould equal
my aftonifhment that fuch exceffes do not produce in-
ftant death, or at kail every fymptom of the moft in-
fenlible drunkennefs.”
In the fpring feafon malignant fevers prevail in this
country ; concerning which our author mentions no re¬
markable particular, but that eggs are a kind of poi-
fon, and that bleeding is very prejudicial. He re¬
commends a vegetable diet, and the bark in very large
quantity.
Notwithftanding the oppreffion which the Egyptians con^°rc
labour under, a very coniiderabk trade is carried on o^CaTro**
from Cairo. This flourifhirig ftate of commerce inconfider-
the midft of the moft defperate barbarity and defpotifm able*
is owing to three caufes. 1. That all the commodities
confumed in Egypt are colleifted within the walls of
that city. 2. That the Mamlouks and all the people
of property refide in that place, and there fpend their
whole revenues. 3. By the‘fituation of this city it is
a centre of circulation ; correfponding with Arabia
and India, by the Red Sea ; with Abyffinia and the in¬
terior parts of Africa, by the Nile ; and with Europe
and the Turkifh empire, by means of the Mediterra¬
nean. A caravan comes here annually from Abyffinia,
bringing from 1000 to 1200 (laves, with gum, ivory,
gold-duft, oftrich-fea'thers, parrots, and monkeys.—
Another, which fets out from the extreme parts of Mo¬
rocco, takes in pilgrims for Mecca from all that
country as far fouth as the mouth of the river Senegal.
It confifts of not fewer than three or four thoufand ca¬
mels ;
E G Y [ 4°7 J E G Y
tnels; and, paffing along the coafts of the Mediterra-
 nean, collefts likewife the pilgrims from Algiers, Tri¬
poli, and Tunis, arriving at laft at Alexandria by the
way of the defert. Proceeding thence to Cairo, it joins
the Egyptian caravan; and then fetting out both toge¬
ther, they take their journey to Mecca, fromwhencethey
return in one hundred days; but the Morocco pilgrims,
who have ftill'6co leagues to go, are upwards of a year
in returning. The commodities they bring along with
them are, India fluffs, fhawls, gums, perfumes, pearls,
and principally coffee. Befides the profits of this
merchandize, conliderable firms arife from the duties
paid by pilgrims, and the Turns expended by them.
The caravans above mentioned are not the only
means by which thefe commodities are brought to Cai¬
ro. They arrive alfo at Suez, to which port the
foutherly winds bring in the month of May fix or
eight and twenty fail of veffels from Jedda. Small
caravans likewife arrive from time to time from Da-
mafcus with filk and cotton fluffs, oils, and dried
fruits. During the proper feafon there are alfo a
number of veffels in the road of Damietta, unloading
hogflieads of tobacco from Latakia, vaft quantities of
which are confumed in this country. For this commo¬
dity rice is taken in exchange ; while other veffels bring
clothing, arms, furs, paffengers, and wrought filk
from Conftantinople. There are other veffels which
come from Marfeilles, Leghorn, and Venice, with
cloths, cochineal, Lyons fluffs and laces, grocery ware,
paper, iron, lead, Venetian fequins, and German dah-
lers. Thefe are conveyed to Rofetta in barks called
by M. Volney djerm, but which feem to be the fame
mentioned by Mr Bruce under the name of canja, and
'Veffels 'which are particularly defcribed by him. He informs
which na- us, that there is a peculiarity in the form of this vef-
vigate the fel which makes it ufeful for navigating the river Nile;-
Nde de- ancl that is, that the keel is not ftraight, but a portion
1 6 ' of a parabola, whofe curve is almoft infenfible to the
eye. Hence, as fand-banks are very common in the
Nile, and veffels are apt to ftrike them when the water,
becomes low, the middle of the canja will be aground
while the extremities are afloat, and thus by means of
oars and other affiftance, itis always pofiible to get clear
but were the keel ftraight, this would be altogether im-
pofiible, by reafon of the vaft fails thofe vdfels carry,
which would urge them on with too much force to be
recovered. The accommodation on board thofe vef¬
fels is much better than what could be expe&ed:
but they are liable to the depredations of robbers,
who either fwim under water in the day time, or upon
goats flcins during the night; though thefe feldom at¬
tack any boats where there are Europeans, w'hom they
•dread on account of their fkill in fire-arms.
From fo many fources we need not wonder that the
commerce of Cairo fhould be in a very flouriftiing ftate.
In 1783, according to the report of the commiffioner-
general of the cuftoms, it amounted to no lefs than
6,250,0001. but notwithftanding this ftiow of wealth,
the trade carried on at Cairo contributes very little to
the enriching of the people. This will readily appear,
when w'e confider, that great part of the coffee and
other merchandife brought from India is exported to
foreign countries, the value being paid in goods from
Turkey and other European countries; while the
country cenfumption confifts entirely, or moftly, in
articles of luxury already finifhed, and the produce gi- Egyp;.
ven in return is moftly in raw materials. " v—
Schemes have frequently been projedledof enlarging .
the commerce of Egypt by cutting through the Ifth- through^he
mus of Suez, and thus joining the Mediterranean andifthmusuf
Red Seas by a canal. This is looked upon by M. Suez.
Volney as imprafticable. He owns, indeed, that no
ohjedlion xan arife from the diftance, which is not
more than 18 or 19 leagues ; neither does any ob-
ftacle arife from mountains, or the inequality of levels^
the whole being a fandy barren plain. The difficulty^
which he confiders as infuperable, proceeds from the
nature of the correfponding coafts of the Mediterra¬
nean and Red Seas; both of which are low and fandy,
where the water forms lakes, flioals, and moraffes, fo
that fhips cannot come within a eonfiderable . diftance
of either; and it would be fcarce poffible to cut a per¬
manent canal amidft thefe ftiifting fands: not to men¬
tion, that the ftiore is deftitute of harbours, which muft
be entirely the work of art. The country, befides, has-
not a drop of frefti water; which it would therefore be
neceffary to bring as far as from the Nile. The beft me¬
thod of effecting this junttion therefore is by means of
the river itfelf; and for this the ground is perfedUy
well calculated. This haabeen already done by feveral
Egyptian, princes, particularly Sefoftris; and the canal
is faid to have been 170 feet wide, and deep enough for
largcrveffels. After the Grecian conqueft it was renewed
by the Ptolemies, then by Trajan, and laftly by the
Arabs. Part of it ftill remains, running from Cairo-
to the north-eaft of the Berkst-el-Hadj, or Lake of the
Pilgrims, where it lofes itfelf. At prefent the com¬
merce with Suez is only carried on by means of cara¬
vans, which fet out towards the end of April or begin¬
ning of May, or in the months of July and Auguft ;
waiting the arrival of the veffels, and fetting out oa
their departure. The caravans are very numerous; that
with which M. Volney travelled confifling of 5000 or
6000 men and 3000 camels. The country is as defert
and barren as poffible, without a Angle tree or the
fmalleft fpot of verdure ; fo that every neceffary for
thofe who accompany the caravan muft be carried on
fhe backs of the camels, wood and water not excepted*
The cuftom-houfes of Egypt are in the hands of the
Chriftians of Syria. Formerly they were managed by
Jews ; but thefe were completely ruined by the extor¬
tions of AH Bey in 1769. The Syrian Chriftians came
from Damafcus fomewhat more than 50 years ago; and
having by their economy and induftry gained poffeffion
of the moft important branches of commerce, they were-
at length enabled to farm the cuftom-houfes, which is
an office of great confequence. There were at firftonly
three or four families of them; but their number has
fince increafed to more than 500, and they are rec¬
koned very .opulent. j 6- -
From what has already been faid concerning theLswftate
ftate of the Egyptians, we may naturally conclude,
that the arts and all kinds of learning are at a very lowing
ebb among them. Even the moft Ample of the mecha¬
nical profeffions are ftill in a ftate of infancy. The
work of their cabinet-makers, gunfmiths, and lock-
fmiths, is extremely clumfy. There are manufa&ures
of gunpowder and fugar 5 but the quality of both are
> ;ry indifferent. The only thing in which they can ba
faid to arrive,at any degree of perfection is the manu- -
.faefurs..
E G Y [ 408 ] E G Y
Egyptians fa&are of filk ftuffs; though even thefe are far lefs
II highly finifhed than thofe of Europe, and likewife bear
r‘ a much higher price. One very extraordinaiy art in-
* " deed is ftill extant among the Egyptians, and appears
to have exifted in that country from the moft remote
antiquity; and that is a power of enchanting the molt
deadly ferpents in fuch a manner, that they lhall allow
themfelves to be handled, nay even hurt in the fevereft
manner,"without offering to bite the perfon who injures
them. Thofe who have this art are named Psylli ;4
to which article we refer for an account of what
has been faid on the fubjeft by ancient and modern
travellers.
For a defcription of thofe ftupendous and almofl in-
deflruftible monuments of human grandeur, the pyra¬
mids, fo often taken notice of and defcribed by tra¬
vellers; fee the article Pyramids.
EGYPTIANS, or Gypsies. See Gypsies.
EHRETIA, in botany: A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4111 or¬
der, AfperifolitE. The fruit is a bilocular berry ; the
feeds folitary and bilocular ; the ftigma emarginated.
EHRHARTA, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is a two-valved, abbreviated, and
one-flowered glume; the corolla is a double glume,
each two-valved; the exterior one compreffed, and fcy-
meter-lhaped, tranfverfely wrinkled, and gafhed at tiie
bafe. There are fix flamina, three on - each fide the
piftil in a parallel line. The ftigma is fimple, .com¬
preffed, four-tufted, and torn at the top.
EHUD, the fon of Gera, a Benjamite, a man left-
handed, who delivered Ifrael from the oppreffion of
Eglon king of Moab, under whom they ferved for 18
years. See Eglon. It being cuftomary for the If-
raelites to fend a prefent or .tribute to the king of
Moab; in the year of the world 2579, being the laft
year of their fervitude, Ehud was appointed to carry
it, who having a defign either to free his country from
this oppreffion, or perilh in the attempt, had for this
purpoie provided himfelf with a dagger which had
two edges, and which he had concealed on his right
fide, i Judges iii. 15, &c.). After he had delivered
the prefent, pretending he had fomething of great im¬
portance to communicate to the king, he obtained a
private audience of him; when taking his opportunity,
he {tabbed him with the poniard to the heart, and fo
{hutting the door after him, had time to make his
efcape ; for as the king was a very corpulent man, his
attendants fuppofed that he was either repofmg or ea-
fing himfelf, and therefore forbore to enter his apart¬
ment until Ehud was quite gone. As foon as he
came to mount Ephraim, he gathered together the If-
raelites that lay neareft him, acquainted them with what
he had done ; and then fecuring the fords of Jordan
that none of them might efcape, he fell upon the Moa¬
bites, and fubdued them.
El A, or Ey, in our old writers, are ufed for an
ifland. Hence; the names of places ending in ey, de¬
notes them to be iflands. Thus, Ramfey, the ifle of
rams; .Shepey, the ifle of flieep, &c.
Eia is alfo fometimes ufed for water; and hence the
names of places near waters or lakes terminate in ey
EJ CU LATOR, in anatomy, a name applied to
N° 111.
two mufcles of the penis from their office in the ejec- Eiceta
tiqn of the feed. See Anatomy, Tableef the Mujcles. :
E1CE 1VE, called alfo HEicETAsand Hicetie, here-E^c6tment‘
tics of the feventh century, who made profeffion of the
monaftic life.- From that paffage in Exodus, where
Mofes and the children of Ifrael are laid to have fling
a fong in praife of the Lord, after they had pafl'ed the
Red Sea, wherein their enemies had periflied ; the ei-
cetas concluded, that they muft ling and dance to praife
God aright; and as Mary the prophetefs, After of Mo¬
fes and Aaron, took a drum in her hand, on the fame
occafion, and all the women did the like, to teftify
their joy, by playing, beating, and dancing; the eice-
tae, the better to imitate their conduft herein, endea¬
voured to draw women to them to make profeffion of
the monaftic life, and affift in their mirth.
EICK. See Bruges.
EIDER-duck. See Anas.
EiDF.R-Down. See Down.
EJECTA, a term ufed by lawyers for a woman de¬
flowered or call from the virtuous.
EJEC flON, in the animal economy, evacuation,
or the difcharging any thing through fome of the e-
mun&ories, as by iiool, vomit, &c.
Ejection, in Scots law, is the turning out the pof-
feffor of any heritable fubjedt by force; and is either
legal or illegal. Legal ejection is where a perfon ha¬
ving no title to poffefs, is turned out by the authority
of law. Illegal ejection is one perfon’s violently turn¬
ing another out of poffeffion without lawful autho¬
rity.
EJECTMENT, in Engliflr law, a writ or adtion
which lies for the lelfee for years, on his being ejedted
or put out of his land, before the expiration of his term,
either by the leffor or a ftranger. It may alfo be
brought by the leffor againit the leffee, for rent in ar¬
rears, or holding over his term, &c. Ejedlment of
late years is become an adlion in the place of many
real adtions, as writs of right, formedons, &c. which
are very difficult, as well as tedious and expenfive; and
this is now the common adtion for trial of titles, and
recovering of lands, &c. illegally held from the right
owner; yet where entry is taken away by difcents,
fines, recoveries, diffeifins, &. an ejedlment {hall not
be brought; whereby we find that all titles cannot
be tried by this action.
The method of proceeding in the adtion of ejedlment
is to draw up a declaration, and feign therein a leafe
for three, five, or feven years, to him that would try
the title; and alfo feign a cafual ejedtor or defendant;
and then deliver the declaration to the ejedtor, who
ferves a copy of it on the tenant in poffelfion, and gives
notice at the bottom for him to appear and defend his
title; or that he the feigned defendant will fuffer
judgment by default, whereby the true tenant will be
turned out of pofleffion ; to this declaration the tenant
is to appear at the beginning of next term by his attor¬
ney, and confent to a rule to be made defendant, in-
ftead of the cafual ejedlor, and take upon him the de¬
fence, in which he muft confels leale, judgment, entry,
and auller, and at the trial Hand upon the title only:
but in cafe the tenant in poffeffion does not appear,
and enter into the faid rule in time, after the declara¬
tion ferved, then, on affidavit being made of the lervice
of the declaration, with the notice to appear as afore-
4 faid.
E L A [ 409 ] E L A
Ekron, faid, the court will order judgment to be entered againtl
Elasagnui. tjie cafual ejedtor by default ; and thereupon the te-
w”~v nant in poficflion, by writ habere facias pojfejjionem, is
turned out of his pofieffion. On the trial in eject¬
ment, the plaintiff's title is to be fet forth from the
perfon lad feifed in fee of the lands in queftion, under
whom the leffor claims down to the plaintiff, proving
the deeds, &c. and the plaintiff fhall recover only ac¬
cording to the right which he has at the time of bring¬
ing his adtion. And here, another who hath title to
the land, upon a motion made for that purpofe, may
be defendant in the adtion with the tenant in poffeffion,
to defend his title; for the poffeffion of the lands is
primarily in queftion, and to be recovered, which con¬
cerns the tenant, and the title thereto is tried collate¬
rally, which may concern fome other.
EKRON, a city and government of the Philiftines.
It fell by lot to the tribe of Judah, in the firft divifion
made by Joffiua (xv. 45.), but afterwards it was given
to the tribe of Dan {id. xix. 43.) It was fituated
very near the Mediterranean, between Afhdod and Jam-
nia. Ekron was a powerful city, atid it does not ap¬
pear by hiftory that the Jews were ever foie peaceable
poffeffors of it: the Ekronites were the firft who faid
that it was neceffary to fend back the ark of the God
of Ifrael, in order to be delivered from thofe calamities
which the prefence of it brought upon their country,
( i Sam. v. 10.) The idol Baalzebub was principally
adored at Ekron (2 Kings i. 2, &c.)
ELiEAGNUS, Oleaster, or Wild Olive: A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 16th order, Calyciflora. There is no corolla;
the calyx is campanulated, quadrifid, fuperior ; the
fruit is a plum below the campanulated calyx. There
are three fpecies : I. The fpinofa, or eaftern broad¬
leaved olive with a large fruit, is a native of the Le¬
vant and fome parts of Germany. The leaves are about
two inches long, and one and a half broad in the mid¬
dle. They are placed alternate, and of a filver colour:
at the footftalk of every leaf there comes out a pretty
long fliarp thorn, which are alternately longer: the
flowers are fmall, the infide of the empalement is yel¬
low, and they have a ftrong feent when fully open.
2. The inermis, without thorns, is that kind commonly
preferved in the gardens of this country. The leaves
are more than three inches long, and half an inch
broad, and have a (hining appearance like fattin. The
flowers come out at the footftalks of the leaves, fome-
times fingly, at other times two, and fometimes three,
at the fame place. The outfide of the empalement is
filvery and ftudded; the infide of a pale yellow, and
having a very ftrong feent. The flowers appear in
July, and are fometimes fucceeded by fruit. 3. The
latifolia, with oval leaves, is a native of Ceylon, and
fome other parts of India. In this country it rifes
with a woody ftem to the height of eight or nine feet,
dividing into many crooked branches, garnilhed with
oval and filvery leaves, which have feveral irregular
Ipots of a dark colour on the furface. They are
placed alternately on the branches, and continue all
the year.
Culture, See. The two firft may be propagated by
laying down the young llioots in autumn. They will
take root in one year; when they may be cut off from
Vol.VI. Part II. 1
the old trees, and either tranfplanted into a nurfery for Elasocarpus
two or three years to be trained up, or into places . N.
where they are to remain. The proper time for this bol aC"
is in the beginning of March or early in the autumn. ‘
They Ihould be placed where they may be fereened
from high winds; for they grow very freely, and are
apt to be fplit by the wind if they are too much ex-
pofed. The third fort is too tender to endure the open
air of this country ; and therefore muft be ke{k in a
warm ftove, except during a Ihort time in the warmeft
part of fummer.
From the flowers of thefe plants an aromatic and
cordial water has been drawn, which is faid to have
been fuccefsfully ufed in putrid and peftilential fevers.
The genus elxagnus is not to be confounded with the
oleafter or wild olive of Gerard, Parkinfon, and Ray.
The laft is only a particular fpecies of olive, called by
Tournefort and Cafpar Bauhine, olea fylvejlris. See
Olea.
ELiEOCARPUS, in botany: A genus of the mo¬
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is penta-
petalous and lacer&ed; the calyx is pentaphyllous; and
the fruit is a plum, with a wrinkled kernel.
ELiEOTHESIUM, in antiquity, the anointing
room, or place where thofe who were to wreftle or had
bathed anointed themfelves. See Gymnasium.
ELAIS, in botany; a genus belonging to the na¬
tural order of Palma. The male calyx is hexaphyllous;
the corolla fexfid; the ftamina fix : The female calyx
is hexaphyllous; the corolla hexapetalous; the ftig-
mata three ; the fruit a fibrous plum, with a three-
valved nut or kernel.
ELAM (anc. geog.), a country frequently men¬
tioned in Scripture, and lying to the fouth-eaft of
Shinar. In the time of Daniel (viii. 2.), Sufiana feems
to have been part of it; and before the captivity, it
does not appear that the Jews called Perfia by any
other nanj£. Elymas and Elymais are often mentioned
by the ancients. Ptolemy, though he makes Elymais
a province of Media, yet he places the Elymae in Sui
fiana, near the fea-coaft. Stephanus takes it to be a
part of Affyria; but Pliny and Jofephus more properly
of Perfia, whofe inhabitants this latter tells us fprang
from the Elamites. The beft commentators agree,
that the Elamites, who were the anceftors of the Per-
fians, were defeended from Elam thefon of Shem. It
is like wife allowed, that the moft ancient among the
infpired writers conftantly intend Perfia, when they
fpeak of Elam and the kingdom of Elam. Thus, not
to detain the reader with unneceffary quotations, when
the prophet Jeremiah {xlix. 39.), after denouncing
many judgments againft this country, adds thefe words,
“ But it (hall come to pafs in the latter days, that I
will bring again the captivity of Elam, faith the
Lord,” he is always underftood to mean the reftora-
tion of the kingdom of the Perfians by Cyrus, who
fubdued the Babylonians, as they before had fubdued the
Perfians.
ELAPHEBOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival
in honour of Diana the huntrefs. In the celebration
a cake was made in the form of a deer and
offered to the goddefs. It owed its inftitution to the
following circumltance : When the Phocians had been
3 F feverely
E L A [ ■ 41
C'EfcipheKb- feverdy beaten by the Theflalians, they refolved, by
luun t^e perfaaj'10n 0f one Deiphantus, to raife a pile of
combuftible materials, and barn their wives, children,
. '3,1 ‘c' , and effects, rather than fubmit to the enemy. This
refolution was unanimoufly approved by the women,
'who decreed Deiphantus a crown for his magnanimity.
When every thing was prepared, before they fired the
pile, they engaged their enemies, and fought with fuch
'defperate fury, that they totally routed them, and ob¬
tained a complete victory. In commemoration of this
unexpefted fuccefs, this fellival was inllituted to Diana,
and obferved with the greateft folemnity.
.ELAPHEBOLIUM, in Grecian antiquity, the
ninth month of the Athenian year, anfwering to the
latter part of February and beginning of March. It
confifted of 30 &ays; and took its name from the feiti-
val elaphebolia, kept in this month, in honour of Di¬
ana the huntrefs, as mentioned in the preceding article.
ELASMIS, in natural hiilory, a genus of talcs,
compofed of fmall'plates in form of fpangles ; and ei¬
ther fmgle, and not farther fiffile ; or,,if complex, on¬
ly hffile to a certain degree, and that in fomewhat thick
laminae.—Of thefe talcs there are feveral varieties, fame
with large and others with fmali fpangles, which dif¬
fer alfo in colour and other peculiarities.
ELASTIC, in natural philofophy, an appellation
given to" all bodies endowed with the property of ela-
fticity. See Elasticity.
Elastic Fluids. See Air, Electricity, Gas, and
Elastic Vapours below.
Elastic Refin. See Caoutchouc.
Elastic Vapours are fuch as may, by any external
mechanical force, be compreffed into a fmaller fpace
than what they originally occupied ; reftoring them-
felves, when the preffure is taken off, to their former
flate with a force exattly proportioned to that with
which they were at firft compreffed. Of this kind are
all the aerial fluids without exception, and all kinds of
fumes raifed by means of heat whether from folid or
fluid bodies;
Of thefe, fome retain their elafticity only when a
contiderable degree of heat is applied to them or the
fubttance which produces them ; while others remain
claftic in every degree of cold, either natural or artifi¬
cial, that has yet been obferved. Of the former
kind are the vapours of water, fpirit of wine, mercu¬
ry, fal ammoniac, and all kinds of fublimable falts ; of
the latter, thofe of fpirit of fait, mixtures of vitriolic
acid and iron,’ nitrous acid, and various other metals,
and in fhort the different fpecies of aerial fluids indif-
criminately.
The elallic force with which any one of thefe fluids
is endowed has not yet been calculated, as being ulti¬
mately greater than any obftacle we can pm in its
way. Thus, if we comprefs the atmofpherical air, we
fhall find that for fome little time it will eafily yield to
the force we apply; but every fucceeding moment the
refiftance will become ftronger, and a greater and great¬
er force mull be applied in order to comprefs it far¬
ther. As the compreffion goes on, the veffel contain¬
ing the air becomes hotbut no power whatever has
yet been able to deftroy the elafticity of the contained
fluid in any degree; for upon removing the preffnre,
it is always found to occupy the very faille fpace that
° ] E L A
it did before. The cafe -is the fame with aqueous Elaft’e.
fleam, to which a fufficient heat is applied to keep it  v—•
from condenfing into waten This will yield to a cer¬
tain degree ; but every moment the refillance becomes
greater, until at laft it vvill overcome any obflacles.
whatever. An example of the power of this kind of fleam
we have every day in the fleam engine; and the va¬
pours of other matters, both folid and fluid, have fre¬
quently manifefted themfelves to be endowed with an
equal force. Thus the force of the vapours of fpirit
of . wine, has occafioned terrible accidents when the
worm has been flopped, and the head of the ftill ab-
furdly tied d .wn to prevent an explolion ; the vapours
of mercury have burft Jn iron. box.; and thofe of fal
ammoniac, volatile falts, nitrous acid, marine acid,
phofphorus, &c. have all been known to burff the che¬
mical veffels which confined them with great force, in
fuch a manner as to endanger thofe who flood near
them. In Ihort, from innumerable obfervations, it
may be laid down as an undoubted faft,* that there is.
no fubflanee whatever capable of being reduced into a
{fate of vapour, but what in that ftate is endowed with. *
an elaflic force ultimately fuperiof to any obftacle we
can throw in its way.
It hath been a kind of defideratum among philo-
fophers to give a fatisfa&ory reafon for this aftonilh-
ing power of elafticity in vapour, feemingly fo little ca¬
pable of accomplifhing any great purpofe when in an
unconfined ftate. As air is that fluid in which, from
the many experiments made upon it by the air-pump
and otherwife, the elaftic property has moft frequently
been obferved, the refearches of philofophers were at
fir ft principally diredled towards it. The caufes they
affigned, however, were very inadequate; being found¬
ed upon an hypothefis concerning the form of the par¬
ticles of the atmofpherc itfelf, which they fuppofed to.
be either rolled up like the fprings of watches, or that
they confifted of a kind of elaftic flakes. This was
followed by another hypothefis concerning their fub-
ftance, which was imagined to be perfedlly elaftic, and
fo ftrong that they could not be broken by any me¬
chanical power whatever ; and thus they thought the
phenomenon of the elafticity of the air might be ex¬
plained. But an infuperable difficulty ftill attended their
fcheme, notwithftanding both thefe fuppofitions ; for
it was obferved, that the elaftic power of the air was
augmented not only in proportion to the quantity of
preffure it was made to endure, but in proportion to
the degree of heat applied to it at the time. Sir Ifaac
Newton was aware of this difficulty; and juftly con¬
cluded, that the phenomena of the air’s elafticity could
not be folved on any other fuppoiitkm but that of a
repulfive power diffufed all around each of its parti¬
cles, which became ftronger as they approached, and
weaker as they removed from each other. Hence the
common phenomena of the air-pump and condenfiiig-
engine received a fatisfadfory explanation ; but ftill h
remained to account for the power Ihown in the pre-
fent cafe by heat, as it could not be denied that this
element had a very great {hare in augmenting the ela¬
fticity of the atmofphere, and feemed to be the only
caufe of elafticity in other vapours. It does not ap¬
pear that Sir Ifaac entered into this queftion, but con¬
tented himfelf with attributing to heat the property of
E I, A [ 4” ]. E L A
ftic. increafing repulfion, and afcribing this to another un- by burning witli iron, is converted into a gravitating
explored property called rarefaction. Thus matters fubittfnce of an unknown nature, which adheres Itron r-
f'tood till the great difcovery made by Dr Black, that ly to the metal. If the dccompofition is performed
fome bodies have the power of abforbing in an un- by means of inflammable air, both together unite in*
known manner the element in queftion, and parting to an heavy, aqueous, or acid fluid : if by mixture
with it afterwards, fo that it flows out of the body with nitrous air, dill the heat is difcernible, though left
which had abforbed it with the very fame properties violent than in the two former cafes. The decompoii-
'that it had before abforption. Hence many pheno- tion indeed is flower, but equally complete, and the
mena of heat, vapour, and evaporation, were explained dephlogillicated air becomes part of the nitrous acid,
in a manner much more fatisfadlory than had ever been from which it may be again expelled by proper means:
attempted or even expefted before. One of thefe was but of thefe means heat muft always be one ; for thus
that remarkable property of metals becoming hot by only the elaflicity can be reftored, and the air be re*
hammering; during which operation, in the Doftor’s covered in its proper flate. The fame thing takes
opinion, the element of heat is fqueezed out from be- place in fixed air, and all other permanently elaftic
tween the particles of the metal as water is from the fluids capable of being abforbed by others. The con-
pores of a fponge by prefling it between the fingers, clufion .therefore which we can only draw from what
Of the fame nature w the phenomenon above mention- data we have concerning the compoiition of elaftic va-
ed, that air when violently comprefled becomes hot, pours is, that all of them are formed of a terreftrial
by reafon of the quantity of more fubtle element fubftance, united with the element of heat in fuch a
fqueezed out from among the particles. In this man- manner that part of the latter may be fqueezed out from
ner it appears that heat and the repulfive power of Sir among the terreftrial particles; "but in fuch a manner
Ifaac Newton are the very fame ; that'by diminiftiing that as foon as the preffure is taken off, the furround-
the heat of any’quantity of air, its elafticity is effec- ing fluid rufties in, and expands them to their original
tually diminiflied, and it will of itfelf fhrink into a bulk: and this expanfion or tendency to it will be in-
fmaller fpace as effectually as by mechanical preffure. creafed in proportion to the degree of heat, juft as the
In one cafe we have what maybe called ocular de- expanfion of a fponge would be exceedingly augment-
monftration of the truth of this doctrine, viz. that by ed, if we could contrive to convey a ftream of water
throwing the focus of a ftrong burning lens upon a into the heart of it, and make the liquid flow out with
fmall quantity of charcoal in vacuo, the whole will be con- violence through every pore in the circumference. In
verted into inflammable air, having even a greater power this cafe, it is evident that the water would a6t as a
of elaiticity than common air in an equah degree of power of rcpulfon among the particles of the fponge, as
heat. Here there is nothing elfe but heat or light well as the fire does among the particles of the water,
to produce the elaftic power, or caufe the particles of charcoal, or whatever other fubftance is employed,
charcoal which before attra&ed now to repel each other. Thus far we may rcafon from analogy ; but in all pro-
In another cafe we have evidence equally ftrong, that bability the internal and effential texture of thefe va-
the element of heat by itfelf, without the prefence of pours will for ever remain unknown. Their obvious
that of light, is capable of producing the fame effeft. properties, as well as fome of their mqre -latent opera-
Thus when a phial of ether is put into the receiver of tions in many cafes, are treated of under a variety of
tm air-pump, and fmrounded by a fmall veflcl of water, articles in this work, as Aerologv, Evaporation
the ether broils violently, and is difilpated in vapour, Volcano, &c.
while the water freezes, and is cooled to a great de- It bas been imagined by fome, that the artificial
gree. The diflipation of this vapour ihows that it has elaftic fluids have not the fame mechanical property
an elaftic force; and the abforption of the heat from with common air, viz. that of occupying a fpace in-
the water ihows, that this element not only p/W&w verfely proportional to the weights with which they
the elailicity, but actually enters into the fubftance of are prefied : but this is found to be a miftake. All of
the vapour itfelf; fo that we have not the leaft feafon them likewife have been found to be non-conductors
to conclude that there is any other repulfive power by of electricity, though probably not all in the fame de-
whicii the particles are kept at a diftance from one gree. Even aqueous vapour, when intimately mingled
another than the fubftance of the heat itfelf. In' with any permanently elaftic fluid, refufes to conduct
what manner it acts, we cannot pretend exactly to this fluid, as is evident from the highly electrical ftate
explain, without making hypothefes concerning the of the atmofphere in very dry weather, when we are
form of the minute particles of matter, which muft al- certain that aqueous vapour muft abound very much,
ways be very uncertain. All known phenomena, how- and be intimately mixed with it. The colour of the
ever, concur in rendering tl». theory juft now laid down electric fpark, though it may be made vilible in all
extremely probable. The elafticity of the fteatn of kinds of permanently elaftic vapours, is very different
water is exactly proportioned to the degree of heat in different fluids. Thus in inflammable and alkaline
which flows into it from without; and if this be kept air it is red or purple, but in fixed air it appears
up to a fufficient degree, there is no mechanical pref- white.
fure which can reduce it into the flate of water. This, ELASTICITY, or Elastic Force, that property
however, may very eafily be done by ab(tracting a cer- of bodies wherewith they reftore themfelves to their
tain portion of the latent heat it contains ; when the former figure, after any external preflure.
elaftic vapour will become a deafe and heavy fluid. The caufe or principle of this important property
The fame thing may be done in various ways with the elafticiiy, or fpringinefs, is varioufly afligned. The
permanently elaftic fluids. Tfyus the pureft dephlo- Cartelians account for it from the materia fubtilis ma-
gifticated air, when made to part with its latent heat king an effort to pafs through pores that are too nar-
3 F 2 row
Elailic, .
Elafticity.
E L A [ 412 ] E L A
Elafticity. row for it. Thus, fay they, in bending, or comprefs-
w—v—jjjg^ a jiar(j eiaftjc e. gr% a bow, its parts recede
from each other on the convex fide, and approach on
the concave : confequently the pores are contrafted or
firaitened on the concave fide; and if they were before
round, are now, for inftance, oval: fo that the materia
fubtilis, or matter of the fecond element, endeavouring
to pafs out of thofe pores thus ftraitened, muft make an
effort, at the fame time, to reftore the body to the
ftate it was in when the pores were more patent and
round, i. e. before the bow was bent: and in this con-
fifts its elafticity.
Other later and more wary philofophers account
for elafticity much after the fame manner as the Car-
tefians; with this only difference, that in lieu of the
■ fubtile matter of the Cartefians, thefe fubftitute E-
ther, ora fine etherial medium that pervades all bo¬
dies.'
Others, fetting afide the precarious notion of a ma¬
teria fubtilis, account for elafticity from the great law
of nature attraction, or the caufe of the cohesion of
the parts of folid and firm bodies. Thus, fay they,
when a hard body is ftruck or bent, fo that the compo¬
nent parts are moved a little from each other, but not
quite disjointed or broke off, or feparated fo far as to
be out of the power of that attra£fing force whereby
they cohere ; they muft certainly, on the ceffation of
the external violence, fpring back to their former na¬
tural ilate.
Others refolve elafticity into the preffure of the at-
mofphere : for a violent tenfion, or compreffion, tho’
not fo great as to feparate the conftituent particles of
bodies far enough to let in any foreign matter, muft yet
occalion many little vacuola between the feparated fur-
faces; fo that upon the removal of the force they will
clofe again by the preffure of the aerial fluid upon the
external parts. See Atmosphere.
Laftly, others attribute the elafticity of all hard bo¬
dies to the power of refilition in the air included with¬
in them: and fo make the elaftic force of the air the
principle of elafticity in all other bodies.
The Elasticitt of Fluids is accounted for from their
particles being all endowed with a centrifugal force ;
when Sir Ifaac Newton, prop. 23. lib 2. demonftrates,
that particles, which naturally avoid or fly off from
one another by fuch forces as are reciprocally pro¬
portioned to the diftances of their centre, will com-
pofe an ela .ic fluid, whofe denfity ftiall be propor¬
tional to its comprefiion ; and vice verfa, if any fluid
be compofed of particles that fly off and avoid one
another, and hath its denfity proportional to its com¬
preffion, then the centrifugal forces of thofe par¬
ticles will be reciprocally as the diftances of their
centres.
Elasticity of the Air, is the force wherewith that
element-dilates itfelf, upon removing the force where¬
by it was before compreffed. See Air, and Atmo¬
sphere.
The elafticity or fpring of the air was firft difco-
vered by Galileo. Its exiftence is proved by this expe¬
riment of that philofopher : An extraordinary quantity
of air being intruded by means of a fyringe into a
glafs or metal ball, till fuch time as the ball, with
this aeceffion of air, weigh confiderably more in the
balance than it did before] upon opening the mouth.
thereof, the air ruffies out, till the ball fink to its for- ElafHcity
mer weight. From hence we argue, that there is juft Ej3t]|.iuir|
as much air gone out, as compreffed air had been ^ 1 J
crowded in. Air, therefore, returns to its former de¬
gree of expanfion, upon removing the force that com¬
preffed or refifted its expanfion ; confequently it is en¬
dowed with an elaftic force. It muft be added, that as
the air is found to rufh out in every fituation or direc¬
tion of the orifice, the elaftic force ads every way, or
in every direftion.
The elafticity of the air makes a confiderable article
in Pneumatics.
The caufe of the elafticity of the atmofphere hath
been commonly afcribed to a repulfion between its par¬
ticles ; but this can give us only a very flight idea of
the nature of its elafticity. The term repul/ton, like
that of attraction, requires to be defined; and in all pro¬
bability will be found in moil cafes to be the effed of
the adion of fome other fluid. Thus, we find, that
the elafticity of the atmofphere is very confiderably af-
feded by heat. Suppofing a quantity of air heat¬
ed to fuch a degree as is fufficient to raife Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer to 2 12, it will then occupy a con¬
fiderable fpace. If it is cooled to fuch a degree as to
fink the thermometer to o, it will ftirink up into lefs
than half the former bulk. The quantity of repuliive
power therefore acquired by the air, while palling from
one of thefe ftates to the other, is evidently owing to
the heat added to or taken away from it. Nor have
we any reafcm to fuppofe, that the quantity of elafti¬
city or repulfive power it ftill pofleffes is owing to any
other thing than the fire contained in it. The fuppo-
fing repulfion to be a primary caufe independent of
all others, hath given rife to many erroneous theories,
and been one very great mean of embarralfing philofo¬
phers in their accounting for the phenomena of Elec¬
tricity.
ELATE, in botany, a genus belonging to the na- Piate
tural order of Palma. There is no male calyx ; the CLX*1IB
corolla is tripetalous, with three ftamina. There is no
female calyx ; the corolla is tripetalous, with one pi-
ftil ; the fruit is an oval acuminated plum.
ELATER, in zoology; a genus of infeds, belong¬
ing to the order of coleoptera. The antennae are feta-
ceous; and an elaftic fpring or fpine projeds from the
hinderextremityofthebreaft or under fide ol the thorax.
By means of this kind of fpring, the animal, when turn¬
ed upon his back, contrives to leap up into the air, and
fo turn itfelf. It varies in fize ; and when the infed
is young and newly metamorphofed, its elytra are of a
beautiful deep red ; but in a few days they change to
a much darker hue, and are nearly of a chefnut colour.
In the ftate of larvae it inhabits the trunks of decayed
tiees, and is there transformed. With the help of its
wings it iffues from its prilon, flutters upon flowers,
wanders over the fields, and conceals itfelf in thickets or
under the bark of ttees.
ELATERIUM, in botany: A genus of the monan-
dria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under tue 34th or¬
der, Cucurhilacea. There is no male calyx ; the co¬
rolla is. lalver-fhaped ; there is no female calyx ; , the co¬
rolla Liver-ftiaped ; the capfule inferior, unilocular, and
bivalved
Elaterium, Exarrfiov, in pharmacy, a violently pur-
gative
[E L C
Elath gative medicine, prepared from the wild cucumber.
II, ELATH, or Eloth, apart of Idumaea, fituated
Elcrfi'ie*. which David in his conquelt of E-
T dom took (2 Sam. viii. 14.), and there eftablifhed a
trade to all parts of the world. His ion, we fee, built
fhips in Elath, and fent them from thence to Ophirfor
gold, 2 Chr. viii 17, 18. It continued in the pofief-
fion of the Ifraelices about 150 years, till in the time
of Joram, the Edomites recovered it (2 Kings viii.
20 ) ; but it was again taken from them by Azariah,
and by him left to his fon, 2 Kings xiv. 22. His
grandfon Ahaz, however, loti it again to the king of
Syria (ib- xvi.6.); and the Syrians had it in their hands
» long while, till after many changes under the Ptole¬
mies, it came at length into the poffeflion of the Ro¬
mans.
EL ATINE, in botany: A genus of the tetragynia
order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 15th order,
Jnundata. The calyx is tetraphyllous ; the petals
four; the capfule quadrilocular, quadrivalved, and de-
prefied.
ELATOSTEMA, in botany: A genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the montecia clafs of
plants. The male flowers have no calyx ; the corolla
is quinquepartite; the {lamina are five filaments There
are fem le flowers on the fame plant; thefe have no
calyx nor corolla ; the pericarpium is a very fmall ob¬
long, bivalve, mon_ifpernious capfule ; the feeds Angle
and ug-ihaped.
ELBE, a large river in Germany, which, rifing on
the confines of Silefia, runs through Bohemia, Saxony,
and Brandenburg; and afterwards dividing the duchy
of Luxenburg from that of Mecklenburg, as alfo the
duchy of Bremen from Holftein, it falls into the Ger¬
man ocean, about 70 miles below Hamburg. It is
navigable for great {hips higher than any river in Eu¬
rope
ELBING, a city of Poliflr Pruffra, in the palati¬
nate of Marienburg, fituated in E. Long. 20. o N.
Lat. 54 15, on a bay of the Baltic fea, called the
Frifclh’jf, near the mouth of the Viftula. The town is
large populous, and very well built. It is divided into
two parts, called the old and new town, which are
both of them very well fortified. The ©Id town has a
handfome tower, with a good college. The ftadt-
houfe and the academy are good buildings, with plea-
fant gardens, which are worth feeing. The place has
a confiderable trade, efpecially in fturgeon, mead,
cheefe, butter, and corn. It is feated in a champaign
level like Holland, very fruitful and populous. The
inhabitants are partlv Lutherans and partly Roman
Catholics. The Boors in the neighbourhood have as
good houfes and apparel almoft as the nobility of Cour-
land.
ELBOW, the outer angle made by the flexure or
bend of the arm. That eminence whereon the arm
refts, called by us elbow, is by the Latins called cubi¬
tus, and the Greeks and by others
Elbow is alfo ufed by archite&s, mafons, &c. for
an obtufe angle of a wall, building, or road, which di-
• verts it from its right line.
ELCESAITES, in church-hillory', ancient here¬
tics, who made their appearance in the reign of the
emperor Trajan, and took their name from their leader
E L E
Elcefai. The Elcefaites kept a mean between the Jews, EUers
Chriftians, and Pagans; they worfhipped but one II
God, obferved the Jewifh fabbath, circumcifion, and Eleatic>
the other ceremonies of the law. They rejected the
Pentateuch, and the prophets; nor had they any more
refpeA for the writings of the apollles, particularly
thofe gf St Paul.
ELDERS, or Seniors, in Jewifli hiftory, were
perfons the moft confiderable for age, experience, and
wifdom. Of this fore were the 70 men whom Mo-
fes affociated to himfelf in the government of his.
people; fuch, likewife, afterwards were thofe who
held the firil mark in the fynagogue, as prefidents.
In the firil affemblies of the primitive Chriflians,
thofe who held the firil place were called elders. The
■wox&prejbyter, often ufed in the New Teftament, is of
the fame fignification: hence the firft councils of Chri¬
flians, were called pr^fbyteria, or councils of elders.
Elders is alfo a denomination ftill retained in the
Prelbyterian difeipline. The elders are officers, who,
in conjudlion with the pallors, or minillers, and dea¬
cons, compofe the coniiftories or kirk-feffions, meet¬
ing to confider, infpeA, and regulate, matters of reli¬
gion and difeipline. They are chofen from among the
people, and are received publicly with fome degree of
ceremony. In Scotland, there is an indefinite num¬
ber of elders in each parilh; generally about 12. See
KixK-SeJJions, and Presbytery.
Elder, in botany. See Sambucus.
ELEA, or Elis, (anc. geog ), a diltrift of Pelo-
ponnefus, fituated between Achaia and Melfenia, reach¬
ing from Arcadia quite to the well or Ionian fea : fo
called from Elis, a cognominal town. See Elis.
ELEATIC philosophy, among the ancients; a
name given to that of the stoi.cs, becaufe taught at
’Extoc, in Latin Velia, a town of the Lucani.
The founder of this philofophy, or of the Eleatic
fe6l, is fuppofed to have been Xenophanes, who lived
about the 56th Olympiad, or between 500 or 600 years
before Chrill. This feft was divided into two parties,
which may be denominated metaphyfical and phyjical
the one reje&ing, and the other approving, the appeal
to fail and experiment. Of the former kind were Xe¬
nophanes, Parmenides, Meliffus, and Zeno, of Elea.
They are fuppofed to have maintained principles not
very unlike thofe of Spinoza ; they held the eternity
and immutability of the world ; that whatever exilted
was only one being ; that there was neither any gene¬
ration nor corruption ; that this one being was im¬
moveable and immutable, and was the true God; and
whatever changes feemed to happen in the univerfe,
they confidered as mere appearances and illulxons of-
fenfe. However, fome learned men have fuppofed,
that Xenophanes and his followers, fpeaking metaphy-
fically, underltood by the univerfe, or the one being,
not the material world, but the originating principle
of all things, or the true God, whom they exprefsly
affirm to be incorporeal. Thus Simplicius reprefents
them as merely metaphyfical writers, who diltinguiffi-
ed between things natural and fupernatural; and who ,
made the former to be compounded of different prin¬
ciples. Accordingly, Xenophanes maintained, that
the earth confilled of air and fire, that all things.-
were produced out of the earth, and the fun and llars^
out of clouds, and that there were four dements. Par¬
menides
[ 4.3 ]
E L E [ 4*4 1 E L E
Efecnm* menides alfo diftinguidied between the doftvine con¬
fine cerning metaphyrieal objects, called truth, and that
EleJlion concerning phyfical or corporeal things, calledjo//V»w« ;
     with refpeCt to the former there was one immoveable
principle, but in the latter two that were moveable,
viz. five and earth, or heat and cold ; in which parti¬
culars Zeno agreed with him. The other branch of
the Eleatic fed were the atomic philofophers, who
formed their fyilem from an attention to the phenome¬
na of nature; of thefe the rfloft confiderable were Leu¬
cippus, Democritus, and Protagoras.
' ELECAMPANE, in botany See Inula.
ELECT, (from digo, “ I choofe”) Chosen, in the
Scriptures, is applied tp the primitive Chriftians; in
which fenfe, the eled are thofe chofen and admitted to
the favour and bleffing of Chriftianity.
Elect, in fome fyftems of theology, is 9 term ap¬
propriated to the faints, or the predeftinated : in which
fenfe the eled are thofe perfons who are faid to be pre¬
deftinated to glory as the end, and to fandification as
the means.
Elect is likewife applied to archbiftiops, biihops,
and other officers, who are chofen, but not yet confe-
cfated, or adually inveiled with their ofiice or jurif-
didion.'
The emperor is faid to be eled before he is inaugu¬
rated and crowned ; a lord-mayor is eled, before his
predeceffor’s mayerality is expired, or the fword is put
in his hands.
ELECTION, the choice that is made of any thing
or perfon, whereby it is preferred to fome other.
There feems this difference, however, between choice
and eledion, that eledion has ufually a regard to a
company or community, which makes the choice ;
whereas choice is feldom ufed but when a fingle per¬
fon makes it*
Election, in Britifh polity, Is the people’s choice
of their repr'iimtatives in parliament. (See Parlia¬
ment.) In this confifts the exercife of the democra-
tical part of our conftitution : for in a democracy there
can be no exercife of fovereignty but by fuffrage,
which is the declaration of the people’s will. In all
democracies, therefore, it is of the utmoll importance
to regulate by whom, and in what manner, the fuffra-
ges are to be given. And the Athenians were fo juftly
jealous of this prerogative, that a ftranger, who in¬
terfered in the alTemblies of the people, was punifhed
by their laws with death ; becaufe fuch a man was e-
fteemed guilty of high treafon, by ufurping thofe
Bladjl. rights of fovereignty to which he had no title. In
Comtrent. Britain, where the people do not debate in a collec¬
tive body, but by reprefentation, the exercife of this
fovereignty confifts in the choice of reprefentatives.
The laws have therefore very ftridly guarded againll
ufurpation or abufe of this power, by many falu-
tary provifions ; which may be reduced to thefe three
points, 1. The qualifications of the eledors. 2. The
qualifications of the eleded. 3. The proceedings at
eledions.
(1.) As to the qualifications of the eledors. The
true reafon of requiring any qualification, with regard
to property, in voters, is to exclude fuch perfons as are
in fo mean a fituation, that they are efteemed to have
no will of their own. If thefe perfons had votes, they
would be tempted to difpofe of them under fome un¬
due influence or other. This would give a great, an Ek<9
artful, or a wealthy man, a larger fhare in eledions "—""Y
than is confiftent with general liberty. If it were pro-
bkble that every man would give his vote freely, and
without influence of any kind ; then, upon the true
theory and genuine principles of liberty, every member
of the community, however poor, fhould have a vote in
eleding thofe delegates to whofe charge is committed
the difpofal of his property, his liberty, and his life.
But fince that can hardly be expeded in perfons of
indigent fortunes, or fuch as are under the immediate
dominion of others, all popular ftates have been obli¬
ged to.eftablifh certain qualifications ; whereby fome,
who are fufpeded to have no will of their own, are ex¬
cluded from voting, in order to fet other individuals,
whofe will may be fuppofed independent, more tho¬
roughly upon a level with each other.
And this conftitution of fuffrages is framed upon a
wifer principle, with us, than either of the methods
of voting, by centuries or by tribes, among the Ro¬
mans. In the method by centuries, militated by Ser-
vius Tullius, it was-principally property, and nc.t num¬
bers, that turned the fcale : in the method by tribes,
gradually introduced by the tribunes of the people,
numbers only were regarded, and property entirely
overlooked. Hence the laws palfed by the former me¬
thod had ufually too great a tendency to aggrandize
the patricians or rich nobles : and thofe by the latter
had too much of a levelling principle. Our conftitu¬
tion fteers between the two extremes. Only fuch are
entirely excluded as can have no will of their own ;
there is hardly a free agent to be found, but what is
intitled to a vote in fome place or other in the king¬
dom. Nor is comparative wealth, or property, entire¬
ly difregarded in elettions ; for though the richeft man
has only one vote at one place, yet, if his property be
at all diffufed, he has probably a right to vote at more
places than one, and therefore has many reprefentatives.
This is the fpirit of Our conftitution : not that we affert
it is in facl quite fo perfeft as we have endeavoured to
deferibe it; for if any alteration might be wiftred or
fuggefted in the prefent form of parliaments, it Ihould
be in favour of a more complete reprefentation of the
people.
But to return to the qualifications; and firft thofe
of eledlors for knights of the {hire. I. By ftatute
8 Hen. VI. c. 7. and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2. (amended-hy
14 Geo. HI. c. 58.) the knights of the fliire {hall be
chofen of people, whereof every man {hall have free¬
hold to the value of forty {hillings' by the year within
the county ; which (by fubfequeut ilatutes) is to be
clear of all charges and deductions, except parliamen¬
tary and parochial taxes. The knights of {hires are
the reprefentatives of the landholders, or landed inte-
reft of the kingdom: their electors muft therefore have
eftates in lands or tenements within the county repre-
fented. Thefe eftates muft be freehold, that is, for term
of life at leaft ; becaufe beneficial leafes for long terms
of years were not in ufe at the making of thefe ita-
tutes, and copyholders were then little better than vil¬
leins, abfdlutely dependent upon their lords. This free¬
hold muft be of 40 {hillings annual value; becaufe
that fum would then, with proper induftry, furnifh all *
the neceffaries of life, and render the freeholder, if he
pleafed, an independent man : For biftiop Fleetwood,
in
E L E L 4
Ele&mn. in his chronicon preciofum, written at the beginning of
*■—"v-”—' the prefent century, has fully proved 40 {hidings in the
reign of Henry VI. to have been equal to 12 pounds
per annum in the reign of Queen Anne ; and, as the
value of money is very confiderably lowered frnce the bi-
fhop wrote, we may fairly conclude, from this and other
circumllances, that what was equivalent to 12 pounds
in his days, is equivalent to 20 at prefent. The other
lefs important qualifications of the eledtors for counties
in England and Wales may be colle&ed from the ila-
tutes cited below (a) ; which direft, 2. That no per^
fon under 21 years of age {hall be capable of" voting
for any member. This extends to all forts of mem¬
bers as well for boroughs as counties; as does alfo
the next, w’z. 3. That no perfon convifted of per¬
jury, or fubornation of perjury, {hall be capable of
voting in any ele&ion. 4. That no perfon {hall vote
in right of any freehold, granted to him fraudulently
to qualify him to vote. Fraudulent grants are fuch as
contain an agreement to reconvey, or to defeat the e-
ftate granted ; which agreements are made void, and
the eftate is abfolutely veiled in the perfon to whom it is
fo granted. And,toguard the better againft fuch frauds,
it is farther provided, 5.That every voter fhall have been
in the adlual pofTeffion, or receipt of the profits, of his
freehold to his own ufe for 12 kalendar months before }
except it came to him by defcent, marriage, marriage-
fettlement, will, or promotion to a benefice or of¬
fice. 6. That no perfon {hall vote in refpedl of an an¬
nuity or rent-charge, unlefs-regiftered_ with the clerk
of the peace 12 kalendar months before. 7. That in
mortgaged or truil-eftates, the perfon in poffeflion,
under the. abovementioned reftri&ions, {hall have the
vote. 8. That only one perfon {hall be admitted to
vote for any one houfe or tenement, to prevent the
fplitting of freeholds. 9. That no eftate fhall qualify
a voter, unlefs the eftate has been aftefled to fome
land-tax aid, at leaft 12 months before the eledbion.
10. That no tenant by copy of court-roll lliall be per¬
mitted to vote as a freeholder. Thus much for the
eleftors in counties.
As for the eledbors of citizens and burgeftes, thefe
are fuppofed to be the mercantile part or trading inte-
reft of this kingdom. But as trade is of a fluctuating
nature, and feldom long fixed in a place, it was form¬
erly left to the crown to fummon, pro re nata> the moft
flchirifliing towns to fend reprefentatives to parliament.
So that as towns increafed in trade, and grew popu¬
lous, they were admitted to a fliare in the legiflature.
But the misfortune is, that the deferted boroughs con¬
tinued to be fummoned, as well as thofe to whom their
trade and inhabitants were transferred ; except a few
w hich petitioned to be eafed of the expence, then ufual,
of maintaining their members: four {hillings a-day
being allowed for a knight of the {hire, and two {hil¬
ling for a citizen or burgefs ; which was the rate of
wages eftabliflied in the reign of Edward III. Hence
the members for boroughs now bear above a quadruple
proportion to thofe for counties; and the number of
parliament men is increafed fince Fortefcue’s time, in
the reign of Henry VI. from 300 to upwards of 500,
15 ] E L E
exclufive of thofe for Scotland. . The univerfities were, Eletf
in general, not empowered to fend burgeffes to parlia-   
ment; though once, in 28 Edw. I. when a parliament
w'asfummoned to corifiderof the king’s right to Scotland,
there were iffued writs, which required the univerfity of
Oxford to fend up four or five, and that of Cambridge
two or three, of their moft difereet and learned lawyers
for that purpofe. But it was king James I. who
indulged them with the permanent privilege to fend
conllantly two of ^their own .body ; to ferve for thofe
ftudents who, though ufeful members of the commu¬
nity, were neither concerned in the landed nor the tra¬
ding intereft; and to protedl in the legiflature the
rights of the republic of letters. The right of ekaion
in boroughs is various, depending entirely on the feve-
raf charters, cuftoms, and conflitutions of the refpec-
tive places; which has occafioned infinite difputes; tho*
now, by ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 24. the right of voting
for the future fliali be allowed according to the laft
determination of the houfe of commons concerning it ;
and, by ftatute 3 Geo. III. c. 15. no freeman of any
city or borough (other than fuch as claim by birth,
marriage, or fervitude) {hall be intitled to vote there¬
in, unlefs he hath been admitted to his freedom 12 ka¬
lendar months before.
(2.) Next, as to the qualifications of perfons to be
eletted members of the houfe of commons, borne of
thefe depend upon the law and cuftom of parliaments,
declared by the houfe of commons; others upon cer¬
tain ftatutes. And from thefe it appears, 1. That
they muft not be aliens born or minors. 2. That they
muft not be any of the 12 judges, becaufe they fit in
the lords’ houfe ; nor of the clergy, for they fit in the
convocation ; nor perfons'attainted of treafon, or fe¬
lony, for they are unfit to fit any where. 3. That ftie-
riffs of counties, and mayors and bailiffs of boroughs,,
are not eligible in their refpe&ive jurifdi&ions, as be¬
ing returning officers; but that flieriffs of one coun¬
ty are eligible to be knights of another. 4. That,
in ftriftnefs, all numbers ought to have been inhabi¬
tants of the places for which they are chofen; but this,
having been long difregarded, was at length entirely
repealed by ftatute 14 Geo. III. e. 5A 5. That no-
perfons concerned in the management of any duties or
taxes created finee 1692, except.the commiffioners of
the treafury, nor any of the officers following (viz.
commiffioners of prizes, tranfports, fick and wounded,
wine-licences, navy, and vi&uailing ; fecretaries or re¬
ceivers of prizes ; comptrollers of the army-accounts j
agents for regiments; governors of plantations, and
their deputies ; officers of Minorca or Gibraltar ; offi¬
cers of the excife and cuftoms; clerks or deputies in
the feveral offices of the treafury, exchequer, navy,
vi&ualling, admiralty, pay of the army or navy, fecre-
taries of ftate, fait, itamps, appeals, wine-licences,
hackney-coaches, hawkers, and pedlars), nor any per¬
fons that hold any new office under the crown created
fince 1705, are capable of being eletFed or fitting as^
members. 6. That no perfon having a penfion under
the crown during pleafure, or for any term of years,
is capable of being eledted or fitting. 7. That if any
mem-
(a) 7 and 8- Will, III. c. 25. 10 Ann. c. 23. 2 Geo. IT. c. 21. 18 Geo. 11. c. 18. 31 Geo. II. c. 14.
3 Geo. III. c. 24. j
E L E [ 4*6 ] E L E
■EteAion member accepts an office under the crown, except, an
—-v  officer in the army or navy accepting a new commiffion,
his feat is void ; but fuch member is capable of being
re-ele£ted. 8. That all knights of the {hire fhall be
aftual knights, or fuch notable efquires and gentlemen
as have eftates fufficient to be knights, and by no means
of the degree of yeomen. This is reduced to a ftill
greater certainty, by ordaining, 9. That every knight
of a {hire fh'all have a clear eftate of freehold or copy-
hold to the value of 6001. per annum, and every citi¬
zen and burgefs to the value of 3001.: except the el¬
ded fonsof peers and of perfons qualified to be knights
of {hires, and except the members for the two univer-
fities : which fomewhat balances the afcendant which
the boroughs have gained over the counties, by obli¬
ging the trading intered to make choice of landed
men : and of this qualification the member mud make
oath, and give in the particulars in writing, at the time
of his taking his feat. But, fubjedf to thefe handing
reftri&ions and difqualifications, every fubjedt of the
realm is eligible of common right: though there are
indances, wherein perfons in particular circumdances
have forfeited that common right, and have been de¬
clared ineligible for that parliament, by a vote of the
houfe of commons; or for ever, by an aft of the legif-
lature. But it was an unconditutional prohibition, which
was grounded on an ordinance of the houfe of lords, and
inferted in the king’s writs, for the parliament holden at
Coventry, 6 Hen. IV. that no apprentice or other man of
the law fhould be elefted a knight for the fhire therein:
in return for which, our law-books and hidorians have
branded this parliament with the name of parliamen-
tum indoBum, or the lack-learning parliament ; and
Sir Edward Coke obferves with fome fpleen, that there
was never a good law made thereat.
(3.) The third point, regarding eleftions, is the
method of proceeding therein. This is alfo regulated
by the law of parliament, and the feveral datutes re¬
ferred to in the margin below, (s); all which we {hall
blend together, and extraft out of them a fummary
account of the method of proceeding to eleftions.
As foon as the parliament is fummoned, the lord
chancellor (or if a vacancy happens during the fitting
of parliament, the fpeaker, by order of the houfe, and
without fuch order if a vacancy happens by death in
the time of a recefs for upwards of 20 days) fends his
warrant to the clerk of the crown in chancery; who
thereupon iffues out writs to the fiieriff of every coun¬
ty, for the eleftion of all the members to ferve for that
county, and every city and borough therein. Within
three days after the receipt of this writ, the Iheriff is to
fend his precept, under his feal, to the proper return¬
ing officers of the cities and boroughs, commanding
them to eleft their members : and the faid returning
officers are to proceed to eleftion within eight days
from the receipt of the precept, giving four days no¬
tice of the fame ; and to return the perfons chofen, to¬
gether with the precept, to the ftieriff.
N° in.
But eleftions of knights of the {hire mud be pro- Eleftio*,
ceeded to by the ftieriffs themfelves in perfon, at the y~*“j
next county-court that {hall happen after the delivery
of the writ. The county-court is a court held every
month or oftener by the ftieriff, intended to try little
caufes not exceeding the value of 40 s. in what part of
the county he pleafes to appoint for that purpofe : but
for the eleftion of knights of the {hire, it mull be held
at the mod ufual place. If the county-court falls up¬
on the day of delivering the writ, or within fix days
after, the flieriff may adjourn the court and eleftion
to fome other convenient time, not longer than 16
days, nor {horter than 10 ; but he cannot alter the
place, without the confent of all the candidates: and,
in all fuch cafes, 10 days public notice mud be given
of the time and place of the eleftion.
And, as it is effential to the very being of parlia¬
ment that eleftions fhould be abfolutely free, therefore
all undue influences upon the eleftors are illegal, and
drongly prohibited. For Mr Locke ranks it among
thofe breaches of trud in fhe executive magidrate,
which, according to his notions, amount to a diffolu-
tion of the government, “ if he employs the force,
“ treafure, and offices of the fociety to corrupt the
“ reprefentatives, or openly to pre-engage the eleftors,
“ and prefcribe what manner of perfons {hall be cho-
“ fen : For thus to regulate candidates and eleftors,
“ and new-modelthe ways of eleftion, what is it (fays
“ he) but to cut up the government by the roots and
“ poifon the very fountain of public fecurity t” As
foon, therefore, as the time and place of eleftion, ei¬
ther in counties or boroughs, are fixed, all foldiers
quartered in the place are to remove, at lead one day
before the eleftion, to the didance of two miles or
more ; and not to return till one day after the poll is
ended. Riots likewife have been frequently determi¬
ned to make an eleftion void. By vote alfo of the
houfe of commons, to whom alone belongs the power
of determining conteded eleftions, no lord of parlia¬
ment, or lord lieutenant of a county, hath any right
to interfere in the eleftion of commoners; and, by
datute, the lord warden of the cinque-ports {hall not
•recommend any members there. If any officer of the
excite, cudoms, damps, or certain other branches of
the revenue, prefumes to intermeddle in eleftions, by
perfuading any voter or difluading him, he forfeits
L. 100, and is difabled to hold any office.
Thus are the eleftors of one branch of the legifla-
ture fecured from any undue influence from either of
the other two, and from all external violence and com-
pulfion. But the greated danger is that in which
themfelves co-operate, by the infamous praftice of
bribery and corruption. To prevent which it is en-
afted, that no candidate {hall, after the date (ufually
called the/£/?«) of the writs, or after the vacancy,
give any money or entertainment to his eleftors, or
promife to give any, either to particular perfons, or
to the place in general, in order to his being elefted ;
on
(b) 7 Hen. IV. c. 15. 8 Hen. 6. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 14. 1 W. & M. d. i.c. 2. 2 W. & M. fi. 1. c. 7.
5 & 6 W. & M. c. 20. 7 W. III. c. 4. 7 & 8 W. III. c. 7. and c. 25. 10 & 11 W. III. c. 7. 12 & 1 3 W. III.
•c. 10. 6 Ann.c. 23. 9 Ann. c. 5. 10 Ann. c. 19. andc. 33. 2 Geo. II- c. 24. 8 Geo. II. c. 30. 18 Geo. II.
£. 18. 1.9 Geo. II. c. 28. 10 Geo. HI. c. 16. if Geo. III. c. 42. 14 Geo. III. c. 15.
E L E [4
EleAion. on pain of being incapable to feive for that place in
-v  parliament. And if any money, gift, office, employ¬
ment, or reward be given, or promifed to be given,
to any voter, at any time, in order to influence him
to give or with-hold his vote, as well he that"takes as
he that offers fuch bribe forfeits L. 500, and is for e-
ver difabled from voting and holding any office in any
corporation ; unlefs, before conviction, he will dif-
cover fome other offender of the fame kind, and
then he is indemnified for his own offence. The firft
inltance that occurs of eleCtion bribery, was fo early
as 13 Eliz. when one Thomas Longe (being a fimple
man, and of fmall capacity to ferve in parliament) ac¬
knowledged that he had given the returning officer
and others of the borough for which he was chofen
four pounds to be returned member, and was for that
premium eleCted. But for this ofi'ence the borough
wras amerced, the member was removed, and the officer
fined and imprifoned. But as this praCtice hath fince
taken much deeper and more univerfal root, it hath
occafioned the making of thefe wholefome ftatutes ;
to complete the efficacy of which, there is nothing
wanting but refolution and integrity to put them in
ftriCt execution.
Undue influence being thus guarded againft, the
election is to be proceeded to on the day appointed ;
the fheriff or other returning officer firft taking an oath
againft bribery, and for the due execution of his office.
The candidates likewife, if required, muft fwear to
their qualification, and the electors in counties to
theirs; and the eledtors both in counties and boroughs
are alfo compellable to take the oath of abjuration,
and that againft bribery and corruption. And it
might not be amifs, if the members eledted were bound
to take the latter oath as well as the former; which,
in all probability, would be much more effedtual than
adminiftering it only to the eledtcrs.
The eledtion being clofed, the returning officer in
boroughs returns his precept to the fheriff, with the
perfons eledted by the majority: and the fheriff re¬
turns the whole, together with the writ for the county
and the knights eledled thereupon, to the clerk of the
crown in chancery ; before the day of meeting, if it
be a new parliament, or within 14 days after the elec¬
tion, if it be an occafional vacancy ; and this under
penalty of L. 506. If the fheriff does not return fuch
knights only as are duly eledted, he forfeits, by the
old ftatutes of Henry VI. L. 100 ; and the returning
officer in boroughs, for a like falfe return, L.40 ; and
they are befides liable to an adtion, in which double
damages fhall be recovered, by the later ftatutes of
king William : and any perfon bribing the returning
officer fhall alfo forfeit L. 300. But the members re¬
turned by him are the fitting members, until the houfe
of commons, upon petition, fhall adjudge the return
to be falfe and illegal. The form and manner of pro¬
ceeding upon fuch petition are now regulated by fta-
tute 10 Geo. III. c. 16. (amended by 11 Geo. III.
C. 42. and made perpetual by 14 Geo. III. c. 15.),
which diredls the method of choofing by lot a feledt
committee of 15 members, who are fworn well and
truly to try the fame, and a true judgment to give, ac¬
cording to the evidence.
Election of Scots Peers. See Lords.
Election of Ecelefiajlical Perfons. Eledtions for the
Vol. VI. Part II.
7 ] E L E
dignities of the church ought to be free, according to Election
the flat. 9 Ed. II. cap. 14. If any perfons, that have II i
a voice in elections, take any reward for an eledtion in Ele‘itoi‘‘,
any church, college, fchool, &c. the eledtion fliall be y
void. And if any perfons of fuch focieties refign their
places to others for reward, they incur a forfeiture of
double the fum ; and both the parties are rendered in¬
capable of the place. Stat. 3 1 Eliz. cap. 6.
Election of a Verderor of the Forcjl feledione virt-
dariorumforcftc), in law, a writ that lies for the choice
of a verderor, where any of the verderors of the forcft
are dead, or removed from their offices. This writ is
diredted to the flieriff, and the verderor is to be elec¬
ted by the freeholders of the county, in the fame man¬
ner as coroners. New. Nat. Brev. 366.
Election is alfo the ftate of a perfon who is left to
his own free will, to take or do either one thing or a-
nother, which he pleafes. See Liberty.
Election, in theology, fignifics the choice tyhich
God, of his good pleafure, makes of angels or men,
for the objedts of mercy and grace.
The eledtion of the Jews was the choice God made
of that people to be more immediately attached to his
worlhip and fervice, and for the Meffiah to be born
of them. And thus particular nations were eledted to
the participation of the outward bleffings of Chriitia-
nity.
Election alfo, in the language of fome divines,
fignifies a predeftination to grace and glory, and fome-
tirnes to glory only. And it has been enjoined as an
article of faith, that predeftination to grace is gratui¬
tous, merely and fimply fo ; gratia, quia gratis data.
But the divines are much divided as to the point, whe¬
ther eJedtion to glory be gratuitous, or whether it fup-
pofes obedience and good works, i. e. whether it be
before or after the proviiion of our obedience. Sec
Grace, and Reprobation.
ELECTIVE, fomething that is done, or paffes, by
eledtion. See Elector.
Some benefices are eledtive, others collative. Mu¬
nicipal offices in England are generally eledtive; in
Spain, venal. Poland is an eledbive kingdom.
Elective Sit traction. Set Chemistry-Index.
ELECTOR, a perfon who has a right to eledt or
choofe another to an office,honour, &c. See Election.
Eledtor is particularly, and by way of eminence
applied to thofe princes of Germany in whom lies the
right of eledting the emperor ; being all. fovereign
princes, and the principa' members of the empire.
The electoral college, confiding of all the eledtors of
the empire, is the moft illuftrious and auguft body in
Europe. Bellarmine and Baronius attribute the infti-
tution of it to pope Gregory V. and the emperor O-
tho III. in the tenth century ; of which opinion are
the generality of hiftorians, and particularly the ca-
nonifts : however, the number of eledtors was unfet-
tled, at lead, till the ) 3th century. 101356 Charles IV.
by the golden bull, fixed the number of eledtors to fe-
ven ; three ecclefiaftics, viz., the archbilhops of Mentz,
Treves, and Cologne ; and four feculars, viz. the king
of Bohemia, count Palatine of the Rhine, duke of
Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg. In 1648 this
order was changed, the duke of Bavaria being put in
the place of the count Palatine, who having accepted
the crown of Bohemia was outlawed by the emperor ;
3 G but
E L E t 41
but being at length reftored, an eight electorate was
ere&ed for the duke of Bavaria. In 1692, a ninth e-
le&orate was created, by the emperor Leopold, in fa¬
vour of the duke of Hanover, of the houfe of Brunfvvic
Lunenburg.
There is this difference between the fecular and ec-
clefiaflical eleftors, that' the firft have an adtive and
paffive voice, that is, may choofe and be chofen; the
laft, an adtive only. The three archbifhops are to be
30 years old, before they can be advanced to the dig¬
nity ; the feculars, 18, before they can perform the
office themfelves. Thefe lafl have each their vicars,
who officiate in their abfence.
Befides the power of choofing an emperor, the elec¬
tors have alfo that of capitulating with and depofing
him; fo that, if there be one fuffrage wanting, a pro-
tefl may be entered againft the proceedings. By the
right of capitulation, they attribute to themfelves
great privileges, as making of war, coining, and taking
care of the public interefl and fecurity of the ftates;
and the emperor promifes, upon oath, to receive the
empire upon thefe conditions.
The eledtors have precedence of all other princes of
the empire, even of cardinals and kings; and are ad-
dreffed under the title of electoral highnefs.
Their feveral fundtions are as follow. The eledtor of
8 ] E L E
Mentis is chancellor of Germany, convokes the ftates, Eleilnrate,
and gives his vote before any of the reft. The eledtor Eleflnc.
of Cologne is grand chancellor of Italy, and confe- ’
crates the emperor. The eledtor of Treves is chancel¬
lor of the Gauls, and confers impofition of hands upon
the emperor. The count Palatine of the Rhine is great
treafurer of the empire, and prefents the emperor with
a globe at his coronation. The eledtor of Bavaria is
great matter of the imperial palace, and carries the gol¬
den apple. i he marquis of Brandenburgh is grand
chamberlain, and puts the ring on the emperor’s fin¬
ger. The eledtor of Saxony is grand marffial, and
gives the fword to the emperor. The king of Bohe¬
mia is grand butler, and puts Charlemagne’s croyvn on
the emperor’s head. Lattly, the eledtor of Hanover,
now king of Great Britain, is arch-treafurer, tho’ firft
eredted under the title ofJlandard-learer of the empire.
ELECTORATE, a term ufed as well to iignify
the dignity of, as the territories belonging to, any of
the eledtors of Germany; fuch are Bavaria, Saxony,
&c. See Ei ector.
ELECTRIC, derived from « amber,” in
phylics, is a term applied to thofe fubitances, in which
the eledtric fluid is capable of being excited, and accu¬
mulated without tranlmitting it, and therefore called .
non-conduElon. See Electricity.
E L E
CTRICITY,
IN general, fignifies the operations of a very fubtile
fluid, in moft cafes invifible, but which fometimes
becomes the objedt of our fight and other fenfes, difco-
vering itfelf to be one of the chief agents employed in
producing the phenomena of nature.
Sect.I. Definitions of Terms ufed in the Science.
Before we can enter upon this fcience with pro¬
priety, even fo far as to give an hiftory.of its rife and
progrefs, it feems neceflary to give fome explanation
of the terms made ufe of by writers on eledfricity, that
the reader may not be embarraffed with words whofe
meaning he cannot perhaps eafily comprehend.
1. The foundation of all that is known upon this
fubjedft, is the difference between eledtric bodies and
fuch as are not. The former may generally be diftin-
guifhed by their attracting and repelling light fubftances,
which the latter cannot be made to do. The principal
eledtric bodies are glafs, amber, fealing-wax, gum-lac,
fulphur, rofin, &c. They are often called non-conduc¬
tors, or electrics per fe.
2. The ufual way in which the eledtric power of
any body can be difcovered, is by rubbing it with fome
foft fubftance, generally woollen, filk, or fur; and, ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the eledtric virtue, the for¬
mer body will attradt and repel light fubftances pre-
fented to it at a greater or lefs diftance. If the virtue
is very ftrong, the eledtric body will emit fparks, or
even ftrong flaifties of fire, to a confiderable diftance.
In fome cafes eledtricity difcovers itfelf by heating the
body, or blowing air upon it; but in both thefe ways
it is much weaker than that produced by rubbing. In
whatever way this power is made to ffiow itfelf, the
fubftance poffeffed of it is faid to be excited.
3. Conductors, called alfo non-electrics, are fuch fub¬
ftances as, though incapable of being excited, can yet
in certain circumftances convey the eledtric power from
one body to another, and that to any imaginable dif¬
tance. The belt condudtors are metals of all kinds,
charcoal, and water.
4. Eledtrics,. we have already. obferved, are alfo
called non-conduBors; and this name they have from
their power of flopping the communication of the elec¬
tric virtue from,one body to another. Thus, though any
condudtor. be placed properly for receiving the virtue
from an excited eledtric, none will pafs to it if any
eledtric fubftance be interpofed; or, if the condudtor
be terminated by an eledtric, none will pafe beyond the
place where the eledtric fubftance .begins.
5. Infulation is when a condudting fubftanee is pla¬
ced upon an eledtric, fo that any power communicated
to it cannot pafs off. It mult be remembered, however,
that all this is to be underftood with, fome degree of
limitation ; for there is no fuhftanee either a perfedl
eledtric, or a perfedt condudtor; the bell condudtots
making a fenfible refiftance to the paffage of the fluid
through them when they are very long; and the moft
perfedt eledtrics tranfmuting fome of the. fluid over, or
through them Indeed,, though thefe two different
kinds of fubftances feem to be fo far. removed from one
another, they in reality approach to a furprifing de-
gree, infomuch that there are many fubftances which
can be excited as eledtrics, and yet have, a very confi-
derable condudting power.
6. The effedts of the eledtric fluid difcovering them¬
felves
Sea. It. ELECT
Hiitory felves either by attraction and repulfion, er by emit-
v—ting ftreams, or pencils as they are called, of blue light,
are all claffed under the general word eleSrlcity ; and
* any body to which that power of attraction and repul¬
fion, &c. is communicated, is fa id to be ehBr'ijisd. If
its virtue is inherent in itfelf, it is faid to be excited.
7. Eleflricity is found to be of two kinds; the one
called negative, and the o\htrpofitive. It is uncertain
in what the difference betwixt thefe two confifts. Dr
Franklin is of opinion that the former confilts in a fu-
perabundance of the fluid, or when more is thrown up¬
on any fubllance than it can conveniently contain; the
other, when a part of it is abitradted, and the body con¬
tains lefs than it naturally ought to do. Other theo-
rifls fuppofe, that when the fluid is direded outwards
from any fubftance, that fubftance will in all cafes be
cleCtrified pofitively ; and that when the fluid i§ either
entering or has a tendency to enter into any fubftance,
it will then be eleCtrified negatively. This queftion
will be difeufled in the courfe of the treatife.—The moft
remarkable differences we can perceive between the po-
iitive and negative eleCtricities are that they attraft
each other, though ftrongly repulfive of themfelves;
that is, two bodies pofitively eleCtrified, or negatively
eleCtrified, repel each other; but one body pofitively
electrified will attraCt another negatively fo ; and if the
eleCtricities are very ftrong, a fpark will be obferved
between them at meeting. Thefe eleCtricities are pro¬
duced naturally by exciting different fubftances, or by
ufing a different rubber to the fame fubftance. Thus,
glafs ufually produces the pofitive eleCtricity; but by
ufing a certain kind of rubber, or altering the fmooth-
nefs of its furface, it may be made to produce the ne¬
gative kind. The two eleCtricities are fometimes call¬
ed the vitreous and rejmous, as well as pofitive and ne¬
gative.
Sect. II. Hijlory of Eleftricity.
Though it is certain that, ever fince the creation
of the world, the fluid we fpeak of hath had the fame
/hare in all the natural operations that it hath juft now;
yet the difeovery of its aCtion, and even of its exift-
j ence, is, comparatively fpeaking, of a very late date.
Electricity Thales the Milefian, who lived about 600 years be-
when fir ft fore Chrift, was the firft that obferved the eleCtrical pro-
entione . pertjes 0f amj3er< Qf thefe, indeed, he knew no more
than that this fubftance would attraCt light bodies
when it was rubbed. For 300 years after his time,
we hear nothing farther concerning this fubjeCt. Theo-
phraftus then tells us, that the lyncurium (the fame
fubftance now called the tourmalin), has the property of
attracting light bodies, as well as amber. From this
time, there is a chafm in the hiftory of eleCtricity for
no lefs than 1900 years. Indeed, it is fcarce to be
fuppofed that during this long interval any perfon ap¬
plied himfelf to the inveftigation of the fubjeCt; as,
for the greateft part of it, fcience of every kind was
almoft totally extinguiftied. The eleCtrical properties
of jet, however, and, according to Mr Bofe, of the
agate, were fome way or other difeovered during the
abovementioned period. But it was not till the be¬
ginning of the 17th century, that the fubjeCt of elec¬
tricity became properly a dittinCt fcience, and theioun-
R I C I T Y. 410
dation was laid of thofe difeoveries which have fince Hiftory.
taken place. v 5
The firft who can properly be called an electrician,
was Dr William Gilbert, who, in the year 1600, wrote ^ ^
a book ds Magnete, which contains a variety of elec-here,
trical experiments. All thefe, however, confidered only
the attractive property of certain fubftances, which,
from their agreement in this refpeCl with amber (in
Latin eledrum), were called ekdric. Dr Gilbert’s merit
confifts in his having been at great pains to find out a
number of fuch fubftances, and thus confiderably enlar¬
ging the number of eleCtrics.
Till the year 1670, it doth not appear that any far¬
ther difeoveries were made; except fome trifling addi¬
tions to the catalogue of eleCtrics. About this time,
Mr Boyle applied himfelf to the ftudy of eleCIricity.
He enlarged the catalogue of eleCfrics; and found that
their eleCtric properties were increafed by wiping and
warming them before they were rubbed. He obferved
alfo, that all kinds of bodies were attracted promifeu-
oufly ; and imagined that they were attracted in vacuo
as well as in air. This laft pofition, however, is de¬
nied by Mr Beccaria ; and we (hall afterwards (how
that Mr Boyle muft neceffarily have been miftaken. He
alfo obferved the eleCtric light, though only in the in-
ftance of fome diamonds. 3
Otto Guericke, however, who was cotemporary with Difeoveries
Mr Boyle, improved the fcience much farther. He 0^ °t.t°
made ufe of a fulphur globe, whirled on an axis much.^eg^I^ac
in the fame way with our prefent glafs globes. Thus Newton,
he could excite a vaftly greater power of eleCtricity
than any of his predeceffors, and try all their experi¬
ments to much more advantage. He difeovered elec¬
tric repulfion ; and not only faw the eleCtric light more
clearly than Mr Boyle, but heard the hilling found
with which it is emitted. He alfo made another re¬
markable difeovery, but which has fince been very ge¬
nerally overlooked; namely, that a feather, when re¬
pelled by an excited eleCtric, always keeps the fame
face towards the body which repels it, as the moon
does to the earth.
The next difeovery of any moment was made by Sir
Ifaac Newton ; who obferved, that the eleCtric attrac¬
tion \md repulfion penetrated through glafs; and it is
much to be regretted that this accurate philofopher did
not apply himfelf to the ftudy of eleCtricity with great¬
er afliduity.
In 1709, a treatife was written on eleCtricity by Mr Remarfe-
Haukfbee; -who not only far excelled all his predecef- *ble difeo-
fors and cotemporaries, but alfo made fome difeoveries ver).!TMr
which well deferve the attention of the moft expert e- aUl e€‘
ledtricians at this day. Befides a variety of new expe¬
riments made upon eleCtric attraction and repulfion,
as well as the light emitted by eleCtric bodies; he
found a method of rendering opaque bodies tranfpa-
rent by means of eleCtricity. He lined more than half
the infide of a glafs globe with fealing-wax ; and ha¬
ving exhaufted the globe, he put it in motion ; when
applying his hand to excite it, he faw the fhape and
figure of all the parts of his hand diftinCily and per¬
fectly, on the concave fuperficies .of the wax within,
juft as if only pure glafs without any wax at all had
been interpofed between his eye and his hand. The
lining of wax, where it was fpread the thinneft, would
3 G 2 but
420 ELECTRICITY. Sea. II.
Hiftory. but juft allow the fight of a candle through it in the fluid got off from it: but though Mr Grey knew this Hiftory.
dark; but in fome places the wax was at leait an eighth was the cafe, he could not at any time think of any ^
part of an inch thick. Yet, even in thefe places, the method to prevent it.
light and figure of his hand were as diftinguiftiable On the 30th of June 1729, Mr Grey paid a vifit to
through it as anywhere elfe. The fealing-wax did not Mr Wheeler, in order to give him a fpecimen of his
adhere to the glafs in all places; but this made no dif- experiments ; but told him of the unfuccefsful attempt
ference with regard to the tranfparency. Pitch an* he had made to carry the ele&ric fluid horizontally,
fwered the purpofe equally well with fealing-wax. Mr Wheeler propofed to fufpend the conducing line by
M. Hauklbee alfo made a. farther improvement, by Jtlk inftead of pack-thread. For this advice he could
ufing a glafs globe, which a£ts much more-powerfully give no reafon, but that the filk thread was frnaller
than a fulphur one. After his death, however, not than the other: however, with it they fucceeded per-
only the ufe of glafs globes, but even the ftudy of elec- fedtly well. Their firft experiment was in a matted
tricity itfelf, feems to have been pretty generally laid gallery at Mr Wheeler’s houfe, on the 2d of July 1729.
afide for fome time. The reafon of this was, that the About four feet from the end of the gallery they fa-
recent difcoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton engrofl'ed the ftened a line acrofs the place. The middle of this line
5 attention of philofophers to fuch a degree, that they was filk, the reft pack-threak. Over the filken part
Difference had no leifure for any thing elfe. After the death of they laid one end of the conducting line, to which was
between e- that great man, however, the fcience of eleCiricity be- faftened the ivory ball, and which hung down about nine
le<aJlc®andgan to revive ; and, in 1729, a capital difeovery was feet below" the line ftretched acrofs the gallery. The con-
<bfcover°d Stephen Grey. This was the diftinCtion duCting line was 8oJr feet in length, and the other end
by Mr between conductors and non-conductors of eleCtricity. of it was fattened by a loop to the eleCtric tube. Upon
Grey. As the difeovery was entirely accidental, and attended rubbing the tube, the ivory ball attracted and repelled
with feveral curious circumftances, we ftiall here gue light fubftances as the tube itfelf would have done,
fome account of it. In the month of February 1729, They next contrived to return the line, fo that the
Mr Grey, after fome fruitlefs attempts to excite an whole length of it amounted to 147 feet ; which alfo
ele&ric power in metals, recolleCted a fufpicion he had anfwered pretty well. But, fufpedting that the attrac-
for fome time entertained, that as a glafs tube, when tion would be ftronger without doubling or returning
excited in the dark, communicated its light to various the line, they made ufe of one carried ftraight forward
bodies, it might at the fame time poflibly communi- for 124 feet; and, as they expe&ed, found the at-
cate to them an eleCtrioity; that is, a power of attrac¬
ting light bodies ; which, as yet, was all that was un-
derltood by the word eledriclty. For this purpofe he
provided himfelf with a glafs tube, three feet five inch¬
es long, and near one inch and two-tenths in diame¬
ter. To each end was fitted a cork; to keep the dull
out when the tube w'as not in ufe. His firft experi-
traction in this manner ftronger than when the line
had been doubled. Thus they proceeded with their
experiments ; ftill adding more conducting line, till
at laft their filk-ftring broke with the weight. This
they endeavoured to fupply, firft with a fmall iron-
wirey^and then with a brafs one. The refult of thefe
experiments, however, foon convinced them that the
ments were made w ith a view to determine whether filk refufed to conduCt the eledric fluid, not on account
the tube would attraCt equally well with the ends ftmt of its fmallnefs, as they had fuppofed, but on account
as with them open. In this refpeCt there was no dif- of fome difference in the matter. The wires wer? fmal-
ference ; but he found that the corks attracted and re- kr than the filk-thread, yet the eleCtricity was effeCtu-
pelled light fubftances as well, and rather better, than ally carried off by them. They had recourfe, there-
the tube itfelf. He then fixed an ivory ball upon a ftalk fore, to thicker lines of filk ; and thus conveyed the
of fir about four inches long, and thrufting the end of eleCtric matter to the diftanceof 765 feet; nor did they
the ftalk into one of the corks, he found the ball endowed perceive the virtue to be at all diminiftied by the di-
with a ftrong attractive and repulfive virtue. This ex- ftance to which it was carried.
periment he repeated in many different ways ; fixing This difeovery of the non-conduCting power of filk
the ball upon long flicks, and upon pieces of brafs and was quickly followed by a difeovery of the fame power
iron wire, always with the fame fuccefs ; but he con- in many other fubftances: and thus, in faCt, the founda-
ftar.tly obferved, that the ball at the end attracted tion of almoft all the fubfequent improvements in dec-
more vigoroufly than that part of the wire neareft the tricity was laid ; though in the fciences, as well as in
tube. moft others, few difcoveries have been made by rea-
The inconvenience of ufing long wires in this man- foning, but many by accident. Mr Grey continued,
tier, put Mr Grey upon trying whether the ball might to ftudy eleCtricity as long as he lived ; and has given
be fufpended by a pack-thread with a loop on the a fet of experiments, of which Dr Priellley fays, “ It g
tube, with equal fuccefs ; and the event fully anfwered is not eafy to know what to make of them.” He He difeo-
his expectation. Having thus fufpended bodies of the imagined that he had difeovered in all eleCtric fub-vers a per-
greateft length he conveniently could, to his tube, he fiances z perpetual attractive power, which required noP^^®**
afeended a balcony 26 feet high, and faftening a firing kind of excitation either by heating, rubbing, or ^yverin
to bis tube, found that the ball w’ould attraCl light bo- kind of attrition. He took 19 different fubftances,e|earics.
" ‘ ■ ‘ ' ' * which were either rofin, gum-lac, fneH-lac, bees-wax,
fulphur, pitch, or two or three of thefe differently
compounded. Thefe he melted in a fpherical iron
ladle ; except the fulphur, which w-as belt done in a
glafs veffel. When thefe were taken out of the ladle,
and their fpherical furface. hardened, he fays they
would.
dies on the ground below. This experiment fucceeded
in the greateft heights to which he could afeend ; af¬
ter which, he attempted to carry the electricity hori¬
zontally. His firft attempt mifearried, becaufe he fuf¬
pended his line, which was intended to carry the elec¬
tricity horizontally, by a pack-thread; and thus the
Sea. II. ELECTRICITY.
421
Hiftory. would not attract till the heat was abated, or till they
-v came to a certain degree of warmth; that there was
then a fmall attra&ion, which increafed till the fub-
ftance was cold, when it was very confxderable. The
manner in which he kept thefe fubilances in a date of
attraction was, by wrapping them in any thing
which would prefcrve them from the external air.
At firft, for the fmaller bodies he ufed.white paper,
and for the larger ones white flannel; but after¬
wards, he found that black wotfted ftockings would
do as well. When thus wrapped up, they were put
into a' large firm box, where dyfy remained till he
had occalion to ufe them. Tl/.s prepared, they re¬
tained their attraftive virtue fov four months. Thefe
experiments are fimilar to fop*e others lately made and
publilhed as new difcoveries.
Some other experiment^ were made by Mr Grey,
with regard to the attradfion of electric bodies in ’va¬
cuo; and in this he determined with Mr Boyle againll
the opinion of Mr Beccaria above mentioned. But the
7 moft remarkable experiments mentioned by Mr Gtey,
Imagines are his imitations of the planetary motions. “ I have
he can imi-iateiy made (fays he) feveral new experiments upon
^anem the proje&ile and pendulous motions of fmall bodies
motions/ by ele&ricity ; by which fmall bodies may be made to
move about large ones, either in circles or ellipfes ; and
thofe either concentric or eccentric to the centre of the
large body about which they move, fo as to make
many revolutions about them. And this motion will
conflantly be the fame way that the planets move a-
bout the fun, viz. from the right hand to the left, or
from weft to eaft. But thefe little planets, if I may
fo call them, move much fafter in their apogeon than
in the perigeon parts of their orbits ; which is diredtly
contrary to the motion of the planets about the fun.”
The manner in which thefe experiments were made, as
delivered by him on his death-bed to Dr Mortimer,
was as follows: “ Place a fmall iron globe (faid he),
of an inch or an inch and an half in diameter, on the
middle of a circular cake of rofin, feven or eight inches,
in diameter, gently excised ; and then alight body fuf-
pended by a very fine thread, five or fix inches long,
held in the hand over the centre of the cake, will, of
itfelf, begin to move in a circle round the iron globe,
and conftantly from weft to eaft. If the globe is pla¬
ced at any diftance from the centre of the circular cake,
it will dcfcribe an ellipfe, which will have the fame ec¬
centricity as the diftance of the globe from the centre
of the cake. If the cake of rofin be of an elliptical
form, and the iron globe be placed in the centre of it,
the light body will defcribe an elliptical orbit of the
fame eccentricity with the form of the cake. If the
globe be placed in or near one of the foci of the ellip¬
tical cake, the light body will move much fwifter in
the apogee than in the perigee of its orbit. If the iron
globe is fixed on a pedeftal an inch from the table, and
a glafs hoop, or a portion of a hollow glafs cylinder
excited, be placed round it, the light body will move
as in the circumftances mentioned above, and with the
fame varieties.” He faid, moreover, that the light
body would make the fame revolutions, only fmaller,
round the iron globe placed on the bare table, with¬
out any eleftrical body to fupport it: but he acknow¬
ledged that he had not found the experiment fucceed
i£ the thread was fupporled by any thing but a human
&
hand, though he imagined any other animal fubftance Hiflory.
would have anfvvered the purpofe. '——1
Thefe experiments occafioned a great deal of {pecu¬
lation. Dr Mortimer was the only perfon who was able
to repeat them with fuccefs, and he cnly when nobody
but himfelf was prefent. It was therefore generally fup-
pofed that both he and MrGrey had been deceived: but
from fome experiments to be related hereafter, it feems
probable that the fucccfs of Mr Grey and Dr Morti¬
mer was owing to their having performed their expe¬
riments with candle-light ; and the failure of tl f* others,
to their having attempted them by day-light. Notwith-
ftanding which, it is more than probable that Mr Grey
has been deceived in a number of particulars; for no
motion can be performed by an artificial excitation of
the eledlric fluid, but what is attended with much irre¬
gularity. g:
Soon after Mr Grey’s difeovery of the difference he- Vitreo i*
tween conductors and non-condu<Stors of ele&ricity,
Mr Du Fay difeovered the difference between pofitive a,fevered
and negative, or, as they were for fome time called, hy Mr Du»
the vitreous and refincus electricities. This difeovery Fay-
was quite accidental. It was made in confequence of
his cafually obferving, that a piece of leaf-gold, repelled
by an excited glafs tube, and which he meant to chafe
about the room with a piece of excited gum copal, in-
ftead of being repelled by it as it was by the glafs
tube, it was eagerly attracted. The fame was the cafe
with fealing-wax, fulphur, rofin, and a number ei£
other fubftances. He difeovered alfo, that it was
impofftble to excite a tube in which the air was con-
denfed.
In the year 172)2, the ufe of glafs globes was again
introduced by Mr Bofe, profeffor of philofophy at Wit-
temburgh ; though fi<me attribute this to Chriftian.
Augullus Hanfen, profefforof mathematics at Leipflc.
He added alfo a prime conductor, which confrfted of a
tube of iron or tin. It was at firft fupported by a man
Handing upon cakes of rofin ; but afterwards fufpend-
ed by fill: lines horizontally before the globe. A
bundle of thread was put into the end next to the
globe, which not only prevented any injury to the
glafs, put rendered the eleCtricity ftronger. ^
The meft remarkable difeovery that hath yet been Hle<St-icai'
made in the fcience of eleCtricity, was in the end 0f(lloc5t
the year 1745, and beginning of 1746. This was vere<*‘
the method of giving the eleCtric ftrock, or the accu¬
mulation of the power of eleCtricity in a vial. This
had its name of the Leyden vial, from Mr Cunaeus, a
native of Lyden, who exhibited it as he was repeating
fome experiments made by Meffrs Mufchenbroek and
Allatnand, profeffors in the univerfity of that city. He
was not, however, the inventor. The merit of this
difeovery (if any merit can arife from a difeovery made
by accident) belongs to Mr Van Kleift, dean of the
cathedral at Camin. On the 4th of November 1745,.
he fent the following account of it to Dr Leiberkuhn
at Berlin: “ When a nail, or a piece of thick brafs
wire, &c. is put into a fmall apothecary’s vial, and
ekCIrified, remarkable effefts follow : but the vial muft
be very dry, or warm. I commonly rub it over be¬
fore-hand with a finger, on which I put fome pounded,
chalk. If a little mercury or a few drops of fpirit or'
wine are put into it, the experiment fucceeds the bet¬
ter. As foon as this phial and nail are removed from:
,432
ELECTRICITY. Sea. II.
Hiftory • the' ele&rifying glafs, or the prime condu&or to which
• it hath been expofed is taken away, it throws out a
pencil of flame fo long, that with this burning machine
in my hand, I have taken above 60 fteps in walking
about my room. When it is ele&rified llrongly, I can
take it into another room, and there fire fpirits.of
-wine with it. If while it is ele&rifying, I put my
finger, or a piece of gold which I hold in my hand, to
the nail, I receive a Ihock which Huns my arms and
fhoulders.
“ A tin tube, or a man placed upon ele&rica, is
eleclrificd much ftronger by this means than in the
common way. When I prefent this vial and nail to a
tin tube, which I have 15 feet long, nothing but ex¬
perience can mak^ a perfon believe how ftronglyit is
eleftrified. Two thin glafles have beeii broken by the
ihock of it.”
Soon after this, a method of giving the fliock was
difcovered in Holland by Mr Cunaeus, in the following
manner: M. Mufchenbroek and his friends, obferving
that eleftrified bodies expofed to the common atmo-
fphere, which is always replete with conducing par¬
ticles of various kinds,, foon loft their ele&ricity, and
were capable of retaining but a fmall quantity of it;
imagined, that, were the eledftrilied bodies terminated
on all fides by original ele&rics, they might be capable
of receiving a ftronger power and retaining it for a
longer time. Glafs being the moft convenient eleftric
for this purpofe, and water the mott convenient non-
ele&ric, they firft made thefe experiments with water
iu giafs bottles: but no confiderable difcovery was
made, till Mr Cunaeus, happening to hold his glafs
veflfel in one hand, and endeavouring to difengage it
from the conduftor with the other (when he imagined
the water had received as much electricity as the ma¬
chine could give it), was furprifed with afudden ihock
in his arms and breaft, which he had not in the leaft
iq expeCted.
■Behaviour The difcovery of fuch a terrible effeCt of the eleCtric
of different power immediately raifed the attention of all the^phi-
-philofo lofophers in Europe. Many of them greatly exagge-
this^cca- rate^ their accounts; either from a natural timidity,
; fflon. or their love of the marvellous. Mr Mufchenbroek,
• who tried the experimejit with a very thin glafs bowl,
told Mr Reaumur in a letter wrote foon after the expe¬
riment, That he felthimfelf ftruck in his arms, ihoulder,
and breaft, fo that he loft his breath; and was two days
before he recovered from the effe&s of the blow and
the terror. He added, that he would not take a fecond
Ihock for the whole kingdom of France. Mr Alla-
mand, who made the experiment, wuth a common beer-
glafs, faid, that he loft his breath for fome moments;
and then felt fuch an intenfe pain all along his right
arm, that he was apprehenfive of bad confequences, but
it foon after went off without any inconvenience, &c.
Other philofophess, on the contrary, fhowed their he-
roifm and magnanimity, by receiving a number of
eledric {hocks as ftrong as they could poflibly make
them. Mr Bofe above mentioned, wifhed that he
might die by the electric ftiock, in order to furniih, by
his death, an article for the memoirs of the academy
of fciences at Paris. “ But (adds Dr Prieftley, from
whom this account is taken), it is not given to every
eleCtrician to die in fo glorious a manner as the juft-
7y envied Richman.”
From the time of this difcovery, eleCtricity became
the general fubjeCt of converfation, A great number Hiftory.
of people all over Europe got their livelihood by go-
ing about and Ihowing the phenomena of it; and, at
the fame time, the paffion for the marvellous ftrongly
difcovered itfelf in fome effeCts of eleCtricity, pretended n
to be found out in Italy and Germany. It ivas afferted fncre ible
by SigniorrPivati at Venice, and after him by Verati ^buted m
at Bologna, Mr Blanchi at Turin, and Mr Winckler electricity
at Leipfic, that if odoriferous fubftances were confined
in glafs veffels, and the veffels excited, the odours and
other medicinal virtues would tranfpire through the
glafs, infeCt the atmofphere of the conductor, and
communicate the virtue to all perfons in contaCt with
it; alfo, that thofe fubftances, held in the hands of
perfqns eleCtrified, would communicate their virtues to
them; fo that the medicines might be made to operate
■without being taken into the ftomach. They even pre¬
tended to have wrought many cures by the help of e-
ledricity applied in this way. To fee the wonderful
effeCIs of thefe medicated tubes, as they were called,
Mr Nollet travelled into Italy, where he vifited all the
gentlemen who had publiftied any account of thefe ex¬
periments. But tho’ he engaged them to repeat their
experiments in his prefence, and upon himfelf; and
though he made it his bufinefs to get all the informa¬
tion he could concerning them; he returned fully con¬
vinced, that in no inftance had odours been found to
tranfpire through the pores of excited glafs, and that
no drugs had ever communicated their virtues to peo¬
ple who had only held them in their hands while they
were eleCtrified. He was convinced, however, that by
continued electrification without drugs, feveral perfons
had found confiderable relief in various diforders; par-
tiicularly, that a paralytic perfon had been cured at Ge¬
neva, and that one who Was deaf of an ear, another
who had a violent pain in his head, arid a woman with
a diforder in her eyes, had been cured at Bologna ; fo
that from this time we may date the introduction of
eleCtricity into the medicinal art. See Medicine-
Index.
Another wonderful experiment was the beatification
of Mr Boze; which other electricians, for a long time,
endeavoured to repeat after him, but to no purpofe.
His defeription of this remarkable experiment was,
that if, in electrifying, large globes were employed,
and the electrified perfon flood ‘upon large cakes of
pitch, a lambent flame would by degrees strife from
the pitch, and fpread itfelf around his feet; that from
thence it would be propagated to his knees and body,
till at laft it afeended to his head ; that then, by con¬
tinuing the electrification, the perfon’s head would be
furrounded by a glory fuch as is in fome meafure re-
prefented by painters in their ornamenting the heads
of faints. Dr Watfon took the utmoft pains to re¬
peat this experiment. He underwent the operation
feveral times, and was fupported during the time of
it by folid eleCtrics three feet high. Being eleCtrified
very ftrongly, he felt a kind of tingling on the lkin
of his head and in many other parts of his body. The
fenfation refembled what would arife from a vaft num¬
ber of infeCts crawling over him at the fayie time. He
conftantly obferved the fenfation to be the greateft in
thofe parts of his body which were neareft to any
non-eleCtric; but no light appeared upon his head,
though the experiment was feveral times made in the
dark, and with fome continuance. At laft the Doc¬
tor
fluid with
lightning
lufpeded
by Dr
Franklin.
Sea. IT. ELECT
Hiftory. torwrote toMrBoze himfelf, and his anfwer fhowed that
'—S the whole had been a trick. Mr Boze acknowledged
that he had made ufe of a fait of armour, which was
decked with many bullions of fteel, fome pointed like
nails, others like wedges, and fome pyramidal; and
that when the ele&rifation was very vigorous, the
edges of the helmet would dart forth rays fomething
,2 like thofe which are painted on the heads of faints.
Identity of The identity of the electrical matter with lightning
is a difcovery that hath been of more pradical ufe to
mankind than any other. From almoll the firft difco¬
very of the eledric light, and the crackling with which
it is emitted, a iimi'larity between it and the phenome¬
na of thunder and lightning had been obferved. This
is taken notice of by Dr Wall, one of the firft’ who
viewed the eledric light in any perfed manner. The
Abbe Nollet, Mr Winckler, and others, alfo enume¬
rated many refemblances between the phenomena of
eledricity and thofe of thunder ; but they did not
think of any method by which their fufpicions could
be brought to the tell of experience. This was firft
propofed by Dr Franklin in 175Q. He had before
difcovered the efleds of pointed bodies in drawing off
the eledric matter more powerfully than others. This
was fuggefted to him by one Mr Thomas Hopkinfon,
who eledrified an iron ball of three or four inches dia¬
meter with a needle faftenedto it, expedingto draw a
ftronger fpark from the point of it; but was furprifed
to find little or none. Dr Franklin, improving on this
hint, fuppofed that pointed rods of iron, fixed in the air
when the atmofphere was loaded with lightning, might
draw from it the matter of the thunder-bolt, without
noife or danger, into the body of the earth. His
account of this fuppofition is given by himfelf in the
following words. “ The eledric fluid is attraded by
points. We do not know whether this property be
in lightning ; but fince they agree in all the particu¬
lars in which we can already compare them, it is not
improbable, that they agree like wife iii’this ; let the
experiment be made.”
Hisfufpi- This fufpicion of Dr Franklin’s was verified in
cion veri- 1752, and the difcovery is perhaps the only one in the
fled. whole fcience that hath not been the refult of accident.
The moft adive perfons were two French gentlemen,
Meffrs Dalibard and Delor. The former prepared his
apparatus at Marly la Ville, fituated five or fix leagues
from Paris; the other at his own houfe, on fome of
the higheft ground in that capital. Mr Dalibard’s
machine confifted of an iron rod 40 feet long, the lower
extremity of which was brought into a centry-box,
where the rain could not come ; while on the outlide
it was faftened to three wooden polls by long filken
firings defended from the rain. This machine happen¬
ed to be the firft that was favoured with a vifit of the
etherial fire. Mr Dalibard himfelf was not at home ;
but, in his abfence, he had entrufted the care of his
apparatus to one Coiffier a joiner, who had ferved 14
years among the dragoons, and on whofe courage and
underftanding he could depend. This artifan had all
the neceffary inftruftions given him; and was defired
to call fome of his neighbours, particularly the curate
of the parilh, whenever there fhould be any appearance
of a thunder ftorm. At length the long expedled e-
vent arrived. On Wednefday the 10th of May 1752,
between two and three in the afternoon, Coifiier heard
R I C I T Y. 423
a pretty loud clap of thunder. Immediately he ran to Hiftory.
the machine, taking with .him a phial furnifhed with a v
brafs wire; and prefenting the wire to the end of the
rod, a fmall fpark iffued from it with a fnap like that
which attends a fpark from an eledlrified condudlor.
Stronger fparks were afterwards drawn in the prefence
of the curate and a number of other people. The cu¬
rate’s account of them was, that they were of a blue
colour, an inch and an half in length, and fmelled
ftrongly of fulphur. In making them, he received a
ftroke on his arm a little below the elbow; but he
could not tell whether it came from the brafs wire in-
ferted into the phial, or from the bar. He did not at¬
tend to it at the time; but the pain continuing, he un¬
covered his arm when he went home in the prefence of
Coiffier. A mark was perceived round it, fuch as might
have been made by a blow with the wire on his naked
flcin.
About a month after this, Dr Franklin himfelf had
an opportunity of verifying his own hypoi.hefis. He
was waiting for the eredlion of a fpire in the city of
Philadelphia, not imagining that a pointed rod of a
moderate height could anfwer the purpofe. At laft it
occurred to him, that by means of a common kite he
could have a readier accefs to the higher regions of the
atmofphere than any other way whatever. Preparing,
therefore, a large filk handkerchief and two crofs
fticks of a proper length on which to extend it, he
took the opportunity of the firft approaching thunder-
ftorm to take a walk into a field where there was a (hed
convenient for his purpofe. But dreading the ridicule
which too commonly attends unfuccefsful attempts in
fcience, he communicated his intention to nobody but
his fon, who afiifted him in railing the kite. A con-
fiderable time elapfed before there was any appearence
of fuccefs. One very promifing cloud had paffed over
the kite without any effedl; when, juft as he was be¬
ginning to defpair, he obferved fome loofe threads of
the hempen firing to Hand eredl and avoid one ano¬
ther, juft as if they had been fufpended by the conduc¬
tor of a common eledlrical machine. On this he pre-
fented his knuckle to a key which was faftened to the
firing, and thus obtained a very evident eledlric fpark.
Others fucceeded even before the firing was wet; but
when the rain had begun to defeend, he colledled elec¬
tric fire pretty copioufly. He had afterwards an in-
fulated iron rod to draw the lightning into his houfe; :
and performed almoll every experiment with real light¬
ning that had before been done with, the artificial re-
prefentations of it by eledlrical machines. 14
Thus a new field was opened for philofophers ; but 1-)anRer
it was foon found, that experiments of this kind werema^in°,ez* ’
not always to be made without danger. This very witlTlight-
year, 1752, the Abbe Nollet publifhed fome cautions ning;
to thofe who tried experiments on lightning. He had
been informed by letters from Florence and Bologna,
that fome people there had received violent fhocks
while they diew fparks from an iron bar eledtrified by
thunder. One of his corrcfpondents informed him,
that once, as he was endeavouring to faften a fmall i
chain with a copper ball,at one of its extremities to a
great chain which communicated with the bar at the
top of the building, there came a flafh of lightning
which he did not fee, but which affedled the chain- .
with a noife like that-of wild-fire. The obferver in-.-.
ilaatly.
4H ELECTRICITY. SecT III,
Hiftory. fl;antly received fudi a fhock, that the bail fell out of
7 his hands, and he was ftruck. backwards four or five
15 paceg.
Proteiicr The greateft inftance of the danger of thefe experi-
ki’lecTb” ?nents’ however, was the death of Mr Richman profeffor
iightxmig. at Peterlburgh above-mentioned. This happened on
the 6th of Auguft 1753, as he was making experi¬
ments on lightning drawn into his own room. He had
provided himfelf with an initrument for meafuring the
quantity ®f ele&ricity communicated to his apparatus;
and as he flood with his head inclined to it, Mr Solo-
kow an engraver, who was near him, obferved a globe
of blue fire, as big as his fill, jump from the initru¬
ment, which was about a foot diilant, to Mr Richman’s
head. The profeffor was inftantly dead, and Mr Solo-
kow was alfo much hurt. The latter, however, could
give no particular account of the way in which he was
affe&ed; for, at the time the profeflbr was flruck,
there arofe a fort of fleam or vapour, which entirely
benumbed him, and made him fink down to the ground,
fo that he could not even remember to have heard the
clap of thunder, which was a very loud one. The
globe of fire was attended with an explofion like that
of a piflol; the inflrument for meafuring the electri¬
city (called by the profeffor an eleBricalgnomon), was
broken to pieces, and the fragments thrown about the
room. Upon examining the effeCts of the lightning in
the profeffor’s chamber, they found the door-cafe half
fplit through, and the door torn off and thrown into
the mom. They opened a vein in the body twice, but
no blood followed; after which, they endeavoured to
recover life by violent friClion, but in vain: upon turn¬
ing the corpfe with the face downwards during the
rubbing, an inconfiderable quantity of blood ran out
of the mouth. There appeared a red fpot on the fore¬
head, from which fpirted fome drops of blood through
the pores, without wounding the fkin. The flioe be¬
longing to the left foot was burft open, and uncover¬
ing the foot at that part, they found a blue mark ;
from whence it was concluded, that the eleClric mat¬
ter having entered at the head, made its way out a-
gain at that foot. Upon the body, particularly on
the left fide, were feveral red and blue fpots refembling
leather fhrunk by being burnt. Many more alfo be¬
came vifible over the whole body, and particularly
over the back. That upon the forehead changed to a
brownifh red, but the hair of the head was not finged.
In the place where the (hoe was unripped, the flock¬
ing was entire ; as was the coat every where, the
waiftcoat only being finged on the foreflap where it
joined the hinder: but there appeared on the back of
Mr Solokow’s coat long narrow ftreaks, as if red-hot
wires had burned off the nap, and which could not
well be accounted for.
When the profeffor’s body was opened next day, the
cranium was very entire, having neither fiffure nor con-
tra-fiffure: the brain was found ; but the tranfparent
pellicles of the wind-pipe were exceflively tender, and
eafily rent. There was fome extravafated blood in it,
as alfo in the cavities below the lungs. Thofe of the
bread were quite found ; but thofe towards the back
of a browniflr black colour, and filled with more of the
blood above mentioned. The throat, the glands, and
the fmall inteftines, were all'inflamed. The finged lea¬
ther-coloured fpots penetrated the fkin only. In 48
No m.
hours the body was fo much corrupted that they could Apparatus,
fcarce get it into a coffin.
Since the difcovery of the identity of lightning and „ 16
the eleftric matter, long rods of iron or other metal ufe^fof0”
have been made ufe of with a view to protedl buildings preferving
from the danger of ftrokes of lightning. A confider- horfes.
able difpute has been carried on whether thefe rods
ought to be pointed or not ; but a committee of the
royal fociety have very lately determined it in favour of
the former.
For fome time, the fcience of eledlricity feems to
have been at a (land. Numberlefs improvements in¬
deed have been made upon what was before difcovered,
but fcarce any thing new hath been added. The only
thing which can properly be reckoned a new difcovery
is that of the eleBrophorus by Signior Volta an Italian;
which on many accounts may be reckoned the moll fur-
prifing machine hitherto invented.
Sect. III. Of the apparatus necejfary for exci¬
ting EleBricity, and communicating it to other
Bodiesy 8cc.
The inftrumentsmoft in ufeforthis purpofeare thofe
called eleBrical machines, of which there have been fo
many different forms, that it would be tedious and dif¬
ficult to give only a very (hort defcription of them all.
We (hall therefore firft lay down the mod neceffary
rules for conftrudling electrical machines in general;
and then give a particular defcription of thofe ma¬
chines which are mod generally ufeful, and contain all
the improvements hitherto made.
§ 1. Of the ConJlruBion of EleBrical Machines.
The principal parts of the machine are the eleftric, Cavallo's
the moving engine, and the prime conductor, i. e. an Ekaririty.
infulated condudor, which immediately receives the
eleClricity from the excited eleCtric. I7
Formerly, different kinds of eleCtrics were ufed, asWhatfub-
glafs, rofin, fulphur, fealing-wax, &c. Their forms !t‘,nc’‘;are
were alfo various, as globes, cylinders, fpheroids, See. mo‘rt ^ram
The reafon of this variety was, in the firft place, that^^"
it was not then afeertained what fubftance aded mod
powerfully ; and fecondly, in order to produce a po-
fiiive or negative eleCtricity at pleafure. At prefent
fmooth glafs only is ufed ; for when the machine has
an infulated rubber, the operator may produce pofitive
or negative eleCtricity at his pleafure, without chan¬
ging the eleCtric. In regard to the form of the glafs,
thofe commonly ufed at prefent are globes and cylin¬
ders. The mod convenient fize fon. a globe, is from
nine to twelve inches diameter. They are made with
one neck, which is cemented to a ftrong brafs cap in
order to adapt them to a proper frame. The bed ce¬
ment for eleCtrical purpofes is made with two parts of
rofin, two of bees-wax* and one of the powder of red
ochre. Thefe ingredients are melted, and mixed toge¬
ther in any veffel over the fire; and afterwards kept for
ufe. This kind of cement flicks very fad; and is much
preferable to rofin only, as it is not fo brittle, and at
the fame time infulates equally w ell. The cylinders
are made with two necks; they are ufed to the greateft
advantage without any axis ; and their common fize is
from four inches diameter and eight inches long, to
twelve
Plate CLXXIIL.
fD ,
CjrJtrt/tV'/.
Sea. III. ELECT
twelve inches diameter and two feet long, which a
R I C I T Y. 425
fix revolutions in a fecond, which is more than can be Apparatus.
' perhaps as large as the workmen can conveniently conveniently done with the winch only. This me- v“
make them. The glafs generally ufed is the bell flint; thod, however, on account of its fimplicity and eafy
though it is not abfolutely determined which kind of conitru&ion, Ihould not be difregarded, and it may
metal is the beft for eleftrical globes or cylinders. The
thicknefs of the glafs feems immaterial, but perhaps
the thinneft is preferable. It has often happened, that
glafs globes and cylinders, in the ad! of whirling, have
burft in innumerable pieces with great violence, and
with fome danger to the by-ftanders. Thofe acci-
18
Compefi-
tion for
machine
tobefet
motion.
be conveniently ufed when no very great power is re«
quired.
Inftead of the pulley and the firing as above de-
feribed, a wheel and pinion, or a wheel and an endlefs
ferew, has been alfo ufed. This conftru&ion may an-
fwer tolerably well for fmall table machines; but it muft
dents are fuppofed to happen when the globes or cy- be conftrufted with great nicety; otherwife it is apt
linders, after being blown, are fuddenly cooled. It
will therefore be neceflary to enjoin the workmen to
let them paft gradually from the heat of the glafs-
houfe to the atmofpherical temperature.
to make a difagreeable rattling, and, without frequent
oiling, foon wears away by the great fri&ion of its
Parts* *0
The next thing belonging to the eledlrical machine Conftrue-
It has been long queftioned, whether a coating of neceflary to be deferibed, is the rubber which is to ex- tion of the
fome eleftric fubfiance, as rofin, turpentine, &c. on the cite the ele£tric. The rubber, as it is now made, rubl>er.
infide furface of the glafs, has any effeft to increafe its confifis of a cuflrion of red Bafil flein fluffed with hair
tleclrical power; but now it feems pretty well deter¬
mined, that if it does not increafe the power of a good
glafs globe or cylinder, at leaft it does confiderably im¬
prove a bad one.
The moft approved compofition for lining glafs
globes or cylinders, is made with four parts of Venice
turpentine, one part of rofin, and one part of bees¬
wax. This compofition muft be boiled for about two
hours over a genii fire, and ftirred very often : after¬
wards it is left to cooi, and referred for ufe. When
a globe or cylinder is to be lined with this mix¬
ture, a fuflkient quantity of it is to be broken into
fmall pieces, and introduced into the glafs ; then, by
holding the glafs near the fire, the mixture is melted,
flannel, and fattened to a piece of wood well round¬
ed at the edges. To this is glued a flap of Perfian
black filk, which nearly goes over one half of the cylin¬
der. The method of ufing the amalgam is by fpread-
ing it on a feparate piece of leather, and applying it
occafionally to the under part of the cylinder while
turning. v Thus only a very fmall part of the amalgam
is confumed, at the fame time that the glafs is very 3r
ftrongly excited. The moft. powerful compofition for Beft kind
exciting an eleftrical cylinder is found to be an artial- of amal¬
gam of mercury and zinc, in the proportion of one^Jm‘
part of the former to five of the latter. The mercury
ought to be previoufly triturated with fome melted
greafe or bees-wax, by which means the amalgam will
and equally fpread over all its internal furface to about be the finer. The compofition called Aurum Mofaicum,
the thicknefs of a fixpence. In this operation, care
muft be taken that the glafs be made hot gradually,
and be continually turned, fo that it irtciy.be heated
equally in all parts, otherwife it is apt to break in the
operation.
In refpedf to the engine which is to give motion to
s the elc&ric, multiplying wheels have been generally
1 ufed, which, properly adapted, might give the eledfric
a quick motion, while they are conveniently turned by
a winch. The ufual method is, to fix a wheel on one
fide of the frame of the machine, which is tinned by a
winch, and has a groove round its circumference. Up¬
on the brafs cap of the neck of the glafs globe, or one
of the necks of the cylinder, a pulley is fixed, whofe
diameter is about the third or fourth part of the dia¬
meter of the wheel: then a firing or ftrap is put over
the wheel and the pulley; and, by thefe means, when
the winch is turned, the globe or cylinder makes three
or four revolutions for one revolution of the wheel.
There is an inconvenience generally attending this
Aurum. mtifivum, or Mofaic gold*, will anfwer very near ' See C7>.
as well, though fomewhat lefs cleanly and agreeable.
The rubber itfelf fhould be fupported by a fpring; byn
which means it will eafily fuit any inequalities that How to
may be on the furface of the glafs; and by a ferew, it fupport
may be made to prefs more or lefs as occafion requires.infu”
It fhould likewife be infulated in the moft perfett man-
ner; as, when infulation is not required, it may be ea¬
fily taken off by a chain or wire hung upon it, and
thus communicate with the earth or with any unelec¬
trified body ; but where there is no contrivance for in-
fulating the rubber, it is impoflible to perform many
of the moft curious eletftric experiments. In fhort, to
conftruft the rubber properly, it muft be made in fuch
a manner, that the fide it touches in whirling may
be as perftft a condu&or as it can be made, in order
to fupply ele&ricity as quick as poflible ; and the
oppofite part fhould be as perfcCf a non-conduftor as
poflible, in order that none of the fluid accumulated
upon the glafs may return back to the rubber; which
conftrudfion, which is, that the firing is fometimes fo has been found to be the cafe when the rubber was not
very flack, that the machine cannot work. To reme- made in a proper manner.
dy this inconvenience, the wheel fhould be made move-
able with refpedl to the eledlric, £b that by means of a
Mr William Jones of Holborn, London, inftrument-My jones<s
maker, has made a confiderable improvement on this in
ferew it might be fixed at the proper diftance; or elfe part of eleftrical machines by a very limple contri-
the pulley fhould have feveral grooves of different ra-
diufes on its circumference.
It has been cuftomary with fome, to turn the cylin¬
der Amply with a winch, without any accelerated mo¬
tion ; but that feems not fufficient to produce the
greateft ele&ric power the glafs is capable of giving ;
for the globe or cylinder fhould properly make about
V01.VI. Part II.
rj __ __ i    mthe
vance. It confifts in a fpring placed within the rub-ffring.
ber itfelf; the adtion of which is found to be better”6™ er’
fuited for adapting the rubber to the inequalities of the
glafs, than that placed entirely without the rubber. It
confifts of a piece of flexible iron or brafs, reprefented
edgeways by fig. 1.; and it is evideht that it a£ls in pIate
a much more parallel and uniform manner than theclxxlUi
’ 3 H former,
4-26
Apparatus.
Prime can-,
dpdor, &c
ELEC T
former, which is conftantly changing the preffure of the
line of contadt betwixt .the rubber and cylinder while
it paffes from the under to the upper iide, and thus ren¬
dering the effedt inconftant and uncertain.
We come now to conlider the prime condudtor, or
firft condudlor; which is nothing more than an infu-
lated conducing fubltance, furnifhed with one or more
points at one end, in order to colledt the eledlricity im¬
mediately from the eledlric. When the condudtor is of
a moderate fize, it is ufual to make it of hollow brafs;
but when it is very large, then, on account of the
price of the materials, it is made of paftcboard co¬
vered with tin-foil or gilt paper. The condudtor is ge¬
nerally made cylindrical; but let the form be what it
will, it fliould always be made perfedtly free from
points or iharp edges: and if holes are to be made in
it, which on many accounts are very convenient, they
fhould be well rounded, and made perfedtly fmooth.
Further, that end of the prime condudtor which is at
the greateft diitance from the eledtric ought to be
made larger than the reft,.as the ftrongeft exertion of
the eledtric fluid in efcaping from the condudtor is al¬
ways at that end.
It has been conftantly obferved, that the larger the
prime ccndudtor is, the longer and denfer fpark can be
drawn from it; and the reafon of this is, that the quan¬
tity of eledtricity difcharged in a fpark, is nearly pro¬
portional to the ftze of the condudtor: on this ac¬
count, the prime condudtor is now made much larger
than what was formerly ufed. Its ftze, however, may
be fo large, that the diffipation of the eledtricity from
its furface, may be greater than what the eledtric can
fupply ; in w'hich cafe, fo large a condudtor would be
nothing more than an unwieldy and difagreeable in¬
cumbrance.
Before we quit the eledtrical machine, it fliould be
obferved, that, befidCs the above-mentioned parts, it is
neceflary to have a ftrong frame to fupport the eledtric,
the rubber, and the wheel. The prime condudtor ftiould
be fupported by Hands, with pillars of glafs or baked
wood, and not by filk firings, which admit of conti¬
nual motion. In fhort, the machine, the prime conduc¬
tor, and any other apparatus actually ufed, ftiould be
made to ftand as fteady as pofiible, otherwife many in¬
conveniences will arife.
Befides the eledtrical machine, the eledtrician fhould
be provided with glafs tubes of different flzes, a pretty
large ftick of fealing-wax, or a glafs tube covered with
fealing-wax, for the negative eledtricity. He fhould,
at leaft, not be without a glafs tube about three feet
long and one inch and a half in diameter. This tube
fhould be clofed at one end, and at the other end fttould
have fixed a brafs cap with a ftop-coek ; which is ufe-
ful in cafe it fliould be required to condenfe or rarify
the air within the tube.
The belt rubber for a tube of fmooth glafs is the
rough fide of black oiled filk, efpecially when it has
feme amalgam rubbed upon it; but the beft rubber for
a rough glafs tube, a ftick of baked, wood, fealing-
wax, or fulpbur, is foft new flannel.
The inftruments neceffary for the accumulation of
eledlricity are coated eledtrics.; among which, glafs
coated with condudfors obtains the principal place : on
account of its ftrength, it may be formed into any
fhape, and it will receive a very great charge. The
R I C I T Y. Sea. III.
form of the glafs is immaterial with refpedt to the charge Apparatus.’
it will contain ; its thicknefs only is to be confidered : v*—
for the thinner it is, the more eafily will it receive the
utmoft charge it can bear; but it is at the fame time more
fubjedi to be broken ; for this reafon, therefore, a thin
coated jar or plate may be ufed very well by itfelf, and
it is very convenient for many experiments; but when
large batteries are to be conftrudted, then it is necef¬
fary to ufe glafs a little thicker, and care ftrould be
taken to have them perfedlly well annealed. If a bat¬
tery is required of no very great power, as containing
about eight or nine fquare feet of coated glafs, com¬
mon pint or half-pint phials may be made ufe of.
They may be eaiily coated with tin-foil,’ fheer-lead, or
gilt-paper, on the outfide, and brafs-filings on the in-
fide : they occupy a fmall fpace, and, on account of
their thinnefs, hold a very good charge. But when a
large battery is required, then thefe phials cannot be
ufed, for they break very eafily ; and for that purpofe,
cylindrical glafs jars of about 15 inches high, and four
or five inches in diameter, are the mod convenient.
When glafs plates or jars, having a fufficiently large
opening, are to be coated, the belt method is to coat
them with tin-foil on both fides, which may be
upon the glafs with varnifh, gum-water, bees-wax, &c.
but in cafe the Jars have not an aperture laro-.s enough
to admit the tin-foil, and an inftr joent to adapt it to
the furface of the glafs, then brafs-filings, fuch as arc
fold by the pin-makers,, may be advantageoufly ufed ;
and theymay be ftuckon with gum-water, bees-wax, &c.
but not with varmfti, for this is apt to be fet on fire by
the difeharge. Care muft be taken that the coatings
do not come very near the mouth of the jar, for that
will caufe the jar to difeharge itfelf. If the coating is
about two inches below the top, it will in general do
very well: but there are fome kinds of glafs, efpecially
tinged glafs, that when coated and charged, have the
property of difeharging themfelves more eafily than
others, even when the coating is five or fix inches be¬
low the edge. There is another fort of glafs, like that
of which Florence flalks are made, which, on account
of fome unvitrified particles in its fubftance, is not ca¬
pable of holding the leaft charge. On thefe accounts,
therefore, whenever a great number of jars are to be
chofen for a large battery, it is advifable to try fome
of them firft, fo that their quality and power may be
afeertained. ag
Electricians have often endeavoured to find fome Another
other electric, which might anfwer better than glafs for
this purpofe, at leaft be cheaper; but, except Father anfwering’
Beccaria’s method, which may be ufed very well, no the purpofe
remarkable difeovery has been made relating to this °: g'afs-,
point. He took equal quantities of very pure colo-
phonium, and powder of marble lifted exceedingly
fine, and kept them in a hot place a confiderable time,
where they became perfectly free from moifture : he
then mixed them, and melted the compofition in a pro¬
per veffel over the fire ; and, when melted,.poured it
upon a table, upon which he had previoufly ftuck a
piece of tin-foil, reaching within two or three inches
of the edge of the table. This done, he endeavoured
with a hot iron to fpread the mixture allover the table
as equally as poffible, and to the thicknefs of one-tenth
of an inch : he afterwards coated it with another piece
of tin-foil reaching within about two inches of the
4*
Sea. III. ELECT
Apparatus, edge of the mixture : in fliort, he coated a plate of this
mixture like a plate of glafs. This coated plate, from
what he fays, feems to have had a greater power than
a glafs plate of the fame dimenfions, even when the
weather was not very dry : and if it is not fubjett to
break very eafily by a fpontaneous difeharge, it may
be very conveniently ufed ; for it doth not very readily
attraft moifture, and confequently may hold a charge
of eleftricity better, and longer, than glafs: befides, if
broken, it may be repaired by a hot iron ; but glafs,
when broken, cannot fo eafily be repaired.
Difchar- When a jar, a battery, or in general a coated elec-
ging rod, trie, is to be difeharged, the operator fhould be pro-
tert^&cT6" v^e<^ "’'th an inftrument called the difeharging rod,
,s> c‘ which confifts of a metal rod fometimes ftraight, but
more commonly bended in the form of a C : they are
made alfo of two joints, fo as to open like a kind of
compaffes. This rod is furniihed with metal knobs at
its extremities, and has a non-condu&ing handle, gene¬
rally of glafs or baked wood, fattened to its middle.
When the operator is to ufe this inftrument, he holds
it by the handle ; and touching one of the coated Tides
of the charged electric with one knob, and approach¬
ing the other knob to the other coated fide, or fome
conducting fubftance communicating with it, he com¬
pletes the communication between the two fides, and
' difeharges the eleCtric.
■ The inftruments to meafure the quantity, and afeer-
tain the quality, of electricity, are commonly called
eleSrometers, and they are of four forts : i. The Angle
thread; 2. the cork or pith balls; 3. the quadrant;
and, 4. the difeharging electrometer. The fecond fort
of eleCirometer, i. e. the cork-ball electrometer, was
invented by Mr Canton ; the difeharging electrometer
was invented by Mr Lane, and hath been improved by
Mr Henley ; another on a different principle by Mr
Kinnerfiey ; and the quadrant eleCtrometer, which is
of lateft invention, is a contrivance of Mr Henley.
Befides the apparatus above deferibed, there are fe¬
deral other inftruments ufeful for various experiments;
but thefe will be deferibed occafionally. The elec¬
trician, however, ought to have by him, not only a
Imgle coated jar, a Angle difeharging rod, or, in ftiort,
only what is neceffary to perform the common expe¬
riments ; but he fhould provide himfelf with feveral
plates of glafs, with jars of different fixes, with a va¬
riety of different inftruments of every kind, and even
tools for conftru&ing them ; in order that he may
readily make fuch new experiments as his curiofity may
induce him to try, or that may be publifhed by other
ingenious perfons who are purfuing their refearches in
this branch of philofophy.
£ 2. Defcriptwn of the mojt ufeful EleSrical Machines.
Defcrfption The firft which may be mentioned is that deferi-
»f Doctor bed by Dr Prieftley in his hiftory of eleCtricity ; which,
Priestley’s <yn account of its extenfive ufe, may be defervedly cal-
mac une. jccj a vn'lverJal ek Hr leal machine.—The bafis conlifts of
Fig 2. two oblong boards a a, which are placed in a fituation
parallel to one another, about four inches afunder, and
kept in that pofition by two pieces of wood adapted
for the purpofe. Thefe boards, when fet horizontally
on a table, and the lowermoft of them fixed with iron
cramps, form the fupport of two perpendicular pillars
of baked wood, and of the rubber of the machine.
One of the pillars, together with the fpringfuppoiN
R I C I T Y* 427
ing the rubber, Hides in a groove a, which reaches al- Apparatus
moft the whole length of the upper board; and, by  v~“—
means of a ferew, may be placed at any required di-
ftance from the pillar b, which is fixed, being put
through a mortice in the upper board, and faftened to
the lower. In thefe two pillars are feveral holes for
the admittance of the fpindles of different globes; and
as they may be fituated at any diftance from one ano¬
ther, they may be adapted to receive not only globes,
but cylinders and fpheroids of different fixes. “ In
this machine (fays Dr Prieftley), more than one globe glob™may
or cylinder may be ufed at once, by fixing one above be made to
the other in the different holes of the pillars ; and by un!te their
adapting to each a proper pulley, they maybe whirled ^vver in
all at once, to increafe the ele&ricity.” But this con- chine,
ftruftion has one capital defeft, that rubbers cannot
be conveniently applied ; fo that the power of feve¬
ral globes put together in this manner, though greater
than one, is by no means equal to what it would be if
the power of them all taken fingly were united. Fig.
3. (hows a machine of this kind contrived by Dr Wat-
fon.
The rubber ought to be made as above directed.
It is fupported by a focket which receives the cylin¬
drical axis of a round and flat piece of glafs or baked
wood g, the oppofite part of which is inferted into the
focket of a bent Iteel fpring h. Thefe parts are ea¬
fily feparated, fo that the rubber, or the piece of wood
that ferves to infulate it, may be changed at pleafure.
The fpring admits of a twofold alteration of pofition ;
being capable of either flipping along the groove, or
moving in the contrary direction, the groove being
wider than the ferew that fattens the fpring, fo as to
give it every defirable pofition with regard to the globe
or cylinder ; and it is befides furni/hed with a ferew
which makes it prefs harder or lighter as the opera¬
tor choofes. The wheel of this machine is fixed to the
table at e, and has feveral grooves for admitting more
fti ings than one, in cafe that two or three globes or cy¬
linders are ufed at a time ; and as it is difengaged from
the frame of the machine, the latter may be ferewed
at different diftances from the former, and fo would be
fuited to the variable length of the ftring. The
chain conne&ed with the rubber at n is for making a
communication with the table, when infulation is not
wanted. The prime conductor is made of copper,
hollow, and in the form of a pear; having its neck
placed upwards, and its bottom, or rounded part k,
placed on a ftand of glafs or baked wood. An arched
wire / proceeds from its neck, having an open ring at
its end, in which fome fmall pointed wires m are hung,
that by playing lightly on the globe or cylinder col-
left the eleftric fluid from it.
Next to Dr Prieftley’s machine is one invented by nf
Dr Ingenhoufz, and which for its fimplicity and con- genho l?*
cifenefs makes a fine contraft with the former This ^ n ou 2 *
machine confifts of a circular glafs-plate about one foot
diameter, which is turned vertically by a winch fixed
to the iron axis that paffes through its middle ; and it
is rubbed by four cuihions, each about two inches long,
fituated at the oppofite ends of the vertical diameter.
The frame confifts of a bottom board, about a foot
fquare, or a foot long and fix inches broad, which
when the machine is to be uled, may be faftened by an
iron crank to the table. Upon this board two other
flender and fmaller ones are raifed, which lie parallel
3H* to
4i8
ELECTRICITY Sea.III.
Mr Reid’s
portable
machine.
Apparatus, to one another, and are faftened together at their top
*u — by a fmall piece of wood. Thefe upright boards fup-
port in their middle the axis of the plate, and to them
the rubbers are faftened. The condu&or is of hollow
brafs; and from its extremities branches are extended,
which, coming very near the extremity of the glafs,
colledl the eleftricity from it.
The power of this machine is perhaps more than a
perfon would imagine by looking at it. It may be ob-
jedled, that this conftnnftion will not eafily admit of the
rubbers being infulated, nor confequently be adapted
to a great variety of experiments: but at the fame time
it muft be allowed, that it is very portable, that it is
not very liable to be out of order, and that it has a
power fufficiently ftrong for phyfical purpofes; on
which account it may be conveniently ufed.
j Fig. 4. reprefents a very portable eleftrical machine
invented by Mr Read, and improved by Mr Lane.
A is the glafs cylinder, moved vertically by means of
the pulley at the lower end of the axis. This pulley
is turned by a large wheel B which lies parallel to the
table. There are three pulleys of different dimenfions
marked in the figure ; one of which revolves four
times for every revolution of the large wheel B. The
condu&or C is furnifhed with points to collett the
fluid, and is fcrewed to the wire of a coated jar Z),
which ftands in a focket between the cylinder and the
wheel. The figure alfo reprefents the manner of ap¬
plying Mr Lane’s eleftrometer to this machine ; of
which an account ftiall be given afterwards.
Eleclrical machines have of late years undergone
fome very efiential alterations and improvements ; both
from the fuggeftions of private ele&ricians and the in¬
ventions of Mefirs Adams, Nairne, and Jones, inftru-
ment makers of London. We fliall fubjoin a defcrip-
tion of the moft approved ones.
A machine Fig. 5. reprefents a moft convenient machine for
proper for philofophical purpofes, and whofe power is equal to
philofophi- that of much larger ones of the old conftruftion. The
cal purpo- frame of this machine confifts of the bottom board
fee.
Jug. 6.
A B C D ; which, when the machine is to be ufed,
muft be faftened to the table by two brafs or iron
cramps made for that purpofe. Upon the bottom
board there are two round pillars E F perpendicularly
railed ; which will beft anfwer the purpofe if made of
baked wood. Thefe ferve to fupport the cylinder G
by the axles of the brafs or wood caps H. From one
of thefe proceeds the long axle //, going through an
hole in the pillar F; having a Ample winch /fixed on
its fquare end; or fometimes, as.in fig. 6. below a
pulley I. On the circumference of this pulley are fe-
veral grooves in order to fuit the variable length of the
firing a, which goes round one of them, as well as
round the large multiplying wheel A. The other cap
of the cylinder has a fmall cavity which fits the conical
extremity of a ftrong ferew proceeding from the pillar.
The wheel A, which is moved by the handle, turns
round a ftrong axle proceeding from about the middle
of the fame pillar. In fmall machines the Ample winch
may be adopted with great advantage, as is reprefent-
ed fig. 5. as not being liable to diforder; but in large
ones the multiplying wheel is indifpenfibly neceftary.
In all thefe machines the rubber is compofed of a
culhion fluffed with horfe-hair or flannel, faftened to a
board behind. It is covered with red Bafil leather; and
from its under edge a piece of black Perfian filk is Apparatus,
glued, which goes over the cylinder as at a, fig. 5. to
near the points of the colleftor fixed in the conductor.
Thus a greater power of ele&ricity is excited than what
could have been done by the former machines. In
them a piece of leather was faftened to the lower edge
of the cuftiion, bearing againft the culhion itfelf. To
this piece of leather another of oiled filk was fewed,
covering the cylinder as above deferibed. In this way
fome of the amalgam above deferibed was to be laid
upon the piece of leather, and worked into its fub-
ftance as much as pofiible ; but in the prefent method
nothing more is neceffary than to hold an amalgama¬
ted piece of leather once or twice to the cylinder
while turning. The rubber is fixed to a glafs pillar
ZT (fig. 5.) which is faftened into a wooden bafis A
at the bottom. This turns on an hinge ; and by means-
of a ferew at M, going through the bafts to a fixed
block on the frame, the preffure of the cuftiion may
be augmented or diminiftied at pleafure ; at the fame
time that it is rendered much more fteady and uniform
than by a flat Aiding board and tightening ferew as
formerly ufed.
The glafs pillar K, as well as all other glafs pillars,
the glafs feet of infulating ftools, &c. ftiould be co¬
vered with varnifti or rather fealing-wax ; otherwife
they will infulate Very imperfeftly on account of the
moifture they attraft from the air in damp weather.
It was ufual to fupport the rubber upon two fprings
fcrewed to its back, and which proceeded from the
wooden cap of the pillar,- in order to give way to and
fuit the inequalities of the glafs ; but by this contri¬
vance the line of contadl with the cylinder was not al¬
ways the fame, nor its preffure uniform, as already ob-
ferved : but Mr William Jones has removed this diffi¬
culty by the bent fpring reprefented fig. 1. It is fix¬
ed by a ferew at B, and gives way by Aiding notches
at a a: its length and breadth are equal to that of the
culhion, and itsthicknefs proportional to the diameter
and action of the cylinder upon it. In the machine
above deferibed, the rubber is well infulated, which is
a great advantage when it is neceffary to connect with
the culhion a conduftor, called the negative conductor ;
and when this happens not to be the cafe, which it.
ufually is in making the common experiments, a chain
with a fmall hook and ring may be hung to one end
of the conductor, the other falling upon the table as
in fig. 5.
The prime condu&or belonging to this machine is
reprefented by N in the fame figure. It receives the
eleftric fluid from the cylinder, and is ufually made of
brafs or tin japanned. It is infulated by the glafs
pillar that fupports it, and which is fcrewed into a
wooden bafts or foot. It is found more convenient to
place the conduftor parallel to the cylinder than with
one of its ends towards it as was formerly done.
The handle of the wheel A, fig. 6. or the Ample
winch /, fig. 5. ffiould be fo turned, that the excited
part of the cylinder may revolve from the rubber to
the colle&ing points on the condu&or; the prime con-
duftor, Handing then as in the figures, will be eledfri-
fied pofitively, or overcharged with the eleftric fluid :
for by the aftion of rubbing, the cylinder pumps, as
it were, the fluid from the rubber, and every other
body properly connefted with it, and gives it to the
6 prime
«'
9
Sea. III. ELECTRICITY. 429
Apparatus, prime conduftor. But if negative eleftricity be re- of the ele&ricity from being carried off by the axis. Apparatus.
quired, the chain muft be removed from the rubber, The prime conductor confifts of feveral pieces, and is v—
and hung to the prime produftor: for in this cafe, the fupported by three glafs pillars 57 inches in length,
eledlricity of the prime conduftor will he communicated The plates are made of French glafs, as this is found
to the ground, and'the rubber remaining infulated will to produce the greateft quantity of the ele&ricity
appear ftrongly negative. If another conduftor, equal next to Englilh flint, which could not be produced of
in fize to N, be conne&ed with the rubber, as ffrong fufficient fize. Thecondu&or is divided into branches
negative ele&ricity may be obtained from the one as which enter between the plates, but collect the fluid
politive eledlricity from the other. by means of points only from one fide of the plate.
Medicalap- Fig. 6. reprefents an eledlrical machine with a con- The force of two men is required to work this ma-
paratus. duftor in the fhape of a T”; and an improved medical chine ; but when it is required to be put in action for
apparatus, where it is neceffary to give the (hock in any length of time, four are neceffary. At its firft
the arms, will be more particularly explained after- conftruftion nine batteries were applied to it, each
wards, under the aiticle Medical Electricity. having 15 jars, every one of which contained about a
Mr Nairn’s Fig. 7. {hows Mr Nairne’s patent eledtrical machine foot fquare of coated glafs ; fo that the grand battery
patent ma- for medical purpofes. Its principal parts are the glafs formed by the combination of all thefe contained 135
chine. cylinder, generally about 7 inches in diameter and fquare feet. The effedfs of this machine were afto-
12 in length, with the two conditdlors parallel to it. nifbing, as {hall be mentioned in its proper place : but
It is furnilhed with wooden caps, and turns in two Dr Van Marum, who principally made experiments
wooden pieces cemented on the top of two ftrong glafs with it, imagining that it was ftill capable of charging
pillars BB. Thefe pillars are made fall into the bot- an additional quantity of coated glafs, afterwards add-
tom board of the machine, which is faftened to the ed to it 90 jars of the fame fize with the former ; fo
table by means of a crank. There are grooves made in that it now contains a coated furface of 225 feet, and
the under part of the bottom of the crank, through the effedts are found to be proportionable,
which the pieces F F Aide. On thefe pieces the We come now to defcribe fome of the other parts
pillars Hand by which the two condudtors are fup- of an eledlrical apparatus, and which, though not ef-
ported ; and in order to place thefe conductors fentially neceffary for exciting the property called elec-
nearer to the cylinder, or remove them farther from it, tricity, are abfolutely fo for communicating it from
the pieces on which they ftand are moveable outwards one body to another, and performing many expen-
or inwards, and may be fixed by the two fcrew-nuts ments which the machines themfelves, however power- ."6
LL. The rubber is faftened to the condudtor; ful, could not accomplifh. Of thefe, the firft we ihall
and confifts of a cuftiion of leather fluffed, having a defcribe is that called the difcharger; by which the city dekri-
piece of filk glued to its under part. This laft being eledtricity, w’hether pofitive or negative, colledled up- bed.
turned over the furface of the cuftiion, and thus inter- on one body, may be fuddenly transferred from it to
pofed between it and the glafs, goes over the cylinder, another ; which is called difcharging the eledlricity of
and almoft touches the pointed wires which are fixed on the former, if only one body be perceptibly eledlrified^
the other condudlors for the purpofe of colledling the or of both, if the one contain pofitive and the other
eledfric fluid from the cylinder. The condudlors are of negative eledlricity.
tin covered with black lacker, each of them containing a Fig. 8. reprefents Mr Henley’s univerfal difcharger ; Plate
large coated glafs jar, and likewife a fmaller one, or a an inftrument of very extenfive ufe in forming commu-ctxxrvi
coated tube, which are vifible when the caps NN are nications between jars or diredling the ftiock through
removed. To each condudlor is fixed a knob 0, for any particular fubftance. SlB is a flat board 15
the occafional fufpenfion of a chain to produce pofi- inches long, 4 broad, and 1 thick, and forming the
tive or negative eledlricity. That part of the winch bafis of the inftrument. DC are two glafs pillars ce-
C which adls as a lever in turning the cylinder, is of mented in two holes upon the board u4B, and furnilh-
glafs. Thus every part of the machine is infulated, ed at their tops with brafs caps ; each of which has a
the cylinder itfelf and its brafs caps not excepted ; by turning joint, and fupports a fpring tube, through
which means the leall quantity poffible of eledlric fluid which the wires E F and E T Aide. Each of thefe
is diflipated, and hence of courfe the effedls are likely caps is compofed of three pieces of brafs, connedled
to be the more powerful. And to this the inventor has with each other in fuch a manner, that the wire E Fy
adapted fome flexible condudling joints, a difcharging befides its Aiding through the focket, has two other
eledlrometer, and other utenfils neceffary for the prac- motions, viz. an horizontal one and a vertical one.
tice of medical eledlricity. Each of the wires is furnilhed with an open ring at one
To thefe defcriptions of eledlrical machines, we ftiall end, and at the other has a brafs ball; which, by a
add that of a very large and powerful one in Teyler’s Ihort fpring focket, is ftipped upon its pointed extre-
Mufeum at Haarlem, and which was conftrudled by mity, and may be removed from it at pleafure. H G.
one Mr John Cuthbertfon, an Englifti mathematical is a ftrpng circular piece of wood five inches diameter,,
inftrument-maker. It confifts of two circular plates having a flip of ivory inlaid on its furface, and fur-
of glafs, each 65 inches in diameter, and made to niftred with a ftrong cylindric foot, which fits the cavi-
turn upon the fame horizontal axis, at the diftance of ty of the focket /. This focket is fixed in the middle
7t inches, from one another. Thefe plates are excited of the bottom board, and has a fcrew at K ; by which
by eight rubbers, each 15^ inches long. Both fides the foot of the circular board is made fall at any re¬
ef the plates are covered with a refinous fubftance to quired height.
the diftance of 164- inches from the centre, both to Fig. 9. is a fmall prefs belonging to this inftru-
render the plates ftronger; and likewife to prevent any raent. It confifts of two oblong pieces of wood*,
■ ' . ~ . which.
35
Great m;
chine at
Teyler’s
mufeum.
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. III.
Ele&rica!
jar or Ley¬
den phial.
i- which are forced together by the two fcrews a a. very apt to break by reafon of the inequality of their Apparatus
J The lower end has a cylindrical foot equal to that of ftrength ; for it would feem that the force of the fluid
in a battery is equally diftributed among all the bot- why die
ties, without any regard to their capacities ofreceiving]?.rsof a
a charge fingly considered. Thus, if we exprefs the haueryare |
quantity of-charge which one jar can eafily receive by fom2times
the number 10, we ought not to combine fuch a jaf^realt
in a battery with another whofe capacity is only 8 ;
becaufe the whole force of eleftricity expreffed by 10
will be directed alfo againft that whofe capacity is on¬
ly 8 ; fo that the latter will be in danger of being bro¬
ken. It will be proper, therefore, to compare the
bottles with one another in this refpeft before putting
them together in a battery. Befides the confidera-
Ele&rical
battery.
the circular table H. When this prefs is to be ufed
it mud”be fixed into the focket /, in place of the
circular board H G; which in that cafe is to be re¬
moved.
Fig. to. (hows an eleftrical jar or Leyden vial, for
the purpofes chiefly of giving a (hock, or of accumu¬
lating a quantity of electricity in fuch a manner as
could not be done in any other way, without ufing
an immenfe extent of eleCtrified furface. It is coated
on the infide with tin-foil to the height of about three
inches below the top of the cylindrical part of the
glafs ; and having a wire with a round brafs knob at
its extremity, which paffes through the middle of a tion of the abfolute capacity which each bottle has of
piece of wood Z),ds ufed as a ftopper for the bottle. Its
lower end is ufually connected with the infide coating
by means of a piece of chain or flender wire.
Fig. ii. (hows themoft approved conftruftion of an
electrical battery,; a part of the apparatus which takes
its name from its conftruftion and formidable effefts.
It confifts of a number of coated jars, placed in fuch
a manner that they may all be charged at the fame
time, and difcharged in an inflant; fo that the whole
power of eleftricity accumulated in them may be at
once exerted upon the fubftance expofed to the fhock.
The battery reprefented in the figure confifts of nine
jars connected together by the wires a,, b, c, d, eyfrg,
A, i; all of which are faftened intothewood-ftoppers of
the bottles, and meet at top in the brafs ball. Thus a
communication is made between all the infide coatings
of the jars, while their outfide coatings are connected
by the bottom of the box on which they ftand ; and
which, that it may conduCt the better, is covered with
tin-foil In one fide of the box near the bottom is an
hole through which a brafs hook paffes, and which
communicates with the metallic lining of the box,
and confequently with the outfide coating of the, jars.
To this hook a wire or chain is occafionally con-
neCted when a difcharge is made; and for the more
convenient making of this difcharge, a ball and wire
B proceed to a convenient length from the centre
ball /I When the whole force of the battery is not
required, one, two, or three jars may be removed only
by preffing down the wires belonging to them, until
their extremities can flip out of their refpeCtive holes
in the brafs ball, and then turning them into fuch a
pofture that they cannot have any communication
with the battery. The number of jars reprefented in
this figure is rather fmall for fome purpofes; but it is
better to join two or three fmall batteries together ra¬
ther than have a Angle large .one, which is inconve¬
nient on account of its weight and unwieldinefs.
The conftrudion of jars and batteries is part of the
bufinefs of an electrician; and he ought to be expert
receiving a charge* the time which is taken up in
charging it muff alfo be attended to; and the jars of
a battery ought to be as equal as poffible in this refpeft
as well as in the former. The thinner a glafs is, the
more readily it receives a charge, and vice verfa; but
it doth not follow from thence, as ele&ricians in ge¬
neral imagined till lately, that, on account of its
thinnefs, it is capable of containing a greater charge
than a thicker one. The reverfe is actually the cafe :
and though a thick glafs cannot be charged in fuch
a ftiort time as a thin one, it is neverthelefs capable of
containing a greater power of eleftricity. If the
thicknefs of the glafs be very great, no charge can in¬
deed be given it; but experiments have not yet de¬
termined how great the thicknefs muft be which will
prevent any charge. Indeed it is obferved, that though
a thick glafs cannot be charged by a weak eleftrtc
machine, it may be fo by a more powerful one :
whence it feems reafonable to fuppofe that there is no
real limit of this kind ; but that if. machines could be
made fufficiently powerful, glaffes of any thicknefs
might be charged. Mr Brookes, an ingenious elec- Mr
trician of Norwich, conftrudled his batteries, which ap- Brookes’s
pear to have been very powerful, of green-glafs bottles, method of
Some of them, like that reprefented in the figure, had
only nine of thefe bottles; but when a greater power a
was wanted, more were added. Jars would have been
preferred to bottles on account of their being more
eafily coated by reafon of their wide mouths; but
being lefs eafily procured, he was content to put up
with this inconvenience. The mean fize of thefe
bottles was about eight inches in diameter; they were
coated io inches high, and made of the thickeft and
ftrongeft glafs that could be procured, weighing from
five pounds and an half to feven pounds each. In the
confixuction of a battery of 2 7 bottles, he difpofed of
them in three rows; nine of the ftouteu and belt com-
pofing the firft row, nine of the next in fixength be¬
ing difpofed of in the fecond, and the third containing
the nine weakelt. All of thefe were of green glafs.
in coating the vials himfelf, not only bccaufe of the but not of the fame kind Some which flood in the
expence attending the employment of others, but be- r‘ a
caufe he may fometimes be at too great a diftance
from workmen who are accuftomed to operations of
this kind. A confiderable difficulty arifes with re-
fpeft to the fize of the jars and the kind of glafs they
are to be made of. Fine flint or cryftal. glafs may
probably be made ufe of with greater advantage than
any other ; but the expence here becomes a very con-
fiderable object, efpecially as the jars of a battery are
foremoft row were compofed of a kind very like that
of which Frontiniac wine-bottles are made: and our
author remarks, that this kind of glafs feems to be by
much the beft, as being both harder and ftronger, and
lefs liable to break by an high charge. The fecond
and third rows of the battery confifted of bottles
whofe diameter was from fix and an half to ten inches,
and which were coated from eight and an half to eleven
inches high; none of their mouths being larger than
•difcharge.
Rough glafs
Tourmalin
' Hare’s fkin
Black filk
White filk
Sealing-v
Sea. TV. ELECTRIC
Apparatus. an inch ?.nd an half, nor lefs than three quarters of an
y inch. In cafe any of the bottles being broken by the
His method c^c^larSe t^e hatter^', Mr Brookes found that it
of mendingcou^ he mended in fuch a manner as to become fer-
botrles viceable by a cement made according to the following
when bro. receipt: “ Take of Spaniih-white eight ounces; heat
ken by a v£ry l10t in an iron ladle, to evaporate all the moi-
llure; and when cool, fift it through a lawn fieve:
add three ounces of pitch, three quar ters of an ounce
of rofin, and half an ounce of bees-wax: heat them all
together over a gentle fire, ftirring the whole frequent¬
ly for near an hour ; then take it off the fire, and con¬
tinue the ftirring till it is cold and fit for ufe.” The
bottles cemented with this compofition, however, were
not judged to be fufficiently flrong to ftand in their
original place, but were removed to the fecund or
third row, as it was apprehended they could beft fuf-
tain the charge. All the bottles of this battery, as
well as the fingle ones he commonly .made ufe of in
his experiments, were coated both on the infide and
outfide with flips of tin-foil from three-eighths to three-
fourths of an inch wide, laid on with pafle of flour
and water, at the diftance of about the breadth of a
flip between each.
Fig. iz. reprefents the infufating ftool, a very ufe-
ful part of the apparatus, efpecially for medical pur-
pofes, where it is often ueceflary to infulate the hu¬
man body. In thefe cafes it is proper to have it of a
magnitude fufficient to hold a chair or other feat, on
which the patient may fit during the operation. The
ftool itfelf may be conveniently conflrudled of a ma¬
hogany board with glafs feet varnifhed, as already di¬
rected. When in ufe, the infulation will be the more
perfedt that a piece of dry paper be put upon it.
Thefe are the parts of the eledtrical apparatus efien-
tially neceffary for exhibiting the ordinary experiments;
but as many very curious phenomena are to be obfer-
ved in different fubftainces, without ufing any part of
the apparatus above deferibed, we (hall next proceed
to give an account of thofe bodies which naturally ex
faibit figns of electricity, with the various phenomena,
attending them.
Sect. IV. A Catalogue of the different EleBiric
Sub/lances, with the general Phenomena attend¬
ing their Excitation.
The lift of fubftaaces by which eledtric phenomena
maybe produced, is fo veryfextenfive, that it may perhaps
be doubted whether all terreftrial matters, metals and
charcoal oply excepted, may not be included in the
number. Some, however^ have the property much
more, or exhibit particular phenomena more obvioufly,
than others; and according to this we may divide them
into claffes, as fhall afterwards be more particularlyr
noticed. The following catalogues enumerate thofe in
which the property in general, has been, difeovered.
T I Y.
t Dry oiled filk, fulphur,
JPofitive } or metals.
r Woollen-cloth, quills, V
Negative 5 wood’ P^’ fcaling-
J wax, white-wax, the
V. human hand.
TPofitive C Amber, or air blown up.
•< l on it.
^Negative ^D“d’ the
r Pofitive f Metals, filk, loadftone,
j < leather, hand, paper,
^ C. baked wood.
(^Negative — Other finer furs,
r Pofitive—Sealing-wax.
-s f Hare’s, weafel’s, and fer-
<-Negative 3 load{W>
J brafs, filver, iron,
V. hand.
r Pofitive j Black filk, metals, black
< C cloth.
f Pofitive—Metals.
^ Hare’
t
•Negative -
Baked wood
 , wea/ci's, an,!
ferret’s fkin, hand, lea¬
ther, woollen-cloth, pa-
V Per.
Pofitive— Silk.
Negative — Flannel.
This table contains moft of thofe fubftances that ex¬
hibit the ftrongeft marks of ele&ricity. The follow¬
ing is compofed by Mr Henley, and contains a great PhU.Tfanfi
number of fubllances whofe electricity is much more Vol. lxviu
equivocal. They were fixed or tied on the end of aPartI-
flick of fealing-wax; and excited by friaion againft a
woollen garment, or a piece of foft black filk, by
which means they became elearified as below. The
ftrongeft in power are diftinguifhed by the letter s, and
the weakeft by the letter w.
Metal s.
WooL Silk..
A new guinea ; a fmooth fixpence ;
a brafs ferule ; tin, and tin-foil ; ena¬
melled copper, s; gilding on leather, s; . Neg. Neg,.
lead ore; copper ore; iron ore; ftream
tin.
Milled lead; copper, s ; a polifhed
fteel button, s; a new filver ditto; a p f p-
metal button gilt, s; tutenague ditto, s; rol‘ "ol*
Lead from a tea-cheft, in which there
s a mixture of tin, w.
Neg. Pof..
Cavallo's
Eheiricity,
E? I7*
Quality of
eleiflricity.
41 The back of a j
Catalogue
of eleCtrsc
fubflances,
with their
different
Iiywexa,,.
Subftances with which the
eleCtric is rubbed.
C Every fubftance hitherto
\ tried.
Smooth gw, { roa,;,e f ^
A gilt button, bafket-pattern ; the p r
juncture at the end of a brafs ferule. rd1.
Animal Substances.
Tortoife-fhell, w; ivory, s; bone, s ;
horn ; lamb’s-tooth ; horfe’s-hoof ;
deer’s-hoof; mufcle of the leg of a
deer, s; cartilage, s; fpur of a young
cock; bill, claw, and fcale from the leg
Neg,.
Y.
432 E L E
Pheno-
, mena- of a turkey, s; fcale of a carp; the tlry
falis of a moth, recent from the earth,
cleanfed; crcffamenlum of the human
blood exficcated, w; quills ; claw of an
unboiled lobfter; cowrie and feveral o-
ther fmooth Ihells, s; fhell of a hen’s
egg; tail of a fmall filh ; thigh of the
elephant beetle; a fmall beetle, fmooth
furface; human hair; red and white
horfe’s and bullock’s hair, s; hog’s
bridles, s; wool; filk from the worm, w;
oyder-ihell, fmooth furface ;
Mother of pearl, and feveral other
(hells.
Mufcle and cockle-fhells, recent; a
recent fnail-fhell, rough furface ; efyfra
of the dag-beetle; oyder-lhell, rough
furface.
Vbgetables.
Rind of chednut, s; Barcelona nut-
(hell, s; calhew nut, s; cocoa nut-{hell
polilhed ; Brazil; lignum vita; black
■-uony, s, cane, s; quinquina,
or Peruvian bark, s; tamarind-done;
coffee-berry roaded, s; nutmeg, s; gin¬
ger, s; white pepper, freed from the
hu(k, s; cinnamon, s; cloves, s; mace, s;
all-fpice, s; capficumj both fides of the
pod, s; hemlock, s; a clove of garlic ;
ditto of efchalot, freed from the hulk, s;
a green onion, s; rue, s; cork, s; leaves
of laurel, bay, yew, holly, rofemary,
with their berries, s; parfley, s ; leaf of
turnip; ditto of Savoy cabbage, s; ce¬
lery, s; fago, $; thime, s ; carrot; tur¬
nip ; potato ; an acorn, s; rind of Se¬
ville orange, s; a large Windfor bean, s;
a white pea; root of the white lily ;
fnow-drop root; feeds of gourd, melon,
cucumber, w; a fpecies of long mofs, w;
an apple, s; down of the cotton-ruih, w;
fea-dag; leaf of the American aloe, s;
cotton, w.
Hemp; flax ; dalk of the tobacco-
leaf: fpike, from the leaf of the Ame¬
rican aloe ; palma-chrijli nut; horfe-ra-
difli.
A white kidney-bean, fmooth fur¬
face; black negroe of the fame ; fcarlet
of the fame.
Corallines.
Sea-fan, the horny part, w; rough
coral, w.
Spunge, w; coral polifhed, w.
Salts.
c
Wool.
Pof.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Pof.
Neg.
Neg.
Alum, w. - - Neg.
B°.rax' J \ Smooth furfaces; Pof.
Nitre purified, 5
Fossil and Mineral Substances.
Common pebble-dones of all co¬
lours, s; marble^ s; pit-coal, s; black-
N° Mi.
T
Silk.
Pof.
Pof.
Neg.
Neg.
Pof.
Pof.
Pof.
Pof
Neg.
Pof.
R I C I T
Sea. IV.
Wool. Silk. Pheno-
lead, w; jet, s; ; mineralized ^ ^
folphur; thunder-bolt done; cornu- e^‘ 1 eS’
ammonis ; fliark’s-tooth ; coat of petri-
fadtion.
Several fmooth native cryflals; brown
Iceland ditto; talc, s ; Ceylon pebble, p r p .
fmooth and tranfparent; agate, s; cor- 0 ' 1 oi*
nelian; amethyd, s.
A fpecimen of gypfum. Neg. Pof.
Artificial Substances.
Staffordfliire ware glazed; China
ware, s ; Wedgwood’s ware glazed, s; p ^ p j.
wdiale’s fin prepared, w; writing-paper; 0' °*
parchment, s; (beep's gut.
Tobacco-pipe, s; Wedgwood’s ware
unglazed ; eladic gum, s ; hard under-
crud of a leaf; a tallow-candle, w :
oiled filk; painted paper, s; filver, Neg. Neg.
burnt into glafs, unburnifhed ; pearl-
barley, w; Indian ink, w; blue vi¬
triol, s.
Dr Lewis’s glafs porcelain. Neg. Pof.
Here it mud be obferved, that a great number of the
fubdances in Mr Henley’s table, particularly metals,
would have been totally incapable of excitation had
they not been infulated; and as they were rubbed a-
gaind electrics per fe, it is by no means fair to con¬
clude that the metal was excited. It feems much more
likely that the rubber only was excited, and commu¬
nicated its eleftricity to the metal. It mud alfo be
obferved, that though there is a very remarkable diffe¬
rence between fubdances with regard to their non-elec¬
tric or conducing power, yet there feems not to be a
perfeft ele&ric in nature : for heat will dedroy the e-
le&ric power of glafs, and every other fubdance; and,
on the contrary, cold, if not attended with moidure,
renders every eleCtric fubdance more eledtric than be¬
fore. The ufe of warming an ele&ric therefore, be¬
fore excitation, is only to free it from the moidure
which may adhere to it.
From the above catalogues it will readily be appre¬
hended, that the powers of the eledrhi (ubflances not
only vary prodigioufly from one another, but likewife
according to the circumdances in which they are pla¬
ced. Thus alfo we find, that, according to the diffe¬
rent fubdances made ufe of, we may fometimes pro¬
duce one phenomenon and fometimes another, in a
manner exclufive of all the red. Hence we have a
foundation' for clafling eleftric fubdances according to
the various powers they occafionally exhibit, and which
we (hall do in the following manner.
1. Thofe which exhibit a drong and permanent at-
tra&ive and repulfive power; of which the mod re¬
markable is filk.
2. For exhibiting the eledtric light, attradlion and
repulfion, and all the other phenomena of eledtricity
in a very vigorous though not durable manner, glafs
is preferable to all other bodies.
3. Thofe which exhibit eledtric appearances for a
great length of time, and which communicate to con-
dudting bodies the greated eledtric power. Of thefe
the fubdances called negative ekdrics are the mod re¬
markable j
Sea. IV.
ELECTRICITY.
Pheno- markable; fucli as amber, gum-lac, rofin, fulphur. See.
. mena- on the properties of which depend the phenomena of
"r » the eleArophorus, to be afterwards deferibed.
4. Thofe which readily exhibit eleftrfcal pheno¬
mena by heating and cooling, of which the principal
is the tourmalin.
§ 1. Of the EleBrlcal Phenomena from Silk.
This fubftance was firft difeovered to be an ele&ric
* See by Mr Grey, in the manner we have already related*;
S- but as it was by no means remarkable for emitting
fparks, which moft commonly engages the attention,
its electric virtues were almoft. entirely overlooked till
the year 1759. At that time Mr Symmer prefented
to the royal fociety fome papers, containing a number
» of very curious experiments made with lilk Itockings,
in fubftance as follows.
He had been accuftomed to wear two pairs of filk
ftockings; a black and a white. When thefe were put
off both together, no figns of electricity appeared; but
on pulling off the black ones from the white, he heard
a fnapping or crackling noife, and in the dark percei¬
ved fparks of lire between them. To produce this and
the following appearances in great perfedtion, it was
6nly neceffary to draw his hand feveral times backward
and forward over his leg with the ftockings upon it.
Stro:ig3at- When the ftockings were feparated and held at a di-
tradtionandftance from each other, both of them appeared to be
■repulfwn highly excited; the white flocking pofitively, and the
iedtriffed e* negatively. While they were kept at a diftance
blockings. from each other, both of them appeared inflated to
fuch a degree, that they exhibited the entire ftiape of
the leg. When two black or two white ftockings were
held in one hand, they would repel one another with
confiderable force, making an angle feemingly of 30 or
35 degrees. When a white and black flocking were
prefented to each other, they were mutually attracted ;
and if permitted, would rufh together with furprifing
violence. As they approached, the inflation gradually
fubfided, and their attraction of foreign objeCts dimi-
nilhed, but their attraction of one another increafed ;
when they actually met, they became flat, and joined
clofe together like as many folds of filk. When fepa¬
rated again, their eleCtric virtue did not feem to be in
the lead impaired for having once met; and the fame
appearances would be exhibited by them for a con¬
fiderable time. When the experiment was made with
two black ftockings in one hand, and two white ones
in the other, they were thrown into a ftrange agitation,
owing to the attraction between thofe of different co¬
lours, and the repuliion between thofe of the fame co¬
lour. This mixture of attractions and repulfions made
the ftockings catch at each other at greater diftances
than otherwife they would have done, and afforded a
very curious fpeCtacle.
When the ftockings were fuffered to meet, they
ftuck together with confiderable force. At firft Mr
Symmer found they required from one to 12 ounces to
feparate them. Another time they raifed 17 ounces,
which was 20 times^the weight of the flocking that
fupported them ; and this in a direftion parallel to its
furface. When one of the ftockings was turned infide
out, and put.within the other, it required 20 ounces to
feparate them; though at that time 10 ounces were
iufficient when applied externally. Getting the black
Vol. VI. Part II.
433
ftockings new dyed, and the white omes waflied, and Pheno-
whitened in the fumes of fulphur, and then putting^ mena.
them one within the other, with the rough fides toge- ' » —'
ther, it required three pounds three ounces to feparate
them. With ftockings of a more fubftantial make, the
cohefion was ftill greater. When the white flocking
was put within the black one, fo that the outfide of
the white was contiguous to the infide of the black,
they raifed nine pounds wanting a few ounces ; and
when the two rough furfaces were contiguous, they
raifed 15 pounds one pennyweight and a half. Cut¬
ting oft the ends of the thread and the tufts of filk
which had been left in the infide of the ftockings, was
found to be very unfavourable to thefe experiments.
Mr Symmer alfo obferved, that pieces of white and
black filk, when highly eleftrified, not only cohered
with each other, but would alfo adhere to bodies with
broad and even poliftied furfaces, though thefe bodies
were not ele&rified. This he difeovered accidentally ;
having, without defign, thrown a flocking out of bis
hand, which ftuck to the paper-hangings of the room.
He repeated the experiment, and found it would con¬
tinue hanging near an hour. Having ftuck up the
black and white ftockings in this manner, he came with
another pair highly eleiftrified; and applying the white
to the black, and the black to the white, he carried
them off from the wall, each of them hanging to that
which had been brought to it. The fame experiments
held with the painted boards of the room, and likewife
with the looking-glafs, to the fmooth furface of which
both the white and the black filk appeared to adhere
more tenacioufly than to either of the former.
_ Similar experiments, but with a greater variety ofExperi-
circumltances, were afterwards made by Mr Cigna ofme its o11
Turin, upon white and black ribbons. He took tworibboJls by
white filk ribbons'juft dried at the fire, and extended Mr
them upon a fmooth plain, whether a conducing or
eleftric fubftance was a matter of indifference. He
then drew over them the lharp edge of an ivory ruler,
and found that both ribbons had acquired eleftricity
enough to adhere to the plain; though while they
continued there, they (bowed no other fign of it.
When taken up feparately, they were both negatively
ele&rified, and would repel each other. In their fe-
paration, ele&ric fparks were perceived between them;
but when again put on the plain, or forced together]
no light was perceived without another fri&ion. When
by the operation juft now mentioned they had acqui¬
red the negative ele&ricity, if they were placed, not
upon the fmooth body on which they had been rub¬
bed, but on a rough conducing fubftance, they would*
on their feparation, (how contrary ele&ricities, which
would again difappear on their being joined together.
If they had been made to repel each other, and were
afterwards forced together, and placed on the rough
furface above mentioned, they would in a few minutes
be, mutually attra&ed ; the lowermoft being pofitively,
and the uppermoft negatively eledtrified. *
If the two white ribbons received their friction up¬
on the rough furface, they always acquired contrary
elearicities. The upper one was negatively, and the
lower one pofitively ele&rified, in whatever manner
they were taken off. The fame change was inftanta-
neoufly done by any pointed conduftor. If two rib¬
bons, for inftance, were made to repel, and the point
3 1 of
434 . E L E C T F
Pheno- cf a nee(]le drawn oppofite to tme of them along its
? nieua‘ whole length, they would immediately rufh together.
i The fame means which produced a change of elec¬
tricity in a ribbon already eleftrified, would commu¬
nicate ele&ricity to one which had not as yet received
i..; viz. laying the unelcftrilied ribbon upon a rough
furface, and putting the other upon it ; or by holding
it parallel to an eleflrified ribbon, and prefenting a
pointed condu&or to it. He placed a ribbon that was
not quite dry under another that was well dried at the
fire, upon a" fmooth plain ; and when he had given
them the ufual fri&ion wdth his ruler, he found, that
in what manner foever they were removed from the
plain, the upper one was negatively and the lower
one pofitively ele&rified.—If both ribbons were black,
all thefe experiments fucceeded in the fame manner as
with the white. If, inilead of the ivory ruler, he
made ufe of any Ikin, or a piece of fmooth glafs, the
event was the fame; but if he made ufe of a ftick of
fulphur, the eledlricities were in all cafes the reverfe of
■what they had been before the ribbons were rubbed, ha¬
ving always acquired the pofitive eledtricity. When
he rubbed them with paper either gilt or not gilt, the
refults were uncertain. When the ribbons were wrap¬
ped in paper gilt or not gilt, and the fridlion was made
upon the paper laid on the plain above mentioned, the
ribbons acquired both of them the negative eleftrici-
ty. If the ribbons were one black and the other
white, whichever of them was laid upperrnoft, and in
whatever manner the fridtion was made, the black ge¬
nerally acquired the negative and the white the pofi¬
tive ele&ricity.
He alfo obferved, that when the texture of the up¬
per piece of flk was loofe, yielding, and retiform like
t hat of a Hocking, fo that it could move and be rub¬
bed againft the lower one, and the rubber was of fuch
a nature as could communicate but little eledlricity to
glafs, the electricity which the upper piece of filk ac¬
quired did not depend upon the rubber, but upon
the body on which it was laid. In this cafe, the black
was always negative and the white pofitive. But
when the , filk was hard, rigid, and of a clofe tex¬
ture, and the rubber of fuch a nature as would have
imparted a great degree of eleCtricrty to glafs, the
eleftricity of the upper piece depended on the rub¬
ber. Thus, a white filk Hocking rubbed with gilt
paper upon glafs became negatively, and the glafs po-
fitively, eleCtrified. But if a piece of filk of a firmer
texture was laid upon a plate of glafs, it was always
eleCtrified pofitively, and the glafs negatively, if it was
rubbed with fulphur, and for the moH part if it was
rubbed with gilt paper.
Ifan eleftrified ribbon was brought near an infulated
plate of lead, it was attrafted, but very feebly. On
bringing the finger near the lead, a fpark was obferved
between them, the ribbon was vigoroully attrafted,
and both together (bowed no figns of eleftricity. On
the reparation of the ribbon, they were again eleftri-
fitd, and a fpark was perceived between the plate and
the finger.
When a number of ribbons of the fame colour were
laid upon a fmooth conducting fubHance, and the ruler
was drawn over them, he found, that when they were
taken up fingly, each of them gave fparks at the place
•where it was feparated from the other, as did alfo the
L I C I T Y. gea. IV.
laH one with the conduftor ; and all of them were ne- Pheno-
gatively eleftrified. If they were all taken from the mena.
plate together, they cohered in one mafs, which was' 
negatively eleftrified on both fides. If they were laid
upon the rough conduftor, and then feparated fingiy,
beginning with the lowermoH, (parks appeared as be¬
fore, but all the ribbons were eleftrified pofitively, ex¬
cept the uppermoft.—If they received the friftion upon
the rough conduftor, and were all taken up at once,
all the intermediate ribbons acquired the eleftricity, ei¬
ther of the higheil or lowed:, according as the repa¬
ration was begun with the higheil or the loweH. If
two ribbons were feparated from the bundle at the fame
time, they clung together, and in that Hate (bowed no
fign of eleftricity, as one of them alone would have
done. When they were feparated, theoutermoll one *
had acquired an eleftricity oppofite to that of the
bundle, but much weaker.
A number of ribbons were placed upon a plate of
metal to which eleftricity was communicated by means
of a glafs globe, and a pointed conduftor held to the
other fide of the ribbons. The confequence was, that
all of them became poffeffed of the eleftricity oppo-
iite ■ to that of the plate, or of the fame, accord¬
ing as they were taken off; except the moff remote,
which always kept an eleftricity oppofite to that of the
plate.
§2. Of the Phenomena produced by excited or elcSlnficd
Glafs.
That glafs is an eleftric fuhllance, was firH difco*
vered by Dr Gilbert. It was for a long time, how¬
ever, thought to poffefs but a very weak eleftric virtue;
though now it is found to be one of the bed, if not the
very be(t„ eleftric as yet known. Notwithllanding the ...
many experiments made upon this fubflance, it is not ^ ‘ ,foe
yet afcertained what kind of glafs is moH proper for equailypm-
eleftrical purpofes. It has been obferved, that the Pei I°r elee-;
hardeH and moH completely vitrified glafs is often atrIC e3tPeri"
very bad eleftric, being fometimes quite a conduftor.nicnts’
Glais veffels made for eleftrical purpofes are often ren¬
dered fit for them by ufe and time, though very bad
eleftrics when new. Mr Bergman of Upfal fays, that
very often, when his glafs globes could not be excited
to a fufficient degree of ffrength, he lined them with a
thin coating of fulphur, and that then they gave a much
Hronger pofitive eleftricity than before. In Italy, and
other places, according to Mr Nollet, it is the cuftom
of eleftricians to put a coating of pitch or other re-
finous matter on the iniide of their globes, which
they fay always makes them work well. He gives
the preference to the cryital glafs of England, Bo¬
hemia, &c. It feems doubtful, however, whether the
common bottle glafs does not anfwer equally well, or
even better. g
The moH remarkable phenomenon producible by ex- Leyden vial'
cited glafs is that of the Leyden vial. It depends en- explained,
tirely upon the following property of glafs, viz. that it
is impofiible to eleftrify the outfide of a gl.:fs pofitively,
at lealb to any confiderable degree, without at the fame
time eleftrifying the infide of it negatively: in like man¬
ner, it is impoffible to eleftrify the outfide negatively }
without at the fame time eleftrifying the infide pofitiveiy.
It is alfo the nature of glafs and all other eleftric fubitan-
ces, when once eleftrified either by excitation or com-
municatioBj
Sea. IV. ELECT
Fheuo- munication, to part with their ele&ricity very (lowly
' ni£na- and gradually. Thus, fuppofing a tube, cylinder, or
plate of glafs, to be highly eledtriiied ; if a finger is
brought near any part of it, a fpark will be felt to
(trike the finger with a fnapping noife. Part of the
electricity will then be difeharged from the glafs, but
not all. If the finger is brought near another part of
the glafs, a fimilar fpark will be again produced ; and
fo on, by moving the finger to different parts of the
glafs, till all its eie&ricity is exhaufted. It is the na¬
ture of conducing fubflancesto difeharge all their elec¬
tricity at once, by a (ingle fpark, if another conduc¬
ting fubitance is brought near them. This being the
cafe, therefore, it follows, that if every part of one
fide of a glafs plate is covered over with a conducing
fubftance, every point of the glafs will give out its
electricity to the condudtor ; and confequently, if ano¬
ther conducting fubftance is brought near to that by
which the glafs is covered, the whole eleCtric power
in the glafs ought to be difeharged in one fingle fiafti
or large fpark.
This would no doubt be the cafe, if it was pofiible
to eleCtrify the glafs only on one fide. But this is
found to be impoffible. No method hath yet been
found of electrifying one fide of a piece of glafs po-
fiiively, without eleCtiifying the other negatively at
the fame time. There is therefore a neceffity for taking
oft' the electricity from both fides of the glafs at the
fame time. This can only be done by covering both
fides of the glafs with a conducting fubftance, and pre-
fenting other conductors to both fides at the fame time :
then the eleCtricity of both is difeharged in an in-
ftant. A ftrong fpark is perceived between both fides
of the coated glafs and the conducting fubftances ; and
if a perfon holds one in each hand, he will, at the in-
ftant of the difeharge, feel a very difagreeable fenfa-
tion, which cannot well be deferibed, in his arms and
breail : and this is faid to be receiving the eledricJhoci.
If, inftead of prefenting a conducting fubftance to
both fides of the plate at once, a finger is prefented
to one (ule, fuppofe that which is pofitively eleCtrilied,
and another fubftance very highly eleCtrified pofitively
is prefented to the negative fide of the glafs, a like dif¬
eharge will enfue, but the (hock will be much gentler
than in the former cafe, and probably the electricity of
the glafs will not be all difeharged. If two conducting
fubftances, infulated, fuppofe two cylinders of metal
fixed upon {ticks of (ealing wax, or fufpended by (ilk
threads, are brought to the fides of the coated glafs at
the fame time; each of them will receive a fpark of po»
fitive or negative eleCtricity, according as the fide to
which it was applied is pofitively or negatively eleCtri¬
fied. When the metallic cylinders are taken away,
they will communicate the eleCtricity they have recei¬
ved to other bodies; and if again applied to the coated
glafs, they will receive fparks as before ; and thus the
cleCtricity of both fides will be gradually difeharged.
After the difeharge has been once made, the glafs
is found in a (hart time to recover its eleCtricity, tho’
in a fmall degree. The fide which Was originally elec¬
trified pofitively, becomes eleCtrified in the fame man¬
ner the fecond time, and fo of the negative fide. This
fecond electrification is called the rejiduum of a charge ;
and, where there is a large furfaceof coated glafs, hath
a very confiderabk,degree of power. The fame thing,
R I G I T Y. 435
which we have juft now obferved with regard to a flat Pheno-
furface of glafs, takes place with tubes and vials, or, m*-na- a
glafs veffels of any kind; and it is always obferved,
that the thinned glafs anfwcrs heft for this purpofe.
The Leyden vial conlifts of a glafs vial, jar, or bottle,
covered on the outfide and inlide with tin-foil, yet
leaving an interval of two or three inches at top with¬
out any metallic covering, that the eleCtricity of the
one fide may not be communicated to the other as fait
as it is collected. A more particular defeription of it
will be given when we fpeak of the eleCtric apparatus.
The above will be fufficient to render the following ex¬
periments intelligible. 47
Mr Symmer, when making the experiments we have Expert.
already related, concerning the ftrong cohefive power “j6”10 f’”
of eleCtrified (ilk, was induced to try the cohefive j^r
power of eleCtrified glafs. For this purpofe, he got Symmtr.
two panes of common window-glafs, the thinned and
fmootheft he could meet with. He coated one of the
fides with tin-foil, leaving a fpace uncovered near the
edges. The uncovered fides were then put together,
and eleCtricity communicated to one of the coatings by
means of a machine. In confequence.of this, the other
• fide, which was alfo coated, became eleCtrified with an
eleCtricity oppofite to the firft, and both panes were
charged with the eleCtric power, as if they had been
but one. After they had received a confiderable de¬
gree of eleCtric power, they cohered pretty ft.-ongly
together, but he had no apparatus by which the
(Length of their cohefion could be meafured. He then
turned the plates upfide down ; and difeharging from
his machine pofitive eleCtricity upon the negative fide
of the glafs, both panes were immediately difeharged,
and their cohefion ceafed. Placing two panes of glafs,
each of them coated on both fides, one upon the other,
each of them had a pofitive and negative fide, by com¬
municating eleCtricity to one of them, and they did not
cohere. 48
In eonfequence of thefe experiments made by Mr Expefi-
Symmer, and another (which we (hall prefently givem^4ts
an account of) made at Pekin, Mr Beccaria made the ^y 2ec=1
following ones. Having charged a coated plate ofcaria.
glafs, he took off the coating from the negative, fide,
and applied another uncoated and uncharged (or un-
eleCirified) plate of glafs clofe to it. A fter this, put¬
ting a coating upon the uncharged glafs (fo that the
whole refembled one coated plate confiding of two
laminae), he made a communication between the two
coatings. The confequence of this was an explofion,
a difeharge of the pofitive and negative eleCfricity, and
a cohefion of the plates. .If the plates were feparated
before the explofion, after they had been in conjunc¬
tion for fome time, the charged plate was pofitive on
both fides, and the uncharged one negative on both
fides. If after the explofion he feparated and joined
them alternately, a fmall circle of paper, placed under
the uncharged plate, adhered to it upon every repara¬
tion, and was thrown off again upon every conjunc¬
tion. This could be repeated even 500 times with once
charging the plate. This is the experiment made at
Pekin as above mentioned.
If, in thefe experiments, the charged plate was in¬
verted, and the poiitive fide applied to the uncharged
plate, all the efle&s were exaftly the reverfe of the
former. If it was inverted ever fo often, after remam-
3 I 2 ing
43®
Pheno Jng feme time in contaft with the uncharged plate, it
. me^a< would produce a change in the eleftricity. In the
dark, a light was always feen upon the reparation of
thefe plates. Laying the two plates together like one,
and coating the outfides of them, he difeharged them
both together 5 and at the diftance of about four feet
he diftinguifhed fix of the coloured rings mentioned by
Sir Ifaac Newton, all parallel to one another, and near¬
ly parallel to the edge of the coating. At the angles
of the coatings the rings fpread to a greater diftance.
Where the coatings did not quite touch the glafs, the
rings bent inwards ; and where the coatings adhered
very clofe, they retired farther from them. Upon dif-
charging thefe two plates, the coloured rings vaniftied,
and the ele&ric cohefion ceafed with them. On fepa-
rating the plates before the explofion; that which had
received the pofitive eleftricity was pofitive on both
fides, and the other negative on both fides. If they
were feparated after the explofion, each of them was
affe&ed in a manner quite the reverfe. Upon invert¬
ing the plates, that which was the thinner appeared to
be pofleffed of the ftronger electricity, and brought the
other plate to correfpond with it. Charging the two
plate-s feparately, and taking off two of the coatings,
fo that two pofitive or two negative fides might be
placed together, there was no cohefion nor explofion.
But joining a pofitive and a negative fide, they imme¬
diately cohered ; and a communication being formed
on the outfidc, there was an explofion which increafed
the cohefion.
By Mr Mr Henley repeated thefe experiments with fuccefs
Henley. when he made ufe of plates of looking-glafs, or win¬
dow and crown glafs ; but when two plates of Nu¬
remberg glafs, commonly called Dutch plates, were u-
fed, the refult was very different. Eeach of the plates,
when feparated after charging, had a pofitive and a
negative furface. When they were replaced, and a
difeharge made, by forming a communication between
the two coatings, the elc&ricity of all the furfaces
was changed. It appeared, however, ftill to be very
ftrongj and the plates continued to give repeated
flafhes of light when they were alternately clofed,
touched, and feparated, like the other plates above-
mentioned If a clean, dry, uncoated plate of looking-
glafs was placed between the coated plates, either of
looking-glafs or crown-glafs, before they were char¬
ged, that uncoated plate was always found, upon fepa-
rating them after charging, to be eleftrified negative¬
ly on both fides ; but if it was put between the Dutch
plates, it acquired, like them, a pofitive and negative
electricity.
The following obfervation of Mr .ZEpinus is very re¬
markable. He preffed clofe together two pieces of
looking-glafs, each containing fome fquare inches; and
found, that-when they were feparated, and not fuffer-
ed to communicate with any conductor, they acquired
a ftrong eleftricity, the one pofitive and the other ne¬
gative. When put together again, the eledtricity of
both dif^ppeared ; but not if either of them , had been
deprived of their eleftricity when they were afunder ;
for in that cafe, the. two, when united, had the eleftri-
city of the other.
Gonduc?, ing Thefe are the moft remarkable experiments that have
j ower of been made with electrified flat plates of glafs. Tubes
xhds. tubes- r 0
Sea. IV.
of the fame matter, however, afford a variety of cu- Pheno-
rious phenomena of a different nature. One very re- mena-
markable one is the conducing power of new flint-
glafs, which is moft eafily perceived in tubes, and on
which Dr Prieftley makes the following obfervations.
He feveral times got tubes made two or three yards
long, terminating in folid rods. Thefe he took almoft
warm from the furnace, in the fineft weather pofiible ;
and having immediately infulated them, perceived that
the eledfricity of a charged vial would prefently dif-
fufe itfelf from one end to the other; and this he
thought would have been the cafe at any diftance at
which the experiment could have been made. When
the fame tubes were a few months older, the ele&ricity
could not be diffufed along their furface farther than
half a yard.
The diffufive power of glafs he thought proper to
try in a different manner. A tube was procured of
about tht^e feet long, but of very unequal width. A-
bout three inches of the middle part of it were coated
on both fides. This coated part was afterwards char¬
ged, by communicating eledtricity to the infide of it
by means of a wire. The confeqnence of this was,
that not only the part through which the wire was in¬
troduced became ftrongly eledlrical on the outfide, but
at the oppofite end, where there was neither coating
nor wire, the fire crackled under the fingers as the tube
was drawn through the hand, and a flame feemed con¬
tinually to iffue out at both ends, while it was at reft
and charged. - One end of this tube was broken and
rough, the other was fmooth.
Another tube was procured about three feet and an
half in length, and very thin. It was about an inch
in diameter, and clofed at one end. Three inches of
it were coated on both fides, about nine inches below '
the mouth. This part being charged, the whole tube,
to the very extremity of it, was ftrongly eledlrical,
crackling very loud when the hand was drawn along it,
and emitting fparks at about an inch diftance all the
way. After drawing the whole tube through the
hand, all the eleClricity on the outfide was difeharged;
but, on putting a finger into the mouth, a light
ftreamed from the coating, both towards the finger
and towards the oppofite end of the tube. After
this, all the outfide of the tube was become ftrongly
ele&rical as before ; and this ele&ricity might be ta¬
ken off and recovered many times without charging
the tube anew, only it was weaker each time.—Hold¬
ing this tube by the coated part, and communicating
eleftricity to the uncoated outfide, both fides became
charged; and, upon introducing a wire, a confider-
able explofion was made. The difeharge made the
outfide ftrongly eleftrical, and by taking off this elec¬
tricity, the tube became fenfibly charged. The re-
fiduum of thefe charges was very confiderable; and,
in one tube, there was a refiduum after 20 or 30 dif-
charges.
By being kept for fix .or feven months, moft of the
tubes employed in thefe experiments loft the above-
mentioned properties, and the eledtricity could no
longer diffufe itfelf upon their furfaces. At length .
they were all broken except one, which had been the
moft remarkable of the whole. With this old tube, the.
DoCtqr tried to repeat the above-mentioned experi¬
ments ;
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. IV. ELECT
Pheno- ments; but to no purpofe. He then took it to a glafs-
, mena houfe; and having made it red all over, its diffulive
v property was reftored as before.
He then tried two other tubes which had been made
about fix weeks, but without being ufed during all that
time, and they anfwered exaftly as if they had been
quite new. The charge from a fmall coated part dif-
fufed itfelf all over the tube ; fo that, at the diftance
of a yard from the coating, it gave fparks to the fing¬
er of an inch long. On this occafion he obferved, that
when his finger was brought to the tube about two
inches above the c ating, a great quantity of the dif-
fufing electricity was difcharged ; and his whole arm
was violently ihocked. The old tube, after being heat¬
ed as above mentioned, fliowed a prodigious diffufive
power. Upon charging a fmall coated part, the elec¬
tricity was diffufed to the end of the tube; and it gave
fparks at the diftance of an inch over every past of it.
When it was drawn through the hand, in order to take
off the diffufed ele&ricity, it inftantly retained again,
and the extremity of the tube would be highly electri¬
fied, even while its communication with the coating
was cut off by the hand. The middle part of the tube
alfo, which had been ofteneft heated, had a much greater
. diffufive power than any other. It wa« no fooner taken
off, than it appeared again; fo that it gave a continual
ftream of fire. The quantity of refiduum after a dif-
charge of this tube was prodigious; fo that the out-
' fide coating would immediately after give almoft a con-
ftant ftream of fire for fome time to any conducing
fubftance placed near it.
The Doctor alfo obferved, that in all the tubes which
had the diffufion, there was a confiderable noife at the
. orifice when his hand was drawn from the extremity
towards the coating, a£lf the tube had been gradually
difcharging itfelf. In the dark, the eleftric matter
feemed pe’-petually to pour from the open end, or both
ends if they were open ; and whenever his hand was
drawn over it, the fire ftreamed from the coating to
his hand in a very beautiful manner The firft time he
charged any of thefe tubes after they had ftood a while,
the diffufion was the moft remarkable. It was leffened
by ery fucceffive charge, and at laft became exceed¬
ingly fmall; but after the tube had ftood a few hours
uncharged, it was as vigorous as ever.
J* Mr Cavallo hath alfo made fome curious difcoveries
ex'cri° * concerning glafs-tubes. He took the hint from obfer-
pier.ts with ving accidentally, that by agitating quickfilver in a
glafs tubes, glafs tube hermetically fealed, and in whofe cavity the
air was very much rarefied, the outfide of the tube was
fenfibly ele&rified. The eledkricity, however, was not
conftant, nor in proportion to the agitation of the
quickfilver. In order to afcertain the properties of
thefe tubes, he conftrufted feveral of them, one of
Plate which is reprefented fig. 71. • Its length was 31
€ffjXXVII. inches, and its diameter fomething lefs than half an
inch. The quickfiiver contained in it was about three
fourths of an ounce ; and in order to exhauft it of air,
one end of it was clofed, while the quickfilver boiled
in the other. Before this tube is ufed, it muft be made
a little warm and cleaned ; then, holding it nearly ho¬
rizontal, the quickfilver in it is fuffered to run from
one end to the other, by gently and alternately eleva¬
ting and depreffing its extremities. This operation im¬
mediately renders the outfide eiedtrical; but with the
R I C I T Y. 437
following remarkable property, viz. that the end of Phcno-
the tube where the quickfilver aftually ftands is always rnt'lia-
pofitive, and all the remaining part of it negative. If v J
elevating this pofitive end of the tube a little, the
quickfilver runs to the oppofite end which was nega¬
tive, then the former inftantly becomes negative, and
the latter pofitive. The' pofitive end has always a
ftronger ekdlricity than the negative. If when one end
of the tube, for inftance v/, is pofitive, i. e. when the
quickfilver is in it, that eledlricity is not taken off by
touching it; then, on elevating this end^, fo that the
quickfilver may run to the oppofite end B, it appearr
negatively ekdtrified in a very fmall degree. If by de¬
preffing it again it is a fecond time rendered pofitive,
and that pofitive eleflricity is not taken off, then, on
elevating the end again, it appears pofitive in a fmaH
degree. But if, whilft it is pofitive, its ele&ricity is
taken off, then on being elevated, it appears ftrongly
negative. When about two inches of each extremity
of this tube is coated with tin-foil, as reprefented in
the figure, that coating renders the ele&ricities at the
extremities more perceptible, fo that fometimes they
will give fparks to a condu&or brought near them.
Tubes whofe glafs is about one-twentieth of an inch
thick anfwer better for thefe experiments than any o-
thers.
We fhall clofe this account of the phenomena of ex- Durability
cited glafs, with fome experiments which ihow the du- of.the. ^cu¬
rability of the eledric virtue in that fubftance in cer-triC iV^tU8
tain circumftances. Mr Canton procured fome thin K
glafs balls of about an inch and a half in diameter, with
ftems or tubes of eight or nine inches in length. He
eleclrified them, fome pofitively, and others negative¬
ly, on the infide, and then fealed them hermetically.
Soon after, he found that they had loft all ligns of e-
le&ricity : but holding them to the fire at the diftance
of five or fix inches, they became ftrongly eledrical in
a (hort time, and more fo as they cooled. Heating
them frequently he found would diminifh their power;
but keeping one of them under water a week did not
appear in the leaft to impair it. That which he kept
under water was charged ■ on the 22d of September
1760, was heated feveral times before it was kept in
water, and had been frequently heated afterwards; yet
it ftill retained its virtue to a conliderable degree till
the 31ft of Odlober following. The breaking of two
of his balls gave him an opportunity of obferving their
thicknefs, which he found to be between feven and
eight parts of a thoufand of an inch. The balls re¬
tained their virtue for fix years, but in a lefs degree.
Mr Lullin alfo found, that a glafs tube charged and
hermetically feakd, would ihow figus of electricity
when heated.
The moft remarkable inftancesof the continuance of
this power in glafs, however, are thofe given by Mr
Henly in the 67th volume of the Phil. Tranf. One
is, of a fmall bottle, which ihowed figns of electricity
for 70 days after it had been charged, and ftood in a <
cupboard all that time. The other is of a glafs cylin¬
der, which after excitation continued .to ihow very
ftrong figns of electricity from the 5th day of Fe¬
bruary to the 10th of March, though various methods
had been ufed during that time to deftroy the eleCtric •
virtue. Thefe means always proved effectual when ■
they were applied, and the cylinder for . fome time
ihowed.!
ELECTRICIT Y.
Sea. IV.
i which it Pheno-
53
Experi¬
ments by
Mr Wilcke,
jEpinus,
&c.
Ihowed no figns of eleftricity. They never failed, always pofitive ; and this was the only cafe i:
however, to return without any frefh excitation ; and was lb. But, being rubbed againft lead, it became wena.
became ftronger and weaker, nay, fometimes quite va- negative, and the metal pofitive. v
nilhed and returned, without any vifible caufe. In ge- With regard to the perpetual attra&ive power of
neral, the de&ricity was weak when a lire was kept in fulphur, &c. which Mr Grey fancied he had difcover-
the room, or when the door was kept open. When ed *, the moll remarkable example he gives is of a * See n° 6.
the wind blew from the north, the eleftricity was vi- large cone of Hone fulphur, covered with a drinking
gorous, and likewife after it had been for fome time glafs in which it was made. This he faid would never
deftroyed by flame. The cylinder, however, did not fail to Ihow an attraftive power -when the glafs was
at all times retain its ele&ric virtue for fuch a length taken off. In fair weather, the glafs would attract al-
of time without excitation. Very often it would lofe fo ; but not fo flrongly as the fulphur, which ne-
all figns of ele&ricity in 12 hours, and at other times ver failed to attraft, let the wind or weather be ever
in a fortnight, without refShiing till it was again ex- fo variable. This experiment has been repeated by
cited. Mr Henly ; who fays he has never known the fulphur
§ 3. The Phenomena of excited Sulphur, Gum-lac, Amler, ^ fai! f %ls eletlricity on the removal of
Rofin baked Wood, &c. the glafs- Gum-lac, rofin, See. agree in the fame ge-
J ’ neral properties with fu'iphur, but do not become fo
The moll remarkable property of thefe, as already flrongly. eledlrified fpontaneoufly, nor are they fo ea-
mentioned, is the durability of their ele&ric virtue fily excited.
when once excited. They are alfo capable of being ex- r m r i tr-
cited by heat without any friftion. This laft property $ 4- Phenomena of the Tourmahn.
was difeovered by Mr Wilcke, who diftinguiflres it by These have been accurately obferved by Dr Priefl-
,the name of fpontaneous electricity. He melted fulphur ley, who gives the following account of the methods
in an earthen veflel, which he placed upon conduc- he made uie of for that purpofe.
tors : then, letting them cool, he took out the ful- x. To afeertain the kind of eledlricity produced, he ur
phur, and found it ftrongly ele&rical; but it was not had always at hand a Hand of baked wood with four ley’s me.
fo when it flood to cool upon eledlt ic fubftances. He arms projecting from it. Three of thefe were of glafs,th<,d of ob*
then melted fulphur in glafs veffels, whereby they having threads of fine filk as it comes from the worm
both acquired a flrong electricity whether placed upon faflened to them, and at the end of each thread a fmallek auty‘
eleftrics pr not; but a ftronger in the former cafe than piece of down. From the other arm hung a fine thread
in the latter: they acquired a ftronger virtue ftill, about 9 or 1 o inches long, while a brafs arm fufpend-
if the glafs veffel was coated with metal. In thefe ed a pair of pith-balls. At the other extremity of
cafes, the glafs was always pofitive and the fulphur' this arm, which was pointed, a jar could be placed, to
negative. It was particularly remarkable, that the receive the electricity, and by the repulfive power of.
fulphur acquired no eleftricity till it began to cool »it keep the balls equally diverging with pofitive or ne-
and contraft, and was the ftrongeft in the greateft Ugative electricity; or fometimea he fufpended the balls
ftate of contraction ; whereas the eleClricity of the in an uninfulated ftate within the influence of large
glafs was, at the fame time, the weakeft ; and was the charged jars : and laftly, he had always a fine thread of
ftrongeft of all when the fulphur was ftiaken out be- trial at hand, by which he could difeove*whether the
fore it began to contraCl, and acquired any negative Hone was eleCtrical or not before he began his experi*
eleCtricity. ments.
Purfuing experiments of this kind, he found, that 2. Before he began any experiments on the ftone,
melted fealing-wax poured into glafs acquired a nega- aho, he never failed to try how long the fine threads,
tive eleCtricity, but poured into fulphur a pofitive one, which he ufed as electrometers, would retain their vir-
leaving the fulphur negative. Sealing-wax alfo, poured tue ; and found this to be various in various cafes,
into wood, was negative, and the wood pofitive ; but When the threads would retain their eleCtric virtue for
fulphur poured into fulphur, or into rough glafs, ac- a few minutes, he preferred them ; but when this was
quired no eleCtricity at all. not the cafe, he had recourse to the feathers, which
Similar experiments were alfo made by Mr iEpinus. never failed to retain it for feveral hours. They might
He poured melted fulphur into metal cups ; and ob- be touched without any fenfible lofs of power, though
ferved, that, when the fulphur was cold, the cup and they received their virtue very flowly. In the experi-
fulphur together fhowed no figns of eleClricity, but ments now to be related, he made ufe of Dr Heber-
very ftrong figns of it the moment they were fepa- den’s large tourmalin, wlxofe convex fide became po-
rated. The eleClricity always difappeared when the fitive and the flat fide negative in cooling ; and in all
fulphur was replaced in the cup, and revived upon its of them, when the pofitive or negative fide of the tour¬
being taken out. The cup had acquired a negative, malin is mentioned, it is to be underftood that which
. , r , 1 -1-Q—:r„ is pofitive or negative in cooling.
3. From Mr Wilcke’s experiments on the produc¬
tion of fpontaneous eleClricity, by melting one fub-
flance within another, he.firit conjeCtured that the
and the fulphur a pofitive eleClricity ; but if the e-
leClricity of either of them had been taken off while
they were feparate, they would both, when united,
fhow figns of that eleCtricity which had not been ta¬
ken off. , _ ...
Mr Wilcke alfo made feveral curious experiments bouring air : To determine which the following experi-
concerning the effedsof different rubbers upon eleClrie ment was made. Part of a pane of glafs was laid on
fubftances, the moft remarkable of which is the fol- the ftandard bar of an excellent pyrometer, and upon
lowing : viz. that fulphur rubbed againft metals was that glafs the tourmalin was placed. This bar was
heated
tourmalin might colleCl its eleChicity from the neigh¬
bouring air : To determine which the following experi-
Sea. IV. -ELECT
Pheno- heated by a fplrit lamp, fo that the mcreafe or de-
mcna. creafe 0f heat in the tourmalin could thus be exactly
* determined. In this fituation he obfer.vedr that when¬
ever he examined the tourmalin, the glafs had acquired
an ek&ricity contrary to that fide of the fiofle which
lay upon it, and equally ftrong'with it. If, forex-
ample, the flat fide of the (lone had been prefented to a
feather eleftrified pofitively, as the heat was increa-
fing, it would repel it at the diftance of about two inch¬
es, and the glafs would attract it at the fame or a
greater diftance ; and when the heat was decreafing,
the ttone would attract, and the glafs repel it at the
diftance of four or five inches. The cafe was the fame
whichever of the fides was prefented, as well as when
a fhilling was faftened with fealing-wax upon the glafs;
the ele&ricity both of the fliilling and glafs being al¬
ways oppofite to that of the ftone. When it came to
the turn, the elefcricity was very quickly reverfed ; fo
that in lefs than a minute the eleftricity would be con¬
trary to what it was before. In- fome cafes, how¬
ever, viz. where the convex furface of the tourmalin
was laid upon the glafs or ftiilling, both of thefe be¬
came pofitive as well as the ftone. This he fuppofed
to be owing to the ftone touching the furface on which
it lay only in a few points, and that its eledfricity was
eolledled from the air; which fuppofitioh was verified :
for, getting a mould of Paris plafter made for the tour¬
malin, and heating it in the mould, faftened to a flip
of glafs, he always found the mould and glafs pofiefled
of an ele&ricity contrary to that of the ftone, and e-
qually ftrong with it. During the time of cooling, the
mould feemed to be fometimes more ftrongly negative
than the ftone was pofitive; for once, when the ftone
repelled the thread at the diftance of three inches, the
mold attrafted it at the diftance of near fix (a).
4. On fubftituting another tourmalin inftead of the
piece of glafs ; it was obferved, that when one of the
tourmalins was heated, both of them were eledlrified.
as much as the tourmalin and glafs had been. If the
negative fide of a hot tourmalin was laid upon the ne¬
gative fide of a cold one, thelatter became pofitive, as
would have been the cafe with a piece of glafs. On
heating both the tourmalins, though faftened together
by cement, they acquired the fame power that they
would have done in the open air.
5. As the tourmalins could not in this cafe touch in
a fufficient number of points, it was now thought pro¬
per to vary the experiment by cooling the tourmalin
in contact with fealing-vvax, which would fit it with
the utmoft exadftnefs. On turning the ftone, when cold,
out of its waxen cell, it was found pofitive, and the
wax negative; the eleftricity of the ftone being
thus contrary to what would have happened in the
open air. The other fide, which was not in eontaft
with the wax, acquired the fame ele&ricity that it would
have done though the ftone had ’been heated in the o-
pen qjr ; fo that both fides now became pofitive. In
like manner the pofitive fide of the ftone, oft being
cooled in wax, became negative.
R I C I T Y.
6. On attempting to afeertain the ftate of the dif¬
ferent fides of the tourmalin during the time it was
heating in wax, many difficulties occurred. It was
foitnd impofiible in thefe cafes to know exaftly when
the ftone begins to cool; befides, that in this me¬
thod of treatment it muft neceffarily be fome time in
the open air before it can be prefented to the elec¬
trometer; and the ele&ricity of the fides in heating
is by no means fo remarkable as in cooling. In the
experiments made with the tourmalin, when its pofitive
fide was buried in wax, it was generally found nega¬
tive, though once or twice it feemed to be pofitive.
On cooling it in quickfilver contained in a china cup,
it always came out pofitive, and left the quickfilver
negative ; but this effedl could not be concluded to be
the confequence of applying the one to the other) be-
caufe it is almuft impoffible to touch quickfilver with¬
out fome degree of friction, which never fails to make
both fides ftrongly pofitive though it be quite cold, and
efpecially if the ftone be dipped deep into it. At laft,
fuppofing that fhe ftone would not be apt to receive
any fridlion by fimple preflure againft the palm of the
hand, he was induced to make the experiment, and
found it fully toanfwer his expectations; for thus, each
fide of the ftone was affedted in a manner diredtly con¬
trary to what would have happened in the open air.
7. Fattening the convex fide of the large tourmalin
to the end of a ftick of fealing-wax, and preffing it
againft the palm of the hand, it acquired a ftrong ne¬
gative eledtricity, contrary to what would have hap¬
pened in the open air. Thus it continued till it ha&
acquired all the power it could receive by means of the
heat of the hand; after which it began to decreafe,.
though it continued fenfibly negative to the very
laft. On allowing the ftone to cool in the open air,
its negative power conftantly increafed till it became
quite cold.
8. On heating the fame flat fide by means of a hot
poker held near it, and then juft touching it with the
palm of the hand when fo hot that it could not be borne
for any length of time, it became pofitive. Letting
it cool in the air it became negative, and on touch¬
ing it again with the hand it became pofitive; and thus-
it might be made alternately pofitive and negative for
a confiderable time. At laft, when it became fo cool
that the hand could bear it, it acquired a ftrong pofi¬
tive eledtricity, which continued till it came to the fame
degree of heat.
' 9. The wax was removed from the convex, and faf¬
tened to the flat fide of the ftone ; in which circum-
llances it became weakly pofitive after receiving all the
heat the hand could give it. On letting it cool in tho
open air it grew more ftrongly pofitive, and continued
fo till it was quite cold-; and thus the fame fide became
pofitive both with heating and cooling.
10. On heating the convex fide by means of a poker,
and preffing it againft the palm of the hand as foon as
it could be borne, it became pretty ftrongly negative ;
though it is extremely difficult to procure any appear-
5 ance
Phen
(a) This would probably have been found always the cafe;. for here the Hone and mould adted in a manner
fimilar to the eledtrophorus and its metal plate ; the latter of which always difeovers a greater eledlric power
than the former.
12 2
44© E L E C T R
Pheno- ance of negative eleftricity from this fide ; and care
, rnena' , muft be taken that a flight attra&ion of the electrified
' feather, by a body not eleftrified, be not miftaken for
negative eleftricity.
11. On covering the tourmalin when hot with oil
and tallow, no new appearances were produced ; nor
did the heating of it in boiling oil produce any other
effedt than leflening the ele&ricity a little; and the
event was the fame when the tourmalin was covered with
cement made of bees-wax and turpentine. On making
a fmall tourmalin very hot, and dropping melted feal-
ing-wax upon it, fo as to cover it all over to the thick-
nefs of a crown piece, it was found to adt through this
coating nearly, if not quite, as well as if it had been ex-
pofed to the open air. Thus a pretty deception may
be made ; for if a tourm^Jin be inclofed in a ftick of wax,
the latter will feem to have acquired the properties of
the done.
12. On letting the ftone cool in the vacuum of an
air-pump, its virtue feemed to be diminiflied about one
half, owing no doubt to the vacuum not being fuffi-
ciently perfedl.
13. On fixing a thin piece of glafs oppofite and pa¬
rallel to the fiat fide of the tourmalin, and about a quar¬
ter of an inch diftance from it, in an exhaufted receiver,
the glafs was fo flightly eledtrified, that it could not
be diftinguifhed whether it was politive or negative.
13. On laying the ilone upon the ftandard bar of
the pyrometer, and communicating the heat to it by
means of a fpirit lamp, it was extremely difficult to
determine the nature of the eledfricity while the heat
was increaling to 70°; during which time the index of
the pyrometer moved about one 7200th part of an inch.
But if the ftone was taken off the bar, and an eledtri¬
fied thread or feather prefented to that fide which had
lain next it, the convex fide was always negative, and
the flat one pofitive.
14. To determine what would be the effedt of keep¬
ing the tourmalin in the very fame degree of heat for a
confiderable time together, it was laid upon the middle
of the bar, to which heat was communicated by twm
fpirit lamps, one at each extremity ; and making the
index move 45 degrees, it was kept in the fame degree
for half an hour without the leaft fenfible variation; and
it was obferved, that the upper fide, which happened
to be the convex one, was always eledfrified in a fmall
degree, attradiing a fine thread at the diftance of about
a quarter of an inch. If in that time it was taken off
the bar, though ever fo quick, and an eledtrified feather
prefented to it, the flat fide, which lay upon the bar,
was negative, and the upper fide very flightly pofitive,
which appeared only by its not attracting the feather.
On putting a piece of glafs between the ftone and Itan-
dard bar, keeping it likewife in the fame degree of heat,
and for the fame fpace of time as before, the refuit was
the fame; the glafs was flightly eledtrified, and of a kind
oppofite to that of the ftone itfelf. To avoid the in¬
convenience of making one fide of the ftone hotter than
another, which neceffarily took place when it was heat¬
ed on the pyrometer, the following method was ufed.
By means of two rou^h places which happened to be
in the ftone, it was tied with a filk thread which
touched only the extreme edge of it; and thus being
perfedtty infulated, it might be held at any diftance from
a candle, and heated to what degree was thought
.NJ in..
I c I T Y. Sea. IV.
neceffary; while, by twifting the ftring, it was made Pheno-
to prefent its fides alternately, and thus the heat was mena-
rendered very equal in both. After being made in
this manner fo hot that the hand could fcarce bear it,
it was kept in that fituation for a quarter of an hour.
Then, with a bundle of fine thread held for fome time
before in the fame heat, the ele&ricity which it had
acquired by heating was taken off, and it was found
to acquire very little if any; whence appeared the
juftnefs of an obfervation of Mr Canton’s, that it is
the change of heat, and not the degree of it, that pro¬
duces the ele&ric property of this ftone.
15. On heating the ftone fuddenly, it may fometimes
be handled and preffed with the fingers feveral times
before any change takes place in the ele&ricity which
it acquires by heating, though it begins to cool the
moment it is removed from the fire. In this cafe,
however, the ftone muft be heated only to a fmall de¬
gree. When the heat is three or four times as great
as is fufficient to change the ele&ricity of the two lides,
the virtue of the ftone is the ftrongeft, and appears to
be fo when it is tried in the very neighbourhood of the
fire. In the very centre of the fire the ftone never
fails to cover itfelf with alhes attradlud to it from every
quarter; whence it acquired its name in Dutch.
j6. The tourmalin often changes its ele&ricity very
flowly ; and that which it acquires in cooling never
fails to remain many hours upon it with very little di¬
minution. It is even poifible, that in fome cafes the
eleftricity acquired by heating may be fo ftrong as to
overpower that which is acquired by cooling ; fo that
both fides may ffiow the fame power in the whole ope¬
ration. “ I am very certain (fays the Do&or), that in
my hands both the fides of Dr Heberden’s large tourma¬
lin have frequently been pofitive for feveral hours toge¬
ther, without any appearance of either of them having
been negative at all. At this time I generally heated
the tourmalin, byprefenting each fide alternately to a red
hot poker, ora piece of hot glafs, held at the diftance
of about half an inch, and fometimes I held it in the
focus of a burning mirror ; but I have fince found the
fame appearance when I heated it in the middle of an
iron hoop made red hot. The ftone in all thefe cafes
was faftened by its edge to a ftick of fealing-wax. This
appearance I have obferved to happen the ofteneft when
the iron hoop has been exceedingly hot, fo that the
outfide of the ftone murt have been heated fome time
before the infide ; and l alfo think there is the greateff
chance of producing this appearance, when the convex
fide of the ftone is made the hotter of the two. When
l heat the large tourmalin in this manner, I feldom fail
to make both fides of the ftone pofitive till it be about
blood-warm. 1 then generally obferve a ragged part
of the flat fide towards one end of the ftone become
negative firft, and by degrees the reft of the flat fide;
but very often one part of the flat fide will, in this
method of treatment, be ftrongly pofitive half an hour
after the other part is become negative.”
Sect. Vf Of the different Theories of Elcdlricity,
"with the principal Experiments brought in fa¬
vour of each, and -which tend more particularly
to Jbow the Nature of the EleEiric Fluid.
It is not to be fuppofed, that the phenomena of
x elec-
Sea. V. ELECTRICITY.
441
Theory. e^-Ai'icity would long be obferved without attempts to
v  account for them. In fa£t, this was attempted by
Thales, who firft obferved the attra&ive power of am¬
ber. At this property he was fo much furprifed, that
he reckoned the amber to be animated. With regard
to the fentiments of Theophraftus on this fubjeft, we
are entirely in the dark ; but, among the fucceed-
55 ing ele&ricians, all the phenomena were derived from
Ele&ric unctuous effluvia emitted by the excited eledlric. Thefe
phenomena fuppofed to fallen upon all bodies in their way,
afcn’ed tu , re r , J
un&uous an(i to carry back with them all that were not too hea-
efiluvia. vy. For, at that time, effluvia of every kind were fup¬
pofed to return to the bodies from which they were
emitted ; fince nobody could other wife account for the
fubftanee not being fenfibly wafted by the conftant
emiflion. When thefe light bodies on which the unc¬
tuous effluvia had fattened were arrived at the excited
ele&ric, a frefti emiflion of the effluvia was fuppofed to
carry them back again. But this effedt of the efflu¬
via was not thought of till electric repulflon, as well as
attraftion, had been fully obferved.
The difcovery of a difference between conducing
and non-condudting fubftances, threw confiderable dif¬
ficulties in the way of thofe who maintained the hypo-
thefis of undtuous effluvia. When the Newtonian phi-
lofophy began to be pretty generally received, the
terms at trait ion and repulfion were quickly introduced
into eledtricity, as well as other branches of philofo-
phy ; and the eledtric effluvia, inftead of being of an
unkuous nature, were faid to be of an attradtive or re-
pulfive one. At the fame time, the apparent Hop
which is put to the progrefs of thefe effluvia by any
eledtric fubftance, introduced a queftion not yet well
decided, viz. Whether elediric bodies are penetrable
56 by the fluid or not ?
Tw fle-aC When Mr Du Fay difcovered the two oppofite fpe-
fuppofedbyc*es ele&ricity, at that time diftinguilhed by the
Mr du Fay. names of vitreous and rejinous, and afterwards by thofe
of plus and minus, or pofitive and negative, he formed
the idea of two diftindl eledbric fluids. Both thefe
were fuppofed to have a repulfive power with refpedl
to themfclves, but an attractive one with regard to one
another.
As long as eledtrical attraction and repullion were
the only phenomena to be accounted for, this theory
ferved the purpofe well enough. To account for at-
tradtion and repulfion by an attractive and repulfive
power, was indeed no explication at all; but it afford¬
ed a change of terms, which is too frequently mif-
taken for an explanation both in eledtricity and other
parts of philofophy.—At laft, however, Mr Du Fay
dropped his opinion concerning the exiftence of two
eleAric fluids, and thought that all the phenomena
might be accounted for from the adtion of a fingle one.
The vitreous or pofitive eledtricity, which was fuppofed
to be the ftronger, he thought might attradt the ne¬
gative, or weaker eledtricity.—It is indeed true, that,
in many experiments, the pofitive eledtricity doth mani-
feft a fuperiority in ftrength over the negative, fome-
thing like that fuperior degree of vigour which is ob¬
ferved in one of the poles of a loadftone over the other.
According to Mr Du Fay’s own principles, however,
had this been the cafe, a body pofitively eledtrified
ought to have attradted one eledtrified negatively more
Vol. VI. Part II.
weakly than one not eledtrified at all; which is Cdn- Theory,
trary to experience. l—y—^
During all .this' time, it was imagined, that the 57
eledtric matter, whether it confifted of one or moreE^<ftr'c
fluids, was-produced from the eledtric body by fric-‘j
tion ; but by a difcovery of Dr Watfon’s, it became come front
univerfally believed, that the glafs globes and tubes the earth,
ferved only to fet the fluid in motion, but by no means
to produce it. He was led to this difcovery by ob-
fcrving, that, upon rubbing the glafs tube, while he
was Handing upon cakes of wax or rofin (in order, as
he expedted, to prevent any difcharge of the eledtric
matter upon the floor), the power was, contrary to his
expedtation, fo much leffened, that no fnapping could
be obferved upon another perfon’s touching any part
of his body ; but that, if a perfon not eledtrified held
his hand near the tube while it was rubbed, the fnap¬
ping was very fenfible. The event was the fame when
the globe wras whirled in fimilar circumftances. For,
if the man who turned the wheel, and who, together
with the machine, was fufpended upon filk, touched
the floor with one foot, the eledtric fire appeared upon
the condudtor; but if he kept himfelf free from any
communication with the floor, little or no fire was pro¬
duced.—He obferved, that only a fpark or two would
appear between his hand and the infulated machine,
unlefs he at the fame time formed a communication
between the condudtor and the floor ; but that then
there was a conftant and copious flux of the eleftric
matter obferved between them. From thefe, and fome
other experiments of a fimilar kind, the Dodtor dif¬
covered what he called the complete circulation of the
eledtric matter. When he found, that, by cutting off
the communication of the glafs globe with the floor,
all eledtric operations were flopped, he concluded, that
the eledtric fluid was conveyed from the floor to the
rubber, and from thence to the globe. For the fame
reafon, feeing the rubber, or the man who had a com¬
munication with it, gave no fparks but when the con¬
dudtor was connedted with the floor, he as naturally
concluded, that the globe was fupnlied from the con¬
dudtor, as he had before concluded that it was fupplied <S
from the rubber. From all this he wa: at laft led to Dr Wat-
form a new theory of eledtricity, namely, that,
eledtric operations, there was both an ajfflux of eledtric and efflux!
matter to the globe and the condudtor, and likewife an
efflux of the fame eledtric matter from them. Finding
that a piece of leaf-filver was fufpended between a plate
eledtrified by the condudtor, and another communi¬
cating with the floor, he reafons from it in the follow¬
ing manner. “ No body can be fufpended in equili-
brio but by the joint adtion of two different divedtions
of power : fo here the blaft of eledtric ether from the
floor fetting through it, drives the filver towards the
plate eledtrified. We find from hence, likewife, that
the draught of eledtric ether from the floor is always
in proportion to the quantity thrown by the globe
over the gun-barrel (the prime condudtor at that time
made ufe of), or the equilibrium by which the filver is
fufpended could not be maintained.” Some time af¬
ter, however, the Dodtor retradted this opinion con¬
cerning the afflux and efflux, and fuppofed that all the
eledtric phenomena might be accounted for from the
excefs or diminution of the quantity of eledtric matter
3 K contained
442
ELECTR ICITY. Se&. V.
Theory, contained in different bodies. This theory was after-
'’“"'"v*—wards adopted by Dr Franklin, and continues to be
generally received.
Difficulty One great difficulty with which the firft ele&ricians
concerning were embarrafled (and which is yet fcarcely removed),
tion of6 he was to afeertain the direction of the fluid. At firfl,
eleiStric all electric powers, as we have already obferved, were
fluid. fuppofed to rtfide in the excited globe or glafs tube.
The electric fpark therefore was imagined to proceed
from the ele&rifled body towards any conductor that
evas prefented towards it. It was never imagined there
could be any difference in this refpedt, whether it was
amber, glafs, fealing-wax, or any thing elfe that was
excited. This progrefs of the eledtric matter was
thought to be quite evident to the fenfes ; and there¬
fore the obfervation of eledtric appearances at an infu-
lated rubber occafioned the greatell aflonifhment.—
In this cafe, the current could not be fuppofed to flow
both from the rubber and the condutlor, and yet the
firfl appearances were the fame. To provide a fupply
of the electric matter, therefore, philofophers were obli¬
ged to fuppofe, that, notwithflanding appearances were
in both cafes much the fame, the eledtric fluid was
really emitted in one cafe by the eledtrified body, and
received by it in the other. But now being obliged
to give up the evidence from fight for the manner of
its progrefs, they were at a lofs, whether, in the ufual
method of eledtrifying by excited glafs, the fluid pro¬
ceeded from the rubber to the condudior, or from
the condudior to the rubber. It was, however, foon
found, that the elediricity at the rubber was the re-
verfe of that at the condudior, and in all refpedis the
fame with that which had before been produced by the
fridiion of fealing-wax, fulphur, rofin, &c. Seeing,
therefore, that both the elediricities were produced at
the fame time, by one and the fame elediric, and by
the fame fridiion, all philofophers were naturally led to
conclude, that both were modifications of one fluid ;
though in what manner that fluid was modified through¬
out the immenfe variety of elediric phenomena, was a
<So matter not eafy to be determined.
Abbe. No!- On this fubjedi, the Abbe Nollet adopted the doc-
kt stheoiy. trjne 0p ^ux and ^ux already mentioned. He fup¬
pofed, that, in ail eledtrical operations, the fluid is
thrown into two oppofite motions ; that the afflux of
this matter drives all light bodies before it by impulfe
upon the eledirified body, and its efflux carries them
back again. He was, however, very much embarrafled
in accounting for fadis where both thefe currents muft
be confidered ; as in the quick alternate attradiion and
repulfion of light bodies by an excited glafs tube, or
Other excited elediric. To obviate this difficulty, he
fuppofes that every excited elediric, and likewife every
body to which elediricity is communicated, has two
orders of pores, one for the emiffion of the effluvia, and
another for the reception of them. Mr de Tour im¬
proved upon Nollet’s hypothefis, and fuppofed that
there is a difference between the affluent and effluent
current; and that the particles of the fluid are thrown
into vibrations of different qualities, which makes one
of thefe currents more copious than the other, accord¬
ing as fulphur or glafs is ufed. It is impoffible, how¬
ever, that fuppofitions fo very arbitrary could be at all
fatisfadlory, or received as proper folutionssf the elec¬
tric phenomena,
a
No lefs difficult was it for philofophers to determine Theory.
the nature of the elediric fluid, than its manner of ac-—v J
ting. It had been in a manner generally believed, ^
that Jire was not a diftindl element, but arofe From Different
fome violent repulfions, farefadiions, See. among the opinions
particles of ignited bodies. The great refemblance (j^nairur?
the elediric fluid to elementary fire, however, feemed f)f
ftrongly to militate againft this opinion. The hypo-trie fluid,
thefis therefore of fire as a diftindl principle or element
began to revive. Some maintained, that the elediric
fluid was really this principle ; others thought that it
was a fluid Jut generis, very much refembling that of
fire ; while others, with Mr Boulanger at their head,
imagined that it was nothing more than the finer parts
of the atmofphere, which crowded .upon the furfaces
of elediric bodies, when the groffer parts had been
driven away by the fridiion of the rubber.
This lait opinion, however, foon received a full re¬
futation from the experiments, of Dr Watfon above-
mentioned ; by which it was proved, that the elediric
matter came not from the atmofphere, but from the
earth. About the fame time the Leyden phial was
difeovered ; and the extraordinary effedls of it rendered
the inquiries into the nature of the elediric fluid much
more general than before. But {till, tire violent pre¬
judice againff the exiitence of fire as a teal element or
fluid diftindl from terrettrial bodies, continued in its
full vigour, and the molt extravagant theories were ac-
quiefeed in, rather than the fimple polition above men¬
tioned. It would be tedious, and indeed impoffible, ,
to give an account of all the theories which were now
invented. One of the moft remarkable, and moil
confiilenc, was that of Mr Wilfon. According to this Mr Wil-,
gentleman, the chief agent in. all the operations of e-fon s the(>*
lediricity, is Sir Ifaac Newton’s ether; which is more ry*
or lefs denfe in all bodies in proportion to the fmallnefs
of their pores, except that it is much denfer in ful-
phureous and undluous bodies. To this ether are a-
feribed the principal phenomena of attradiion and re¬
pulfion : the light, the Sulphureous or rather phofpho-
real fmell with which violent elediricity is always at¬
tended, and other fenfible qualities, are aferibed to
the groffer particles of bodies driven from them by the
forcible adlion of this ether, He alfo endeavours to
explain many eledirical phenomena by means of a fub-
tie medium at the furface of all bodies; which is the
caufe of the refradtion and refledlion of the rays of
light, and alfo refills the entrance and exit of this ether.
This medium, he fays, extends to a fmall diftance from
the body, and is of the fame nature with what is called
the electric fluid. On the furface of condudlors this
medium is rare, and eaiily admits the paffage of the
eledlric fluid; whereas, on the furface of eledlrics, it is
denfe and refills it. The fame medium is rarefied by
heat, which thus changes condudlors into non-conduc¬
tors. By far the greater number of philofophers*
however, rejected the opinion of Mr Wilfon ; and as
they neither chofe to allow the eledlric fluid to beflre nor
they,were obliged to own that it was a fluidfuigene¬
ris, i. e. one of whufe nature they were totally ignorant.
But while philofophers were thus embarraffed in
their eledirical theories, a vail number of interefting
phenomena were difeovered by the affiduity of a num¬
ber of different eledlricians in different countries. Mr
Winckler obferved, that if glafs was rubbed on the in-
fide.
Sea.V. ELECTRICITY. 44.3
Theory, fide, it would (how ftrong appearances of electricity rubber upon an electric difturbs this equilibrium, occa- Theory,
on the outfide ; which feemed to favour the opinion of honing a deficiency of the fluid in one place, and are-
 1 ', v—r -' r- * -  — dundancy of it in another. This equilibrium being
-power of e
ledtricity
excited hy
f<'me I’liiio-
the permeability of glafs to the eleftic matter. Other
German ele&ricians ufed feveral globes at a time, and
imagined they found effefts proportionable ; tho’ this
has fince been found a miftake. Such a prodigious force,
however, could they excite by means of thefe globes
whirled by a large wheel, and rubbed by the hand or
with woollen cloth, that, according to their own ac¬
counts, blood could be drawn from a finger by means
of the eleftric fpark, the Ik in would burft, and a wound
appear as if made by a cauftic. If feveral globes or
tubes were ufed, they faid, that the motion of the
heart and arteries would be very perceptibly increafed
in fuch as were eleftrified ; and that, if a vein was o-
pened in thefe circumftances, the blood iffuing from it
would appear like lucid phofphorus, and run out fafter
than when the perfon was not ele&rified. Mr P. Gor¬
don, a Scots Benedi&ine monk, and profelfor of philo-
forcibly difturbed, the mutual repulfion of the par¬
ticles of the fluid is neceffarily exerted to reftore it. If
two bodies be both of them overcharged, the eledlric
atmofpheres repel each other, and both the bodies re¬
cede from one another to places where the fluid is lefs
denfe. For as there is fuppofed to be a mutual at¬
traction between all bodies and the eledtric fluid, fuch
bodies as are eledtrified mult go along with their at¬
mofpheres. If both the bodies are exhaulted of their
natural {hare of this fluid, they are both attracted by
the denfer fluid exilting either in the atmofphere con¬
tiguous to them, or in other neighbouring bodies ;
which occafions them Itill to recede from one another
as if they were overcharged. 66
This is the Franklinian doClrine concerning the caufe difficulty
of eleCtric attraction and repulfion ; but it is evident, c”ncer,unj>;
6+
Elrftric
fluid found
to adt ac-
r.efs of elec
trifled fur-
fophy at Erfurd, increafed the eleCtric fparks to fuch that the reafon juit now given why bodies negatively wily
- 1  -i-_. ■'  c w c—  1 ■ attracted ought to repel one another, is by no means negatively
fatisfaCtory. Dr Franklin himfelf had framed his hy- eie<Strified
pothefis before he knew that bodies negatively eleCtri- ^T*^^6
tied would repel one another ; and when he came af- e ‘
terwards to learn it, he was furprifed, and acknow¬
ledged that he could not fatisfaCtorily account for it *. *
Other philofophers therefore invented different folu- ^
tions of this difficulty, of which that above mentioned-Different
is one. But by fome this was rejeded. They faid, I°lut'Pns
that as the denfer eleCtric fluid, furrounding two bo-2f ^
dies negatively eleCtrified, aCts equally on all tides of '"
thofe bodies, it cannot occafion their repulflon. The
repulfion, according to them, is owing rather to an
accumulation of the eleCtric on the furfaces of the two
bodies ; which accumulation is produced by the at-
degree, that they were felt from a man’s head to his
foot, fo that he could hardly take them without falling
down with giddinefs, and fmall birds were killed by
them. This was effected by conveying the eleCtricity
with iron wires to the diftance of 200 ells from the
place of excitation. He alfo found that the fparks
were ftronger when the wires were thick than when
they were fmall.
While the power of eleCtricity was thus tried, ano¬
ther queftion of great importance was likewife decided,
namely. Whether eleCtricity aCted according to the
largenefs of the furface of bodies ? This was found to
be in proportion to the furface, and not the folid con¬
tents. The magnetic effluvia alfo were found not to in¬
terfere in the leait with the eleCtrical ones. An elec¬
trified loadftone attracted light bodies of all kinds by traCtion, and the difficulty the fluid finds in” entering
.1 n. • • .I.. r?.„ -   .I--. ■. a _ j *1.  rru:„ r. _t.‘ 1 • _
65
Dr Vrank-
lin’s theo-
its eleCtric virtue, at the fame time that it attracted
iron and fteel by its peculiar magnetic virtue. The
attractive virtue of eleCtricity was alfo found to per¬
vade glafs fo powerfully, that a thread was attracted
through five exhaufted receivers, and feemingly with
more vigour than it would have been by the excited
tube alone in the open air.
Such was the Hate of philofophical opinions con¬
cerning eleCtricity, when Dr Franklin firft invented his
theory concerning pofitive and negative, or p/us and
minus, eleCtricity. This had been already fuggelted by
Dr Watfon, but was not fo fully explained by him as
by Dr Franklin ; on which account the latter is gene¬
rally reckoned to be the foie inventor. According to
this theory, all the operations in eleCtricity depend up¬
on one fluid fui generis, extremely fubtile and elaftic.
Between the particles of this fluid there fubiifts a very
Itrong repulfion with regard to each other, and as
ftrong an attraction with regard to other matter.
Thus, according to Dr Franklin’s hypothefis, one
quantity of eleCtric matter will repel another quantity
of the fame, but will attraCt and be attracted by. any
terreftrial matter that happens to be near it. The pores
of all bodies are fuppofed to be full of this fubtile
fluid ; and when its equilibrium is not difturbed, that
is, when there is in any body neither more nor lefs
than its natural (hare, or than that quantity which it is
capable of retaining by its own attraCIion, the fluid
docs not manifeit itfelf to our fenfes. The aftion of the
them. This difficulty is fuppofed chiefly to be owing
to the air on the furface of bodies, which Dr Prieftley
fays is probably a little condenfed there. This he de¬
duces from an experiment of Mr Wilfon, corre&ed by
Mr Canton. The experiment was made in order to
obferve the courfe of the eleCtric light through a Tor-
ricellian vacuum. A lingular appearance of light was
obferved upon the furface of the quickfilver, at which
the fluid was fuppofed to enter. Mr Wilfon fuppofed
that this was owing to a fubtile medium fpread over
the furface of the quickiilver, and which prevented
the eafy entrance of the eleCtric fluid. But this was
afterwards difeovered by Mr Canton to be owing to
a fmall quantity of air which had been left in the tube.
It is plain, however, that as the attraction is equal
all round, and likewife the difficulty with which the
fluid penetrates the air, bodies negatively eleCtrified
ought not to repel one another on this fuppofltion
more than the former. Nay, they ought to attraCt each
other; becaufe, in the place of contaCt, the refiftance
of the air would be taken off, and the eleCtric fluid
could come from all other quarters by the attraction of
the bodies.
Mr Cavallo, who feems to have undertaken the de- Mr Caval-
fence of this hypothefis in all cafes, gives another rea- ffi’s foiu-
fon why bodies negatively eleCtrified Ihould repel each1’011,
other. In a chapter intitled, “ A Compendious View
of the principal properties of EleCtricity,” among ci¬
thers he gives the following : “ No eleCtricity can be
3 K 2 ob-
ELECTRICITY. Sea.V.
o’oferved upon the furface of any ek&rified body, ex- another: for either the increafed or the diminiflied na- Theory.
J cept that furface is contiguous to an eledtric, which e- tural quantity of ele&ric fluid in thefe bodies will en- —
leftric can fome how or other acquire a contrary elec- deavour to diffufive itfelf equally over every part of the
tricity at a little diftance. Otherwife No ele&rici- furfaces of thefe bodies; and this endeavour will caufe
ty can appear upon the furface of any eleftrified body, the faid bodies to recede from each other, fo that
except that furface is oppofite to another body which a quantity of air may be interpofed between their
has adlually acquired the contrary ele&ricity, and thefe furfaces, fufficient to acquire a contrary ele&ricity
contrarily eleftrified bodies are fepavated by an eleftric. at a little diftance from the faid furfaces. Qther-
On confidering this principle (adds he), it may be wife: If the bodies poffeffed of the fame eledlricity do
afked, Why an ele&xicity can be obferved upon the not repel each other, fo that a fufficient quantity of
furface of an eledlrified body that is infulated at a con- air may be interpofed between their furfaces, the in-
fiderable diftance from other condu&ors ? Or, Which creafed quantity of ele&ric fluid when the bodies are
is the ele&ric that is contiguous to the furface of an eledtrified pofitivdy, or the remnant of it when -they
eledtrified condudtor or excited eledlric, and which has are eledfrified negatively, by the above principle cannot
adtually acquired a contrary eledlricity at a little di- he diffufed equally throughout or over the furfaces of
ftance from the faid furface ? To this queftion it is an- thefe bodies ; for no eledlricity can appear upon the
fwered, that the air is, in general, the eledlric which is furfaces of bodies in contadl, or that are very near
oppofite to the furface of any eledtrified body ; which, each other. But the eledlric fluid, by attradling the
not being a perfedl condudler, does ealily acquire a particles of matter, endeavours to diffufe itfelf equally
contrary eledfricity on a ilratum of its fubftance that throughout or over the furfaces of thefe bodies; there-
is at a little diftance from the eledfrilred body; and, in f°re the faid bodies are, by this endeavour, forced to
confequence of this ftratum, it acquires another lira- repel one another.”
turn contrarily eledlrhied, and at a little diftance from This theory is evidently no folution of the difficul-hifufficient*
the former: to this other ftrata fucceed, alternately ty ; feeing it is only explaining one fadl by another,
pofleffed of pofitive and negative eledlricities, and de- which requires explanation at leaft as much as the firft.
creafing in power till they vanifti. This affertion is But though this ffiould be overlooked, it is ftill infuf-
eafily proved by feveral experiments, particularly the ficient; for, granting that bodies negatively eledtrified
following. If the end of a pretty long glafs tube be ought to repel one another till the eledtricity is equally
prefen ted to a body eledtrified, for inftance, pofitively, diffufed along their furfaces, yet when this is accom-
the tube will be found eledlrified pofitively alfo for the phlhed, the repulfion ought to ceafe. Now, there is no
fpace of one or two inches at that end ; but beyond occafion for fuppofing the bodies to be eledtrified while
that fpace, will be found twm or three inches eledtrified they are in contadt, or nearly fo. One may be eledtri-
negatively : after that another pofitive eledtricity will hed negatively in one corner of a room, and another
appear; and fo alternately, a pofitive and a negative hi the other. The eledtrification may alfo be conti-
xone will follow one another, always weaker and nu^d for any length of time we pleafe, fo that it is not
weaker in power, till at laft they quite vanifti. This pofiible to fuppofe but the eledlric matter mull have
{hows, that, in general, when an eledtric fufficiently difiufed itfelf equally along the furfaces of both: yet, if
denfe is prefented to an eledtrified body, it acquires we attempt to bring thefe bodies together, we ftiall find
fucceffive zopes or ftrata of pofitive and negative elec- that they will.repel each other very violently ; which
tricity.” ought not to be the cafe, according to Mr Cavallo’s-
From this fadt (which, with the utmoft impro- fuppofition.
priety, he tetms a /aw of eledtricity, wdiereas it is moft What gave the greateft reputation to Dr Franklin’s Dr Frank-
evidertly the gfhS of a law, and not the law itfelf), theory, however, is the eafy folution which it affordshn’s expla-
Mr Cavallo gives the following reafon why bodies ne- the phenomena of the Leyden phial. The fluidn,at‘on
gatively eletlrified repel one another. “ As to the 18 fuppofed to move with the greateft eafe in bodiesoftke
repulfion exifting between bodies poffeffed of the fame which are condudlors, but with extreme difficulty in Leyden
eledtricity; in order to underftand its explanation ele^irks perfe; infomuch that glafs is abfolutely im-phial,
thoroughly, the reader muft be reminded of the prin- permeable to it. It is moreover fuppofed, that all e-
ciple above-mentioned, which is, that no eledtricity, ledtrics, and particularly glafs, on account of the
i, e. the eledtric fluid proper to a body, can either be fmallnefs of their pores, do at all times contain an ex-
augmented or diminiftied upon the furface of that bo- ceeding great, and always an equal quantity of this
dy, except the faid furface is contiguous to an eledtric, fluid ; fo that no more can be thrown into any one.
which can acquire a contrary eledtricity at a little di- Part of any eledtric fubftance, except the fame quantity
fiance : from whence it follows, that no eledtricity can go out at another, and the gain be exadlly equal to the
be difplayed upon the facing furfaces of two bodies lofs. Thefe things being previoufly fuppofed, the phe-
that are fufEciently near to one another, and both pof- nomena of charging and difcharging a place of glafs ad-
fefltd of the fame eledtricity; for the air that lies be- mit of an eafy folution. In the ufual manner of eledtri-
tween thofe contiguous furfaces has no liberty of ac- tying by a fmooth glafs globe, all the eledtric matter
quiring any contrary eledtricity. This being premifed, is fupplied by the rubber from all the bodies which,
the explanation of eledtric repulfion becomes very eafy. communicate with it. If it be made to communicate
Suppofe, for inftance, that two fmall bodies are freely with nothing but one of the coatings of a plate of glafs,
fufpended by infulated threads; fo that, when they are while the condudtor communicates with the other, that
not eledtrified, they may hang contiguous to one ano- fide of the glafs which communicates with the rubber
ther. Now fuppofe thefe bodies to be eledtrified either muft neceffarily be exhaufted in order to fupply the
pofitively or negatively, and then they muft repel one conductor, which muft convey the whole of it to the
fids
Sea. V. E L E C T R
Tliuory. fide with which it communicates. By this opcra-
"v tion-, therefore, the eleftric fluid becomes almoft en¬
tirely exhaufted on one fide of the plate, while it is
as much accumulated on the other; and the difcharge
is made by the elettric fluid rufhing, as foon as an op¬
portunity is given it by means of proper conduftors,
from the fide which was overloaded to that which is
exhaufied.
It is not, however, neceflary to this theory, that the
very fame individual particles of eledtric matter which
w-ere thrown upon one fide of the plate, Ihould make
the whole circuit of the intervening conductors, efpe-
cially in very great dillances, fo as adtually to arrive
at the exhaufted fide. It may be fufficient to fuppofe,
that the additional quantity of fluid difplaces and occu¬
pies the fpace of an equal portion of the natural quan¬
tity of fluid belonging to thofe condudtors in the cir¬
cuit which lay contiguous to the charged fide of the
glafs. This difplaced fluid may drive forwards an
equal quantity of the fame matter in the next conduc¬
tor ; and thus the progrefs may continue till the ex-
haufted fide of the glafs is fupphed by the fluid natu¬
rally exifting in the conductors contiguous to it. In
this cafe, the motion of the eleCtric fluid, in an explo-
fion, will rather referable the vibration of the air in
founds, than a current of it in winds.
It will foon be acknowledged (fays Dr Prieft-
ley), that while the fubftance of the glafs is fup-
pofed to contain as much as it can pofiibly hold
cf the eleCtric fluid, no part of it can be forced in¬
to one of the fides, without obliging an equal quan¬
tity to quit the other fide: but it may be thought
a difficulty upon this hypothefis, that one of the
fides of a glafs plate cannot be exhaufted, without
the other receiving more than its natural (hare; parti¬
cularly, as the particles of this fluid are fuppofed to be
repullive of one another. But it muft be confidered,
that the attraction of the glafs is fufficient to retain
even the large quantity of eleCtric fluid which is natu¬
ral to it, againft all attempts to withdraw it, unlefs
that eager attraction can be fatislied by the admiflion
of an equal quantity from fome other quarter. When
this opportunity of a fupply is given, by connecting one
of the coatings with the rubber, and the other wridi the
conductor, the two attempts to introduce more of the
fluids into one of the fides are made, in a manner, at
the fame inftant. The aCtion of the rubber tends to
difturb the equilibrium of the fluid in the glafs ; and no
fooner has a fpark quitted one of the fides, to go to
the rubber, than it is fuppliedby the conduftor on the
Other; and the difficulty with which thefe additional
particles move in the fubftance of the glafs, effeClually
prevents its reaching the oppofite exhaufted fide. It is
not faid, however, but that either fide of the glafs may
give or receive a ftnall quantity of the eleCtric fluid*
without altering the quantity on the oppofite fide. It
is only a, very eonfiderable part of the charge that is
meant, when one fide is faid to be filled while the other
is exhaufted.
It is a little remarkable, adds Dr Prieftley, that the
eleftric fluid, in this and in every other hypothefis,
fbould fo much referable the ether of Sir Ifaac Newton
in fome refpeCb, and yet differ from it fo efientially in
others. The eleCtric fluid is fuppofed to be, like e-
I C I T Y. 44s
ther, extremely fubtile and elaftic, that is, repulfive of Theo.y.
itfelf; but inftead of being, like the ether, repelled by  J
all other matter, it is ftrongly attracted by it: fo that,
far from being, like the ether, rarer in the fmall than
in the large pores of bodies, rarer within the bodies
than at their furfaces, and rarer at their furfaces than
at any diftance from them ; it muft be denfer in final!
than in large pores, denfer within the fubftance of
bodies than at their furfaces, and denfer at their furfaces
than at a diftance from them.
To account for the attraClion of light bodies, and Attrait'on-
other eleCIrical appearances, in air of the fame denfityaud rq ul—
with the common atmofphere, when glafs (which isfi>ntW'
fuppofed to be impermeable to eleCIricity) is interpo- g!a^aV
fed ; it is conceived, that the addition or fubtrac- £<^*n e
tion of the eleCtric fluid, by the aCtion of the excited
eleCtric on one fide of the glafs, occafions, as in the
experiment of the Leyden phial, a fubtraCtion or addi¬
tion of the fluid on the oppoiite fide. The date of the
fluid, therefore, on the oppofite fide beiyig altered, all
light bodies within the fphere of its aCtion muft be af-
feCted in the very fame manner as if the effluvia of the
excited eleCtric had actually penetrated the glafs, ac¬
cording to the opinions of all eleCtricians before Dr
Fiai'kjin.
This hypothefis has been in fome meafure improved,
by Mr iEpinus, in a treatife intitled, “ Tentamem
Theorise EleCtri-citatis & Magnetifini.” He extends
the property of impermeability to air, and all eleCtrics„
as well as glafs. He fuppofes impermeability to con-
filt in the great difficulty with which eleCtric fubftances.
admit the fluid into their pores, and the flownefs with,
which it moves in them. In confequence of this im¬
permeability of air to the eleCtric fluid, he denies the
exiftence of eleCtric atmofpheres, and thinks that Dr
Franklin’s theory will do much better without them.
He alfo imagines, that all the particles of matter are
repuliive of one another: for that otherwife (fince all
fubftances have in them a certain- quantity of the elec¬
tric fluid, the particles of which repel one another and
are attracted by all other matter), it could not happen,
that bodies in their natural ftate with refpeCt to elec¬
tricity, fhould neither attract nor repel one another.
He alfo introduces a number of mathematical calcula¬
tions;. the refult of which (fays Dr Prieftley, with a
great deal of probability) cannot be depended upon.
The above is a full explanation of the theory of e-pr;nc^)iM
leCiricity at prefent moft generally received. It de- on'which
pends ou the following principles. I. All terrellrial fub- DrFrank-
flances, as well as the atmofphere which furrounds thelin s tl“'or7;
earth, are full of eleCtric matter. 2. Glafs, and other ^eu *
eleCtric fubftances, though they contain a great deal
of eleCtric matter, are nevertkelefs impermeable by it.
3. This eleCtric matter violently repels itfelf, and at¬
tracts all other matter. 4. By the excitation of an e-
leCtric, the equilibrium of the fluid contained in it is
broken ; and one part of it is overloaded with.eleCtri-
city, while the other contains too little. 5. Conduc¬
ting fubftances are permeable to the eleftric matter
through their whole fubftance, and do not conduCI it
merely over their furface. 6. Pofitive eleCtricity is
when a body has too much of the eleCIric fluid, and
negative eleftricity when it has too little. Of thefe po*
fitions we (hall now adduce thofe proofs drawn from,
different;
ELECT
different fa&s, which feem in the ftrongeft manner to
J confirm them.
I. “ All terreftrial fubftances, as well as the atmof-
phere which furrounds the earth, are filled with e-
le&ric fluid.”—Of this the proofs are very eafy.
There is no place of the earth or fea, where the elec¬
tric fire may not be colle&ed by making a commu-
R I C I T Y. Sea. V.
if it rains, by the electrometer for rain, to be defcribed Theory,
hereafter. * '
“ By making ufe of this inftrument, I am obliged
to keep the kite up no longer than it is neceflary to
charge the phial, in order to obferve the quality of the
eledfricity in the atmofphere ; for after the kite has
been drawn in, and brought home, I can then exa-
nication between it and the rubber of an eleftric ma- mine the eleftricity of the infide of the phial, which
chine. Therefore, confidering that the whole earth
is moift, that moifture is a condu&or of eledtricity,
and that every part of the earth mult thus communi¬
cate with another, it is certain that the eledfric mat¬
ter muft diffufe itfelf as far as the moifture of the earth
reaches; and this we may reafonably fuppofe to be to
the very centre.
is the fame as that of the kite. When the eledtricity
of the kite is very ftrong, I fix a chain communica¬
ting with the ground, at about fix inches diftance from
the firing, which may carry off its eledtricity in cafe
this fhould increafe fo much as to put the byflanders
in danger.” ... 75
With all his caution, however, it feems Mr Cavallo 9''eat.llu.an"
Proofs of With regard to the atmofphere, the cafe is equally could not always avoid danger, even when there wastlty. °* e*ec*
atmofphe- clear. We have formerly mentioned in general, that no thunder; as appears from the following account.brought
ricaleledtri-jyr Franklin, and others, had colledted eledtricity from
city. * - ‘   
OdtoberiS. 1775. After having rained a great deal down from
the atmofphere in great quantity during the time of in the morning and night before, the weather became® cloud,
thunder-ftorms ; but it is now found that it may be a little clear in the afternoon, the clouds appearing fe-
Mr Caval- colledted from the air at any time. The beft inftrument parated, and pretty well defined. ' The wind was weft,
lo’sdiiec for this purpofe is the eledtrical kite. Mr Cavallo, and rather ftrong, and the atmofphere in a temperate
tions con- who hath made a great many experiments in atmofphe- degree of heat. In thefe circumflances, at three P. M.
ele&rifal eftca^ eledtricity, obferves that the whole power of this I raifed my eledtrical kite with 360 feet of firing. Af-
3-;te. machine lies in the firing. A common fchool-boy’s ter the end of the tiring had been infulated, and a lea-
kite anfwers the pnrpofe as well as any other. The beft ther ball covered with tin-foil had been hanged to it,
method of making the firing is by twilling twro threads I tried the power and quality of the eledtricity, which,
of common twine with one of that copper-thread appeared to be pofitive and pretty llrong. In a fhort
which is ufed for trimmings. When a kite con- time, a fmall cloud pafling over, the eledtricity increafed
ftrudted in this manner was raifed, he fays, he al- a little ; but the cloud being gone, it decreafed again
ways obferved the firing to give figns of eledtricity, to its former degree. The firing of the kite was now
except once. The weather was warm, and the wind faftened by the filk lace to a poll in the yard of the
fo weak, that the kite was raifed with difficulty, and houfe, and I was repeatedly charging two coated phials
could hardly be kept up for a few minutes. After- and giving fhocks with them. While I was fo doing,
wards, however, when the wind increafed, he obtain- the eledlricity, which was ftill pofitive, began to de¬
ed, as ufual, a pretty ftrong pofitive eledlricity. Con- creafe, and in two or three minutes it became fo weak
cerning the management of this kite he gives the fol- that it could hardly be perceived with a very fenfible
lowing diredlions. cork-ball eledlrometer. Obferving at the fame time,
“ In railing the kite, when the weather is very cloudy that a large and black cloud was approaching the ze-
and rainy, in which time there is danger of meeting nith (which, no doubt, caufed the decreafe of eledlri-
with a great quantity of eledlricity, I generally ufe to city), indicating imminent rain, I introduced the end
hang upon the firing (Plate CLXXVII. fig. 78.) of the firing through a window in a firft-floor room,
the hook of a chain C, the other extremity of which wherein I faflened it by the filk lace to an old chair,
falls on the ground. Sometimes I ufe another caution The quadrant eledlrometer was fet upon the fame win-
befides, which is to Hand upon an infulating ftool; in dow, and was by means of a wire connedled with the
which fituation, I think, that if any quantity of elec- firing of the kite. Being now three quarters after
tricity, fuddenly difcharged by the clouds, ftrikes the three o’clock, the eledlricity was abfolutely impercep-
kite, it cannot much affedl any perfon. As to infu- tible: however, in about three minutes time it became
lated reels, and other fuch like inflruments that fome again perceptible; but, upon trial, was now found
gentlemen have ufed to raife the kite without any dan- to be negative. It is therefore plain, that its floppii
ger of receiving a fliock ; fit for the purpofe as. they
may appear in theory, they are yet very inconvenient
nothing more than a change from pofitive to nega¬
tive ; which was evidently occafioned by the approach
to be managed, txccpt the kite be raifed in the of the cloud, part of which by this time had reached
time of a thunder-ftorm, there is no great danger for the zenith of the kite, and the rain alfo had begun to
the operator to receive any fliock. Although I have fall in large drops. The cloud alfo came farther on ;
raifed my eledlrical kite hundreds of times without any the rain increafed; and the eledtricity keeping pace with
caution whatever, I have very feldom received a few it, the eledtrometer foon arrived at 15°. Seeing now
exceedingly flight fhocks in my arms. In time of a that the eledtricity was pretty itrong, I began again to
thunder-ftorm, if the kite has not been raifed before, charge the two coated phials, and to give fhocks with
I would not advife a perfon to raife it while the ftormy them; but the phials had not been charged above three
clouds are juft overhead ; the danger at fuch a time or four times, before ! perceived that the index of the
being very great, even with the precautions above- eledlrometer was arrived at 350, and was keeping ftill
mentioned: at that time the eledlricity of the clouds increafing. The fhocks being now very fmart, I de¬
may be obferved, without raifing tha kite, by a cork- fifted from charging the phials any longer; and, confi-
i,all eledlrometer held in the hand in an open place, or, dering the rapid advance of the eledlricity, thought to
take
Seel. V. ELECT]
Theory, take off the Infulation of the ftring, in cafe that, if it
fhoull increafe farther, it might filently be condudfed
to the earth without cauiing any bad accident by be¬
ing accumulated in the infulated ilring. To effeft this,
as I had no proper apparatus near me, I thought to
remove the filk lace, and fallen the ftring itfelf to the
chair. Accordingly T difengaged the wire that con-
ne&ed the eleftrometer with the ftring ; laid hold of
the ftring; untied it from the ftlk lace, and fattened it
to the chair : but while I effe&ed this, which took up
lefs than half a minute of time, I received about ira or
I; very ftrong (hocks, which I felt ail along my arms,
in my breaft, and legs;, (baking me in fuch a manner,
that I had hardly power enough to effect my purpofe,
and to wain the people in the room to keep their di-
ftance. As foon as I took my hands off the ftring,
the electricity (in confequence of the chair being a
bad conductor) began to fnap between the ftring and
the (butter of the window, which was the neareft body
to it. The fnappings, which were audible at a good
diftance out of the room, were at firft ifochronous with
the (hocks which I had received ; but, in about a mi¬
nute’s time, oftener; fo that the people of the houfe
compared their found to the rattling noife of a jack
going when the fly is off. The cloud now was juft o-
ver the kite ; it was black, and well defined, almoft of
a circular form, its diameter appearing to be about 4O0.
The rain was copious, but not remarkably heavy. As
the cloud was going off, the ele&rical fnapping began
to weaken, and in a fliort time became inaudible. I
went, then near the ftring, and finding the eleAricity
weak, hut ftil! negative, I infulated it again, thinking
to keep up the kite fome time longer : but obferving
that another larger and denfer cloud was approaching
towards the zenith, and I had then no proper appara¬
tus at hand to prevent every poflible bad accident, re-
folved to pull the kite in : accordingly a gentleman
who was by me began pulling it in, while I was wind¬
ing up the ftring. The cloud was now very nearly o-
ver the kite; and the gentleman told me that he had
received one or two (light (hocks in his arms; and that,
if he was to receive another, he would certainly let the
ftring go : upoo which I laid hold of the ftring, and
pulled the kite in as fall: as I could without any far¬
ther obfervation ; being then ten minutes after four
o’clock.—N. B. There was neither:thunder nor light¬
ning perceived that day, nor indeed for fome days be¬
fore or after.”
From his obfervations on the ek&ricity of the at-
mofphere, Mr Cavallo deduces the following conclu-
76 fions.
Conditions “ !• That there is in the atmofpherc at all times
drawn from a quantity of eleftrieity; for whenever I ufe the a-
the experi- bovemenrtioned inftrument, it always acquires fome c-
saents. lecfricity.
“ 2. That the. ele&ricity of the atmofphere, or
fogs, is always of the fame kind, namely, pofitive ;
for the ele&rometer is always negative, except when
it is evidently influenced by heavy clouds near the ze¬
nith.
“ 3. That, in general, the ftrongeft ele<Sricity is ob-
fervable in thick fogs, and alfo in frofty weather; and
the weakeft, when it is cloudy, warm, and very near
raining: but it does not feem to be le£s by night than
in. the day.
I I C I T Y. 447
“ 4. That in a more elevated place the electricity is Theory,
ftronger than in a lower one ; for having tried the at- '“—v"——*
mofpherical electrometer both in the (lone and iron
gallery on the cupola of St Paul’s cathedral, I found
that the balls diverged much more in the latter than in
the former lefs elevated place. Hence it appears, that
•if this rule takes place at any diftance from the earth,
the eleftricity in the upper regions of the atmofphere
muft be exceedingly ftrong.”
The concluflons drawn from the experiments with
the kites, ire as follow.
“ 1. The air appears to be eleCtrified at all times;
its eleftricity is ccnttantly pofitive, and much ftronger
in frofty than in warm weather; but it is by no means
lefs in the night than in the day time.
“ 2. The prefence of the clouds generally leffens
the eleCtricity.of the kite; fometimes it has no effect
upon it ; and it is very feldom that it increafes it a
little.” To this the above mentioned iuftance is a
mod remarkable exception.
‘‘ 3 When it rains, the eleCtricity of the kite is ge¬
nerally negative, and very feldom pofitive.
“ 4. The aurora borealis feems not to affeCt the elec¬
tricity of the kite.
“ 5. The eleCtric fpark taken from the ftring of
the kite, or from any infulated conductor connected
with it, efpecially when it does not rain, is very fel¬
dom longer than a quarter of an inch; but it is exceed¬
ingly pungent. When the index of the eleftrometer is
not higher than 20°, the perfon that takes the fpark
will feel the effefl: of it in his legs; it appealing more
like the difeharge of an eleCtric jar than the fpark
taken from the prime conduCtor of an eleCtrical ma¬
chine.
“ 6. The eleftricity of the kite is generally ftronger
or weaker, according as the ttring is longer or (liorter;
but it does not keep any exaCt proportion to it. The
eleCtricity, for inttance, brought down by a ftring of
100 yards, may raife the index of the eleCtrometer to
20, when, with double that length of ftring, the index
of the eleClrometer will not go higher than 25.
“ 7. When the weather is damp, and the eleCtricity
is pretty ftrong, the ’index of the electrometer, after
taking a fpark from the ftring, or prefenting the knob
of a coated phial, to it, rifes furprilingly quick, to its u-
fual place; but in dry and warm weather it rifes ex¬
ceedingly flow ”
IL The fecond pofition requifite for eftablilhing Dr
Franklin’s theory is, “ That glafs and other eleCtric
fubftances, though they contain a great-deal of eleCtric
matter, are neverthelefs impermeable by it.” This af-
fertion evidently has a contradictory appearance. It
is very difficult, if not impoffible* to conceive, that any
fubftance can be full of a fluid, and yet impermeable
by that fluid; efpecially when we continually talk of
putting in an additional quantity into one fide, and ta¬
king out of the other. Nay, what is (till more extra¬
ordinary, the thinner the glafs is, i. e. the lefs quantity
of eleCtric matter it can contain, the more we are able to
put into it; for the thinner a glafa-is, - the more eaffly
does it receive a high charge.
The chief arguments for the impermeability of glafs Argument®
by the- eleCtric fluid are drawn from the phenomena offor the im-
the Leyden phial. It is indeed very plain, that there ^ •
is in that cafe an expuliion of. fire from the outfide at^[Xlaf*”
the
443
ELECT
the fame time that it is thrown upon the infide. This
appears from numberlefs experiments, but is mo*t rea¬
dily obfervable in the following. Let a coated phial be
fet upon an infulating (land, and the knob of another
phial brought near the coating of the firlt. As foon
then a« the eleilric fparks are difcharged from the
prime conduftor to the knob of the firft bottle, an e-
■qual number will be obferved to proceed from the coat¬
ing of the firft to the knob of the fecond. This is
very remarkable, and an unphilofophical obferver will
fcarce ever fail to conclude, that the fire runs direftly
through the fubftance of the glafs. Dr Franklin,
however, concludes that it does not, becaufe there is
found a very great accumulation of eleftricity on the
infide of the glafs, which difeovers itfelf by a violent
flalh and explofion when a communication is made
between the outfide and infide coatings. But it muft
be obferved, that there is here no other reafon for con¬
cluding the glafs to be impermeable, except that we
fuppofe the eledtric matter to be accumulated on one fide
of the glafs, and deficient on the other. If this fuppo-
fition therefore cannot be proved, the evidence of fenfe,
which indeed is very ftrong in favour of the permea¬
bility, muft undoubtedly preponderate. It is faid, in¬
deed, that if the glafs was permeable by the electric
matter, a phial would be difcharged immediately after
being charged, or rather could never be charged at all;
becaufe the matter would no fooner be thrown upon
one fide than it would fly off from the other. This fup-
pofition, however, depends entirely upon the above-
mentioned one, namely, that in bodies pefitively elec¬
trified there is an accumulation, and in fuch as are nega¬
tively electrified there is a deficiency of fluid ; which
never can be proved.
Another argument againft the permeability of glafs
and other eleCtrics is, that coated phials, it is faid,
ftanding upon eledtric fubftances, cannot be charged.
This, however, feems to be very much exaggerated.
A phial, though ever fo perfectly infulated, will always,
receive a charge from a machine that aCts very power¬
fully. Nay, it is certain, that though a phial is placed
in fuch a manner, that both its knob and outfide coat¬
ing are in contaCt with the prime conductor, it will
{till receive a charge ; much lefs indeed in this cafe
than in any other, but Hill the Ihock will be percep¬
tible.
In I759> Mr Wilfon read a paper before the Royal
Society, in which the permeability of glafs by the elec¬
tric fluid was afferted. The experiments from which
he deduced this conclufion were the following. He
took a very large pane of glafs, a little warmed ; and
holding it upright by one edge, while the oppofite
edge refted upon wax, he rubbed the middle part of
the furface with his finger, and found both fides elec¬
trified plus. He accounted for this from the ele&rical
fluid pafling through the glafs from his finger to the
oppofite fide. But here Dr Prieftley obferves, that on
Franklin’s principles it ought to be fo. If one fide be
rubbed by the finger, it acquires from it fome elec¬
trical fluid. This being fpread on the glafs as far as
the rubbing extended, repels an equal quantity of that
contained in the other fide of the glafs, and drives it
©ut on that fide, where it Hands as an atmofphere, fo
that both fides are found pofitively eleCtrilled. Mr Wil¬
fon alfo tried another experiment, which feemed more
N°II2.
It I C I T Y. Sedt.V.
decifive than the former: Having by hint a pane of Theory.
glafs, one fide of which was rough and the other fmooth,  v J
he rubbed it flightly on one fide ; upon doing which,
both fides were eleCtrified minus. This alfo Dr Prieft¬
ley attempts to reconcile with Franklin’s hypothefis.
“ As the eleCtric fluid, contained in the glafs (fays he),
is kept equal in both fides by the common repulfion ;
if the quantity in one fide is diminifhed, the fluid in
the other fide, being lefs repelled, retires inward, and
leaves that furface alfo minus." But here it is impof-
fible to avoid obferving, that Dr Prieftley’s own words,
in the ftrongeft manner, militate againft the doCtrine
he means to eftablifh. The quantity of fluid in one
fide being diminilhed, that on the other, he fays, re¬
tires inward. But into what docs it retire ? if into the
fubftance of the glafs, then the glafs is undoubtedly
permeable by it ; and this is the very thing which
Dr Prieftley argues againft. ^
HI. “ The eleClric matter violently repels itfelf, andTheelee-
attra&s all other matter.” The proofs of this pofitiontric ^uici
are chiefly derived from the following experiment, and tann°t. be
others of a fimilar kind. Let a fmooth piece of metal puNive of"
be infulated, and bring an excited glafs tube near one itfelf.
end of it. A fpark of pofitive eleClricity will be ob¬
tained from the other end; after which, if the tube is
fuddenly removed, the metal becomes eleClrified nega¬
tively. Here, then, it is faid, is a plain repulfion of
one part of the eleCfric fluid by another. That con¬
tained in the tube repejs the fluid contained in the
neareft end of the metal ;'of confequence it is accumu¬
lated in the other end, and when the tube is removed,
the metal is found to be deprived of part of its natural
quantity of ele&ricity, or is eleftrified negatively.—
On fuch experiments as this, however, it is obvious to
remark, that we ought firft to prove that pofitive elec¬
tricity confifts in an accumulation, and negative elec¬
tricity in a deficiency, of the eleCtric fluid. But while
this is only fuppofed, it is impoflible that any proofs
drawn from the fuppofition can be conclufive.
IV. “ By the excitation of an eleCtric, the equili¬
brium of the fluid contained in it is broken, and one
part is overloaded with eleCtricity, while the other
contains too little.” This pofition is entirely hypothe¬
tical. No electrician hath yet explained, in a fatisfac-
tory manner, how the fluid is procured by the excita¬
tion of glafs or any other eleCtric fubftance. Dr Prieft¬
ley, inftead of giving an explanation, propofes feveral
queries concerning it. Mr Cavallo tells us, that the
aCt of excitation pumps as it were the eleCtric fluid from
the rubber, and confequently from the earth. He adds,
“ By what mechanifm one body extraCts the eleCtric BeccanV*
fluid from another, is not yet known. The celebrated‘ ypothefi*
Father Beccaria fuppofes, that the aCtion of rubbingvon.erning
increafeth the capacity of the eleCtric, e. renders thatexcitatioB*
part of the eleCtric which is actually under the rubber,
capable of containing a greater quantity of eleCtric
fluid : hence it receives from the rubber an additional
fliare of fluid, which is manifefted upon the furface of
the eleCtric, when that furface is come out from the
rubber ; in which ftate itjofes, or, as it were, contracts
its capacity. Signior Beccaria’s experiment to prove
this fuppofition is the following. He caufed a glafs
plate to be rubbed by a rubber applied on one fide of
the plate, while it was turning vertically; and holding
at the fame time a linen thread on the other fide of the
plate
Sea.V. E L E C T R
Theory, plate juft oppofite to the rubber, he obferved that the
—* ’ thread was not attrafted by that part ot the glafs
which correfponded to the rubber, but by that which
was oppofite to the furface qf the glafs that had juft
come out from the rubber; which (hows, that the fluid
acquired by the glafs plate did not manifeft its power
until the fuiface of the glafs was come out from the
rubber.” But from this experiment it feems impoflible
to draw any conclufion concerning the capacity of glafs
either one way or other. It is evident, therefore, that
whatever parts of Dr Franklin’s hypothefis reft on this
fuppofition concerning excitation, are entirely void of
go evidence.
Whether V. “ Conducing bodies are permeable by the elec*
the ele6tric <c trjc through the whole of their fubftance, and do
vadesthe “ not con(^u<^ merely over their furface.” The proof
fubftance of moft commonly adduced in favour of this pofition, is
condudors. the following experiment. Take a wire of any kind of
metal, and cover part of it with fome eledtric fubftance,
as rofin, fealing-wax, &c. then difcharge a jar through
it, and it will be found that it condudts as well with as
without the eledtric coating. This, fays Mr Cavallo,
proves that the eledlric matter pafles through the fub*
fiance of the metal, and not over its furface. A wire,
adds he, continued through a vacuum, is alfo a convin¬
cing proof of the truth of this affertion. Even here,
however, the proof, if impartially confidered, will be
found very defedfive. It is a fadl agreed upon by all
philofophers, that bodies which to us are apparently
in contadl, do neverthelefs require a very confiderable
degree of force to make them adtually touch one ano¬
ther. Dr Prieftley found that a weight of fix pounds
was neceflary to prefs 20 {hillings into clofe contadl,
when lying upon one another on a table. A much
greater weight w’as neceflary to bring the links of a
chain into contadl with each other. It cannot be at
all incredible, therefore, that a wire, though covered
with fealing-wax or rofin, (hould ftill remain at fome
little diftance from the fubftance which covers it. The
following experiments of Dr Prieftley alfo feem to be
much in favour of the fuppofition that the eledlric
fluid pafies chiefly over the furface of condudting fub-
fiances'.
“ From the very firft ufe of my battery (fays he), I
had. obferved a very black fmqke or dull to anfe on
every difcharge, even when no wire was melted ; and
the brafs chain I made ufe of was of a confiderable
thicknefs. I obferved, that a piece of w'hite paper,
on which lay the chain I was ufing to make the dif¬
charge, was marked with a black ftain, as if it had
been burnt, wherever it had touched it. I negledted
the experiment, till, fome time after, obferving a very
ftriking appearance of the fame kind, I was determined
to attend to the circumftances of it a little more par¬
ticularly. I made my chain very clean, and wrapping
it in white paper, I made a difcharge of about 40
fquare feet through it, and found the ftain wherever it
had touched the paper. Some time after I wrapped
the paper, in the fame manner, round a piece of brafs
wire; but, making a difcharge through it, faw no
ftain. To afeertain whether this appearance depend¬
ed upon the _ difeontinuity of the metallic circuit, I
firetched the chain with a confiderable weight, and
found the paper on which it lay, as the Ihock pafled
Vol.VI. Part II.
I G I T Y. 449
through it, hardly marked at all. Finding that it de- Theory,
pended upon the difeontinuity, I laid the chain upon * " J
white paper, making each extremity fail with pins
ftuck through the links ; and when I had made the
difcharge, obferved that the black ftains were diredlly
oppofite to the body of the wire that formed the
chain, and not to the intervals, as I had fometimes
fufpedled. A chain five feet four inches long, which
weighed one ounce feventeen penny-weights four gr
grains, loft exadlly half a grain after each difcharge. A chain
“ In making the mark above-mentioned, I once fllor,eneil
happened to lay the chain fo as to make it return at a
fliarp angle, in order to imprefs the form of a letter
upon the paper ; and obferved, that on the difcharge,
the part of the chain that had been doubled was dif-
placed, and pulled about two inches towards the reft
of the chain. At this I was furprifed, as I thought
it lay fo, that it could not Aide by its own weight.
Upon this I repeated the experiment with more ac¬
curacy. I ftretched the whole chain along a table,
laying it double all the way, and making it return by
a very (harp angle. The confequence always was, that
the chain was ftiortened about two inches, and fome¬
times more, as if a fudden pull had been given to it by
both the ends. Sufpe&ing that the black fmoke which
rofe at every difcharge, might come, not from the
chain, but from the paper, or the table on which it lay,
and which was probably burnt by the contadl of it, I
let the chain hang freely in the air ; but, upon making
the difcharge, I obferved the fame grofs black fmoke
that had before rifen from the paper or the table.
Fig. 76. reprefents the fpots made upon the paper by piate
a chain laid over it. The breadth of the fpots is a- CLXXVIf.
bout the mean thicknefs of the wire of the chain, and
a b marks the place to which that part of the chain
which returned was thrown back by the difcharge.
“ Being willing to try what would be the effedl of
laying the chain in contadl with non-condudlors, I
dipped it in . melted rofin till it had got a coating of
confiderable thicknefs. When it was quite ft iff, I laid
it carefully, without bending, upon white paper, and
made the difcharge through it. The rofin was in-
ftantly difperfed from all the outfide of the chain, it
being left as clean as if none had ever been put on.
That with which the holes in the chain had been filled
having been impelled in ahnoft all diredlions, was
beaten to powder; which, however, hung together
but was perfedlly opaque ; whereas it had been quite
tranfparent before this ftroke. I next laid the chain
upon a piece of glafs, which was marked in the moft
beautiful manner wherever the chain had touched it;
every fpot the width and colour of the link. The me¬
tal might be feraped off the glafs at the outfide of the
marks; but in the middle part it was forced within
the pores of the glafs. On the outfide of this metal¬
lic tinge was the black dull, which was eafily wiped
off.
From thefe experiments it would feem, that the e-
leclrical flafh had pafled over the furface of the chain
rather than through its fubftance ; feeing it threw oft’
the rofin with fuch extreme violence. The fame thing
appears from the manner in which eledlricry generally
ads, which is not according to the folid contents of
any fubftance, but according to the dimenfions of its
3 L fur-
Dr Frank¬
lin’s hypo-
thefis con-
nagative e
leSricity
cannot be
ELECT
furface. It is not to be doubted, however, but that,
where a great quantity of define matter is made to
pafs along a very fmall wire, it will enter the fubftanee
of the metal. This appears from the poffibility of
melting wires by the force of define batteries, and
even totally difiipating them into fmall globules- To
accomplilh this, it is only neceffary to conned the
hook communicating with the outfide coating of a
battery, containing at leaft 36 fquare feet of coated
furface, with a wire that is about one-fiftieth part of
an inch thick and about two feet long. The other
end of it mult be faftened to one end of the difeharging
rod : this done, charge the battery; and then by bring¬
ing the difeharging rod near its wires, fend the explo-
fion through the fmall wire, which by this means will
be made red hot and melted, fo as to fall upon the
floor in different glowing pieces. When a wire is
melted in this manner, fparks are frequently feen at a
confiderable diftance from it, which are red hot par¬
ticles of the metal, that, by the violence of the explo-
fton, are fcattered in all directions. If the force of
the battery is very great, the wire will be entirely dif-
perfed by the explofion, fo that none of it can be af¬
terwards found. If it is required to melt fuch par¬
ticles as cannot eafily be drawn into wires, ores, for
inftance, or grain-gold, they may be fet in a train u-
pon a piece of wax : they are then to be put into the
circuit, and an explofion fent through them, which, if
fufficiently ftrong, will melt them as well as the wires.
If a wire is ftretched by weights, and a fliock is fent
through it w-hich renders it juft red hot, the wire, af¬
ter the explofion, is found to be confiderably length¬
ened.
VI. The laft pofition on which Dr Franklin’s theo¬
ry depends, and which indeed may be called the foun¬
dation of the whole, is, “ That pofitive eledlricity is
“ an accumulation, or too great a quantity, of elec-
“ trie matter contained in a body ; and negative elec-
“ tricity is when there is too little.” Of this, how¬
ever, there is not one folid proof; and all attempts
that have hitherto been made *o prove it, are only ar¬
guing in a circle, or proving the thing by itfelf. Thus,
for inftance, a body eleftrified pofitively, attrafts one
that is eledlrified negatively ; becaufe the firft has too
much, and the other too little, eleftric matter. But
how do we know that one has too much, and the o-
ther too little, ele&ricity ? Becaufe they .attrafl each
other. Again it has been proved, that when a phial
is eleftrified pofitively, there is as conftant a ftream of
fire from the outfide coating, as there is from the con-
duftor to the infide coating. Therefore, it is faid,
the outfide of the glafs has too little, and the infide
too much, eledlricity. But how is this known to be
the cafe ? Becaufe glafs is impermeable by the eledlric
fluid. And how is glafs known to be impermeable ?
Becaufe, in the above experiment, one fide has too
much, and the other too little, eledlricity. Thus in
every inftance, the arguments for Dr Franklin’s hypo-
thefis return into themfelves, and no conclufioa can be
drawn from them. In the fubfequent fedlion, the na¬
ture of the eledlric fluid is particularly confidered,
where the improbability of its ever being accumulated
in the fubftance of folid bodies will more plainly
appear.
R I C I T Y. Sea\
Sect. VI. Jfn Inquiry into the Nature of tic Elec- TWi
trie Fluid; ivi:h an Attempt to explain the prin-  v—
cipal Phenomena of EleFlrieity, from the known
Laws by which other Fluids arc obferved to apt
upon one another.
In making this inquiry, or indeed any other, it is
proper to take for granted as little as pofiible. No po¬
fition fnould be affumed as the bafis of any reafoning
whatever, except what has been proved by incontett-
able fadls. In the prefent cafe, therefore, it is fuffi-
cient to affume as a fadl what hath been already proved
by innumerable experiments, namely. That the air, the
earth, and fea, all contain great quantities of eledlric
fluid. The queftion which moft naturally fuggefts it¬
felf when this is once admitted, is, Whence hath the
eledlric fluid come ? is it eflentially inherent in thefe
bodies, or hath it come from without? This cannot be
refolved, without confidering the nature of the fluid it¬
felf, and whether it is analogous to any other which is
more generally known.
§ I. Proofs of the Identity of the Electric Fluid and Ele¬
mentary Fire or Light of the Sun.
The fimilarity between the eledlric matter and fire,
naturally fuggeiled to the firft obfei vers, that it was no
other than elementary fire, which pervaded all fubftan-
ces, as we have already mentioned. This, however,
was objedled to ; and the principal objedlion was, that
though the eledlric matter emitted light, and had the
appearance of fire, it neverthelefs wanted its moft ef-
fential quality, namely, burning. In particular, the
blaft which comes from an eledlrified point, feels cold
inftead of being hot; and where great quantities of
the fluid are forced with violence through certain fub-
ftances, and thus fet them on fire, it was thought that
the fire might be occafioned by the internal commo¬
tion excited among their fmall particles. This objec¬
tion, however, feems now to be totally removed. The
difpute- concerning the preferable utility of pointed or
knobbed condudlors for fecuring buildings from light¬
ning, occafioned the fitting up of a more magnificent
apparatus than had ever appeared before. An immenfe
condudlor was conftrudled at the expence of the board
of ordnance, and fufpended in the Pantheon. It con-
fifted of a great number of drums covered with tin-
foil, which formed a cylinder of above 155 feet in
length, and more than 16 inches in diameter; and to
this vaft condudlor were occafionally added 4800 yards
of wire. The eledlric blaft from this machine fired Gun-pow-
gun-powder in the moft unfavourable circumftances ^’er
that can be imagined, namely, when it was drawn offyaft
by a fiiarp point, in which cafe it has generally lefs
force than in any other. The method of doing this
was as follows. Upon a ftaff of baked wood a ftem
of brafs was fixed, which terminated in an iron point
at the top. This point was put into the end of a fmall
tube of Indian paper, made fomewhat in form of a car¬
tridge, about an inch and a quarter long, and two-
tenths of an inch in diameter. When the cartridge
was filled with common gun-powder, unbruifed, a
wire communicating with the earth was then faftened
to the bottom of the brafs ftem. The charge in the
great cylinder being continually kept up by the mo¬
tion of the wheel, the top of the cartridge was brought
ery
Sea. VI. E L E G T R I
Theory, very near the drums, fo that it frequently even touch- We
'-—y—- cd the tin-foil with which they were covered. In
CITY. 451
very fare, that the fame quantity of ele&ric Theory,
matter paffed through the middle of the wire, that —v—
this filiation a fmall faint luminous ftream was fre- entered one end of it and went out at the other. Why
quently obferved between the top of the cartridge
and the metal. Sometimes this ftream would fet fire
to the gun-powder the moment it was applied; at
others, it would require half a minute or more be¬
fore it took effeft. But this difference in time was
fuppofed to be owing to fome fmall degree of moifture
in the powder or the paper, which was always unfa¬
vourable to the experiment. Tinder was fired much
more readily.
As it therefore appears, that the eleftric fluid, when
it moves through bodies either with great rapidity, or
in very great quantity, will fet them on fire, it feems
then did it not produce the fame degree of heat in the
middle that it did at each end ? The reafon is plain :
At one end it was in a ftate of convergence from the
battery to the point of the wicc ; at the other, it was
in a ftate of divergence from the point of the wire to the
battery. At the points, therefore, an intenfe heat
was produced ; but in the middle, where the fluid nei¬
ther converged nor diverged, but moved forwards in a
parallel direction, the heat was much lefs. Now we
know that this is the cafe with the folar light itfelf.
At the focus of a burning-glafs there is an intenfe heat
both where the convergence ends and the divergence
fcarce difputable, that this fluid is the fame with the begins. But where this divergence confiderably ceafes.
element of fire. For further proofs of this opinion,
which is now adopted by fome very eminent philofo-
phers, fee the articles Fire and Heat. See alfo
Chemistry-/Wav. This being once admitted, the
fource from whence the eleddric fluid is derived into
the earth and atmofphere, muft be exceedingly evi¬
dent, being no other than the fun, or fource of light it-
fclf. The vaft quantity of light which continually
comes from him to the earth muft of neceflity be ab-
forbed by that opaque body, at leaft in great part. It
is impoffible it can remain there, becaufe there is a
perpetual fucceflion of new quantities coming from the
and the motion of the light becomes more parallel, the
heat is vaftly diminiftied. The cafe is the fame with a
common fire, and with all burning bodies; for heat
never adds but from a centre, and is always greateft
at the central point. It is true, that we can never
produce eleftric fire without at the fame time produ¬
cing a violent (hock exceedingly different from the burn¬
ing of common fire. But the reafon of this is, that we
cannot produce a divergence in a ftream of eleddric
matter, without at the fame time giving it fuch a mo¬
tion in fome other direftion, that its impetus becomes
ery perceptible. If it was in our power to make the
fun. It muft be obferved, however, that as this fluid flalh produced by an eleftric bottle keep its place, ’
receives a great number of different direftions after cannot fuppofe that any ftiock, or other fenfation than
jared.
once it enters the earth, it cannot appear in its natu
g4 ral form of fire or light, till it receives a new motion
Action of fimilar_to what it had when proceeding from the fun. fide of the bottle to the other. Therefore, as it is nei-
the eledric The folar light only burns, or produces heat, when di- ther in a ftate of divergence nor convergence, except
IT.ht6- ai'd verg'nS fr°m a centre, or converging towards one.  m m f —A g|j— -u . u —
The heat is always greateft; at the central point; and
even there, no heat is produced except where the light
pafles through a refifting medium. In thofe cafes like-
wife the eleftric fluid burns. When difeharged with
violence from an eleftrified bottle, it flies out on all
fides, and then will fire gun-powder, or other combu-
ftible fubftances. The fame thing it will do when con¬
verging towards a point, if in fufficient quantity, as
was obferved in the experiment with the large conduc¬
tor above mentioned. But when the eleftric fluid nei¬
ther meets with any confiderable reiiftance, diverges
from a centre, nor converges towards"one, it is almoft
always invifible, and without heat. A moft remark¬
able proof of this we have, even when a vaft quantity „ - . w
of eleftric matter is forced to go through a very fmall body, muft. be regulated by very different laws from
wire. Hr Prieftley tills us he had once an opportunf
ty of obferving what part of the conduftors which
form an eleftric circuit are moft affefted by the ex-
plofion. Upon difeftarging a battery of 51 fquare
heat, would be felt. But there is no poffibility of hin¬
dering it from flying with prodigious celerity from one
where it comes out from and enters into the bottle, no
fenfation is perceived except what arifes from its
change of place ; and hence it is faid, that the eleftric
matter hath no heat.
§ 2. The Identity of Eleftric Matter and Light farther
confdered; with fame pojitive Proofs, that Eleftric Sub-
Jlances are aftually penetrated by the Eleftric Fluid.
The onlyobjeftion of any ftrength which can arife objedtion
to the identity of the eleftric fluid and light is, the fur- concerning
prifingeafe with which the latter penetrates glafs, andthe "TT
the feeming ftop which is put to the motions of the
former when a piece of glafs or any other eleftric fub-fweresi.
ftance is prefented to it. Here, however, it muft be
obferved, that light, as proceeding from a luminous
body, muft. be regula;
light which is abforbed by opaque bodies, and confe-
quently fubjefted to motions quite different from what
it originally had. Water, the only fluid with which we
are very well acquainted (tho’ all others we know feem
feet thro’ an iron wire nine inches long, the whole of to be regulated by the fame laws), is capable of two very
it was glowing hot, and continued fo for fome feconds.
The middle part grew cool firft, while both the ex¬
tremities were fenfibly red. When the wire was after-
different motions. The one is a reftilinear one, by
which great quantities of it run from one place to ano¬
ther. The other is not fo eafily explained. It may.
wards examined, both the extremities were found quite however, be very readily obferved, by throwing a fmall
melted ; an inch or two of the part next to them was ftone into a pool of water. A great number of con-
extremely brittle, and crumbled into .fmall pieces on centric circles will be propagated from the place where
being handled; while the middle part remained pretty the ftone fell, as from a centre, which will gradually
firm, but had quite loft its polifli, fo that it looked grow larger and larger. If another ftone is thrown in
darker than before. This is precifely what would have at fome diftance, fimilar circles will proceed from the
happened, had both ends been put into a common fire, place where it fell. Thefe will meet with the former,
3 L 2 and
452
Theory.
ELECT
and crofs them without interfering with each other
in the leaft. It is certain, however, that two ftreams
of water rufhing oppofite to one another, would
lhatter and deftroy each other. If, therefore, there
is a difference in the motion of the ele&ric fluid
when it burns, and when it does not (which there
certainly is), we may eafily fuppofe it poffible, that
glafs fhould obftrudt one kind of motion and not an¬
other : In which cafe, the glafs would feem to be per¬
meable by the fluid when manifefting itfelf by the firft
kind of motion, and not fo when it manifefts itfelf by
gg the other.
thjrprifmg It hath commonly been thought, that the tranfpa-
experi- vency of bodies depends upon the reftilinear direftion
cernin C<th*e t^ie^r Pores> an(^ 0Pachy upon the fituation of them
uanfparen.e in fome other diredtion. Eledtrical experiments, how-
cy of bo- ever, have fhown that this is not the cafe. Sealing-
dks. wax an(j pitch are as opaque bodies as we are acquaint¬
ed with ; yet in Mr Haukfbee’s experiments, mention¬
ed n0 4. thefe fubftances were both rendered tranfpa-
rent by the adtion of the eledlric fluid. Thefe experi¬
ments are confirmed by fome others ftill more furpriung,
mentioned by Dr Prieftley. See alfo below Sedb. VIII.
One was made by S. Beccaria. He difcharged an elec¬
tric (hock through fome brafs dull fprinkled between two
plates of fealing-wax. The whole was perfedtly luminous
and tranfparent. The moft extraordinary experiment,
however, was made by Dr Prieftley himfelf, of which he
gives the following account. “ I laid a chain in contadt
with the outfide of a jar lightly on my finger, and fome-
times kept it at a fmall diftance by means of a thin piece
of glafs; and, if I made the difcharge at the diftance of
about three inches, the eledtric fire was vifible on the
furface of the finger, giving it a fudden concuflion,
which feemed to make it vibrate to the very bone; and
when it happened to pafs on that fide of the finger
which was oppofite to the eye, the whole feemed per-
5^ fedtly tranfparent in the dark.”
Confcquen- Experiments of this kind, though they have not hi¬
ves from therto been much purfued by eledbricians, feem to be
them. more worthy of notice than almoft all others. One
confequence which may be derived from them is,
that there is in bodies, whether eledlric or non eledlric,
a certain fubtile medium, on the motion of which
tranfparency depends. That is, when the medium is
at reft, the body is opaque ; but when fet in motion,
it becomes tranfparent. This motion, we fee, may be
given in two different ways. One is by Ample eledlri-
fication in vacuo, according to Mr Haukfbee’s expe¬
riments. The other is, by fending the flaftr of an
eledlrified bottle over their furface. In Dr Prieftley’s
experiment, he could determine the motion to be of the
vibratory kind ; and hence we may eafily conclude,
that fome bodies may be conftrudted in fuch a manner,
that they are capable of tranfmitting the vibrations of
this fluid, but not any other kind of motion. Such
kinds of bodies will be naturally tranfparentbut o-
thers, whofe particles are difpofed in fuch a manner
that the vibrations cannot be propagated thro’ them
without confiderable violence, are naturally opaque.
The queftion then only is, What is this fubtile medium,
the vibrations of which occafion tranfparency ? It is
fcarce pofiible to anfwer this queftion in another man¬
ner than by faying, that it is the eledlric fluid. That
it is this fluid which gives the power to eledlric fub-
R I C I T Y. Sea. VI.
fiances, has never been dented. That the motion of Theory,
this fluid along the furfaces of bodies throws another
fluid vfithin them into vibrations, is alfo evident from
the experiments above mentioned. All bodies are con-
feffed to have much of this fluid in their pores : there¬
fore, if a quantity of the fame matter pafles over the fur¬
face of any body, it muft affedl what is within its fub-
llance with a motion of fome kind or other ; becaufe it
affedls that which lies on the outfide, and this cannot
fail to affedl all the reft. This motion Dr Prieftley’s
experiment determines to be of the vibratory or tre¬
mulous kind; and, indeed, it is natural to think it
fhould be fo. The vibrations of the eledlrical fluid,
therefore, condudl light through Opaque bodies. But
whatever fluid is condudled by the vibration of another,
muft itfelf alfo vibrate while it is fo condudled. Light,
therefore, vibrates when emitted from luminous bodies.
In the prefent cafe, thefe vibrations are originally oc-
cafioned by the eledlric flafh. They are condudted thro’
opaque bodies by the vibrations of the eledlric fluid.
The air is alfo full of the fame fluid. The air is natu¬
rally tranfparent ; but we have feen that tranfparency
confifts only in the eafy tranfmifiion of a vibratory mo- gg
tion of the eledlric fluid. The light, therefore, isper-Hgjn pro
petually condudled by means of the vibrations of thisved to be a
fluid : therefore, the vibrations of the eledlric fluid and vibration of
light are the fame ; for no two fluids are always ca- ghu^'e<aric
pable of fetting one another in motion precifely in the U1 *
fame manner, unlefs their nature is in all refpedls ex-
adllythe fame.
Thefe experiments feem in the ftrongeft manner to
prove the identity of the eledlric fluid and light, and
that both are tranfmitted through eledlric as well as
other fubftances. The reafon, therefore, of the feem-
ing flop, which is obferved in our eledlrical operations
by the intervention of glafs, is, that in all artificial elec¬
tricity, the fluid has a very confiderable progreflive
motion, which cannot be eafily propagated through
the folid fubftance of any body, efpecially where there
is a pretty ftrong refiftance on the other fide; which
lhall afterwards be Ihown to be the cafe with this fluid
when palling through eledlric fubftances.
$ 3- Of tlje PaffaSe 0f the EleSric Fluid oiler the Surface,
and through the Suljlance, of different Bodiu.
* . 89
Dr Priestley hath made many very curious expe- Dr Pried-
riments concerning the difeharging of eledlric fliocks ley’s expe-
over the furface of different bodies; and finds, that by ^
this means a battery may be made to difcharge itfelfWl lce>
at a much greater diftance than it would do if lent di-
redtly through the air. The experiments were begun
with ice ; and he firft accidentally difcovered, that,
when the ftiock of a common jar was difcharged on a
plate of ice, it would fometimes'fun over the fsrface
and ftrike the chain diredlly on the other fide. With
a fingle jar, however, the diftance was not much greater
than what it would have pafled over in the ufual way;
hut, with a battery, it exceeded the ufual diftance in a
very great degree. Endeavouring to make a circular w;tjj raw
fpot, fuch as he had formerly made on metals, upon a fledi;
piece of raw flelh, he took a leg of mutton, and laying
the chain that communicated with the outfide of the
battery over the lhank, he took the explofion on the
outward membrane, about feven inches from the chain;
but was greatly furprifed to obferve the electric fire not
\to
Sea. VI. E L E C T R
Theory, to enter the flefh, but to pafs in a body along the fur-
*>■—v—— face of it to come to the chain. Thinking that this
might be occafioned by the fatty membrane on which
the explofion was made, he again laid the chain in
the fame manner over the (hank, and took the explo-
fton upon the mufcular fibres, where they had been cut
olf from the reft of the body ; but flill the fire avoid¬
ed entering the fleih, made a circuit of near an inch
round the edge of the joint, and paffed along the fur-
face to come to the chain as before, though the di-
ftanee was near 11 inches. Imagining'that this effeft
was promoted by the chain lying lightly on the fur-
face of the flefh, and therefore not actually in contact
with it, he took another explofion upon the hook of
the chain, which was thruft into the fleftt. On this,
the fire entered the mutton ; and as he held it in his
hands, both his arms were violently fhocked up to his
{houlders.
With wa- The Do (ft or next determined to try the effeft of dif-
ter; ferent condu&ing fubftances in the fame manner; and
of thefe water was the moft obvious. “ Next day,
(fays he) I laid a brafs rod communicating with the
outfide of the battery, very near the furface of a quan¬
tity of water (to refemble the chain lying upon the
furface of the flefli, without being in contadb with it),
and, by means of another rod furniihed with knobs,
made a difcharge on the furface of the water, at the
diftance of feveral inches from any part of the rod;
when the eledfric fire ftruck down to the water, and,
without entering it, paffed vifibly over its furface till
it arrived at that part of the rod which was neareft the
water, and the explofion was exceedingly loud. If the
diftance at which I made the difcharge exceeded feven
or eight inches, the eledlric fire entered the water, ma¬
king a beautiful ftar upon its furface, and yielding a
very dull found. When I firft made this experiment
of the eleftric flafli palling over the furface of water, I
thought it neceffary, that neither the piece of metal
communicating with the outfide, nor that communicaT
ting with the infide, of the jars, Ihould touch the water
immediately before the difcharge. But I afterwards
found, that the experiment would anfwer, tho’ either,
©r even both of them, were dipped in the water : for,
in this cafe, the explofion would ftilL prefer the-furface
to the water itfelf, if the diftance was not very great;
and would even pafs at a greater diftance along the
furface, when there was a nearer paffage from one rod
to the other in the water.”
. 9l He afterwards tried to pafs the eleftric flafh over
ether to-r ^*he furfaces of a great number of different bodies,
dies. hut found it impoffible with many of them. He
therefore imagined that this property of conducing a
Ihock over its furface was peculiar to water and raw
flelh. It was found, however, that the flalh paffed
over the furface of a touch-ftone, and likewife over a
piece of the belt kind of iron ore, exceedingly fmooth
on fome of its fides. The piece was about an inch
thick, and three inches in its other dimenfions. The
full charge of ajar of three fquare feet would not enter
it. The explofion paffed over the furface of oil of vi¬
triol, with a dull found and a red colour; but in all
other cafes, if it paffed at all, it was in a bright flame,
and with a report peculiarly loud. It paffed over the
furface of the moft highly redlified fpirit of wine with-
cut firing it; but when too great a diftance was taken,
i c i t y. 453,
the elcdlric fire entered the fpirit, and the whole was Theoiy.
in a blaze in a moment. ‘ 4
This was the cafe when fuch fubftances were em¬
ployed as are but indifferent condudtors of electricity ;
raw flefh, for inftance, water, &c. When good conduc¬
tors were ufed, fuch as charcoal of different kinds, no
remarkable appearances were produced. So far was
the fhock from palling vifibly over the furface of any
metal, that, if the diftance through the air, in order to
a paffage through the metal, was ever fo little nearer
than the diftance between the two furfaces, it never
failed to enter the metal; fo that its entering the fur¬
face of the metal, and its coming out again, feemed to
be made without obftrudtion. If as much water was
laid on a ftpooth piece of brafs as could lie upon it, it
would not go over the furface of the water, but always
ftruck thro’ the water into the metal. But if the metal
lay at any confiderable depth under the water, it would
prefer the furface. it even paffed over three or four,
inches of the furface of water as it was boiling in a
brafs pot, amidft the fteam and bubbles, which feemed
to be no hindrance to it. Animal fluids, however, of
all kinds, feemed peculiarly to favour this paffage off
the eledtric matter over their furface; and the report
of thefe cxplofions was manifeftly louder than when
water was ufed. In all cafes of this kind, the report,
was confiderably louder than when the difcharge was
made in the common way. The explofions were ob-
ferved by perfons out of the houfe, and in a neighbour¬
ing-houfe, very much to refemble the fmart cracking;
of a whip. “ But (fays DrPrieftley) the found made
by thefe explofions, though by far the loudeft that eyen
1 heard of the kind, fell much fhort of the report made
by a fingle^jar, of no very great fize, of Mr Rackftrow’s;.
who fays, that it was as loud as that of a piftol.” He
alfo obferves, that when the ele&rical explofion does,
not pafs over the furface of the water, but enters it, a
regular ftar is made upon the furface, confifting of tea
or a dozen rays: and what is very remarkable, thofe.
rays which ftretch towards the brafs rod that commu¬
nicates with the outfide of the battery are always
longer than the reft; and if the explofion is made at
fuch a diftance as to be very near taking the furface,.
thofe rays will be four or five times longer than the
reft, and a line bounding the whole appearance will be.
an ellipfis, one of whole foci is perpendicularly under
the brafs knob with which the difcharge is made.
. When an eleftric battery is difeharged upon fmooth Circular
pieces of metal, the effedls are very different from anyfpots pro--
of thofe we have yet mentioned. Dr Prieftley having duced.by
conftrufked fome large batteries, determined to try ^*"^
what would be the effefts of a very great eleftric power Xp'°
difeharged upon metals and other fubftances; and, in
the courfe of his random experiments, he made the fol¬
lowing difeoveries. “June 13. 1766 (fays he), af¬
ter having difeharged a battery of about 40 fquare feet
with a fmooth brafs knob, I accidentally obferved upon
it a pretty large circular /pot, the centre of which
feemed to be fuperficially melted, in a great number of
dots; larger near the centre, and fmaller at a diftances
from it. Beyond this Ipot was a circle of black duft
which was eafily wiped off: but what I was moft ftruck
with was, that after an interruption of melted places*
there was an entire and exaft circle of fhining dots*
confifting of places fuperficially melted like, thofe ?,t
the
454 ELECT
Theory, the centre. Thesppearance of the whole, exclufive of
‘—■"'v the black dull, is reprefented Plate CLXXVII. fig. 75.
n° 1.
“ June 14th, I took the fpot upon fmooth pieces of
lead and filver. It was in both cafes like that on the
brafs knob ; only the central fpot on the filver confi li¬
ed of dots difpofed with the utmoft exaftnefs, like
radii from the centre of a circle, each" of which termi¬
nated a little fhort of the external circle. I took the
circular fpot upon poliflied pieces of feveral metals with
the charge of the fame battery, and obferved that the
cavities in fome of them were deeper than in others; as
I thought in the following order, beginning with the
deepeft, tin, lead, brafs, gold, fteel, iron, copper, fil-
ver. I will not be politive as to the order of fome of
the metals; but filyer was evidently not affedled a fourth
part fo much as gold, and much lefs than any of the
others. The circles were marked as plain, but the im-
preffion was more fuperhcial.
“ I alfo made the explofion between a piece of lead
juft folid after melting, and another fmooth piece that
I had kept a confiderable time. The piece of frefh
lead was melted more than the other, but there was no
other difference between them. The femimetals, as
bifmuth and zinc, received the fame imprefiion as the
proper metals; being melted nearly as much as iron.
I made three difeharges between a piece of highly po¬
liced fteel and a piece of very fmooth iron, and in all
cafes thought the fteel was more deeply melted than
the iron.
“ Prefently after I had obferved the fingle circle, I
imagined, that, whatever was the caufe of the appear¬
ance, it was not improbable but that two or more con¬
centric circles might be procured, if a greater quan¬
tity of coated glafs was ufed, or perhaps if the explofion
was received upon metals that were more eafily fufed
than brafs. Accordingly, June 27, taking the mode¬
rate charge of a battery, confiding of about 38 fquare
feet, upon a piece of tin, I firft obferved a fecond outer
circle, at the fame diftance from the firft, as the firft
was from the central fpot. It confided of very fine
points hardly vifible, except when held in an advan¬
tageous light; but the appearance of the whole was
very beautiful, and was fuch as is reprefented Plate
CLXXVII. fig. 75. n° 2.
“ Having hitherto found the circles the mod di-
ftindl on metals that melt with the lead degree of heat,
I foon after procured a piece of that compofition which
melts in boiling water; and having charged 60 fquare
feet of coated glafs, I received the explofion with it,
and found three concentric circles; the outermoft of
which was not quite fo far from the next to it, as that
was from the innermoft. Ail the fpace within the firft
circle was melted; but the fpace was very well defined,
and by no means like a central fpot, which in this cafe
was quite obliterated. The appearance of thefe three
concentric circles is reprefented Plate CLXXVII. fig.
75. n° 3. The dillance at which thedifeharge was made
occafioned no difference in the diameter of thefe circu¬
lar fpots. When, by putting a drop of water upon the
brafs rod communicating with the infide of the bat¬
tery, I made the difeharge at the diffiance of two inches;
the fpot was juft the fame as if it had been received at
the diftance of half an inch. i. e. about a quarter of
an inch in diameter. Attempting to fend an ele&ric
Pv I C I T Y. Sea. VI.
fhock over the furface of quickfilver or melted lead, I Theory.
found that it would not pafs ; though neither of the   /——■J
rods with which the difeharge was made touched the
metals. A dark imprelfion was made on the furfaces
of both the quickfilver and the lead of the ufual fize
of the circular fpot ; and remained very vifible not-
withftanding the ftate of fufion in which the metab
were.”
§ 4. The Eledric Fluid moves through the Subjlance of
Electrics, though with difficulty. In mojl Cafes, it p^fies
over the Surface of good ConduQors.
This will appear from a confideration of the phe¬
nomena above mentioned, and fome others. The elec¬
tric moft univerfally prefent is air. That the fluid
pervades its fubftance is evident to our eye-fight; for
if a pointed body is placed on the prime conductor,
and at the fame time the cylinder is briikly turned, a
continual ftream of blue fire will be obferved to iffue
from the point. This is undoubtedly the fluid itfelf
made vifible by the refiftance it meets with from the
air. That the eledlric fluid in this cafe pea-vadcs the Methods of
air to a confiderable diftance, is alfo evident from the ele^rdying
different methods by which the air of a room may betlieair a
eledlrified. One method is that above mentioned: One
or more needles are fixed on the prime condutftor,
which is kept ftrongly eledlrified for about 10 minutes.
If, afterwards, an eledlrometer is brought into the
room, the air will Ihow that it has received a confider¬
able quantity of eledlricity; for the balls will feparate,
and continue to do fo even after the apparatus has been
quite removed out of the room. Another method of
eledtrifying the air is to charge a large jar and infulate
it; then connedl a fliaip-pointed wire, or a number of
them, with the knob of the jar; and make a communi¬
cation from the outfide coating to the table. If the
jar is charged pofitively, the air of the room will like-
wife foon become eledlrified pofitively; but if the jar is
charged negatively, the air will alfo become negative.
To this it may be replied, that the air is always full of
condudting fubftances, and that by means of them the
eledlricity is propagated from one part of the air to
another. But whether this is the cafe or not, it is
certain that the air, notwithftanding all the condudling
fubllances it may contain, is in fadt an eledlric, and ca¬
pable of receiving a charge like glafs or any other elec¬
tric fubftance. To this purpofe there is a very curiousx0 charge
experiment made in the following manner. Take twoa plate of
fmooth boards, of a circular form, and each about three a'r*
or four feet in diameter. Coat one fide of each with
tin-foil, which fhould be palled down and burnilhed,
and turned over the edge of the board. 1 hefe boards
mull be both infulated, parallel to one another, in a
horizontal pofition. They mull be turned with their
coated fides towards each other; and Ihould be placed
in fuch a manner as to be eafily moved to or from
each other; to do which, it will be proper to to
one of the boards a ftrong fupporter of glafs or baked
wood, and to fufpend the other by lilk firings from the
ceiling of the room; from which it may be lowered at
pleafure by means of a pulley. When thefe boards are
placed in the manner above deferibed, and about an
inch diftant from one another, they may be ufed exactly
as the coatings of a pane of glafs. If a fpark is given
from the condudlor to the upper board, a fpark will
Sea. VI.
ELECT
inftantly be difcharged from the lower one, if any con-
■ dufting fub!iance is prefented to it. By continuing to
give fparks to the upper board, and to take them from
the lower one, the air between them will at laft become
charged like a piece of glafs; and if a communication
is made between them, they will explode, give the
fhock, &c. like glafs.
In this experiment it feems impoluhle to deny that
the air is penetrated by ele&ric fluid. The dittance of
an inch is fo fmall, that it mull appear ridiculous to
fay that this fpace is penetrated only by a repulfive
power, when in other cafes we plainly fee the fluid pe¬
netrating it to three or four times that ditlance. 'ihe
96
Account?
of globes
burft by
eledfcal
operations
R I C I T Y. 455
8th of February 1750. A noife was fu ll heard as of Theory,
fomething rending to pieces; then followed the explo- »*:
fion; and when the lights were brought in, it was ob-
ferved that thofe places bf the floor which were oppo-
(ite to the equatorial diameter of the globe were ftrew-
ed with fmaller pieces, and in greater numbers, than
thofe which were oppofite to other parts of it. This
globe had been cracked, but it had been in conftant
ufe in that ftate above a year ; and the crack had ex¬
tended itfelf from the pole quite to the equator. The
proprietor aferibed the accident to the vibrations of
the glafs, and thought the crack had fome way impe¬
ded thefe vibrations. When Mr Boze’s globe broke.
flat furface of the boards indeed makes the motion of he fays that the whole of it appeared, in the aft of
the eleftric fluid through the plate of air gradual and
equal, fo that it is not feen to pafs in fparks or other-
wife; but this is neceflary to its receiving a charge, as
will be afterwards explained.
If one eleftric fubftance is penetrable by the elec¬
tric fluid, we mufl; he led ftrongly to fufpeft at leaft,
that all the reft arefo too. That rolin, pitch, fealing-
wax, &c. are fo, bath been already proved ; and from
thence, if we reafon analogically, we muft conclude,
that glafs is likewife penetrable by it. A very ftrong
additional proof of this is, that the eleftric (hock can¬
not be fent over the furface of glafs. If this fubftance
w'as altogether impenetrable to the fluid, it is natural
to think, that it would run over the furface of glafs
very eafily. But inftead of this, fo great is its pro-
penlity to enter, that a (hock fent through between
two glafs plates, if they are prefled pretty clofe toge¬
ther, always breaks them to pieces, and even reduces
part of them to a powder like fand. This laft effeft
cannot be attributed to any other caufe than the elec¬
tric fluid entering the pores of the glafs; and, meeting
with refiftance, the impetus of its progreflive motion
violently forces the vitreous particles afunder in all di¬
rections.
To this violent impetus of the eleftric fluid, when
once it is fet in motion, we may alfo with fome proba¬
bility aferihe the burfting of eleftric globes, both fuch
as are made of glafs, and other materials, in the aft of
excitation. Dr Prieftley hath given feveral inftances
of this accident. “ The fragments (fays he) have
been thrown with great violence in every direftion, fo
as to be very dangerous to the byftanders. This acci¬
dent happened to Mr Sabbatelli in Italy, Mr Noliet
in France, Mr Beratid at Lyons, Mr Boze at Wittem-
berg, Mr Le Cat at Rouen, and Mr Ilobein at Rennes.
The air in the infide of Mr Sabbatelli’s globe had no
communication with the external air, but that of the
Abbe Nollet had. This laft, which was of Englifh
flint glafs, had been ufed for more than two years, and
was above a line thick. It burft like a bomb in the
hands of a fervant who was rubbing it, and the frag¬
ments, none of which were above air inch in diame¬
ter, w'ere thrown to a confiderable diftance. The Abbe
fays, that all the globes which were burft in that man¬
ner, exploded after five or fix turns of the wheel; and
he aferibesthis effeft to the aftion of the eleftric mat¬
ter making the particles of glafs vibrate in a manner he
could not conceive.
“ When Mr Beraud’s globe burft (and lie was the
firft to whom this accident was ever known to happen),
!he was making fome experiments in the dark on the
breaking, like a flaming coal. Mr Boulanger fays,
that glafs globes have fometimes burft like bombs, and
have wounded many perfons, and that their fragments
have even penetrated feveral inches into a wall. He
alfo fays, that if globes burft in whirling by the gun-
barrel’s touching them, they burft with the fame vio¬
lence, the fplinters often entering into the wall. The
Abbe Nollet had a globe of fulphur which burft as
he was rubbing it with his naked hands, after two or
three turns of the wheel, having firft cracked inwardly.
It broke into very fmall pieces, which flew to a great
diftance, and into a fine dull; of which part flew
againft his naked bread, where it entered the (kin fo
deep, that it could not be got off without the edge of
a knife.”
From thefe appearances we muft neceffarily con-Proofs of
elude, not only that the eleftric fluid moves within the thc ele&rio
fubftance of eleftric bodies, but that it fometimes moves fin* oVeri"
with extreme violence ; fo that its repullive power fe- the furfacs
parates even the minuteft particles from each other; of conduc-
and this., could not happen without a thorough pene-tors*
tration of the eleftric body. It feems more difficult
to prove, that the eleftric matter does not general¬
ly pafs direftly through the fubftance of metals,
but over their furface. A little confideration, how¬
ever, will (how, that this muft very probably be the
cafe. If we compare Dr Prieftley’s experiments on
metals related in $ 3. with the effefts of the folar light
collefted in the focus of a burning-glafs upon the fame
metals, we (hall find a confiderable degree of refem-
blance. Under the article Burning-glass, it is ob-
ferved, that, notwithftanding the prodigious power of
that*concave mirror with which Mr Macquer melted
platina, all bodies did not melt equally foon in the fo¬
cus. In particular, polifiied filver, though a very
fufible metal, did not melt at all. It is not to be doubt¬
ed, that this was owing to the complete refleftion of
the light by the filver ; and had poliftied pieces of all
the metals been tried, it is equally certain, that the
difficulty of melting them would have been found ex-
aftly proportioned to their refleftive power. Something
like this happened with Dr Prieftley; for filver was lefs
touched by the eleftric explofion than any other metal.
The violent progreffive motion of the fluid indeed for¬
ced it into the metal, but at the fame time the reflec¬
tive power of the filver hindered it from going fo deep
as it had done in the others. The cafe was (till more
evident when melted lead and quickfilver were ufed,
Thefe have a very great refleftive power; and though
by reafon of the extreme violence wherewith the fluid
ftruck them, part of their fubllance might naturally,
have
ELECTRICITY. Se&.VL
have been fuppofed to be diffipated in the hard me- flate. Perhaps it may be thought abfurd to afcribe Theory,
tals, yet we find this was not the cafe. Only a black the reflection of light to a fubftance of fuch extreme ^
.fpot was made on the furface, and the fluid was imme- fluidity and tenuity as the electric fluid is ; but we find
diately difperfed, moft probably over the furface of the that the vacuum of an air-pump, a medium of nearly
metal. equal tenuity with the eleftric fluid (as will elfewhere
It is not indeed eafy to bring a decifive proof in fa- be proved), is in fome cafes capable of reflefting light
vour of this hypothefis. The extreme fubtility, and, very powerfully. Now it is certain, that nothing can
in moft cafes, inviiibility, of the ele&ric fluid, render all be fuppofed to give fuch an eafy paffage to the ele&ric
reafoning about its motions precarious. .It is incre- fluid as itfelf; becaufe it is the thinneft and molt fub-
dible, however, that this fluid fliould pafs through the tile of all the fubftances we know, and therefore muft
very fubftance of metallic bodies, and not be in the make the leaft refiftance. Hence the fluid Hides over
leaft retarded by their folid particles. In thofe cafes, the furface of a piece of metal with furprifing eafe ;
where the folid parts of metals are evidently penetrated, and when a large furface of metal is eleftrified, the
i. e. when wires are exploded, there is a very manifeft effe& is proportionable to the extent of it, becaufe all
refiftance ; for the parts of the wire are fcattered about that quantity of ele&ric fluid which is fpread over the
with violence in all dire&ions. The like happened in furface, eafily receives the motion communicated by
IDr Prieftlev’s circles made on fmnnth nieces of metnl. the ele&rical machine.
The vacuum of an air-pump is found to be a very
good condu&or, and by means of it the motion of the
fluid is rendered vifible. Hence this is brought as an
argument that the eledhic fluid always pafles through
the fubftance of condudors. That it doth fo in fome
cafes is indeed very evident, but it then meets with ccn-
fiderable refiftance ; and, even in the prefent inftance,
the paffing through the vacuum of an air-pump, where it
Dr Prieftley’s circles made on fmooth pieces of metal.
Part of the metal was alfo difperfed and thrown off,
for the circular fpots were compofed of little cavities.
If therefore the fluid was difperfed throughout the
fubftance ; and not over the furface of the metal, it is
plain, that a wire whole diameter was equal to one
of thofe circular fpots, ought alfo to have been de-
ftroyed by an explofion of equal ftrength fent through
But this would not have been the cafe. A wire
wliofe diameter is equal to one of thofe circular fpots , is oppofed by a confiderable quantity~of the fame kind
reprefented in n° 1,2,3.fig. 75. Plate CLXXVII. would of fluid, gives fuch a confiderable refiftance, that it will
without injury condud a (hock much greater than any prefer a paffage along a metalline rod to one through
battery hitherto conftruded could give. It is moft pro
bable therefore, that though violent flaflres of ele&rici-
ty, which ad alfo as fire, will enter into the fubftance
of metals aRd confume them ; yet it immediately dif-
fperfes itfelf over their furface, without entering the
a vacuum. With regard to charcoal, and other con-
dudors of that kind, as they are very porous, and like-
wife compofed of fine fpiculas, it is probable the fluid
may run along the furface of the fpiculse, and at the
fame time through the fubftance of the coal. Even in
fubftance any more, till being forced to colled itfelf paffing over the beft condudors, however, this fluid
into a narrow compafs it again ads as fire.
In many cafes, the eledric fluid will be conduded
very well by metals reduced to a mere furface, fo that
we can fcarce fay they have any thickhefs at all. A
piece of white paper will not condud a ftiock without
Being torn in pieces, as it is an eledric fubftance. But
a line drawn upon it with a black-lead pencil will fafe-
ly convey the charge of feveral jars. It is impoffible
we can^think that the fire here paffes through the fub¬
ftance of the black-lead ftroke. It muft run over its
furface ; and if we confider fome of the properties of
metals, we flrall find, that there is very great reafon
for believing that their conduding power lies at their
furface.
The metals are, of all terreftrial fubftances, thofe
which refled the light moft powerfully. Sir Ifaac
Newton hath ffiown that this refledive power they
meets with fome refiftance, as it will prefer a ftiort paf¬
fage through the air to a long one through the beft
condudors.
$ 5. The exceeding great Velocity and Strength of the Elec¬
tric Fluid are not owing to a repufjive Power among its
Particles, but to the mutual Action of the Air and Elec¬
tric Fluid upon themfelves and one another.
The arguments for a repulfive power exifting be¬
tween the particles of the eledric fluid are very incou-
clufive. Some of them have been already taken notice
of. The ftrongeft is that drawn from the appearance Eledtn'e
of the eledric fire iffuing from a point, or from any fluid fiiowu
body highly eledrified. In the open air this diverges'^
exceffively ; and very often divides into feveral diftind 'Ve °
rays, which by avoiding each other feem to be vio¬
lently repulfive. That they are not fo in reality,
have not from their fubftance as metals, but from however, is plain from the appearance they have
what he calls a repulfive power, fpread equally over vacuo; when, the refiftance of the atmofphere being
their furface. The exiftence of this repulfive power taken off, the eledric light would have room to fpread
hath already been taken notice of in feveral inftances, more widely. Fig. 27. Plate CLXXIV. reprefents
particularly in that of a chain, whofe links cannot be an exhaufted receiver with an eledrified wire difehar-
brought into contad with each other without a confi- ging a ftream of this fluid from itfelf, by means of its
derable degree of force. It is exceedingly probable, communication with a machine. If the eledric matter
that the repulfive power by which the links of the then was really elaftic, or endowed with a power re¬
chain are kept afunder, and that by which the rays of pulfive of itfelf, it is impoffible it could pafs ■" ""
light are refleded, are one and the fame. As the e-
ledric fluid is known to pervade all fubftances, and
metals as well as others, it feems alfo probable, that the
xepulfive and refledive power on the fubftance of me-
an un¬
interrupted column through an exhaufted receiver as in
the figure. A column of air, if blown fwiftly through
the orifice of a fmall pipe, will go forward a confider¬
able way, if it is counterbalanced by air like itfelf on
tals ia no other than the eledric fluid itfelf in a quiefeent every fide. But if fuch a column enters a vacuum,
N° j 12, what
Sea.VI. ELECT
t Theory, what we call its elajlicity, occafions it to be diffipated
* in a moment, and equally difFufed through the whole
exhaufted receiver. But this by no means happens
to the ele&ric fluid ; for even the fmall divergency re-
prefented in the figure feems entirely owing to ibme
quantity of air left in the air-pump. Dr Watfon, by
means of a long bent tube of glafs filled with mercury,
and inverted, made all the bended part which was a-
bove the mercury the mofl. perfect vacuum that could
be made. This vacuum he infulated; and one of the ba-
fons of mercury being made to communicate with the
prime conduftor, when fome non-eleftric fubftance
touched the other, the eleftric matter pervaded the va¬
cuum in a continued arch of lambent flame, and, as far
as the eye could follow it, without the leaft divergen¬
cy. From thefe experiments it appears, that there is
in the vacuum of an air-pump, as well as in the Tor¬
ricellian vacuum, a fluid of nearly the fame denfity
with the eleftric one : that the ele&ric fluid is not re-
pulfive of itfelf, but is refifted by the atmofphere ; and
therefore all appearances of electrical light are lefs
bright in vacuo than in the open air; becaufe, the
more refiftance the matter meets with,, the brighter is
the flafh.
Thus, as long as a ftream of ele&ric fluid is moved
through'a medium of an equal denfity with itfelf, the
equable preflure of the fluid allround will keep the lu¬
minous ftreams from diverging ; but if the prefiure is
taken off from any part of the receiver, the preflure of
Plate rC^ w‘^ immediately force the dream to that place,
CLXX1V as rePreiented fig. 28. That it is by apreffure of this
kind, and not by any obfeure attractive power, that this
is occafioned, will be rendered very probable from the
following example. Suppofe a pot or kettle is boiling
violently over a fire, and in fuch a fituation that there
is very little agitation in the furrounding air. The
equal preflure of the atmofphere will then force the
fleam flraight upwards in a cylindrical column ; but if
any objeft is brought near the edge of the pot, fo that
the preflure of the atmofphere is taken off on one fide,
the fleam will be directly forced upon that body, or
feemingly attrafled by it. The eledlric matter there¬
fore, being capable of having its motions refifted by
the air, muft immediately fly to that place where the
refiftance is leaft ; but in the cafe above mentioned, this
is beft done by applying a conducing fubftance to the
fide of the receiver, or one along which the fluid can
run downward to the earth. This, horyever, will be
more fully explained when we fpeak of the phenomena
of the Leyden phial.
From this Ample principle, via. that fluids impelled
by any force will always tend towards that place where
99 there is the leaft refiftance, moft of the phenomena of
Origin nf cle&ricjty may be explained. The firft thing to be
pious™ wer confidered is. From what fource it originally derives
of eledtri- the aftonifhing agility and ftrength difplayed in its
city. motions. If it is granted that the eledlric fluid is the
fame with the folar light, the ultimate caufe of its mo¬
mentum muft be the power by which the light of the
fun is emitted. As this power extends through regions
of fpace which to our conceptions are truly infinite, fo
muft the power itfelf be ; and it is plain, that by its
equable action all round, throughout the whole fpace
thro’ which the fun’s light is propagated, the preffure
of it upon all bodies muft be equal all round, and con-
Vol. VI. Part II.
R I C I T Y. 45
fequently it can neither move them one way nor ano- Theory
ther. But if, by the intervention of fome other power, —v"~"
the preffure is leflened upon any particular pSrt, a cur¬
rent of eleftric matter will fet towards that part, with
a force exaflly proportioned to the diminution of the
preffure. Thus, in the common experiments of the
air pump, when the air is exhaufted from a glafs vef-
fel, the preffure of the fuperincumbent atmofphere ia
directed towards every part of the glafs ; fo that if it
is of a flat fquare fhape, and not very ftrong, it will
certainly be broken. But after the air is exhaufted,
the veffel is difeovered to be full of another fubtile fluid
of the fame nature with the eledlric one *. If this ' See
could alfo be extrafted from the veffel, the preffure on ^acuum‘
its fides would neceffarily be much greater, becaufe not
only the atmofphere, but the whole furrounding ether
or ele£lric matter, would urge towards the place; and
it is not probable, that this preffure could be refifted
by any terreftrial power whatever. The momentum
of the ele&ric matter therefore, in our experiments,
depends on two caufes, viz. the preffure of the atmo¬
fphere upon the eleftric matter, and the preffure of one
part of this matter upon another. The celerity with
which it moves may be explained from its parts lying
in eontaft with each other throughout the wide im-
menfity of fpace. Hence the great tendency of the
fluid to circulate ; becaufe, from whatever point a
ftream of it is fent off, there the preffure is leffened, and
the ftream, finding no place empty for its reception,
muft neceffarily have a tendency to return to the place
from whence it came, as there it meets with the leaft;
refiftance ; and hence, when a paffage is opened for it,
by which it can return to this point, it is urged thither
with great violence, the equable preffure is reftored, a'nd '
the artificial motion ceafes.
§ 6. T'/je Manner in which an ElcBric Suhjlance becortfes ex¬
cited, or difufes its Eledric Virtue.
This will eafily appear from confidering the means
taken for the excitation of a common cylinder for elec¬
tric experiments. The glafs is a fubftance, as we have
already feen, into which the eleftric matter is very apt
to enter. To the furface of the glafs is applied fome
amalgam fpread on leather. This is a metallic fub¬
ftance which has an exceeding great refleftive power,
being that which is employed for filverizing looking-
glaffes. The dettric fluid therefore runs over its fur-
face with great eafe, and there is always a certain
quantity of this fluid in a ftate of ftagnation on its fur-
face. At the place w’here the cylinder touches the
amalgam, the air is excluded, and confequently the
eledric fluid hath there a tendency to rife mere than
at any other part of the furface where the atmofphere
prefles with its full force. When the cylinder begins
to turn, it neceffarily forces before it a fmall quantity
of that ele&ric matter which lay upon the furface of
the amalgam. To underftand this the more eafily, we
muft confider that property which glafs has of tranf-
mitting the eledric fluid through it, and refufing it a
paffage along its furface. Thus we may conceive it to
be formed of a vaft number of exceedingly fmall tubes
placed clofe to each other. If we fuppofe any fub¬
ftance made by art of fuch a texture, we would find
it impoffible to pour water along its furface, though it
would very eafily run through it. If fuch a fubftance
3 M was
Plot's of
the vibrato¬
ry. motion
E L E C T II I C I T Y. Sea. VI.
was made in the (hape of a cylinder, and turned brifkly ber runs dire&ly through the glafa, and along the fur- Theory.
round, with its furface juft touching a quantity of wa- face of the metallic coating, which keeps off the pref- v—
ter contained in a veffel, the confequence would be, fare of the air contained in the glafs. If an eledtric
that the water would be fcattered around in all direc- lining is ufed, and the glafs is exhaufted of air, the mo¬
tions. The cafe feems to be the fame with the more tion of the fluid becomes vifible through both, and the
fubtile eledtric fluid. The glafs cylinder throws out whole is tranfparent, as already obferVed. If the cy-
part of the eledtric fluid lying on the furface of the Under is lined with an dedtric fubftance, and the air
amalgam. This quantity is perpetually renewed from is not exhaufted, the eledtricity on the outfxde is often
the conducing fide of the rubber. The quantity confiderably increafed ; but the teafon of this is not
which is thrown out cannot be condudled over the fur- evident. Moft probably it is owing to the different
face of the glafs, nor can it pafs through it ; becaufe kind of electricity acquired by the infide lining ; for
it is refuted by the air in the infide, and, in fome mea- eledtricity of any kind always produces its oppofue at
fure. bv the glafs itfelf. It is alto refitted by the air a fmall diftance, the reafon of which fhall be afterwards
on the outfide ; but as that retitlance is lefs than what given.
is made by the air and glafs both put together, the If the air within the cylinder is condenfed, the elec- Nor one
fluid naturally forces itfelf into the open air. Still, trical appearances on the outfide are Icffened in pro-filled wIth
however, there n. ither is, nor can be, any portion. The reafon of this feems to be, that though c"nclenfed
of the matter itfelf. It cannot enter the air without it is neceffary that the fluid fhould not go through the
difnlacing the eleftric matter which was there before. Jubilance of the glafs very eafily, yet it is requilite that
This will difplace more of the fame kind, and fo on, its paffage ihould not be totally obitrudled; and there-
til1 at la ft the motion is communicated to the eledtric fore the eledtric experiments fucceed beft when the air
matter lodged in fome part of the earth. From thence within the glafs is a little rarefied. We muft alfo coa-
it is propagated to the rubber of the eledtric machine, fider, that when an additional quantity of air is fofced .
and thus a kind* of circulatory motion is carried on. By into the cylinder, an equal bulk of electric matter is
the excitation' of an eledtric fubftance, therefore, the forced out. The reft of the matter, therefore, which
fluid is not accumulated, but only fet in motion. The is contained all round the glafs, preffes violently into
reafon of that feeming accumulation obfervable about its pores ; but this preffure, being diredtly oppofite to
the excited cylinder is, the refiftance which the fluid what happens when the glafs is excited, muft of con-
meets with from the air. This inftantly produces a di- fequence hinder the excitation. If the glafs is now
vergency in the ftream of eledtric matter, and a vibra- made very hot, the preffure of the atmofphere is kept
tory ftmggle betwixt it and the air ; which again pro- off, and the paffage of the eledtric fluid through the
duces the appearances of fire and light, for the reafons glafs and condenfed air is rendered ealier, and therefore
already giv?n. the eledtric appearances on the outfide return.
That this kind of vibratory motion or ftruggle be- On the fame principles may we explain the excita-
tween the eledtric fluid and air always takes place when tion of a folid flick of glafs, fealing-wax, or fulphur.
the latter is fet in motion , feems evident from the fen- Though thefe have no air within them, yet they have
fation which is felt vvhen a ftrongly excited eledtric is a very confiderable quantity of eledtric matter, which
brought near any part of the human body. This is refifts an expulfion from its place : and therefore, tho’
fiich as would be occafioned by a fpider’s web drawn it may yield a little when the rubber is applied to the
lightly along the fkin, or rather by a multitude of outfide, yet it will inftantly throw off into the atmo-
fmall infedts crawling upon the body. It is, however, fphere what the rubber has left on the furfact ; becaufe
more clearly proved by an experiment made by Dr the refiftance is leaft towards that place, as foon as the
Prieftley. He was defirous to know whether the elee- eledtric has come out from under tbe rubber. Hence
trie fluid was concerned in the freezing of water or alfo we fee the reafon why no figns of electricity are
not. For this purpofe, he exp'ofed two difties of wa- obferved on glafs to which the rubber is immediately
ter to the open air in the time of a fevere froft. One applied ; namely, becaufe the preffure being equally
of them he kept pretty ftrongly eledtrified; but could great all round, no part of the eledtric fluid can be
obferve no difference in the time either when it began thrown off into the atmdfphere, in order to fet the reft
to freeze, which was in about three minutes, or in the in motion.
thicknefs of the ice, when both had been frozen for The only thing neceffary to be added in confirma-
fome time. Happening to look out at the win- tion of this theory of excitation is, that eledric fub-
dow through which he had put the difhes, he obfer- fiances of the fame kind cannot be excited by rubbing
ved on each fide of the eledrified wire the fame dan- them againft one another. Thus glafs cannot be ex-
cing vapour which is feen near the furface of the cited by rubbing it againft glafs, &c. MrWilckeob-
earth in a hot day, or at any time near a body ttrongly ferved, that when two pieces of glafs were rubbed up-
heated. on each other in the dark, a very vivid light appeared
If the glafs cylinder which we want to excite is ex- upon them ; which, however, threw out no rays, but
haufted of air, the tledric matter, inftead of flying off adhered to the place where it was excited. It was at-
into the air, runs diredly through the glafs; and, meet- tended with a ttrong phofphoreal fmell, but no attrac-
inor with fome refiftance from the vacuum as it is called, tion or repulfion. From this experiment he inferred,
a weak light is produced in the infide, but no figns of that fri&ion alone would not excite eledtricity ; but
eledlricity are perceived on the outfide of the glafs. that to produce this effedt, the bodies rubbed together
The fame thing happens by giving the cylinder or tube muft be of different natures with refpedf to their at-
a metallic coating. The fluid colledled from the rub- trailing the cleitric fluid.
$ 7-
Sea. VI.
[ Theory.
ELECTRICITY.
§7-0/ Pofitivt and Negative EleBricity.
From what hath been already advanced, itwillpret-
> ty plainly appear, that to increafe the quantity of e-
ledric fluid in any body is a thing impoffible, unlefs
we alfo augment the fize of the body. All the fine
pores of If^ery terreftrial fluid are exceedingly full, and
tinlefs we feparate the minuteft particles of the body
farther from one another than they are naturally, we
. cannot introduce more of the eledric fluid into it than
there was before. This fluid, we have already feen, is
not, like the air, endued with a repulfive force between
its particles; and therefore it muft: be incompreflible.
If it is incompreflible, all the phenomena attending it
mull be owing to its various motions, and the feeming
accumulations of it muft be owing only to its more
briflc adion in fome places than in others. But before
a complete folution of the phenomena of pofitive and
negative eledtricity can be given, it is neceflary to ftio.w
that thefe are not fo efientially diftind and oppofite
as they have been thought to be, but may be co«vert-
ed into each other in fuch cafes as we cannot pofiibly
fuppofe either an addition or fubtradion of the eledric
103 fluid.
Methods of This pofition, however oppbfite to the common opi-
fiofitlveandn’ons on t^e fubjed, may be proved by the following
negative experiments. 1. Let a coated phial be fet upon an in-
cledricity fulating ftand, and let its knob be touched by the knob
into one 0f another phial negatively eledrified. A ftnall fpark
anot ec. wj]i fog obferved between them, and both fides of the
infulated phial will inftantly be eledrified negatively.
Now, though we may fuppofe the one fide of the
phial which is touched by the negatively eledrified one
tolofe part of its fire, yet this cannot be the cafe with
the other, becaufe there is nothing to take it away,
and therefore it ought to appear in its natural ftate.
2. Let a phial, having a pith-ball eledrometer faften-
ed to its outfide coating, be flightly charged pofitively,
and then fet upon an infulating ftand. The outfide is
then negatively eledrified, or, according to Dr Frank¬
lin’s theory, has too little eledric matter in it. The
pith-balls, however, will touch each other, or feparate
but in a very fmall degree: but let the knob of another
bottle, which hath received a ftrong charge of pofi-
tive eledricity, be brought near to the knob of the
firft, and the pith-balls on the outfide will diverge with
pofitive eledricity. Now, it is impoflible that any
fubftance can have both too much and too little eledric
matter at the fame inftant: yet we fee that negative
eledricity may thus inftantaneoufly be converted into
the pofitive kind, in circumftances where no addition
of fire to the outfide can be fuppofed. 3. Let the
fame phial, with the pith-balls affixed to its outfide
coating, be flightly charged negatively, and then in¬
fulated. The outfide is now eledrified pofitively, or,
according to Dr Franklin’s hypothefis, has too great a
quantity of eledric fluid. Neverthelefs, upon bring¬
ing the knob of a phial ftrongly eledrified negatively
to that of the infulated one, the pith-balls will inftant¬
ly diverge with negative eledricity. 4. Let a phial re¬
ceive as full a charge of pofitive eledricity as it can
contain, and then infulate it. Charge another very
highly with negative eledricity. Bring the knob of
the negative bottle near that of the pofitive one, and
a thread will play brilkly between them. But when
the knobs touch each other, the thread after being Theorf.
attraded will be repelled by both. The negative elec-  * '
tricity is fomehow or other fuperinduced upon the
pofitive ; and, for a few moments after the bottles are
feparated, both will feem to be eledrified negative¬
ly. But if the finger is brought near the knob of
that bottle on which the negative eledricity was fu¬
perinduced, it will inftantly be diflipated, aimallfpark
ftrikes the finger, and the bottle appears pofitively
charged as before.
From thefe metamorphofes of pofitive into negative,
or negative into pofitive, eledricity, it feems proven in
the moft decifive manner, that pofitive eledricity doth
not confift in an accumulation, nor the negative kind in
a deficiency, of the eledric fluid. We are obliged,
therefore, to adopt the only probable fuppofition,
namely, that both of them arife entirely from the dif¬
ferent diredions into which the fluid is thrown in dif¬
ferent circumftances; and of coniequence, the only
method of giving an intelligible explanation of pofitivc
and negative eledricity is by confidering the different
diredion of the fluid in each.
A great variety of methods have been contrived to viethd of
afcertain the diredion of the eledric fluid, but all of .Jerermi-
them feem uncertain except that which is drawn from ninjj the di-
the appearance of eledric light. The luminous matter rt;di<>n
appearing on a point negatively eledrified is very fmall,the flui<3,
refembling a globule ; it makes little noife, and has a
kind of hilling found. The pofitive eledricity, on the
other hand, appears in a diverging luminous ftream,
which darts a confiderable way into the air, with a
crackling noife. Now, it is certain, that in whatever
cafe the eledric fluid darts from the point into the air,
in that cafe it muft be the moft refilled by it; and this
is evident in the pofitive eledricity. In this, the rays
evidently diverge from the points. We may, indeed,
fuppofe them to be converging from many points in the
furrounding air towards the metallic point. But why
fliould we imagine that a vilible ray would break out
from one place of the atmofphere more than another ?
The air, we know, refills the motion of the eledric
fluid, and it certainly muft refill it equally. Of confe-
quence, when this fluid is coming from the air towards
a pointed condudor, it muft percolate flowly and invi-
fibly through the air on all fides equally, till it comes
fo near that it is able to break through the interme¬
diate fpace ; and as this will likevvife be equal, or nearly
fo, all round, the negative eledricity muft appear like
a Heady luminous globule on the point, not lengthen¬
ing or Ihortening by Hallies as the pofitive kind does.
Eledricians have therefore determined with a great
deal of reafon, that when a point is eledrified politive-
ly the matter flows out from it.
It is to be remarked, however, that in moft cafes, if
not in all, a body cannot be eledrified negatively till it
has firft become pofitively eledrified; and it is in the
ad of difeharging its pofitive eledricity that it become*
negative. Thus, fuppofe a coated phial to be fet up¬
on an infulated ftand, and its knob is approached by
that of another bottle charged pofitively : a fmall fpark
is obferved between them, and both fides of the infu¬
lated bottle are eledrified pofitively; but as foon as
the finger is brought near to the outfide, the pofitive
eledricity is difeharged by a fpark, and a negative one
appears. But from what hath been already advanced,
3 M 2 it
E L F. C T R
it is evident, that pofitive electricity is when the fluid
hath a tendency to leave any body, and the negative
eleftricity when it hath the fame tendency to enter it.
Therefore, as the eleCtric fluid is fubjeCt to mechanical
laws as well 2s other fluids, it muft follow, that thefe
tendencies are produced and kept up by the motions being direded outwards in the one, and inwards in the
i c i t y. Sea.vr.
from any other. The vibration above-mentioned, in Theory.
which pofitive eleCtricity confiits, being kept up by the  v—
equable preflure on all fides, the body is neither moved
to one fide nor another. But when a negatively elec¬
trified body is brought near, the force of the vibration
excited originally in the air, and eleCtric fluid in the
air, furrounding thefe bodies. If this principle is kept
in view, it will lead us to an eafy explanation of many
deCtrical phenomena, for which no fatisfaCtory reafon
hath hitherto been given.
§ 8. Of EleSric AttraElion and Repulfion.
It hath now been fhown, that, in bodies eleCtrified
pofitively, there is a flux of eleCtric matter from their
furface all round; that is, the fluid contained in their
pores puflies out on every fide, and communicates a fi-
milar motion to the electric fluid contained in the ad¬
jacent atmofphere. This muft of neceflity very foon
other, the preffure of the fluid in the intermediate
fpace between them is greatly leffened ; and of con-
fequence the preflure on the other fides drives them to¬
gether, and they are faid to attract each other. If
another body, eleCtrified alfo politively, is brought near
to the firft, the force of the vibrations are directly
oppofed to one another, and therefore the bodies re¬
cede from each other, and are faid to repel one ano¬
ther. The cafe is the fame with two bodies negative¬
ly eleCtrifieiJ: for there the eleCtricity, as far as it ex¬
tends round the bodies, confifts of a vibratory motion
of the eleCtric fluid ; and the vibrations being directed,
towards both the bodies, as towards two different cen-
exhauft the body of its eleCtric matter altogether, if tres, muft neceffarily caufe them recede from each o-
it was not inftantaneoufly fupplied after every emif-
iion. But this fupply is immediately procured from
the furrounding atmofphere. The quantity fent off is
inftantly returned from the air, and the vibratory mo¬
tion or ttruggle between the air and eleCtric fluid, which
hath been often mentioned, immediately takes place.
The pofitive eleCtricity therefore confifts in a vibratory
ther ; becaufe, if they remained in contaCt, the vibra¬
tory motions would interfere with and deftroy one
another.
When a fmall body is brought within the fphere of
another’s eleCtricity, the equable preffure of that vibra¬
tory or eleCtrical fphere is fomewhat leffened upon the
fide near which the fecond body is brought; andthere-
motion in the air and eleCtric fluid ; and the force of fore it is immediately impelled towards the firft by the
this vibration is direCted outwards from the eleCtrified
body. In bodies negatively eleCtrified, the fluid con-
aCtion of the furrounding fluid, in order to keep up the
equilibrium. As foon as it arrives there, the vibra-
tained in the neighbouring atmofphere is direCted to- tions of the fluid around the firft body being commu-
wards the body fo eleCtrified. But it is certain, that nicated to that within the potes of the fecond, it im-
'Why elec¬
tric appear-
tinue5 A"
long.
this motion inwards cannot be continued unlefs there
is alfo a motion of the fluid outwards from the body.
In this cafe alfo there is a vibratory motion, but the
force of it is direfted inwards, and as the fource of it
iles not in the body, but in the furrounding atmofphere,
it manifefts itfelf fomewhat lefs vigoroufly.
The reafon why thefe motions are continued for fuch
■ a length of time as we fee they are, is, the extreme
mobility of the eleCfric fluid. It doth not indeed ap¬
pear from any experiments, that this fluid hath the
leaft fri&ion among its parts. A motion once induced
into it muft therefore continue for ever, until it is
counteracted by fome other motion of the fame fluid.
Hence, when a vibratory motion is once introduced
among the particles of tire eleClric fluid contained in
any fubftance, that motion will be kept up by the fur¬
rounding fluid, let the body-be removed to what place
mediately acquires a fphere of eleCtricity as well as the
firft, and is confequently repelled. The repulfion con¬
tinues till the vibration ceafes either by the action of
the air, or by the body coming in contaCt with another
much larger than itfelf ; in which cafe the eleCtricity is
faid to be difcharged. If, after this difcharge of elec¬
tricity, the fecond body is ftill within the eleCtric
fphere of the firft, it will immediately be attracted, and
very foon after repelled, and fo on alternately till the
eleCtricity of the former totally ceafes.
£ 9. Of the Difcharge of Electricity by Sparks upon blunt
Conductors, andflently by pointed Ones.
The manner in which this is accompliihed will belt
appear from confidering the nature,of what is com- ^
monly called electricity. This cannot appear but in an £ie(2ricity
eleCtric fubftance; and the fubftance.in which it doth ®n!y fliows
we pleafe. There is no occafion indeed for fuppofing appear is the air. The prime conductor of an elec,- <dtlf in the
any thing like an eleCtric atmofphere round the eleCtri¬
fied body. The cafe is exaCtly the fame as with a
burning body. Let a candle be carried to what place
will, it will ftill burn ; but it would be abfurd to
trical machine difcovers no other properties in jtfelf, 81
when eleCtrified, than it had before. The metal is
equally hard, Ihining, and impenetrable. The elec¬
tricity, or properties of attracting, repelling, &c. are all
fay, that the fire furrounded it like an atmofphere, as lodged in the air; and if the conductor is placed in va~
we know the fire is kept up, by the air only, which is
changed every moment. In like manner, the pofitive
and negative eleCtricities, which are two different mo¬
tions of the eleCtric fluid, are kept up by the air and
eleCtric matter contained in it; and, wherever the elec¬
trified body is carried, thefe fluids are equally capable
of continuing them.
The phenomena of attraction and repulfion are now
eafily explained. Let us fuppofe a body pofitively
deCtrified fufpended by a final! thread, at a difiance
r«0,~they inftantly ceafe. It hath already been fhown,
that the eleCtric matter runs over the furface of corv
duCting fubftances in great quantities, like a ffream of
water running from one place to another. In this
manner it will not pals over the furface of electrics. It
enters their fubflance, and paffes through it with a vi¬
bratory motion. This vibratory motion always fhows
a refiftance ; nor is it in any cafe pofiible to induce a
vibration without firft impreffing a motion in one di¬
rection, and then refilling it by a contrary motion-
5 Round
Sea. VI. ELECT
-Theory. Round the furface of an electrified body fufpended in
-~v the air, therefore, there is always an equable preflure,
by which the emiffion of the eleftric fluid is every mo¬
ment checked, and by which its vibrations are oeca-
fioned. When a metallic fubitance is brought near the
eleftrified body, the fluid has an opportunity of making
its efcape, provided it could get at the metal, becaufe
it could run along its furface. The preflare of the air
is alfo leflened on that fide which the conducing fub-
ftance approaches. The whole effort of the electric
matter contained in the vibratory fphere is exerted
againft that Angle place, becaufe the reliftance is leafl.
If the body has a broad furface, however, the difpro-
portion between thefe refiftances is not fo great as
when its furface is lefs. Let us fuppofe, for inftance,
that the furface of the conducing fubftance contains
an inch fquare, and that the whole furface of the elec¬
trified fphere contains only fix fquare inches. When
the conducing fubftance approaches, all the preflure is
direCted towards that place; and ttye effort made by
the eleCtric matter to efcape there, is five times as great
as what it is any where elfe. Neverthelefs, though it
has a vibratory motion in the fubftance of the air, it
cannot have a progreflive motion through it without
violently difplacing its parts ; and an inch fquare of air
makes a confiderable refiftance. At laft, however, if
this refiftance is every moment made lefs by approach-
, ing the conducing fubftance nearer to the eleCtrified
body, the eleChric matter breaks through the thin plate
of air, ftrikes the conductor, and runs along it. The
fpark is produced by the refiftance it meets with from
the air. But if, inftead of a body with a broad fur¬
face, we pvefent the point of a needle, whofe furface is
perhaps not above the ten-thoufandth part of a fquare
inch, the effort of the eleCtric matter to difcbarge it’felf
there will be 60,000 times greater than at any other
place, becaufe the whole effort of the fix fquare inches,
of which we fuppofe the fuiface of the eleCtric fphere
to confift, is exerted againft that Angle point. The air
alfo refills, as in the former cafe ; but it can refill only
in proportion to the extent of its furface which covers
the conducting body; and this, being only the ten-
thoufandth part of a fquare inch, mult be exceeding¬
ly little. As foon therefore as a needle, or any other
fine pointed body, is prefented to an eleCtrified fub¬
ftance, the eleCtric matter is urged thither with great
velocity ; and as it hath an opportunity of running
along the needle, its vibrations quickly ceafe, and the
deCtricity is faid to be drawn off.—This drawing off,
however, does not extend all round the eleCtrified bo¬
dy, if means are ufed to keep up the eleCtricity perpe¬
tually. Thus, if, on the end of the prime conductor,
there are faftened a number of fine threads, hairs, &c.
when the cylinder is turned, the threads on the end
will diverge, and fpread out like as many rays pro¬
ceeding from a centre. If a point is prefented on-one
fide of the conductor, though at a cenfiderable di-
ftance, the threads on one fide will lofe their diver¬
gency and hang down, but thofe on the other fide
will continue to diverge. The reafon of this is, the
difficulty with which the eleCtric fluid gets through the
atmofphere, even where the refiftance ofit ismadeas
little as poffible ; and hence alfo we may fee why more
conductors than one may be neceffary for the fafety of
large, buildings. See.LiGHTMiNG,
R. I C I T Y. 461
$10. Why Pojitlve EkSricity hath a Tendency to induce ^
the Negative Kind on any Body kept within its Sphere
of AWion, and why Negative JLleSricity produces the
Pqfitive Kind in Jimilar Circumjiances.
This is one of the eleCtrical phenomena moft diffi¬
cult to be folved ; and indeed feems totally infol-
vable, unlefs we give up the idea of cncumulation and
deficiency of the eleCtric fluid in different bodies. On
Dr Franklin’s principles, no folution hath been at¬
tempted. Mr Cavallo places this ampfig iht proper¬
ties of eleCtricity for which he doth not pJretend to ac¬
count, but gives as the caufes of other phenomena. It
is indeed certain, that if a body hath already too much
eleCtricity or any thing elfe, it cannot be continually
taking from thofe around it; and if it hath too little,
it cannot be continually giving them. By attending
to the principles above laid down, however, this phe¬
nomenon admits of an eafy folution. As pofitive elec¬
tricity confifts in a vibratory motion of the eledric
matter in the pores of any body, and to fome diftance
through the air, while at the fame time the force is
direCled outwards from the body, it is plain, that if
any other body is brought within this fphere, the di¬
rection of the vibration is changed ; for what is out¬
wards from the one is inwards to the other. But a
vibratory motion, the force of which is direCted in¬
wards, is what conftitutes negative eleCtricity ; and,
therefore, no fooner is any body placed at fome diftance
from one pofitively eleCtrified, than it immediately be¬
comes negatively fo. The fame reafon may be given
why negative eleCtricity produces the pofitive kind on
a body placed near it. In the negative kind, the forc«
of the vibration is direCted inwards. If another body ia7
is brought near, the vibration which is inwards to the
firft muft be outwards from the fecond, which thus eledric
becomes pofitively eleCtrified. The only difficulty fluid on one
here, is to account for this motion, which is only in. fltle 1’fud-
ward or outward to one fide of the body brought near
the eleCtrified one, being fo fuddenly propagated allfound'V
round. This, however, muft eafily be feen to arifebody.
from the extreme fubtility of the eleCtric fluid, and its
effort to keep up an equilibrium in all - parts, which it
will never fuffer to be broken. When this fluid parties
inward to one fide of a body, the fluid contained in
that body would immediately yield, and allow- a free
paffage to wlrat came after, if its yielding was not ob-
ftruCtedhy fomething on the other fide. This-obftruc-
tion arifes from the air, which cannot admit a progref-'
five motion of eleCtric matter through it. No fooner,
therefore, is a purtr made againft one fide than -a con¬
trary one is made againft the other; and thus the body
inftantly becomes eleCtrified all round. ^
On thefe principles, aVfo, may we account for the Zon^f
zones of pofitive and negative deCtricity which are to pofitive and
be found-on the furface of glafs tubes *; and efpecfally negative
in eleCtrified air. W'hen the prime conductor of a
machine is ftrongly eleCtrified pofitively, it is throwingfor-
out the fluid from it in all directions. The air can-* See u° 6S»-
not receive this fluid without throwing out that which
it alfo contains ; and this fhows, that Ample electrifi¬
cation can neither increafe nor diminirtr the denfity of the
air, which is alfo vouched by numberlefs experiments.
But if the air throws out its eleCtric fluid in all direc¬
tions, it muft throw part of it back uppn the conduo*. -
taif.
462 ELECTRICITY. Sea. VI.
Theory, tor, and confequently obft.ruits operations. This
  r— Hkewife is found to be the cafe ; for it is impoffible to
make an ele&ric machine ail long with the fame de¬
gree of ftrength, owing to the ele&ricity communica¬
ted from it to the air. But if the condudor and air
are thus reciprocally throwing the ele&ric matter back
upon one another, it is impofiible but another zone of
air which lies at a greater diftance muft be continual¬
ly receiving it, or be eledrified negatively. But this
cannot receive, without alfo emitting the fluid it con¬
tains ; whichv therefore, will be thrown upon another
zone behind it, and partly back upon the tirft. The
original force of the fluid being now fpreadover a large
fpace. will confequently be diminifhed; and the fuc-
ceeding zone will be eledrified weakly, though pofi-
tively. In like-manner, a fucceeding zone mull yield,
and receive the fluid from this; which will confe-
quently be eledrified negatively, though weaker than
the former : and thus zones of pofitive and nega¬
tive eledricity will gradually fucceed each other in
the air, till no traces of either are to be found.—In
thefe zones, it muil be remembered, that there is a
centre peculiar to each, and from this centre the vibra¬
tions proceed either inward or outward. Thus, when
the machine is firft fet in motion, a vibration is pro¬
pagated from it as from a centre to fume diltance in
the air, and the air is at firft negatively eledrified. But
as this vibratory motion cannot be extended far in one
diredion, vibrations begin to be propagated in all di-
redions from another centre at fume diftance. The
condudor becomes then lefs pofitively eledrified than
before ; however, by means of the machine, its eledri¬
city is ftill kept up, though weaker ; but a zone of air
beyond the firft, where the refiftance is much lefs, be¬
comes negatively eledrified. This again cannot con¬
tinue long till vibrations outwards arife from another
centre, and fo on. Jt is fcarce needful to add here,
that the longer the eledrification is continued, and the
ilronger it is, the broader thefe zones muft be.
§ II. Of the Leyden Phial.
The phenomena of the Leyden phial are eafily
explained from what hath been already advanced.
Glafs and other eledric fubftances are fo conftituted,
that they can tranfmit the vibratory motions of the
eledric matter, though they cannot admit of any
confiderable progreffive one. Conduding fubilances,
on the other hand, admit of a progreffive motion, but
not fo eafily of a vibratory one. When the eledric
fluid is procured from the earth by an eledtric ma¬
chine, if the condudor had a communication with the
earth, all the matter colleded by the cylinder would
run along the condudor into the earth, and not a fpark
or other appearance of eledricity would be procured
in the air. But when the condudor is infulated, the
matter is forced to go off into the air, and there pro¬
duces the vibratory motions already mentioned. If a
pane of glafs which has no metallic coating touches
the condudor, though it is permeable by the vibratory
motion of the fluid, yet a confiderable refiftance is
made, and the fluid cannot eafily diffufe itfelf over its
furface. Neverthelefs, it will foon ftiovv figns of ha¬
ving received eledricity, that is. of having the fluid
within its pores thrown intri a vibratory motion. This
^notion is direded outwards, from the middle of the
fubftance of the glafs, to the furface, and a confider- Theory.
able way beyond it on both fides. Both tides of the  
glafs are then pofitively eledrified. If a conduding tot)
fubftance touches one of the fides of the glafs, the vi-ln what I
brations on that fide are deftroyed ; becaufe the fluid phiainbe-
which occafioned them yields to the refiftance it met comes char-'
with, and runs along the condudor into the earth. ButKe<1- ^
no fooner is this done, than the power which refilled
the vibration outward from the glafs having got the
better in the manner juft now explained, a new vibra¬
tion is produced by that refilling power ; and the force
of this vibration is direded towards the fide from
whence the eledricity was drawn off, which therefore
becomes eledrified negatively. Thus may we under-
ftand how a pane of glafs, or any other eledric, may
receive pofitive electricity on the one fide and nega¬
tive on the other, to as high a degree as we pleafe.
But there is found to be a limit to every charge of e-
ledricity we can give ; and this limit is the refiftance
of the air. A phial will contain double the charge in
air doubly condenfed that it does in the common at-
mofphere ; and when once the vibration becomes too
great to be borne, the pofitive fide of the glafs throws
out pencils of light, and will receive no more eledri¬
city in that Hate of the atmofphere.
Thus, in every charged phial, there is a violent im- why it re-
pulfe or vibration of the fluid, outward from the poll- ta-ns its
tive, and inward to the negative, fide. As long as charge. \
thefe continue, the phial continues charged. As the
eledric fluid feems to.be fubjed to no other natural
power, but controls all its own adions only by mo¬
ving in oppofite diredions, it is plain, that if a char¬
ged phial is carefully kept from any of thofe means by
which it is known to be difcharged, it muft keep its
charge for a long time ; and thus, by keeping phials
within glafs cafes, their charge will be retained for fix
or eight weeks, or perhaps a great deal longer. The
only method of difcharging a phial, is by making a
communication between its coatings. The fluid pref- ^
fing out of the pofitive fide, now yields to the preffure Reafouof
of that from the negative fide, and runs along the con- its dif-
dudor. But no fooner does it come near the negative charge,
fide of the phial, than, meeting with more of the fame
kind, the current of which is direded the fame way,
both together break through the air with a violent
flafh and crack, and all appearances of eledricity ceafe.
— In this, as in all other eledrical experiments, it is
eafy to fee, that the force, velocity, &c. of the fluid
depends entirely on the preffure of that which furrounds
us. Nature hath appointed a certain conftitution or
modification of the eledric fluid in all ..erreilrial bo¬
dies, and like wife all round the earth. In our elec¬
trical experiments, we violate this c^nftitution in fome
degree. When this violation is but fmall, the powers
of nature operate gently in repairing the diforder we
have introduced ; but when any confiderable deviation
is occafioned, the natural powers reftore the'original
conftitution with extreme violence.
§12. The Phenomena of the EleBrophorus accounted for.
The eledrophorus is a machine reprefented Plate
CLXXVII. fig. 74. It confifts of two plates, A and B,
ufually of a circular form; though they may be made
fquare, or of the figure of a'parallelogram, with moreeafe,
and with equal advantage. At firft the under plate was
Seft.vr. E LECTRICTIY. 46j
Theory, of glafs, covered over with fealing-wax ; but there is machine, were with a view to difcover which fubftance Theoiy.
 little occadon for being particular either with regard would anfwer beft for coating the glafs plate, in order '*
’1Z to the fubftance of the lower plate, or the eledric to produce the greateft effed. 1 tried feveral fubdan-
^onoflhe which is put upon it. A metallic plate, however, is ces either Ample or mixed} and at la(t I olfrved, that
eledlrof ho- perhaps preferable to a wooden one^. though the latter the ftrongeft in power, as well as the ealieit. 1 could
rus. will anfwer the purpofe very well. This plate is to be ccAidrud, were thofe made with the fecond fort of
covered with fome ele&ric fubftance. Pure fulphur fealing-wax, fpread upon a thick plate of glafs. A
aufwersvery ness as well as the dearer eledilcs, feal- plate that I made after this manner, and no more
ing-wax, gum-lac, &c.; but it hath this bad quality, than fix inches in diameter, when once excited, could
that, by rubbing it, fome exceeding fubtile fleams are charge a coated phial feveral times fuccefllvely, fo ftrong-
produced, which infed the perfon’s clothes, and even ly as to pierce a hole through a card with the difcharge.
his whole body, with a very difagreeable fmell, and Sometimes the metal plate, when feparated from it,
will change filver in his pocket to a blackifh colour.— was fo ftrongly eledrified, that it darted itrong flaihes
The upper plate of the eledrophorus is a brafs plate, to the table upon which the electric plate was laid,
or a board or piece of pafteboard covered with tin-foil and even into the air, befides cauiing the fcnfation of
or gilt paper, nearly of the fame fize with the eledric the fpider’s web upon the face brought near it, like an
plate, though it will not be the worfe that it is eledric ftrohgly excited. 1 he power of fome of my
fomewhat larger. It is furniftied with a glafs handle plates is fo ftrong, that fometimes the eledric pla e
(I), which ought to be fcrewed into the centre. The adheres to the metal when this is lifted up, nor will
manner of uilng this machine is as follows. Firft, they fteparate even if the metal plate is touched with'
the.plate B is excited by rubbing its coated fide with the finger or other condudor. It is remarkable, that
a piece of new white flannel, or a piece of hare’s flein. fometimes they will not ad well at firft, but they may be
Even a common hard fhoe-brnfh, having the hair a little rendered very good by fcraping with the edge of a
greafed, will excite fulphur extremely well. When this knife the fttining or gloffy ftrrface of the wax. This
. plate is excited as much as poffible, it is fet upon the leems analogous to the well-known property of glafs,
table with the eledrie fide uppermoft. Secondly, the which is, that new cylinders or globes, made for elec-
metal plate is laid upon the excited eledric, as repre- trical purpofes, are often very bad eledrics at firft;
fented in the figure. Thirdly, the metal plate is but that they improve by being worked, j. e. by having
touched with the finger or any other condudor, which, their furface a little worn. Paper alfo has this property,
on touching the plate, receives a fpark from it. Laftly, “ If, after having excited the fealing-wax, I lay the 2Xpei;4
the metal plate A, being held by the extremity of its plate with the wax upon the table, and the glafs up-mems with;
glafs handle (I'1, is feparattd from the eledric plate ; permoft, i. e. contrary to the common method ; then,tl!e
and, after it is elevated above that plate, it will be found on making the ufual experiments of putting the meta^ptloru,•
ilrorglv eledrified with an eledricity contrary to that plate on it, and taking the fpark, &e. I obferve it to
of the eledric plate ; in which cafe, it will give a very be attended with the contrary eledricity ; that is, if I
flrong fpark to any condudor brought near it. By lay the metal plate upon the eledric one, and, while in
fetting the metal upon the eledric plate, touching it that fituation, touch it with an infulated body, that
with the finger, and feparating it fucceffively, a great body acquires the pofitive eledricity; and the metallic,
number of {parks may be obtained apparently of the removed from the cledtfic plate, appears to be nega-
fame ftrength, and that without exciting aeain the elec- live; whereas it would become pofitive, if laid upon
trie plate. If thefe fparks are repeatedly given to the the excited wax. This experiment, 1 find, anfwers in
knob of a coated phial, it will prefently become the fame manner if an eledric plate is ufed which has
charged. the fealing-wax coating on both fides, or one which-
Mr Caval “ t0 ^ continuance of the virtue of this elec- has no glafs plate.
lo’s olner trie plate i fays Mr Cavallo), when once excited, with- “ If the brafs plate, after being feparated from, be
vatioiio. out repeating the excitation, I think there is not the prefented with the edge toward the wax, lightly touch-
leaft foundation for believing it perpetual, as fome ing it, and thus be drawn over its furface, I find that
gentlemen have fuppofed ; it being nothing more than the eledricity of the metal is abforbed by the fealing-
an excited eledric, it muft gradually lofe its power by wax, and thus the eledric piate lofes part of its power;
imparting continually fome of its eledricity to the air, and if this operation is repeated five or fix times, the
or other ful.fiances contiguous to it. Indeed its elec- eledric plate lofes its power entirely, fo that a new ex¬
tricity, although it could never be proved to be perpe- citation is necefiary in order to revive it.
tual by experiments, lafts a very long time, it having “ If, inftead of laying the eledric plate upon the
been obferved to be pretty ftrong feveral days, and table, it is placed upon an eledric ftand, fo as to be ac-
even weeks, after excitation. The great duration of the curately infulated, then the metal plate fet on it ac-
eledricity of this plate, I think, depends upon two quires fo little eledricity, that it can only be difeover-
caufes: firft, becaufe it does not lofe any eledricity by
the operation of putting the_ metal'plate upon it, &c.
and, fecondly, becaufe of its flat figure, which expo-
fes it to a lefs quantity of air, in comparifon with a
flick of fealing-wax, or the like, which, being cylin¬
drical, expofes its furface to a greater quantity of air,
which is continually robbing the excited elect ‘
their virtue.
1 The fit ft experiments that I made, relative to this
ed with an eledrometer ; which fhows, that the elec¬
tricity of this plate will not be confpicuous on one fide
of it, if the oppofite fide is not at liberty either to part
with or acquire more of the eledric fluid In confe-
quence of this experiment, and in order to afeertain how-
the oppofite fides of the eledric plate would beaffeded
of in different circumftances, I made the following expe¬
riments.
Upon an eletftric ftand E, (Plate CLXXVII. fig^yq.)
I Li
464 ELECT
Theory, J placed a circular tin-plate, nearly fix inches in diame-
ter, which by a flender wire H communicated with an
eleftrometer of pith-balls G, which was alfo infulated
upon the ele&ric {land F. I then placed the excited
eledlric plate D of fix inches and a quarter in diameter,
upon the tin-plate, with the wax uppermoft ; and on
removing my hand from it, the ele&rometer G, which
communicated with the tin-plate, i. e. with the under
fide of the eleftric plate, immediately opened with ne¬
gative ele&ricity. If, by touching the ele&rometer, I
took that ele&ricity off, the ele&rompter did not after¬
wards diverge. But if now, or when the ele&rometer
diverged, 1 prefented my hand open, or any other un-
infulated condudlor, at the diftance of about one or
two inches, over the ele&ric plate, without touching
it, then the pith balls diverged ; or, if they diverged
before, came together, and immediately diverged again
with pofitive ele&ricity :—I removed the hand, and the
balls came together;—approached the hand, and they
diverged : and fo on.
“ If, while the pith-balls diverged with negative
eleftricity, I laid the metal plate, holding it by the ex¬
tremity K of its glafs handle, upon the wax, the balls
came, for a little time, towards one another, but foon
opened again with the fame, i. e. negative ele&ricity.
“ If, whihl the metallic reded upon the eleftric
plate, I touched the former, the eledlrometer imme--
diately diverged with pofitive eledlricity; which if, by
touching the eleftrometer, I took off, the eledlrometer
continued without divergence.—I touched the metal
plate again, and the eleddrometer opened again ; and
fo on for a confiderable number of times, until the
metal plate had acquired its full charge. On taking
now the metal plate up, the eledlrometer G indantly
diverged with drong negative eledlricity.
“ I repeated the above-defcribed experiments, with
this only difference in the difpofition of the apparatus,
i. e. I laid the eledlric plate D with the excited feal-
ing-wax upon the circular tin-plate, and the glafs up-
permod ; and the difference in their refult was, that
where the eledlricity had been pofitive in the former
difpofition of the apparatus, it now became negative,
and vice verfa ; except that, when I fird laid the elec¬
tric plate upon the tin, the eledlrometer G diverged
with negative eledlricity, as well in this as in the other
difpofition of the apparatus.
“ I repeated all the above experiments with an elec¬
tric plate, which, befides the fealing-wax coating on
one fide, had a drong coat of varnidi on the other
fide, and their refult was fimilar to that of thofe made
with the above-defcribed plate.”
-Miftakes in This is Mr Cavallo’s account of the eledlrophorus;
Mr Cavai- but there is one part of it in which he mud certainly
lo’s obfer- be midaken. He tells us, that “ if in dead of laying
nations. eledlric plate upon the table, it is fet upon an elec¬
tric dand. fo as to be accurately infulated, then the
metal plate fet on it acquires fo little eledlricity, that
it can only be difcovered by an eledtrometer.” In
what manner this gentleman came to midake a plain
fadl fo egregioufly, is not eafy to determine ; but it is
certain, than an eledlrophorus, indead of having its
virtue impaired by being infulated, has it greatly in-
creafed, at lead the fphere of its adtivity is greatly en¬
larged. When lying on the table, if the upper plate
put upon it without being touched with the finger,
R I c I T Y. Sea.vr.
it will not drow much fign of eledlricity. But as foon Theory,
as it is put on the eledlric dand, both the upper and "—y—
under fide appear drongly negative. A thread will be
attracted at the didance of eight or ten inches. If
both the upper and under fide are touched at the fame
time, a drong fpark will be obtained from both, but
always of the fame kind of eledlricity, namely, the ne¬
gative kind. If the upper plate is now lifted up, a
drong fpark of pofitive eledlricity will be obtained
from it; and on putting it down again, two fparks of
negative eledlricity will be produced. Ir(-
The Angularity of this experiment is, that it pro- Singular
duces always double the quantity of negative eledlricity appearance
that it doth of the pofitive kind; which cannot be °.n infula-
done by any other method yet known. Another very^'^^
furprifing circumdance is, that when the eledlrophorus ras.
remains in its infulated fituation, you need not always
touch the upper and under fide of the plates at once,
in order to procure pofitive eledlricity from the upper
plate: ft is fufficient to touch both fides only once. On
lifting up the upper plate, a fpark of pofitive eledlrici¬
ty is obtained as already mentioned. On putting it
down again, a fpark of the negative kind is obtained
from the upper plate, even though you do not touch
the lower one. On lifting up the upper plate, a fpark
of pofitive eledlricity is obtained, but weaker than it
would have been had both fides been touched at once.
Putting down the upper plate again without touching
both, a dill weaker fpark fird of negative and then of
pofitite eledlricity will be obtained from the upper one.
Thus the fparks-will go on continually diminilhing, to
the number perhaps of two or three hundred. But at
lad, when the eledlricity of the whole machine feems
to be totally lod, if both fides are touched at once, it
will indantly be reilored to its full drength, and the
double fpark of negative, with the Angle one of pofi¬
tive eledtricity, will be obtained without intermiffion as
before. 1x7
To account for all thefe phenomena very particular- General _
ly, is perhaps irapofiible, without a greater degree
knowledge concerning the internal fabric of bodies than C*
we have accefs to attain. In general, however, it is
evident, that the phenomena of the eledlrophorus arife
from the difpofition that the eledlric matter hath to
keep up an equilibrium within itfelf throughout every
part of the univerfe. In confequence of this, no mo¬
tion of the eledlric matter can be produced upon the
one fide of a body, but it mud immediately be balan¬
ced by a correfponding one on the oppofite fide ; and
in proportion to the drength of the one, fo will the
drength of the other be. When the under plate of the
eledlrophorus is excited, the negative eledlricity or vi¬
bratory adtion of the eledlric matter towards the ex¬
cited fide, is produced ; and the moment that fuch an
adlion is produced on one fide, it is refided by a fimi¬
lar one on the oppofite fide, and thus the eledlropho¬
rus becomes negatively eledlrified on, both fides. As
long as the under part of the machine communicates
with the earth, the vibratory motion is impeded by the
progredive one towards the earth. This makes the
refidance on the under fide lefs, and therefore the vi¬
bratory motion on the upper part extends but a fmall
way. When the plate is infulated, the eledlric matter
has not an opportunity of efcaping to the earth as be¬
fore, becaufe it is .drongly refilled by the air; a vi¬
bration
Sea. VII. ELECT
Method of bration therefore takes place on both fides, and ex-
Eleftrical tenc*s to a great diftance from the plate. When the
Appartus, uPPer plate is fet upon the eleftrophorus, the fame
&c. kind of ele&ricity, viz. the negative kind, is commu-
> nicated to iti When both fides are touched with the
finger, or with any other conducting, fubdance, both
eleftricities are fuddenly taken off, becaufe the eleftric
matter running along the conducing fubftance on both
fides, puts an end to the vibratory motion in the air,
which conftitutes the very effence of what we call
electricity. There is now a quiet and equal balance of
the eleCtric matter on both iides, and therefore no
figns of eleftricity are (hown. But as foon as the up¬
per plate is taken off, this balance is deftroyed. The
fluid in the metal plate had not been able to penetrate
the eleCtric fubftance in fuch a manner as to put a flop
to the vibrations of what was within it. As foon then
as the plate is taken off-, the eleftricity or vibratory
motion towards the eleftric breaks out at that fide.
But this motion inwards to the eleCtric, which confti-
tutes negative eleCtricity, neceflarily becomes outward
from the plate ; and as no motion of the fluid can be
produced on one fide of a body, but wthat is imme¬
diately communicated to the other, the upper plate
becomes electrified pofitively> and the under one nega¬
tively on both fides.
Sect. VII. Of the Method of vfihg the Eleftrical
Apparatus already deferibed, with fome prac¬
tical Rules for performing Experiments with it
to the befl Advantage.
The machines already deferibed are calculated for
exhibiting the phenomena of eleCtricity in a very high
degree; and in general the following effeCts may be
u8 expeCted from them.
Appear- i. On whirling the cylinder in contaCt with the
ances^on rubber, without bringing any conducing body near
efedrirffcy- t^e f°rrner> or infolating the latter, we will perceive in
liuder. the dark a ftream of fire feemingly ifluing from the
place of contaCt between the rubber and cylinder, and
adapting itfelf to the form of the cylinder fo as to in¬
volve it in a blue flame mixed with bright fparks; the
whole making a very perceptible whizzing and fnap-
ping noife. If the finger is brought near the cylinder
in this fituation, the flame and fparks will leave the
cylinder and Itrike it; and this phenomenon will con-
119 tinue as long as the globe is whirled round.
On adding z. On applying the prime conductor, the light will
conductor 3 Sreat meafure vaniih, and be perceptible only upon
the points prefented by it to the cylinder: but if the
finger is now brought near the condu&or, a very fmart
fpark will ftrike it, and that at a greater or fmaller
diftance according to the ftrength of the machine. This
fpark, when the eleCtricity is not very ftrong, appears
like a ftraight line of fire; but if the machine aCts
very powerfully, it will put on the appearance of zig¬
zag lightning, throwing, out other fparks from the
corners, and ftrike with fuch force as to give confider-
Vot. VI. Part II.
R I C I T Y> 465
able pain to thofe who receive it. Thefe fparks in Method of
certain circumftances will fet fire to fpirits, tinder, t.he.
, . r ’ ’JileClncal
gunpowder, &c. Apparatus,
3. If inftead of the hand or any part of the human &c.
body, we hold the knob of a coated phial near the *v * *
conduftor, a vaft number of fparks will appear between 120
them, firft with a loud fnapping noife, but gradually
diminiftiing until at laft it ceafes, and pencils of blueS
flame intermixed with fmall fparks will be thrown out
by the phial; and if the latter is ftill kept near the
conductor, it will in a little time difeharge itfelf with
a violent flafti and crack; after which, if the phial has
not been broke by the difeharge, the fparks from the
conductor will begin as before, and the fame pheno¬
mena be repeated as long as the cylinder is turned, or
till the phial breaks. ur
4. On applying the battery, though the accumula- On apply*
tion of eleCtricity be much greater than in a fiugle the
phial, the figns of it are much lefs apparent; and fparks
will always pafs between the conductor and knob lead¬
ing to the battery, by reafon of the great evaporation
from the latter into the air. But here, if one of the jars
difeharges itfelf, all the reft are likewife difeharged in
the fame moment, and fome of them generally broken.
5. A thread or other light body fufpended near the
conductor will be attracted at a confiderable diftance ;
and the force of attraction will be greater or lefs ac¬
cording to the power of the machine.
6. The eleCtricity in all cafes will be pofitive if thi
rubber be not infulated, and negative if it is fo : and
by Mr Nairne’s contrivance of having a conductor
connected with the infulated rubber, and another with
the cylinder, both kinds of eleCtricity may be had
with equal eafe.
All thefe phenomena are the more remarkable inEffe^of
proportion to the power of the machine. That ufed the great
in Teyler’s mufeum is the ftrongell of which we have machine in
yet heard ; and its effeCts are as follow. muf um
On prefenting a very iharp fteel point to the prime”1 eUm’
conductor, a luminous ftream of about half an inch
was perceived between them. On fixing the point to
the conductor fo as to projeCt three inches from it,
ftreams of light were thrown out from the point fix
inches long when a ball of three inches in diameter
was prefented, but only two inches in length on pre¬
fenting another point.
The fenfation called the fpider’s web on the face of
the byftanders (n) is often felt at the diftance of eight
feet from the prime conductor. A thread fix feet
long was fenfibly at traded at the diftance of 30 from
the prime conductor, and a pointed wire appeared lu¬
minous at the diftance of 28 feet; a cork-ball electro¬
meter diverged at the diftance of 40 feet.
A Angle fpark from the conductor melted a con¬
fiderable length of gold-leaf; gunpowder and other1
combuftibles, inclofed in a paper cartridge, with a
fharp point in the middle, were fired; and when an¬
other conductor communicating with the earth was
placed at the diftance of 21, or fometimes 24 iches
3 ^ from
(b) This is a kind of fenfatiofTalways produced by ftrong eleCtricity, fomething refembling the creeping of
infeCts or the motion of a light body, fuch as a fpider’s web, over the ikin, as already mentioned. It feems to
proceed from the attraction and electrification of the fmall hairs with which the body is covered.
466 ELECT!
Method of from the prime conduftor of the machine, a ftream of
EleJtvkal ^re was Perceive(l between them. This was crooked,
Apparatus, anc^ darting out many lateral bruihes cf a very large
&c ’ fixe, in the manner already mentioned. A Leyden
phial, containing about one fquare foot of coated fur-
face, was fully charged by about half a turn of the
winch fo as to difcharge itfelf; and by repeated trials
it was found, that in one minute it difcharged itfelf
76, 78, and frequently 80 times. Laftly, it was found,
that though the condu&or, which received the fparks
from the prime one of the machine, communicated
with the earth by a wire -l-ths of an inch in diameter,
this wire would give fmall fpatks to any conducing
body brought near it, as if even this wire had not been
fufficient to conduit the quantity of eledricity it re¬
ceived from the machine very readily to the earth.
Though thefe effefts are not to be expeded from
our ordinary eledrical machines, yet it is certain, that
by taking proper care of them they will be found to
ad much more powerfully than if negleded. The
following diredions therefore will be found ufeful for
fuch as wifh to make eledrical experiments.
1. The firft thing to be obferved is, the preferva-
tion and care of the inllruments. The eledrical ma¬
chine, the coated jars, and in fhort every part of the
eledrical apparatus, fiiould be kept clean, and as free
as pofiible from dull and moifture.
2. When the weather is clear, and the air dry, efpe-
cially in clear and frofty weather, the eledrical ma¬
chine will always work well. But when the weather
is very hot, the eledrical machine is not fo powerful ;
nor in damp weather, except it be brought into a warm
room, and the cylinder, the Hands, the jars, &c. be
made thoroughly dry.
3. Before the machine be ufed, the cylinder fhould
be firft: wiped, very clean with a foft linen cloth that
is dry, clean, and warm ; and afterwards with a clean
hot flannel, or an old filk handkerchief: this done, if
the winch be turned when the prime condudor and
other inftruments are removed from the eledrical ma¬
chine, and the knuckle be held at a little diftance from
the furface of the cylinder, it will be foon • perceived,
that the eledric fluid comes like a wind from the cy¬
linder to the knuckle ; and, if the motion be a little
continued, fparks and crackling will foon follow. This
indicates that the machine is in good order, and the
eledrician may proceed to perform his experiments.
But if, when the winch is turned for fome time, no
wind is felt upon the knuckle, then the fault is, very
likely, in the rubber: and to remedy that, ufe the fol¬
lowing diredions: By loofening the fcrews on the
back of the rubber, remove it from its glafs pillar,
and keep it a little near the fire, fo that its filk part
may be dried ; take now a dry piece of mutton fuet,
or a little, tallow from a candle, and juft pafs it over
the leather of the rubber; then fpread a fmall quantity
of th above defcribed amalgam over it, and force it
as much as poffible into the leather. This done, re¬
place the rubber upon the glafs pillar; let the glafs
cylh.d. r be wiped once more, and then the machine is
fit for ufe.
4. Sometimes the machine will not work wellbecaufe
the rubber is not fufficiently Applied with eledric fluid;
which happens when the table, upon which the ma-
chiiie ftands, and to which the chain of the rubber is
t I C I T Y. Sea. VII.
conneded, is very dry, and confequently in a bad con-Method of
duding ftate. Even the floor and the walls of the^K1.^
room are, in very dry weather, bad condudors, and
they cannot fupply the rubber fufficiently. In this cafe &c. *
the beft expedient is, to conned the chain of the rub-\
ber, by means of a long wire, with fome moift ground,
a piece of water, or with the iron work of a water-
pump; by which means the rubber will be fupplied
with as much eledric fluid as is required.
5. When a fufficient quantity of amalgam has been
accumulated upon the leather of the rubber, and the
machine does not \Vork very well, then, inftead of put¬
ting on more amalgam, it will be fufficient to take the
rubber off, and to fcrape a little that which is already
upon the leather.
6. It will be often obferved, that the cylinder, af¬
ter being ufed fome time, contrads fome black fpots,
occafioned by the amalgam, or fome foulnefs of the
rubber, which grow continually larger, and greatly
obftrud its eledric power. Thefe fpots mull be care¬
fully taken off, and the cylinder muft be frequently
wiped in order to prevent its contrading them.
7. In charging eledric jars in general, it muft be
obferved, that not every machine, will charge them
equally high. That machine whole eledric power i& .
the ftrongeft, will always charge the jars higheft. If
the coated jars, before they are ufed, be made a little
warm, they will receive and hold the charge the bet¬
ter.
8. If feveral jars are conneded together, among
which there is one that is apt to difcharge itfelf very
foon, then the other jars wifi foon be dilcharged with
that; although they may b?Wpable of holding a very
great charge by themfelves. When eledric jars^re to
be difcharged, the eledrician muft be cautious, left,
by fome circumftance not adverted to, the fhock ftiould
pafs through any part of his body ; for an uriexpcdtd
fhock, though not very ftrong, may oceafion feveral
difagreeable accidents. In making the difcharge, care
muft be taken that the difchargmg rod be not placed
on the thinneft part of the glafs, for that may caufe the
breaking of the jar.
9. When large batteries are difeharged, jars will be
often found broken in it, which burft at the time of
the difcharge. To remedy, this . inconvenience, Mr
Nairne fays, he has found a very effedual method,
which is, never to difcharge the battery through a
good condudor, except the circuit be at leaft five feet
long. Mr Nairne fays, that •ever fince he made ufe of
this precaution, he has difcharged a large battery near
a hundred times without ever-breaking a Angle jar,'
whereas before he was continually breaking them. But
here it muft be confidered, that the length of the cir¬
cuit weakens the force of the fhock proportionably ;
the higheft degree of which, is in many experiments re¬
quired.
10. It is advifable, when ajar, and efpeciaHy a bat¬
tery, has been difcharged, not to touch its wires with
the hand, before tfie difchargmg rod be applied to its
fides a fecond and even a third time ; as there gene¬
rally remains a refiduum of the charge, which is fome-
times very confiderable.
11. When any experiment is to be performed which
requires but a fmall part of the apparatus, the remain¬
ing part of it fhould be placed at a diftance from the
2 machine^
St-a.VIir. ELECT
ET,tert*in- machine, the prime conductor, and even from the
jus Expo- table, if that is not very large. Candles, particularly,
fhould be placed at a confiderable diftance from the
prime conduftor, for the effluvia of their flames carry
off much of the elettric fluid.
Sect. VIII. Entertaining Experiments.
I. The Elettrified Cork-ball Electrometer.
Fix at the end of the prime condu&or a knobbed
tod, and hang on it two fmall cork-balls fufpended by
threads of equal length. The balls will now touch one
another, the threads hanging perpendicularly, and pa¬
rallel to each other. But if the cylinder of the ma¬
chine be whirled by turning the winch, then the
cork-balls will repel one another ; and more or lefs ac¬
cording as the ele&ricity is more or lefs powerful.—
If the ele&rometer be hung to a prime condu&or ne¬
gatively ekdlrified, i. e. conne&ed with the infulated
rubber of the machine, the cork-balls will alfo repel each
other. If, in this ftate of repuliion, the prime conduc¬
tor is touched with fome conducing fubftance not in¬
fulated, the cork-balls will immediately come together.
But if, inftead of the conducting fubftance, the prime
conductor is touched with an eleCtric, as for inftance a
flick of fealing-wax, a piece of glafs, &c. then the
cork-balls will continue to repel each other ; becaufe
the eleCtric fluid cannot be conducted through that
eleCtric : hence,we have an eafy method of determining
what bodies are conductors and what eleCtrics. This
eleCtrical repulfion is alfo fhown by a large downy fea¬
ther, or ftill more agreeably by the reprefentation of a
[ Plate human head with hair, as fhown fig. 47. for there the
! sljcxv. eleCtric repuliion will make the hair ereCt itfelf in a
ftrange manner. If the feather is ufed, it will appear
beautifully fwelled by the divergency of its down.
II. AttraElion and Repuljion of light Bodies.
Connect with the prime conductor, by means of
the hook //, the two parallel brafs plates F, G, as re-
prefented in fig. 38. at about three inches diftance from
one another ; and upon the lower plate put any kind
of light bodies, as bran, bits of paper, bits of leaf-gold,
&c.; then work the machine, and the light bodies
will foon move between the two plates, leaping alter¬
nately from one to the other with great velocity. If,
inftead of bran or irregular pieces of other matter,
fmall figures of men or other things cut in paper and
painted, or rather made of the pith of alder, be put
upon the plate, they wdll generally move in an ereCt
pofition, but will fometimes leap one upon another, or
exhibit different poftuies, fo as to afford a pleafmg fpec-
tacle to an obferving company. When bran or other
fubftances of that kind are made ufe of, it will be pro¬
per to inclofe both plates in a glafs cylinder, by which
the bran will be kept from difperfing and flying about
the room.
The phenomena of eleCIric at trad ion and repulfion
may be reprefented alfo with a glafs tube, or a char¬
ged bottle, and fome of them in a manner more fatif-
fa&ory than with the machine.
III. The Flying-feather, or Shuttle-cock.
Take a glafs tube (whether fmooth or rough is not
material); and after having rubbed it, let a fmall light
R I C I T Y. 467
feather be let out of your fingers at the diftance of Entartain-
about eight or nine inches from it. This feather will‘"S' ExPe-
be immediately attracted by the tube, and will ftickr'mant8, f
very clofe to its furface for about two or three feconds,
and fometiines longer ; after which time it will be re¬
pelled ; and if the tube be kept under it, the feather will
continue floating in the air at a confiderable diftance
from the tube, without coming near it again, except it
firft touches fome conducting fubftance ; and if you
manage the tube dexteroufly, you may drive the fea¬
ther through the air of a room at pleafure.
There is a remarkable circumftance attending this
experiment; which is, that if the feather be kept at a
diftance from the tube by the force of eleCtric repul-
fion, it always prefents the fame part towards the tube:
—You may move the excited tube about the feather
very fwiftly, and yet the fame fide of the feather will
always be prefented to the tube.
This experiment may be agreeably varied in the
following manner: A perfon may hold in his hand an
excited tube of fmooth glafs, and another perfon may
hold an excited rough glafs tube, a flick of fealing-
wax, or in flrort another eleCtric negatively electrified,
at about one foot and a half diftance from the fmooth
glafs tube : a feather now may be let go between thefe
two differently excited-eleftrics, and it will leap alter¬
nately from one eleCtric to the other; and the two per-
fons will feem to drive a fhuttle-cock from one to the
other by the force of electricity.
IV. The Electric Well.
Place upon an eleCtric ftool a metal quart mug, or
fome other conducting body nearly of the fame form
and dimenfion; then tie a ftiort cork-ball electrome¬
ter,. at the end of a filk thread proceeding from the
ceiling of the room, or from any other fupport, fo
that the electrometer may be fufpended within the
mug, and no part of it may be above the mouth :
this done, eleCtrify the mug by giving it a fpark
with an excited eleCtric or otherwife; and you will
fee that the ekarometer, whilft it remains in that
infulated fituation, even if it be made to touch the
fides of the mug, is not attraaed by it, nor does It ac-
quire.any ekaricity ; but if, whilft it Hands fufpend¬
ed within the mug, a conduaor, Handing out of the ‘
mug, be made to communicate with or only prefented
to it, then the ekarometer is immediately attraaed by
the mug.
The following experiments require to be made in the
dark : for although the dearie light in feveral circum-
ftances may be feen in the day-light, yet its appear¬
ance in this manner is very confufed ; and that the elec¬
trician.may form a better idea of its different appear¬
ances, it is abfolutely neceffary to perform fuch expe¬
riments in a darkened room.
V. The Star and Pencil of Ele&ric Light,
When the ekarical machine is in good order, and
the prime conduaor is fituated with the colkaor fuf-
ficiently near the glafs cylinder, turn the winch, and
you will fee a lucid ftar at each of the points of the
collector. This ftar is the conftant appearance of the
ekCtric fluid that is entering a point. At the fame
time you will fee a ftrong light proceeding from the
3 N 2 rubber.
468 E L E G T R
Entertain- rubber, and fpreading itfelf over the furface of the ey¬
ing, Expe- i;n(}er. an^ jf the excitation of the cylinder is very
. powerful, denfe ftreams 'of fire will proceed from the
rubber, and, darting round almolt half the circumfe¬
rence of the cylinder, will reach the points of the col-
le£tor. If the prime conduftor is removed, the denfe
ftreams of fire will g« quite round the cylinder ; reach¬
ing from one fide of the rubber to the other. If the
chain of the rubber is taken off, and a pointed body,
as for inftance the point of a needle or a pin, is pre-
fented to the back of the rubber, at the diftance of a-
bout two inches, a lucid pencil of rays will appear to
proceed from the point prefented, and diverge towards
the rubber. If another pointed body be prefented to
the prime conduftor, it will appear illuminated with a
ftar ; but if a pointed wire or other pointed conduc¬
ting body be cqnne&ed with the prime condu&or, it
will throw out a pencil of rays.
VI. Drawing Sparks.
Let the prime condu&or be fituated in its proper
place, and eledlrify it by working the machine ; then
bring a metallic rod with a round knob at each end,
or the knuckle of a finger, within a proper diftance of
the prime condu&or, and a fpark will be feen between
that and the knuckle or knobbed wire. The longer
and ftronger fpark is drawn from that end of the prime
conductor which is fartheft from the cylinder, or ra¬
ther from the extremity of the knobbed rod fixed
at its end; for the eledlric fluid feems to acquire an
impetus by going through a long condu&or, when
eledlrified by a powerful machine. This fpark appears
like a long line of fire, reaching from the condiuftor to
the oppofed body, and often (particularly when the
fpark is long, and different condudfing fubftances are
wear the line of its diredlion) it will have the appearance
of being bended to iharp angles in different places, ex-
adfly refembling a flafh of lightning. It often darts
brulhes of light fidewife in every direction.
VII. The EleSric Light JlaJhing between two Metallic
Plates.
Let two perfons, one Handing upon an iafulated
ftool, and communicating w ith the prime condudlor,
and another Handing upon the floor, each hold in one
of his hands a metal plate, in fuch a manner that the
plates may Hand back to back in a parallel fituation,
and about two inches afundcr. Let the winch, of the
machine be turned, and you will fee the flafhes of light
between, the two plates £o denfe and frequent, that you
may eafily diftinguifh any thing in. the room. By this
experiment the eledlric light is exhibited in a very co-
1 pious and beautiful manner, and it bears a ftriking re-
fcmblance to. lightning.
VIII. ToJirt Inflammable Spirits.
The pow’er of the eledlric fpark to fet fire to inflam¬
mable fpirjts, may be exhibited by fcveral different me¬
thods, but more eafily thus : Hang to the. prime con-
du&.or a ftiort rod having a fmall knob at its end ; then
your fome fpirits of wine, a, little warmed, into a fpoon
of metal; hold the fpoon by the handle, and place it
in fuch a, manner, that the fmall knob on the rod may
be about one inch above the furface of the fpirits. In
this fituation, if, by turning the winch, a fpark. be.
I ,C I T Y. Sea. VIII.
made to come from the knob, it will fet the fpirits on Entertain-
fire. It will generally be found more advantageous11.’^ ^xPe'
to fix the diflr containing the fpirits upon the prime < ^ '
condutlor, as reprefented fig. 48.
This experiment may be varied different Ways, and
may be rendered very agreeable to a company of fpec-
tators. A perfon, for inftance, Handing upon an elec¬
tric ftool, and communicating with the prime conduc¬
tor, may hold the fpoon with the fpirits in his hand,
and another perfon, Handing upon the floor, may fet
the fpirits on fire by bringing his finger within a fmall
diftance of it. Inftead of his finger, he may fire the
fpirits with a piece of ice, when the experiment will
feem much more furprifing. If the fpoon is held by
the perfon Handing upon the floor, and the inf¬
lated perfon brings fome conducting fubftance over
the furface of the fpirits, the experiment fueceeds
as well.
IX. The artificial Bolognian Stone illuminated by the ,
EleSric Light.
The moft curious experiment to fliow the penetra¬
bility of the electric light, is made with the real, or
more eafily with the artificial, Bolognian ftone, invented
by the late Mr J. Canton. This phofphorus is a cal¬
careous fubftance, generally ufed in the form of a pow¬
der, which has the property of abforbing light when
expofed to it, and afterwards appearing lucid wlien
brought into the dark *. Take fome of this powder, • gee
and, by means of fpirits of wine or ether, ftick it all mi/lry,
over the infide of a clear glafs phial, and Hop it with11* l4‘4>
a glafs Hopper, or a cork and fealing.wax. If this
phial be kept in a darkened room (which for this ex¬
periment mull be very dark), it will give no light; but
let two or three ftrong fparks be drawn from the prime
conductor, when the phial is kept at about two inches-
diftance from the fparks, fo that it may be expofed to
that light, and this phial will receive that light, and
afterwards will appear illuminated for a conliderable
time. The powder may be ftuck upon a board by
means of the white of an egg, fo as to reprefent fi¬
gures of planets, letters, or any thing elfe at the plea-
fure of the operator ; and the figures may be illumi¬
nated in the dark, in the fame manner as the above-
deferibed phial.
A beautiful method to exprefs geometrical figures
with the above phofphorus, is to bend fmall glafs tubes
of about the tenth part of an inch diameter, in the
(hape and figure defired, and then fill them with the
phofphorus powder. Thefe may be illuminated in the
manner deferibed, and they are not fa fubjeeft to be
fpoiled as the figures reprefented upon the board fre¬
quently are. Thu heft method of illuminating this
phofphorus, and which Mr W. Canton generally ufed,.
is to difeharge a fmall eleftiic jar near it.
X. The. Luminous. ConduBor.,
Fug. 24. reprefents a prime conductor invented Plate
by Mr Henley, which lhows clearly the direction ofCLXXiv'
the ele&ric fluid pafling through it, from wdience it is
called the luminous conduBor. The middle, part E F o{
this conductor is a glafs tube about 18 inches long and
three or four inches in diameter. To both ends of
this tube the hollow brafs pieces F D, E E, are ce¬
mented air-tight, one of which., has a point C, by
which
Sea.VIIT. ELECT
Entertain- which it receives the ele&ric fluid, when fet near the
ing Expe- excited cylinder of the ele&rical machine, and the o-
nmept.8. tjier a knobbed wire G, from which a ftrong fpark
^ may be drawn ; and from each of the pieces F D, B £,
a knobbed wire proceeds within the cavity of the glafs
tube. The hrafs piece F1), or B E, is compofed of
two parts; i. e. a cap F cemented to the glafs tube,
and having a hole with a valve, by which the cavity of
the glaf* tube is exhaufted of air; and the ball D, which
is fcrewed upon the cap F. The fupporters of this in-
ftrument ate two glafs pillars faliened in the bottom-
board H, like the fupporters of the prime conductor.
When the glafs tube of this conductor is exhaufted of
air by means of an air-pump, and the brafs ball is
fcrewed on, as reprefented in the figure, then it is fit
for ufe, and may ferve for a prime conductor to an e-
leCtrical machine. If the point C of this conductor is
fet near the excited cylinder of the machine, it will
appear illuminated with a ftar ; at the fame time the
glafs tube will appear all illuminated with a weak light;
but from the knobbed wire that proceeds within the
glafs from the piece F D, a lucift pencil will iflue out,
and the oppofite knob will appear illuminated with a
ftar, which, as well as the pencil of rays, is very clear,
- and difcernible among the other light that occupies
the greateft part of the cavity of the tube. If the point
C, inftead of being pretented to the cylinder, be con-
-nected with the rubber of the machine, the appearance
of light within the tube will be reverfed ; the knob
which communicates with the piece F D appearing il¬
luminated with a ftar, and the oppofite with a pencil
ef rays ; becaufe in this cafe the direction of the elec¬
tric fluid is juft the contrary of what it was before ; it
then going from Z) to B-, and now coming from B and
going to V. If the wires within the tube E F, rn-
ftead of being furnifhed with knobs, be pointed, the
appearance of light is the fame ; but it feems not fo
ftrong in this as in the other cafe.
XI. The Conducing Glafs Tube.
Take a glafs tube of about two inches diameter, and
about two feet long ; fix to one of its ends a brafs cap,
and to the other a flop-cock or a valve ; then, by means
of an air-pump, exhauft it of air. If this tube be held
by one end, and its other end be brought near the elec¬
trified prime conductor, it will appear to be full of
light whenever a fpark is taken by it from the prime
conductor, and much more fo if an elettric jar be dif-
eharged through it.. This experiment may alfo be
made with the receiver of an air-pump : take, f<jr in-
ftance, a tall receiver, clean and dry ; and through a
hole at its top infert a wire, which mult be cemented
air tight. The end of the wire that is within the tube
mutt be pointed, but not very lharp ; and the other
end muft be furniflied with a knob. Put this receiver
upon the plate of the air-pump, and -exhauft it. If
now the knob of the wire at the top of the receiver be
touched with the prime conductor, every fpark will
pafs through the receiver in a denfe and large body
of light, from the wire to the plate of the air-pump.
When any thing is to he touched with the prime con¬
ductor that is not very portable, as the air-pump above
mentioned, the communication between the former
and the latter may be made by means of a rod furnifh¬
ed with.an eleCtric handle, or the like.
R I C I T Y. 469:
XII. The Aurora Borealis. in^Expe-
Take a phial nearly of the fhape and fize of a Flo- r--n'rl^’ f
rence flafk ; fix a flop-cock of a valve to its neck, and pjatc
exhauft it of air as much as poffible with a good air- clxxiv.
pump. If this glafs is rubbed in the common manner fig. 21-
ufed to excite eleftrics, it will appear luminous within,
being full of a flafhing light, which plainly refembles
the aurora borealis or northern light. This phial may
alfo be made luminous, by holding it by either end,
and bringing the other end to the prime conduClor; in
this cafe, all the cavity of the glafs will inftantly appear
full of flafhing light, which remains in it for a con-
fiderable time after it has been removed fiom the prime
conduClor. Inftead of the above-defcribed glafs vef-
fel, a glafs tube exhaufted of air and hermetically feal-
ed may be ufed, and perhaps with better advantage.
The moft remarkable circumftance of this experiment,
is, that if the phial, or tube, after it has been remo¬
ved from the prime conductor (and even feverai hours
after its flafhing light hath ceafed to appear), be graft¬
ed with the hand, ftrong flafhes of light will imme¬
diately appear within the glafs,, which often reach
from one of its ends to the other.
XIII. The Vifibk EleBric Almofpherc.
G I, fig. 26. reprefents the receiver with the plate Plate
of an air-pump. In the middle of the plate / Z1, a ctxxiv*
fliort rod is fixed, having at its top a metal ball B
nicely polifhed, whofe diameter is nearly, two inches.
From the top, ©f the receiver, another rod A T), with
a like ball A, proceeds, and is cemented air-tight in
the neck C ; the diftance of the balls from one ano¬
ther being abcit four inches, or rather more. If, when
the receiver is exhaufted of air, the ball A be eleCtri-
fied pofitively, by touching the top F) of the rod AD
with the prime conduClor, or an excited glafs tube, a
lucid atmofphere appears about it, which although it
confifts of a feeble light, is yet very confpicuous, and
very well defined ; at the fame time,the ball jB has not
the leaft light. This atmofphere does not exift all
round the ball A ; but reaches from about the middle
of it, to a fmall diftance beyond that fide of its furface
which is towards the oppofite ball B. If the rod with
the ball A be eleClrified negatively, then a lucid at¬
mofphere, like the above deferibed, will appear upon
the ball B, reaching from its middle to a fmall di¬
ftance beyond that fide of it that is towards the ball
A; at the fame time, the negatively eleCinfied ball A"-
remains without any light. The operator in this ex¬
periment muft be careful not to eleClrrfy the ball A'
too much ; for then the eleClrrc fluid will pafs in a
fpark from one ball to-the other, and the experiment
will not have the deli red efFeCr. A little pradice,
however, will render the operation very eafy and fami¬
liar.
XIV. Of charging and difeharging a Phial in general.
Take a coated jar, and place it upon the table near p!ate
the prime conduClor, fo that the knob of its wire, and clxxsv*
that only, may be in contaCl with it: fix the qua¬
drant eleClrometer fig. 15. upon the prime conduClor,
and then turn the winch of the machine. You will ob-
ferve, that as the jar is charging, the index of the e» -
3 ieClrometer.
4 7® E L E C T R
Srisertain-' lefirometer will rife gradually as far as 90°, or there*
iu<r Expe- ^boytg9 anti then reft: when this happens, you may
t ~ 31 conclude that the jar has received its full charge. If
now you take a diicharging rod, and holding it by the
glafs handle, apply firft one of its knobs t® the outfide
coating of the jar, and then bring the other knob near
the knob of the wire of the jar, or near the prime con-
tluftor that communicates with it, you will hear a re¬
port, and fee very vivid fparks between the difeharg-
ing rod and the conducting fubftances, communica¬
ting with the lides of the jar. This operation dif-
-charges the jar. If, inftead of ufing the difeharging
rod, you touch the outfide of the jar with one hand,
and bring the other hand near the wire of the jar,
the fame fpark and report will follow ; but now you
will feel a fhock which affedts your wrifts, elbows, and
if ftrong, your breaft alfo. If a number of perfons
join hands, and the firft of them touches the outfide
of the jar, and the laft touches the wire communica¬
ting with the infide, they will all feel the fhock, and
precifely at the fame perceivable time. This fhock,
bearing no refemblance to any fenfation otherwife felt,
cannot confequently be deferibed ; and in order that
a perfon may form a juft idea of it, he muft abfo-
lutely feel it. A fhock may be given to any fingle
part of the body, if that part only be brought into the
circuit.
XV. The Leyden Vacuum.
f’late Tig. 22. 23. reprefent a fmall phial coated on the
cLsxiv. outfide, about three inches up the fides, with tin-foil;
at the top of the neck of this phial, a brafs cap is ce¬
mented, having a hole with a valve, and from the cap
a wire proceeds a few inches within the phial, termi¬
nating in a blunt point. When this phial is exhauft-
cd of air, a brafs ball is ferewed upon the brafs cap,
which is cemented into its neck, fo as to defend the
valve, and prevent any air from getting into the ex-
haufted glafs. This phial exhibits clearly the direc*
tion of the eleftric fluid, both in charging and dif¬
eharging ; for if it be held by its bottom, and its brafs
knob be prefented to the prime conductor pofitively
eleftrified, you will fee that the ele&ric fluid caufeth
the pencil of rays to proceed from the wire within the
phial, as reprefented fig. 22.; and if it is difeharged, a
ftar will appear in the place of the pencil, as repre¬
fented in fig. 23. But if the phial is held by the brafs
cap, and its bottom be touched with the prime con-
duftor, then the point of the wire on its infide will
appear illuminated with a ftar when charging, and
with a pencil when difeharging. If it be prefented to
a prime condu&or eleftrified negatively, all thefe ap¬
pearances, both in charging and difeharging, will be
reverfed.
The apparatus reprefented fig. 25. will be found
very convenient for the various experiments upon the
luminous condu&or, Leyden vacuum, jars charged po¬
fitively or negatively, with their different ftates of in-
fulation. A is an infulating pillar of glafs, which is
ferewed to the wooden foot B ; and on this pillar all
the apparatus may be ferewed alternately. CD is an ex-
haufted tube of glafs, furniflied at each end with brafs
caps ; at the end Z) is a valve properly fecured under
the brafs plate ; a brafs wire with a ball projedts from
the upper cap ; a pointed wire proceeds from the bot-
i c i t y. Sea. viii.
tom plate ; and this tube is called the luminous conduce Entertain-
tor. The flaik reprefented at E is called the Leyden
vacuum. It is fumiftied with a valve under the ball nmgt*Li" f
E; to come at .which the more readily, the ball may
be unferewed; a wire, with a blunt end, projedhs to
within a little of the bottom of the flafk, the latter being
coated with tin-foil; and a female ferew is cemented
to the bottom, in order to ferew it on the pillar A.
.F is a fyringe to exhauft the air occafionally, either
from the luminous condudfor or the Leyden vacuum.
To do this, unferew the ball of the Leyden vacuum, or
the plate of the luminous condudfor, and then ferew
the fyringe in the place of either of thefe pieces, being
careful that the bottom of the female ferew G bears
clofe againft the leather which covers the ftioulders a
led; then work the fyringe, and in a few minutes
the glaffes will be fufficiently exhaufted. H and / are
two Leyden bottles ; each of which has a female ferew
fitted to the bottom, in order that they may be con¬
veniently ferewed on the pillar and the bottle H is
furniflied with a belt by which it may be ferewed flde-
wife to the fame. A” and L are two fmall wires, to
be ferewed occafionally either into the ball the
knobs e or f, the cap c, or the focket g on the top of
the pillar: the balls may be unferewed from thefe
wires, which will then exhibit a blunt point. Jlf is a
wooden table to be ferewed occafionally on the glafs
pillar.
XVI. To pierce a Card and other Sul/lances with the
Electric Exphjion.
Take a card, a quire of paper, or the cover of a
book, and keep it clofe to the outfide coating of a
charged jar ; put one knob of the difeharging rod upon
the card, quire of paper, &c. fo that between the knob
and coating of the jar the thicknefs of that card, or
quire of paper, only is interpofed; laftly, by bringing
the other knob of the difeharging rod near the knob
of the jar, make the difeharge, and the ele&ric matter
will pierce a hole (or perhaps feveral) quite through
the card or quire of paper. This hole has a bur raifed
on each fide, except the card, &c. be preffed hard be¬
tween the difeharging rod and the jar; which ftiows
that the hole is not made in the direction of the paf-
fage of the fluid, but in every dire&ion from the centre
of the refilling body. If this experiment be made with
two cards inftead of one, which however muft be kept
very little diftant from one another, each of the cards,
after the explofion, will be found pierced with one or
more holes, and each hole will have burs on both fur-
faces of each card. The hole, or holes, are larger
or fmaller, according as the card, See. is more damp or
more dry. It is remarkable, that if the noftrils are
prefented to it, they will be affe&ed with a fulphure-
ous, or rather a phofphoreal, fmell, juft like that pro¬
duced by an excited ele'dtric.
If, inftead of paper, a very thin plate of glafs, rofin,
fealing-wax, or the like, be interpofed between the
knob of the difeharging rod and the ontfide coating
of the jar, on making the difeharge, this will be bro¬
ken in feveral pieces. Small infedts may alfo be killed
in this manner. They may be held between the outfide
coating of the jar and the knob of the difeharging
rod, like the above card ; and a ftiock of a common
phial fent through them, will inftantly deprive them
Sea.VITL ELECT
En-ertain- 0f life, if they are pretty fmall: but if larger, they will
ing Expe- affe(c^e(J
in fuch a manner, as to appear quite dead
• ■ on firft receiving the ftroke ; but will, after fome time,
recover: this, however, depends on the quantity of
the charge fent through them.
XVII. To Jhoiu the Effe-3 of the Shick fent over the Sur¬
face of a Card or other Sub/lances.
Put the extremities of two wires upon the furface of
a card, or other body of an eleftric nature, fo that they
may be in one dire&ion, and about one inch diftance
from one another; then, by connefting one of the
wires with the outlide of a charged jar, and the other
wire with the knob of the jar, the {hock will be made
to pafs over the card or other body. If the card be
made very dry, the lucid track between the wires will
be vilible upon the card for a confiderable time after
the explofion. If a piece of common writing paper
be ufed inllead of the card, it will be torn by the ex¬
plofion into very fcnall bits.
If, inftead of the card, the explofion is fent over the
furface of a piece of glafs, this will be marked with an
indelible track, which generally reaches from the ex¬
tremity of one of the wires to the extremity of the
other. In this manner, the piece of glafs is very fel-
dom broken by the explofion. But Mr Henley has
difcovered a very remarkable method to increafe the
ejfedf of the explofion upon the glafs; which is by
preffing with weights that part of the glafs which lies
between the two wires (i. e. that part over which the
{hock is to pafs). He puts firft a thick piece of ivory
upon the glafs, and places upon that ivory a weight at
pleafure, from one quarter of an ounce to fix pounds:
The glafs in this manner is generally broken by the
explofion into innumerable fragments, and fome of it is
abfolutely reduced into an impalpable powder. If the
glafs is very thick, and refills the force of the explo¬
fion, fo as not to be broken by it, it will be found
marked with the moft lively prifmatic colours, which
are thought to be occafioned by very thin laminse of
the glafs, in part feparated from it by the (hock. The
weight laid upon the glafs is always {hook by the ex¬
plofion, and fometimes it is thrown quite off from .the
ivory. This experiment may be moft conveniently
made with the univerfal difcharger, fig. 8.
XVIII. To fwell Clay, and break fmall Tubes, by the
EleUrk Explofion,
Roll up a piece.of foft tobacco-pipe clay in a fmall
cylinder, and infert in it two wires, fo that their ends
without the clay may be about a fifth part of an inch
from one another. If a {hock be fent through this
clay, by connecting one of the wires with the outfide
of a charged jar, and the other with the infide, it will'
be inflated by the fhock, i. e. by the fpark, that p.affes
between the two wires, and, after the explofion, will
appear fwelled in the middle. If the fhock fent through
it. is too ftrong, and the clay not very moift, it will be
broken by the explofion, and its fragments fcattered in .
every direftion. To make this experiment with a lit¬
tle variation, take a piece of the tube of a tobacco-
pipe, about one inch long, and fill its bore with moift
clay ; then infert in it two wires, as in the above rol¬
led clay ; and fend a {hock through it. This tube will
not fail to burft by the force of the explofion, and its
R I C I T V. 47i
fragments will be fcattered about to a g.reat diftance. Entertain-
If, inftead of clay, the above-mentioned tube of thein?Ex?e*
tobacco-pipe, or a glafs tube (which will anfwer asrimems- ^
well), be filled with any other fubftance, either eleftric
or non-ele&ric, inferior to metal, on making the dif-
charge, it will be broken hi pieces with nearly the
fame force. This experiment is the invention of Mr
Lane, F. R. S.
XIX. To make the Eledric Spark vtfible in IVater.
Fill a glafs tube of about half an inch diameter,
and fix inches long, with water; and to each extremi¬
ty of the tube adapt a cork, which may confine the
water; through each cork infert a blunt wire, fo that
the extremities of the wires within the tube may be
very near one another; laftfy, conneft one of thefe.
wires with the coating of a fmall charged phial, and
touch the other wire with the knob of it; by which
means the {hock will pafs through the wires, and caufe
a vivid fpark to appear between their extremities with¬
in the tube. In performing this experiment, care muft
be taken that the charge be exceedingly weak, other-
wife the tube will burft. If we place in a common
drinking glafs, almoft full of water, two knobbed
wires, fo bent, that their knobs may be within a little
diftance of one another in the water, and if one of thefe
wires be connefted with the outfide coating of a pretty
large jar, and the other wire be touched with the
knob of it; the explofion which muft pafs through
. the water from the kob of one of the wires to that
of the other, will difperfe the water, and break the
glafs with a furprifing violence. This experiment
is very dangerous if not conduced with great cau¬
tion.
XX. To fre Gun-powder.
Make a fmall cartridge of paper, and fill it with
gun-powder, or elfe fill the tube of a quill with it; in¬
fert two wires, one at each extremity, fo that their
ends within the quill, or cartridge, may be about one
fifth of an inch from one another : this done, fend the
charge of a phial through the wires; and the fpark be¬
tween their extremities, that are within the cartridge,
or quill, will fet fire to the gun-powder. If the gun¬
powder be mixed with fteel-filings, it will take fire
more readily, and with a very fmall {hock.
XXI. To Jlrike Metals into Glafs.
Take two flips of common window-glafs about three
inches long, and half an inch wide ; put a fmall flip.
of gold, filver, or brafs leaf, between them, and tie
them together, or elfe prefs them together between
the boards of the prefs H, belonging to the univerfal
difcharger fig. 9, Plate CLXX1V. leaving a little of the
metallic leaf out between the glaffes at each end ; then
fend a fhock through this metallic leaf, and the force
of the explofion will drive part of the metal into fo clofe,
a contaft with the glafs, that it cannot be wiped off,.
or even be affefted by the common menftrua which-
otherwife would dilTolve- it. In this experiment the
glaffes are often {haltered to pieces ; but. whether they.
are broken or not, the indelible metallic tinge will al¬
ways be found in feveral places, and fometimes thro’
the whole length of both glaffes.
XXIL.
47 2
l.i tertain-
ing Expe¬
riments.
ELECTRICITY. SccT VIU.
a terrible fliock, put one of your hands in contaft withEntertain-
its outftde coating; with the other hold a (harp pointed’1?? Expe-
XXII. ToJla'in Paper or Chfs.
Lay a chain, which forms a part of the circuit be- needle, and keeping the point dire&ed towards the
i tween the two Tides of a charged jar, upon a flieet of
white paper; and if a fhock he lent through it, the
knob of the jar, proceed gradually near it, until the
point of the needle touches the knob. This operation
ill be found flamed with a blackiih tinge at the difcharges the jar entirely ; and you will either receive
very juncture of the links. If the charge be very large,
the paper, inftead of being ftained with fpots, is brunt
through. If the chain be laid upon a pane of glafs
inftead of paper, the glafs will often be found ftained
with fpots in feveral places, but (as might be expec¬
ted) not fo deep as the paper. _ If this experiment be
made in the dark, a fpark will be feen at every junc¬
ture of the links ; and if the links are fmall, and the
no flrock at all, or fo fmall a one as can hardly be per¬
ceived. The point of the needle, therefore, has filently
and gradually drawn all the fuperfluous fluid from the
infide furface of the ele&ric jar.
XXV. Drawing the EleBricity fra\
by a Point.
' the Prime Conductor
Let a perfon hold the knob of a brafs rod at fuch a
fhock pretty ftrong, the chain will appear illuminated diltance from the prime csndudlor, that fparks may
like a line of fire.
XXIII. The Lateral Explofion.
If a jar be difcharged with a difcharging rod that
eafily fly from the latter to the former, when the ma¬
chine is in motion. Then let the winch be turned; and
while the fparks are following one another, prefent the
fharp point of a needle at nearly twice the diflance
has no eledlric handle, the hand that holds it, in ma- fr0m the prime condudlor, that the knobbed rod is
king the difcharge, -feels fome kind of fhock, efpecial-
ly when -the charge is confiderable. In other words :
A perfon, or any condu&ing fubftance, that is connec-
ted with one fide of a jar, but forms no part of the
circuit, will feel a kind of fhock, i. e. fome eifedt 6f the needle draw's off filently almoft all the fluid that
the difcharge. This may be rendered vifible in the fol-
lowing manner. Conned with the outfide of a char¬
ged jar a piece of chain ; then difcharge the jar thro’
held; and you will obferve that no more fparks will go
to the rod :—remove the needle entirely, and the fparks
will be feen again ;—prefent the needle, and the fparks
difappear: which evidently fhows, that the point of
the cylinder throws upon the prime condudor.
If the needle be fixed upon the prime condu&or with
the point outward, and the knob of a difcharging rod,
another circuit, as for inftance with a difcharging rod or the knuckle of a finger, be brought very near the
in the common w'ay, and the chain that communicates prime condu&or, though the excitation of the cylin-
with the outftde of the jar, and which makes no part der may be very flrong, yet you w ill perceive that no
of the circuit, will appear lucid in the dark, i. e. fparks fpark, or an exceeding fmall one, can be obtained from
will appear between the links; which fhows, that the the prime conduftor.
eledlric fluid, natural to that chain, muft by fome means
have been diflurbed. This chain will alfo appear lu¬
minous, if it is not in contadl with the outfide of the
jar, but only very near it; and on making the difcharge,
XXVI. The EleBrijied Cotton.
Take a fmall lock of cotton, extended in every di¬
rection as much as conveniently can be done ; and by
a fpark will be feen between the jar and the end of the a linen thread about five or fix inches long, or by ;
chain near it. This ele&rical appearance out of the' thread drawn out of the fame cotton, tie it to the end
circuit of a difcharging jar, is that which we call the of the prime conductor : then let the winch of the ma-
lateral explofwn; and to make it appear in the moll con- chine be turned, and the lock of cotton, on being e-
fpicuous manner, obferve the following method, which le&rified, will immediately fw'ell, by spelling its fila-
is that of Dr Prieftley. ments from one another, and will ftreteh itfelf towards
When a jar is charged, and Hands upon the table the neareft conductor. In this fituation let the winch
as ufual, infulate a thick metallic rod, and place it fo be kept turning, and prefent the end of your finger, or
that one of its ends may be contiguous to the outfide the knob of a wire, towards the lock of cotton, which
coating of the jar; and within about half an inch of will then immediately move towards the finger, and
its other end place a body of about fix or feven feet endeavour to touch it; but take with the other hand a
in length, and a few inches in breadth: then put a pointed needle, and prefent its point towards the cot-
chain upon the table, fo that one of its ends may be ton, a little above the end of the finger, and you will
about an inch and a half diftant from the coating of the obferve the cotton immediately to fhrink upward, and
jar : at the other end of the chain apply one knob of move towards the prime condu&or. — Remove the
the difcharging rod, and bring the other knob to the needle, and the cotton will come again towards the
wire of the jar, in order to make the explofion. On finger. Prefent the needle, and the cotton will fhrink
making the difcharge in this manner, a ftrong fpark again,
will be feen between the infulated rod, which commu¬
nicates with the coating of the jar and the body near
its extremity, which fpark does not alter the ftate of
that body in refpeft to ekaricity. Whether this la¬
teral explofion is received on flat and fmooth furfaces,
XXVII. The EleBrijied Bladder.
Take a large bladder well blown, and cover it with
gold, filver, or brafs leaf, flicking it with gum-water:
fufpend this bladder at the end of a filk thread, at leaft
or upon fharp points, the fpark is always equally long fix or feven feet long, hanging from the ceiling of the
and vivid. ’ * room ; and eleftrify the bladder, by giving it a ftrong
,r„rTTT ..., cv /•; / frark with the knob of a charged bottle : this done,
XXI\ . To dip charge ajarjilently. tatie a knobed wire, and prefent it tp the bladder when
When a large jar is fully charged, which would give rootionlefs; and you will perceive, that as .the knob
N°IX2. aP-
Sea.vnr. elect
Entertain- approaches the bladder, the bladder alfo moves to-
ins: Expcri war(js knob, and, when nearly touching it, gives it
^ent^ the fpark which it received from the charged phial,
v and thus it becomes uneleftrified. Give it another (park,
and, inftcad of the knobbed wire, prefent the point of a
needle towards it, and you will perceive that the blad¬
der will not be attra&ed by, but rather recede from,
the point, efpecially if the needle be very fuddenly pre-
fented towards it.
XXVIII. The Spider feemingly animated by EleSlri-
city.
Plate plG< jj. reprefents an ele&ric jar, having a wire
CLXXV. q jj j? faftened on its outfide, which is bended fo as
to have its knob E as high as the knob A.—B is a
fpider made of cork, with a few Ihort threads run thro’
it to reprefent its legs. This fpider is faftened at the
end of a filk thread, proceeding from the ceiling of
the room, or from any other fupport, fo that the
fpider may hang mid-’Way between the two knobs
A, E, when the jar is not charged. Let the place
of the jar upon the table be marked ; then charge
the jar, by bringing its knob A in contaft with the
prime conduftor, and replace it in its marked place.
The fpider will now begin to move from knob to knob,
and continue this motion for a confiderable time, fome-
times for feveral hours.
The infxde of the jar being charged pofitively, the
fpider is attra&ed by the knob A, which communi¬
cates to it a fmall quantity of ele&ricity ; the fpider
then becoming pofleffed of the fame eledlricity with
the knob A, is repelled by it, and runs to the knob
E, where it difcharges its ele&ricity, and is then at-
trafted by the knob A, and fo on. In this manner
the jar is gradually difcharg*_d; and when the dif-
charge is nearly completed, the fpider finilhes its mo¬
tion.
XXIX. The Dancing Balls.
Fix a pointed wire upon the prime condu&or, with
the point outward ; then take a glafs tumbler, grafp
it with your hands, and prefent its infide furface to the
point of the wire upon the prime condu&or while the
machine is in motion: the glafs in this manner will
foon become charged ; for its infide furface acquires
the ele&ricity from the point, and the hands ferve as
a coating for the outfide. This done, put a few pith
balls upon the table, and cover them with this charged
glafs tumbler. The balls will immediately begin to
leap up along the fides of the glafs as reprefented
fig. 39. and will continue their motion for a confider¬
able time. '
XXX. TheElearical Jack.
This is an invention of Dr Franklin’s, and turns
with confiderable force, fo that it may fometimes be
tifed for the purpofes of a common jack. A fmall up¬
right lhaft of wood pafies at right angles through a
■thin round board of about 12 inches diameter, and
turns on a lharp-point of iron fixed in the lower end,
while a ftrong wire in the upper end, palling through
a fmall hole in a thin brafs plate, keeps the lhaft truly
vertical. About 30 radii, of equal length, made of
falh-glafs cut into narrow flips, iffue horizontally from
the circumference of the board, the ends molt dillant
Vox.. VI. Part II.
R I C X T Y,
from the centre being about four inches apart. On E
the end of every one a brafs thimble is fixed. If now
the wire of a bottle electrified in the common way be
brought near the circumference of this wheel, it will
attract the nearelt thimble, and fo put the wheel ia
motion. That thimble, in palling by, receives a fpark;
and thereby being ele&rified, is repelled, and fo driven
forwards; while a fecond, being attradted, approaches
the wire, receives a fpark, and is driven after the
firlt; and fo on, till the wheel has gone once round;
when the thimbles before electrified approaching the
wire, inftead of being attradted, as they were at
firlt, are repelled, and the motion psefently ceafes.
But if another bottle which had been charged through
the coating, or otherwife negatively eledtrified, is
placed near the fame wheel, its wire will attradt the
thimble repelled by the firlt, and thereby double the
force that carries the wheel round. The wheel there¬
fore moves very fwiftly, turning round 12 or 15
times in a minute, and with fuch force, that a large
fowl fpitted on the upper lhaft may be roalted by
means of it. *
XXXI. The Self-moving Wheel.
This appears more furprifing than the former, tho’
conltrudted upon the fame principles. It is made of a
thin round plate of window-glafs 17 inches in diame¬
ter, well gilt on both fides, all but two inches next
the edge. Two fmall hemifpheres of wood are then fix¬
ed with cement to the middle of the upper and under
fides, centrally oppofite ; and in each of them a ftrong
thick wire eight or ten inches long, which together
make the axis of the wheel. It turns horizontally on a
point at the lower end of its axis, which refts on a bit
of brafs cemented within a glafs falt-celler. The upper
end of its axis pafies through a hole in a thin brafe
plate, cementedfto a long and ftrong piece of glafs ;
which keep* it fix or eight inches diftant from any
non-eledtric, and has a fmall ball of wax or metal on
its top to keep in the fire.
In a circle on the table which fuppcrrts the wheel, are
fixed 12 fmall pillars of glafs, at about 11 inches di-
ftance, with a thimble on the top of each. On the
edge of the wheel is a fmall leaden bullet, communica¬
ting by a wire with the gilding of the upper furface of
the wheel; and about fix inches from it is another
bullet communicating in like manner with the under
furface. When the wheel is to be charged by the up¬
per furface, a communication muft be made from the
under furface to the table. As foon as it is well char¬
ged, it begins to move. The bullet neareft to a pillar
moves towards the thimble on that pillar ; and, pafs-
ing by, ele&iifies it, and is then repelled from it. The
fucceeding bullet, which communicates with the other
furface of the glafs, more ftrongly attracts that thimble
on account of its being eledtrified before by the other
bullet; and thus the wheel increafes its motion, till
the refiftance of the air regulates it. It will go half
an hour ; and make, one minute with another, 20
turns in a minute, which is 6co--turns in the whole;
the bullet in the upper furface giving in each turn 12
fparks to the thimbles, making in all 2500 fparks;
while the fame quantity of fire is thought to be recei¬
ved by the under bullet. The whole fpace moved over
by thefe bullets in the mean time is 2500 feet. If,
3 O inftead
474
Plate
CLXXVl.
%• 57-
E L E C T R
; inflead of two bullets, you put eight, four communi-
''' eating with the upper and four with the under furface,
the force and fwiftnefs will be greatly increafed, and the
wheel will make about 50 turns in a minute; but then
it will not continue moving for fuch a long time.
Thefe wheels may be applied to the ringing of chimes,
and the moving of fmall orreries, &c.
XXXII. The Magic Piaure.
This is a contrivance of Mr Kinnerfley; and is per¬
haps more calculated to give furprife than any other
experiment in electricity. It is made in the following
manner: Having a large mezzotinto, with a frame and
glafs (fuppofe of the king), take out the print, and cut
a pannel out of it near two inches dillant from the
frame all round. If the cut be through the picture, it
is nothing the worfe. With thin palte, or gum-water,
fix the board that is cut off on the infide of the glafs,
preffing it fmooth and clofe ; then fill up the vacancy,
by gilding the glafs well with leaf-gold or brafs. Gild
likewife the' inner edge of the back of the frame all
round, except the top part, and form a communication
between that gilding and the gilding behind the glafs ;
then put in the board, and that fide is finifhed. Turn
up the glafs, and gild the forefide exaftly over the back
gilding; and when it is dry, cover it, by palling on
the pannel of the piCfure that has been cut out; obfer-
vingto bring the correfponding parts of the board and
piClure together, by which the picture will appear of
a piece as at firlt; only part is behind the glafs and
part before. Laftly, hold the picture horizontally by
the top, and place a little moveable gilt crown on the
king’s head. If now the picture is moderately cleCtri
fied, and another perfon take hold of the frame wdth
one'hand, fo that his fingers touch its infide gilding,
and with the other endeavour to take otf the crown, he
will receive a terrible blow, and fail in the attempt.
The operator, who holds the picture by the upper end,
where the infide of the frame is not gilt, to prevent its
falling, feels nothing of the (hock; and may touch the
face of the picture without danger, which he pretends
to be a teft of his loyalty.
XXXIII. The Thunder-houfe.
Fig. 52. is an inftrument reprefenting the fide
of a houfe, either furnifhed wdth a metallic conduc¬
tor, or not ; by which both the bad effe&s of light¬
ning linking upon a houfe not properly fecured, and
the ufefulnefs of metallic conduftors, may be clear¬
ly reprefented. ^ is a board about three quarters
of an inch thick, and Ihaped like the gable-end of
2 houfe. This board is fixed perpendicularly upon
the bottom-board B, upon which the perpendicular
o-lafs pillar CD alfo fixed in a hole about eight
inches diftant from the bafis of the board A fquare
hole IL M K, about a quarter of an inch deep, and
nearly one inch wide, is made in the board J, and is
filled with a fquare piece of wood nearly of the fame
dimenfions. It is mentioned nearly of the fame dimen-
fions, becaufe it muft go fo eafily into the hok, that
it may drop off by the leaf! fhaking of the inftrument.
A wire L K \s faftened diagonally to this fquare piece
of wood. Another wire /// of the fame thicknefc,
having a brafs ball H, ferewed on its pointed extremi¬
ty, is faftened upon the board A; fo alfo- is the wire
1 c 1 t y. sea.vnr,
MN, which is fhaped in a ring at 0. From the up- Entertairr-
per extremity of the glafs pillar CD,*, crooked wireing E*peri-
proceeds, having a fpring focket/’, through which ament^ f
double knobbed wire flips perpendicularly, the lower * '
knob G of which falls juft above the knob H. The glafs
pillar D C muft not be made very fail into the bottom
board; but it muft be fixed fo as it may be pretty ea¬
fily moved round its own axis; by which means the
brafs ball G may be brought nearer or farther from the
ball H, without touching the part E F G. Now when
the fquare piece of wood L M/K (which may re-
prefent the fhutter of a window or the like) is fixed
into the hole fo, that the wire L K ftands in the dot¬
ted reprefentation IM, then the metallic communica¬
tion from H to 0 is complete, and the inftrument re-
prefents a houfe furnifhed with a proper metallic con-
dudtor: but if the fquare piece of wood L MIK is
fixed fo, that the wire. L K ftands in the diredtion
L K, as reprefented in the figure, then the metallic
conductor HO, from the top of the houfe to its bot¬
tom, is interrupted at IM, in which cafe the houfe is
not properly fecured.
Fix the piece of wood L MIK fo, that its wire may
be as reprefented in the figure, in which cafe the me¬
tallic condudtor Z/0 is difeontinued. Let the ball G
be fixed at about half an inch perpendicular diftance
from the ball//; then, by turning the glafs pillar
DC, remove the former ball from the latter; by a
wire or chain connedt the wire E F with the wire 4L
of the jar P, and let another wire or chain, faftened
to the hook 0, touch the outfide coating of the jar.
Connedt the wire ^ with the prime condudtor, and
charge the jar ; then, by turning the glafs pillar Z7 C,
let the ball G come gradually near the ball H; and
when they are arrived fufficiently near one another,
you will obferve that the jar explodes, and the piece
of wood L MIK is pufhed out of the hole to a con*
fiderable diftance from the thunder-houfe. Now the
ball G, in this experiment, reprefents an eledtrified
cloud, which, when it is arrived fufficiently near the
top of the houfe A, the eledtricity ftrikes it; and
as this houfe is not fecured with a proper condudtor,
the explofion breaks off a part, 1. e. knocks off the
piece of wood IM.
Repeat the experiment with only this variation, <viz.
that this piece of wood//!/ is fituated fo, that the
wire LK may (land in the fituation IM, in which
cafe the condudtor H 0 is not difeontinued ; and you
will obferve, that the explofion will have no effedt upT
on the piece of wood L M, this remaining in the hole
unmoved ; which ftiows the ufefulnefs of the metallic,
condudtor.
Further. Unfcrew the brafs ball H from the wire
HI, fo that this may remain pointed. With this dif¬
ference only in the apparatus, repeat both the above
experiments; and you will find that the piece of wood
IM. is in neither cafe moved from its place, nor any
explofion will be heard ; which not only demonftrates
the preference of the condudtors with pointed termina¬
tion to thofe with blunted ones; but alfo Ihows that a
houfe furnilhed with ftiarp terminations, although not
furniftied with a regular condudtor, is almoft fufficient¬
ly guarded againft the effedts of lightning.
This apparatus is fometimes made in the fliape of a
houfe, as reprefented fig. 53. where, for the fake of
6
5e<5ti VIII. ELECT
intertain- diftindnefs, the fide and part of the roof next the eye
nfnts^6” are not r€Prefentech The gable-end AC reprefents that
j of the thunder-houfe, and may be ufed in the fame man-
Plate ner w>th that above defcribed, or more readily by the
ELXXVI. following method. Let one ball of the difcharging
rod touch the ball of the charged jar, and the other
the knob A of the conductor A C of the thunder-
houfe ; the jar will then of courfe explode, and the
fluid will ad upon the condudor juft mentioned. The
conduding wire at the windows h h muft be placed
in a line. The fides and gable A C of the houfe,
are conneded with the bottom by hinges; and
the building is kept together by a ridge on the roof.
To ufe this model, fill the fmall tube a with gunpow¬
der, and ram the wire c a little way into the tube ;
then conned the tube e with the bottom of a large jar
or battery. When the jar is charged, form a commu¬
nication from the hook at C, on the outfide, to the top
of the jar, by the difcharging rod ; the difcharge will
fire the powder, and the explofion of the latter will
throw' off the roof, with the fides, back, and front, fo
that they will all fall down together. The figures f
and g in the fide of the houfe reprefent a fmall ram¬
rod for the tube a, and a pricker for the touch-hole at
C. Fig. 54. reprefents a mahogany pyramid, by means
of which the fame experimenr may be exhibited. It is
ufed in a manner fimilar to that juft now defcribed,
the piece at a being thrown out by the difcha-ge ;
by which means the upper part falls down in three
pieces.
Mr Jones of Holborn makes the front of the com¬
mon thunder-houfes, as well as the powder-houfe a-
bove defcribed, with two pieces of wood or windows
hh, which, by being placed in proper fituations, the
one to condud and the other to refill the fluid, will
illuttrate by one difcharge the ufefulnefs of good con-
dudors for fecuring buildings or magazines from the
explofion of thunder, as well as the danger of ufing
imperfed ones.
XXXIV. The Elearic Fly.
This fly is compofed of fmall brafs wires, fig. 49.
fixed into a cap of brafs alfo, eafily moveable upon an
axis of the fame metal, and exadly balanced, fo that
they may turn with the fmalleft force. The ends, which
ought to be very lharp, are all bent one w'ay, with regard
to one another, as thofe belonging to a, l, in the figure ;
though the two fets of points conftituting the two flies
there reprefented, are contrary to each other; fo that
the whole flies muft have a contrary motion. Fixing
the axle with the two flies upon the prime conduftor,
and working the machine, both will begin to turn very
fwiftly, each in a direction contrary to that of the
points. In this manner, with a powerful machine, a
great many flies may be made to turn either in the
fame or in contrary diredions; and by their gradual
increafe or decreafe in fize may reprefent a cone or
other figure ; for the courfe of each will be marked by
a fine of fire, and thus the whole -will exhibit a beauti¬
ful appearance in the dark. The light is faid to be
more brilliant when the ends are (lightly covered with
fealing-wax, greafe, or other eledric matter.
In this experiment the fly will turn the fame way
■whether the electricity be pofitive or negative; the
reafon of which will eafily be conceived from the theory
R I C I T Y. 47j
already laid down, viz. that in pofitive eledricity the Entertain-
flaid iffues from the body eledrified, and that in nega- ingExPer‘*
tive eledricity it enters into it. In the former cafe, ment~*' ,
the recoil of the fluid, which ads equally on the air and
on the point from whence it iffues, muft continually put
the point the contrary way; and in negative eledri¬
city, when the point folicits a continual draught of
eledric matter from the air, the dired impulfe of the
former muft alfo produce a motion in the point in the ■
courfe in which the fluid itfelf moves. In vacuo no
motion is produced ; becaufe there is no air on which
the fluid may ad when it iffues from the point. In
like manner, when air is inclofed in a glafs veffcl, the
motion of the eledric fly foon flops; becaufe the fluid
cannot eafily get through the air and the glafs, and
therefore its motions are impeded fo that it cannot
prefs with force ftifficient to produce motion. On ap¬
plying a condudor to the outfide of the glafs, the fly
renews its motion ; becaufe an opportunity is now gi¬
ven to the fluid to efcape, by running through the
glafs. But this, for the reafons already given, mull foon
ceafe, becaufe a contrary adion of the fluid inftantly
begins to take place; and in a ftiort time becomes
equal to that which urges it forward from the machine.
The motion of the fly, therefore, flops for the fame
reafon that a Leyden phial becomes at laft faturated and
cannot receive a greater charge; and which has been
already fo fully difcuffed, that it would be fuperfluous
to fay more on the fubjed. Fig. 50. (hows another
fly which turns perpendicularly, and w'hich will be
readily underftood from what has been already faid.
XXXV. The EleBrified Bells.
Fig. 35. reprefents an inftrument having three bells, Plate
which are made to ring by eledric attradion and re- CLXXV.
pulfion. 2? is a brafs rod, furniflied with a ring A of
the fame metal, by which it is fufpended from another
rod fixed in the prime condudor. The outer bells C
and E are fufpended by brafs chains ; but the middle
bell D and the two fmall brafs clappers between C D
and D E are fufpended by filk threads. From the
concave under part of the bell D a chain proceeds,
which falls upon the table, and has a filk thread E at
its extremity. When this apparatus is hung to the
condudor by the ring A, and the cylinder of the ma¬
chine gently turned, the clappers will fly from bell to
bell with a rapid motion, and the bells will ring as long
as they are kept eledrified. The two bells C and E
being fufpended by brafs chains, are firft eledrified:
hence they attrad the clappers, communicate to them
a little eledricity, and repel them to the uneledrified
bell D; upon which the clappers depofit their eledri¬
city, and move again to the bells C E, from which they
acquire more, and fo on. If, by holding the filk
thread F, the chain of the middle bell be raifed from
the table, the bells after ringing a little while will flop;
becaufe the bell D will have no opportunity of con¬
veying the eledricity it receives from the clappers to
the ground, being infulated by the filk thread. In the
dark, fparks will be feen between the clappers and
bells.
Fig. 36. repiefents a fet of bells more elegantly
mounted, and which produce a better found. In thefe
the knob a muft communicate with the condudor
when the apparatus is made ufe of. Fig. 37. reprefents
3 O 2 a
476 E L E C T R
Entertain- a fet of eight bells otherwife con lira died. The clapper
ing Expen-^ jg jlere fafpen£Je<l by a filken thread from the fly
abed: the axis of the fly reits in a fmall hole on the
Plate toP a g^a^8 phlar; and its upper part moves freely in,
CLXXV. and is confined by a hole in the brafs arm g. To make
life of thefe bells they muft be applied to the cylinder
of the machine, or at leaft brought very near it when
the condu&or is removed ; fo that the fly abed may
be about the height of the centre of the cylinder. The
latter being then put in motion, the eledlricity from it
proceeding to the fly, will caufe it to turn round in the
manner deferibed in the foregoing experiment, and the
clapper attradled by each of the bells alternately in its
rotation ; which, if they are properly turned, will pro¬
duce a pleafing and harmonious found.
XXXVI. To jire a Pijlol or Cannon by Inflammable Air.
Fig. 40. reprefents a brafs piftol for inflammable air.
It confifts principally of a chamber, to the mouth D of
which a cork is fitted : a glafs tube F is cemented in¬
to the top of the chamber, through which a brafs wire
pafles, and is bent within fide fo as to approach with¬
in an eighth part of an inch of the fide. On the out-
fide end of this wire is ferewed a brafs ball A, which
ferves to receive a fpark from the condu&or of the ma¬
chine, and conduft it in that form to the infidc of the
piftol. The inflammable air with which the piftol is to
be charged may be made in a common ftone-ware or
glafs bottle, by mixing a handful of iron-filings with
about two wine-glafsfuls of water and near one of oil
of vitriol. The air, when thus made, ftiould be kept
in a bottle corked up. To make ufe of the piftol, take
out the cork from the bottle, and inftantly apply the
mouth of the piftol to the mouth of the bottle ; and
in about ten feconds it will be fufficiently charged :
then remove it, and cork both the piftol and bottle
with the utmoft expedition : then bring the ball A
near the prime condudtor or the knob of a charged
jar ; and the fpark that paffes through the ball, and
between the end of the wire withinfide and the fide of
the chamber, will fire the inflammable air with a loud
report, and drive the cork to a cpnfiderable diftance.
Inftruments to fire inflammable air are often made in
the form of a cannon with its carriage, as in fig. 41.
XXXVII. The Spiral Tube.
Fig. 42. reprefents an inftrument4 compofed of two
glafs tubes C D, one within another, and clofed with
two knobbed brafs caps A and B. The innermoft of
thefe has a fpiral row of fmall round pieces of tin-foil
ftuck upon its outfide furface, and lying at about one-
thirtieth of an inch from each other. If this inftru¬
ment be held by one of its extremities, and its other
extremity be prefented to the prime condu&or, every
fpark that it receives from the prime conduftor will
caufe fmall fparks to appear between all the round
pieces of tin-foil ftuck upon the innermoft tube; which
in the dark affords a pleafing fpe&acle, the inftrument
appearing encompafled by a fpiral line of fire.
Fig. 43. reprefents feveral fpiral tubes placed round a
board, in the middle of which is ferewed a glafs pillar,
and on the top of this pillar is cemented a brafs cap
with a fine fteel point. In this a brafs wire turns, ha¬
ving a brafs ball at each end, nicely balanced on the
wire. To make ufe of this apparatus, place the middle
I c 1 T Y. Sea.vm.
of the turning wire under a ball proceeding from the Entertain-
condu&or, fo that it may receive a fucceffiou of fparks in& Experi-
from the ball; then pufh the wire gently round ; and mems•
the bails in their relative motions will give a fpark to r—-*
each tube, and thereby illuminate them down to the
board, which from its brilliancy and rapid motion af¬
ford ■ a moll beautiful and pleafing fight.
The fmall pieces of tin-foil are fometimes ftuck on
a flat piece of glafs A BCD, fig. 44. fo as to repre-
fent various fanciful figures. Upon the fame principle
is the luminous word light produced. It is formed by
the fmall reparations of the tin-foil pafted on a piece
of glafs fixed in a frame of baked wood, as reprefented
fig. 45. To ufe this, the frame muft be held in the
hand, and the ball G prefented to the conduftor. Tim
fpark then will be exhibited in the intervals compofing
the word; from whence it paffes to the hook at h,
and thence to the ground by a chain. The brilliancy
of this is equal to that of the fpirals.
XXXVIII. To flre a Piece of Iron-wire in Dephlogifli-
cated Air.
The apparatus for this is reprefented fig. 28. n° 2. Plate
where the wire is twilled into a fpiral figure. When Cl,XXIV.
this is done, it may eafily be inferted in the brafs knob
D. The jar comes out of the bottom C, and is filled
with the dephlogifticated air, as direfted under the ar¬
ticle Aerology. The electricity of a common jar
being then inftantly fent down through the ball and
wire at A, an explofion takes place betwixt the end of
the fmall wire and the lower ball B, which fets the
end of the former on fire. It burns with remarkable
brightnefs; and by reafon of the fpiral fhape into
which it is twilled, flrows the appearance of a final!
fun moving from the top to the bottom of the jar, and
flowly moving round as the wire, which is of a fpiral
lhape, gradually burns away.
XXXIX. The EleBrified Capillary Syphon.
Let a fmall bucket of metal filled with water be plate
fufpended from the prime Conductor, and put in a CLXXV.
glafs fyphon fo narrow in the extremity that the wa¬
ter may juft drop from it. If in this difpofition of the
apparatus the winch of the machine be turned, the
water, which when not eleCtrified run out only by
drops, will now run in a full ftream, or even be fub-
divided into fmaller ftreams; and if the experiment
be made in the dark, the appearance will be very beau¬
tiful. The fame phenomenon will be exhibited by a
fmall bucket with a jet, as reprefented fig. 46. or the
experiment may be agreeably varied, by hanging one
bucket from a pofitive conduClor and another from
a negative one ; fo that the ends of the tubes or jets
may be about three or four inches from each other.
The ftream iffuing from the one will be attraded by
that iffuing from the other, and both will unite in¬
to one ; but though both are luminous in the dark
before meeting, the united ftream will not be fo unlefs
the one eledricity has been ftronger than the other.
XL. To illuminate Eggs.
Fig. 55. reprefents a mahogany Hand fo conftruCled Plate
as to hold three eggs at a greater or fmaller diftance, CLXXVI,
according to the pofition of the Hiding pieces. A
chain C is placed at the bottom in fuch a manner as
4 to
Sea. VIH. ELECT
Knttrta''.'. to touch the bottom of the egg at £ with one end,
ini; Expen an(j jts other the outfide coating of a charged
jar. The hiding wire ^ at top is made to touch the
v upper egg ; and the diftance of the eggs afunder fhould
not exceed the quarter or eighth pait of an inch. The
eledlricity being by means of the difcharging rod fent
down the bait and wire at y/, will in a darkened room
render the eggs very luminous and tranfparent, as has
already been mentioned.
XLI. Te render Ivory or Boxwood luminous.
Place an ivory ball on the prime conductor of the
machine, and take a ftrong fpark, or fend the charge
of a Leyden bottle through its centre, the ball will
appear perfeftly luminous; but if the charge be not
taken through the centre, it will pafs over the ftjrface
of the ball and corrode it. A fpark taken through a
ball of boxwood not only illuminates the whole, but
makes it appear of a beautiful crimfon or rather fine
fdarlet colour.
XLII. To illuminate Water.
Connect one end of a chain with the outfide of a
charged jar, and let the other lie upon the table.
Place the end of another piece of chain at about one
quarter of an inch from the farmer; then fet a decan¬
ter of water onthefe feparated ends;, and on making a
difcharge, the water will appear perfeftly and beauti¬
fully luminous.
XLIII. To male a beautiful appearance in vacuo.
P'ate ^1G' 5^’ rePrefents a barometer tube, having
CLXXVI. on end B a Heel cap faftened to the glafs with ce¬
ment. From this proceed a wire and balled. Fill
this tube with quickfilver ; and then by fending up a
large bubble of air, and repeatedly inverting the tube,
free the quickfilver and iron ball from air: then put a
fmall drop of ether on the quickfilver, and put the
finger on the end of the glafs tube; and then invert
the end/in a bafon of quickfilver,'taking care not
to remove the finger from the end of the tube till
the latter b« immerged under the furface of the quick¬
filver. When the finger is removed, the mercury
will. defeend, and the ether expand itfelf; prefent the
metallic top of the tube to a large charged condudor,
and . a beautiful green fpark will pafs through the va¬
pour of the ether from the* ball d to the quickfilver.
By admitting a fmall quantity of air into the tube,
an appearance fomething like a falling ftar is pro¬
duced.
XL IV. To render Gold-leaf or Dutch-metal luminous.
This is done by difcharging the contents of a fmall
Leyden jar over it. A ftrip of gold leaf one-eighth of
an inch in breadth and a yard long, will frequently
be illuminated throughout its whole extent, by the ex-
plofion of a jar containing two gallons. This experi¬
ment may be beautifully diverfified, by laying the gold
or filver leaf on a piece of glafs, and then placing the
glafs in water ; for the whole gold-leaf will appear
moft brilliantly luminous in the water, by expofing it
thus circumllanced to the explofion of a battery.
XLV. To perforate a Glafs Tube-
Fig. 59. reprefents a fmall glafs tube flopped at one
R I C I T Y. 477
end with a piece of cork ; £ is a wire with a hall, at Entertain-,
one end of which-is a brafs ball; the other paffes thro,1D£ ExPer‘*
a cork fitted to the upper part of the tpbe. This. ^ .
end of the wire is bent at right angles, in fuch a man¬
ner as to approach the fide of the tube. To perform
the experiment, take out the upper cork and wire,
and then pour feme fallad oil into the tube; replace
the cork, and pufh down the wire, fo that the end of
it may be near or rather below the furface of the oil;
prefent the ball to the electrified 'conductor, holding
the finger or any other conducting fubftance oppofite
to the bent end of the wire; and when the fpark pafles
from the conductor to the brafs ball, the fame will
pafs along the wire, perforating the tube in order to
get at the finger, and produce a curious agitation of
the oil.
XLVI. The Inflammable Air-lamp.
Fig. 60. reprefents this machine, which is an inven¬
tion of M. Volta. ^ is a glafs globe to contain the
inflammable air; B, a glafs bafon or refervoir to hold
water; D, a cock to form occafionally a communication
between the reftrvoir of water and that of air. The
water pafles into the latter through the metal pipe ggy
which is fixed to the upper part of the refervoir A;
as s is a fmall cock to cut off or open a communication
with the air in the ball and the jet K.— N \s 3. fmall
pipe to hold a piece of wax taper ; L, a brafs pillar,
on the top of which is a ball of the fame metal; a is a
pillar of glafs with a focket at top, in which the wire
b Aides, having a ball ferewed on the end of it. F is
a cock by which the bail A is filled with inflammable
air, and which afterwards ferves to confine the air,
and what water falls from the bafon B into the ball A.
To ufe this inftrument, after having filled the refer¬
voir A with pure inflammable air and the bafon with
water, turn the cocks D and s, and the water which
falls from the bafon B will force out fome of the in¬
flammable air, and caufe it to pafs through the jet K
into the air. If an eleftric fpark be made to pafs from
the brafs ball m to that marked n, the inflammable
iet which pafles through the pipe AT will be fired. To
extinguifli the lamp, fii ft. flint the cock s, and then the
cock D. The inflammable air is made of the ufual
ingredients, vix. iron-filings and vitriolic acid; and the
refervoir is filled in the following manner: Having
previoufly filled A with water, place the foot in a
tub of that fluid which may cover it, fo that the bent
glafs tube through which the air pafles may pafs com-
modioufly below the foot of the lamp. When the air
has nearly driven out all the water, turn the cock F,
and the apparatus is ready for ufe. This inftrument
is convenient for preferving a quantity of inflammable
air ready for any occafional experiment, as charging
the inflammable air-piftol, Sec. It is alfo convenient
for lighting a candle for economical purpofes, as the
leaft fpark from an eleftrophorus or a fmall bottle is
fufficieiTt to fire the air.
XLVII. Imitations of the Planetary Motions.
See below, Ufes of the Electric Fluid in the Syjlem of
Nature.
XLVIII. Beautiful Figures produced in Powdered Rojin,
Sic.Jlrewed over an Electric Subjlance. Ibid.
Se c tv
E L E C T R
i-Sect. IX. Experiments of a Mifcellnncous Na¬
ture, viz. tbofe relating to the Ejfefts of the
Electric Fluid on Colours; on its Velocity; the
Changes of EleFlric into Conducting Subflances\
the impojjibility of forcing the Fluid through a
.pcrfeFl Vacuum; the Power of Batteries; its Di¬
rection in various Cafes; Improvements in the
Method of Excitation, &c.
Th"ese experiments, though far from being unen¬
tertaining, we have thought proper to clafs under a
different title, as many might wifh to amufe them-
felves with producing an agreeable and beautiful phe¬
nomenon who would not choofe to make experiments
for the fake of inveftigating unknown fubje&s, where
perhaps little elfe than the labour of making the ex¬
periment might be the reward of the operator. Thefe
experiments alfo may be truly faid to be of an ano¬
malous nature; as not being founded upon any known
laws of eledtricity, but rather a collection of facts; from
fome of which we may afterwards deduce the laws by
■which this fubtile fluid is occafionally governed. We
fhall begin with experiments made by Mr Cavallo upon
fubftances painted over with colours of different kinds.
They were occafioned by his having obferved that an
eledtric fhock, fent over the furface of a card, made a
"black ftroke upon a red fpot, from which he was
induced to try the effedt of fending fhocks over
cards painted with different water-colours. The
force employed was generally about one foot and
an half of charged glafs; and the {hocks were
fent over the cards while the latter were in a very dry
{late.
“ Vermilion was marked with a ftrong black track,
about one-tenth of an inch wide. This ftroke is ge¬
nerally Angle, as reprefented by AB, fig. 74. n0 2. of
Plate CLXXVII. Sometimes it is divided in two to¬
wards the middle, like E F-, and fometimes, particu¬
larly when the wires are fet very diftant from one
another, the ftroke is not continued, but interrupted
in the middle, like G H. It often, although not al¬
ways, happens, that the impreflion is marked ftronger
at the extremity of that wire from which the eleftric
fluid iffues, as it appears at E, fuppofing that the wire
C communicates with the pofitive fide of the jar;
whereas the extremity of the ftroke, contiguous to the
point of the wire D, is neither fo ftrongly marked,
nor furrounds the wire fo much, as the other extre¬
mity E.
“ Carmine received a faint and {lender impreflion of
a purple colour.
“ Verdigis was ffraken off from the furface of
the card ; except when it had been mixed with ftrong
gum-water, in which cafe it received a very faint im¬
preflion.
« White-lead was marked with a long black track,
not fo broad as that on vermilion.
I C I T Y. Sea. IX.
“ Red lead was marked with a faint mark much like Mifcdlane-
carmine. ments^6”*
“ The other colours 1 tried were orpiment, gam- f
boge, fap-green, red-ink, ultramarine, Pruflian blue,
and a few others, which were compounds of the above;
but they received no impreffion.
“ It having been infinuated, that the ftrong black
mark, which vermilion receives from the ele&ric {hock,
might poflibly be owing to the great quantity of ful-
phur contained in that mineral, I was induced to make
the following experiment. I mixed together equal
quantities of orpiment and flower of fulphur; and with
this mixture, by the help, as ufual, of very diluted
gum-water, I painted a card ; but the eleftric ftiock
fent over it left not the leaft impreflion.
“ Defirous of carrying this inveftigation on colours
a little further, with a particular view to determine
fomething relative to the properties of lamp-black and
oil (c), I procured fome pieces of paper painted on
both fides with oil colours; and fending the charge of
two feet of coated glafs over each of them, by making
the interruption of the circuit upon their furfaces, I
obferved that the pieces of paper painted with lamp¬
black, Pruffian blue, vermilion, and purple brown,
were torn by the explofion ; but white lead, Naples
yellow, Engliflr ochre, and verdigris, remained un¬
hurt.
“ The fame {hock fent over a piece of paper painted
very thickly with lamp-black and oil left not the leaft
imprefiion. I fent the ftiock alfo over a piece of paper
unequally painted with purple brown, and the paper
was torn where the paint lay very thin, but remained
unhurt where the paint was evidently thicker. Thefe
experiments I repeated feveral times and with fome
little variation,'which naturally produced different ef-
fefts; however, they all feem to point out the follow¬
ing propofitions.
“ I. A coat of oil-paint over any fubftance, de¬
fends it from the eff'e&s of fuch an electric fliock as
would otherwife injure it; but by no means defends it
from any ele&ric {hock whatever. II. No one colour
feems preferable to the others, if they are equal in fub¬
ftance, and equally well mixed with oil; but a thick
coating does certainly afford a better defence than a
thinner one.
“ By rubbing the above mentioned pieces of paper,
I find that the paper painted with lamp-black and
oil is more eafily excited, and acquires a ftronger elec¬
tricity, than the papers painted with the other colours;
and, perhaps, on this account it may be, that lamp¬
black and oil might refift the ftiock fomewhat better
than the other paints.
“ It is remarkable, that vermilion receives the black
impreffion, when painted with lintfeed oil, nearly as
well as when painted with water. The paper painted
with white lead and oil receives alfo a black mark;
but its nature is very Angular. The track, when firft
made, is almoft as dark as that marked on white-lead
* painted
(c) “ It has often been obferved, that when lightning has ftruck the mails of {hips, it has paffed over fuch
parts of the mails as were covered with lamp-black and tar, or painted with lamp-black and oil, without
the leaft injury, at the fame time that it has ffiivered the uncoated parts in fuch a manner as to render the
jnafts ufelefs.”
Plate CLXXVE
Sea.IX. ELECTRICITY. 479
Mifcellane-painted with water; but it gradually lofes its black- of the dull 5 which, catifing a vacuum in the air, Mifcellane-
ous Experi- nef£) and in about an hour’s time (or longer, if the drove all that light matter to a confiderable diftance. ous ExPeri*
paint is not freflr) it appeal’s without any darknefs; and But the particles of the duft, which were Itrowed in ment^’ f
when the painted paper is laid in a proper light, ap- the intervals of the train, fome of which were at leaft J
pears only marked with a colourlefs track, as if made three inches, could hardly be conveyed in that man-
by a finger-nail. I fent the (hock alfo over a piece of ner.
board which had been painted with white-lead and
‘ When fmall trains 1
1 laid, the difperfion was
oil about four years before, and the explofion marked the moll confiderable, and a light was very viiible in
the black track upon this alfo : this track, however,
was not fo ftrong, nor vanifhed fo foon, as that mark¬
ed upon the painted paper; but in about two days.time
jaj it alio vanilhed entirely.”
Electric Another very remarkable property of the ele&ric
flmck cal- f}ujg iSj that it both calcines, vitrifies, and revivifies,
fies* andre- metals* The calcination of them appears from Dr one another, the dull was always difperfed over the
vivifies me- Priettley’s experiments with the brafs chain, formerly whole interval, but chiefly laterally ; fo that thegreat-
the dark, illuminating the whole circuit. It made no
difference, in any of thefe experiments, which way the
fhock was difcharged.
“ When -I laid a confiderable quantity of the duft
at the ends of two pieces of chain, through which the
fhock pafled, at the diflance of about three inches front
mentioned, where the black duft was plainly a calx of eft quantity of it lay in arches, extending both ways,
the metal. The vitrification is performed by exploding and leaving very little of it in the middle of the path.
fmall wires of any kind with the fhock of a battery.
In this cafe, the fmall globules of metal, even though
gold, filver, or platina, arc found to be completely
vitrified. The revivification is an experiment of Mr
Beccaria. This he did by making the explofion be¬
tween two pieces of the calces ; and thus he revivified
feveral metallic fubftances, particularly zinc, and even
mg very little of it in the middle of the path.
It is probable, that the ele&ric power would have
fpread it equably, but that the vacuum made in the air,,
by the paflage of the fluid from one heap of duft to the
other, difperfed it from the middle part.
“ I then infulated a jar of three fquare feet, and up¬
on an adjoining glafs-ftand laid a heap of brafs duft ;
and at the diftance of feven or eight inches a brafs rod
produced real quickfilver from cinnabar. In this cafe, communicating with the outfide of the jar. Upon
bringing another rod, communicating with the infide,.
upon the heap of duft, it was difperfed in a beautiful
manner, but not one way more than another. How¬
ever, it prefently reached the rod communicating with
the outfide.
“ Making two heaps, about eight inches afunder,..
.0 I brought one rod communicating with the infide up-
the^eleAric ^irou£k it makes its way with difficulty, it ouone of them, and another rod communicating with,
matter throws before it all light conducing fubftances it can the outfide upon the other. Both the heaps were dif-
throws find, in order to facilitate its own paflage ; and thus it fperfed in all directions, and foon met; prefently after
dmSting- .
fubftances
before it.
he always obferved ftreaks of black beyond the colour¬
ed metallic ftains ; owing, as he fuppofed, to the phlo-
gifton driven from the parts that were vitrified, when
the other part revivified the calx,
lecca- Mr Beccaria alfo difeovered another very remarkable
expe- property of the electric matter; namely, that when it
is obliged to pafs through air,, or any other fubftance
will pafs through a greater quantity of refifting medium
than it would otherwife be able to do. The experi¬
ments from which Mr Beccaiia drew this conclufion;
were the following. He put a narrow piece of leaf-
filver between two plates of wax, laying it acrofs them,
but fo'that it did not quite reach one of the fides. The
difeharge being made through this ftrip of metal, by
bringing a wire oppofite to the filver, at the place where
it was difeontinued ; the filver was found melted, and
part of it difperfed all along the track that the elec¬
tric matter took between the plates of wax, from the
filver to the wire. Happening once to receive, inad¬
vertently, the charge of a fmalljar through fome fmoke
of fpirit of nitre, a hole was made in his thumb,
where the fire entered, and which he thought could
only have been made by the acid carried, along by the
eleftric fluid. Dr Prieftley hath made feveral more exr
periments,. in order to afeertain this remarkable pro¬
perty ; and of which he gives the following account.
which the jar was difcharged, by means of this dif
perfed duft, in one full explofion. When the two
heaps were too. far afunder to promote a full difeharge
at once, a gradual difeharge was made through the
fcattered particles of the duft.
“ When one heap of duft was laid im the centre of
the ftand, and the two rods were made to approach ora.
each fide of it, they each attrafted the duft from the
fide of the heap next to them, and repelled it again in
all dire&ious. When they came very near the heap#
the difeharge was made through it, without giving it
any particular motion.
“ All thefe experiments flrow, that light bodies
pofleffed of a confiderable (hare of eledtricity, difperfa
in all directions, carrying the eledtric matter to places-
not abounding with it; and that they fometimes pro¬
mote a fudden difeharge of great quantities of that
matter from places where it was lodged, to places
where there was a defedt of it. But an accident ltd
to a much more beautiful, and perhaps a more fa-
‘ I difcharged frequent fhocks, both of a common
le v’s- expe- jar, and another of three fquare feet, through trains of tisfadtory, manner of demonftrating the lail part of this
liments on brafs duft, laid on a ftool of baked wood, making in- propofition,than any that I hit upon while I was pur-
thislubjeift. terruptions in various parts of the train ; and always firing my experiments with that defign.
found the brafs duft fcattered in the intervals, fo as to “ Hanging a drop of water upon the knob of a
connedt the two disjoined ends of the train ; but then brafs rod communicating with the infide of my batterv#
it was likewife fcattered nearly as much from almoft in order to obferve what variety it might occafion in,
all other parts of the train, and in all diredtions. The the circular fpots above mentioned, I was greatly fur-
fcattering from the train itfelf was probably occa- prifed to find the explofion made al] at once, at the di--
fjoned by fmall eledtric fparks between the particles ftance of two inches..
48o E L E C T
Mifcellane- « I afterwards put fome brafs duft upon a plate of
meiTt**^6” metal coinmun'cat'ng with the infide of the battery;
. ’ lt- and making the difcharge through the daft, it exploded
at the diftance of an inch and a half. The duft rofe
towards the difcharged rod, and from thence was dif-
perfed in all dire&ions.
“ Thefe experiments are the more remarkable, as
they demonftrate fo great a difference between the di-
ilance at which the battery may be made to difcharge
at once, by the help of thefe light bodies, and with¬
out them. When the difcharge of a battery by the
knobs of brafs rods, in the open air, is at the diftance
of about half an inch ; it will, by this means’, be made
at about two inches.”
Expen- motions of the eledlric fluid, though prodigi-
ments con- oufly quick, are not inftantaneous. The fhock of the
cerninsj the Leyden phial, indeed, hath been tranfmitted through
the°e!e6tric w*res feveral miles in length, without taking up any
fluid. fenfible fpace of time. That is, fuppofing two perfons
to hold the ends of the ware, one communicating with
the knob,-and the other with the outfide coating of the
phial, both would feel the fhock at the fame inftant;
nor would it make any alteration though a confider-
able part of the furface of the ground was made part
of the conductor. Dr Prieftley relates feveral very cu¬
rious experiments made with a view to afcertain this
point foon after the Lyden phial was difcovered.
Thefe experiments were planned and dire&ed by Dr
Watfon, who was prefent at every one of them. His
chief affiftants were Martin Folkes, Efq; prefident of
the royal fociety. Lord Charles Cavendifh, Dr Bevis,
Mr Graham, Dr Birch, Mr Peter Daval, Mr Trem-
bley, Mr Ellicott, Mr Robins, and Mr Short. Many
other perfons, and fome of diftin&ion, gave their at¬
tendance occafionally.
Dr Watfon, who wrote the hillory of their proceed¬
ings, in order to lay them before the royal fociety, be¬
gins with obferving (what was verified in all their ex¬
periments), that the eleftric fhock is not, ftriftly fpeak-
ing, condufted in the fhorteft manner pofiible, unlefs
the bodies through which it pafles conduft equally
well; for that, if they conduft unequally, the circuit
is always formed through the beft condudlor, though
the length of it be ever fo great.
The firft attempt thefe gentlemen made, was to con¬
vey the eledlric fhock acrofs the river Thames, making
ufe of the water of the river for one part of the chain
of communication. This they accomplifhed on the
14th and 18th of July 1747, by fattening a wire all
along Weftminfter bridge, at a confiderable height a-
bove the water. One end of this wire communicated
with the coating of a charged phial, the other being
held by an obferver, who, in his other hand, held an
iron rod, which he dipped into the river. On the op-
pofite fide of the river flood a gentleman, who like-
wife dipped an iron rod in the river with one hand;
and in the other held a wire, the extremity of which
might be brought into contadl with the wire of the
phial.
Upon making the difcharge, the fhock was felt by
the obfervers on both fides the river, but more fenfibly
by thofe who were Rationed on the fame fide with the
machine ; part of the eledlric fire having gone from the
wire down the moift ftones of the.bridge, thereby ma¬
king feveral fhorter circuits to the phial, but ftill all
N° 112.
R I C I T Y. Se^JX.
patting through the gentlemen who were flattened on Mtfcellane-
the fame fide with the machine. This was, in a man- ° ' tilPer‘*
ner, demonftrated by fome perfons feeling a fenfible f
fhock in their arms and feet, who only happened to
touch the wire at the time of one of the difeharges,
when they were (landing upon the wet fteps which led
to the river. In one of the difeharges made upon this
occafion, fpirits were kindled by the fire which had
gone through the river.
Upon this, and the fubfequent occafions, the gen¬
tlemen made ufe of wires in preference to chains; for
this, among other reafons, that the elcdlricity which
was condudled by chains was not fo ftrong as that
which was condudled by wires. This, as they welt
obferved, was occafioned by the jundlures of the links
not being fufficiently clofe, as appeared by the flap¬
ping and flafhing at every jundture where there was
the leaft feparation. Thefe letter fnappings, being nu¬
merous in the whole length of a chain, very fenfibly
leflened the great difcharge at the gun-barrel.
Their next attempt was to force the eledlrical fhock
to make a circuit of two miles, at the New River at
Stoke Newington. This they performed on the 24th
of July 1747, at two places ; at one of which the di¬
ftance by land was 800 feet, and by water 2000 : in
the other, the diftance by land was 2800 feet, and by
water 8000. The difpofition of the apparatus was
fimilar to what they before ufed at Weftminfter bridge,
and the effedl anfwered their utmoft expeditions. But
as, in both cafes, the obfervers at both extremities of
the chain, which terminated in the water, felt the
fhock as well when they flood with their rods fixed
into the earth 20 feet from the water, as when they
were put into the river ; it occafioned a doubt, whe¬
ther the eledlric circuit was formed through the wind¬
ings of the river, ora much fhorter way, by the ground
of the meadow: for the experiment plainly fhowed,
that the meadow-ground, with the grafs on it, conduc¬
ted the eledlricity very well.
By fubfequent experiments they were fully convin¬
ced, that the eledlricity had not in this cafe been con¬
veyed by the water of the river, which was two miles
in length, but by land, where the diftance was only
one mile ; in which fpace, however, the eledlric mat¬
ter muft neceflarily have patted over the New River
twice, have gone through feveral gravel pits, and a
large ftabble field.
July 28th, they repeated the experiment at the fame
place, with the following variation of circumftances.
The iron wire was, in its whole length, fupported by dry
flicks, and the obfervers flood upon original eledlrics;
the effedl of which was, that they felt the fhock much
more fenfibly than when the condudling wire had lain
upon the ground, and when the obfervers had like-
wife flood upon the ground, as in the former experi¬
ment.
Afterwards, every thing elfe remaining as before, the
obfervers were diredled, inflead of dipping their rods .
into the water, to put them into the gr ound, each
150 feet from the water. They were both ftnartly
ftruck, though they were diftant from each other a-
bove 500 feet.
The fame gentlemen, pleafed with the fuccefs of
their former experiments, undertook another, the ob-
jedl of which was, to determine whether the eledlrie
virtue
Sea. IX. ELECTRICITY. 48t
Mifceiia- virtue could be conveyed through dry ground ; and,
neons Ex- at tjie fame time, to carry it through water to a great-
penmei.ts- dlftance than they had done before. For this pur-
pofe they pitched upon Highbury-barn beyond Ifling-
ton, where they carried it into execution on the jth
of Augufl: 1747. They chofe a ftation for their ma¬
chine almoft equally diitant from two other ftations
for obfervers upon the New River ; which were fome-
■what more than a mile afunder by land and two miles
by water. They had found the ftreets of London,
when dry, to conduft very ftrongly for about 40 yards ;
and the dry road at Newington about the fame diftance.
The event of this trial anfwered their expeftations.
The ele&ric fire made the circuit of the water, when
both the wires and the obfervers were fupported
upon original ele&rics, and the rods dipped into the
river. They alfo both felt the flrock, when one of the
obfervers was placed in a dry gravelly pit, about 300
yards nearer the machine than the former ftation, and
100 yards diftant from the river: from which the
gentlemen were fatisfied, that the dry gravelly ground
had conducted the eleftricity as ftrongly as water.
From the flrocks which the obfervers received in
their bodies, when the eleftric power was conduced
upon dry flicks, they were of opinion, that, from the
difference of diftance fimply confidered, the force of the
fhock, as far as they had yet experienced, was very
little if at all impaired. When the obfervers flood
upon eleftrics, and touched the water or the ground
with the iron rods, the fhock was always felt in their
arms or wrifts; when they flood upon the ground
with their iron rods, they felt the fhock in their elbows,
wrifts, and ankles ; and when they flood upon the
ground without rods, the fhock was always felt in the
elbow and wrift of that hand which held the conduc¬
ting wire, and in both ankles.
The laft attempt of this kind which thefe gentle¬
men made, and which required all their fagacity and
addrefs in the condudl of it, was to try whether the
eledtric fhock was perceptible at twice the diftance to
which they had before carried it, in ground perfedlly
dry, and where no water was near ; and alfo to diftin-
guifh, if poffible, the refpedrive velocity of ele&ricity
and found.
For this purpofe they fixed upon Shooter’s-hill, and
made their firft experiments on the 14th of Auguft
J 747 ; a time when, as it happened, but one fhower
of rain had fallen during five preceding weeks. The
wire communicating with the iron rod which made
the difcharge, was 6732 feet in length, and was fup¬
ported all the way upon baked flicks ; as was alfo the
wire which communicated with the coating of the
phial, which was 3868 feet long, and the obfervers
were diftant from each other two miles. The refult
of the explofion demonflrated, to the fatisfadiion of
the gentlemen prefent, that the circuit performed by
the eledlric matter was four miles, mz. two miles of
wire and two of dry ground, the fpace between the
extremities of the wires a diftance which, without
trial, as they juftly obferved, was too great to be cre¬
dited. A gun was difcharged at the inllant of the
explofion, and the obfervers had flop-watches in their
hands, to note the moment when they felt the fhock :
but, as far as they could diftinguifh, the time in which
the eledtric matter performed that vaft circuit might
have been inftantaneous.
Vol. VI. Part II.
In all the explofions where the circuit was made Mifcella-
of confiderable length, it was obferved, that though neo.U!
the phial was very well charged, yet that the fnap at t>trimerit8*|.
the gun-barrel, made by the explofion, was not near
fo loud as when the circuit was formed in a room ; fo
that a by-ftander, fays Dr Watfon, though verfed in
thefe operations, would not imagine, from feeing the
flafh, and hearing the report, that the ftroke at the ex¬
tremity of the condudring wire could have been confi¬
derable ; the contrary whereof, when the wires were
properly managed, he fays, always happened.
Still the gentlemen, unwearied in thefe purfuits,
were defirous, if poffible, to afcertain the abfolute ve¬
locity of eledlricity at a certain diftance ; becaufe,
though in the laft experiment, the time of its progrefs
was certainly very fmall, if any, they were defirous of
knowing, fmall as that time might be, whether it was
meafurable ; and Dr Watfon had contrived an excel¬
lent method for that purpofe.
Accordingly, on the 5th of Auguft 1748, the gen¬
tlemen met once more, and the laft time, at Shooter’s-
hill ; when it was agreed to make an eledlric circuit of
two miles, by feveral turnings of the wire in the fame
field. The middle of this circuit they contrived to be
in the fame room with the machine, where an obferver
took in each hand one of the extremities of the wires,
each of which was a mile in length. In this excellent
difpofition of the apparatus, in which the time between
the explofion and the ftiock might have been obferved
to the greateft exadlnefs, the phial was difcharged fe¬
veral times; but the obferver always felt himfelf
ftccked at the very inftant of making the explofion.
Upon this the gentlemen were fully fatisfied, that
through the whole length of this wire, which was
12,276 feet, the velocity of the eledlric matter was
inftantaneous.
With all this furprifing velocity, however, it is cer- Sometimes
tain, that both fides of a charged phial may be touched!^ fiuicl
fo quickly, even by the beft condudlors, that all the^^more
eleftric matter hath not time to make the circuit, and fluWly.
the phial will remain but half difcharged. If the up¬
per plate of an eledlrophorus alfo is very fuddenly
touched with the finger, or any other condudlor, a
very fmall fpark will be obtained on lifting it up ;
though a very ftrong one would be got if the finger
was kept longer upon it. But how this feeming flow-
nefs can be reconciled with the immeafurable velocity
above-mentioned, doth not appear. It is certain, in¬
deed, that this fluid is confiderably refifted in its paf-
fage through or over every fubftance. It will even prefer
a ffiort paflage in the air where it is violently refifted
to one along a wire of very great length ; but here, as
in every other cafe, it feems to divide its force, and to
break out through feveral different paffages at once.
A method of afeertaining this hath been contrived by
Dr Prieitley, thus. Bend a wire, about five feet long,
fo that one part may come within half an inch of the
other; then connedt the extremities of the wire with
the hook of the battery, and fend a ftiock through
it. On making the explofion, a fpark will be feen be¬
tween the two parts which approach neareft to each o-
ther; which fhowsthat the fluid choofes a ftiort paffage
through the air, rather than the long one through the
wire. The charge, however, does not pafs entirely be¬
tween thefe two parts, but fome of it goes alfo thro’ the
■wire. This may be proved by putting a flender wire
3 p be-
482
ELECTRICITY. Sed. IX.
Mifcella-
perimeir*
Water be¬
comes elec¬
tric by
cold.
1^9
Sledlrics
eondudtors
by heat.
between the two approaching parts : for, on making
the difcharge with only this addition in the apparatus,
the fmall wire will hardly be made red hot; whereas,
if the large wire be cut fo as to difcontinue the
circuit, the fmall wire will be melted, and even ex¬
ploded, by the fame {hock that before made it fcarcely
red hot. But though we can eafily fhow that the elec¬
tric fluid always meets with refiftance, it is by no means
eafy to. Ihow why the fame refiltance which puts a
temporary flop do its motions in fome cafes, doth not
fo in all.
Another curious experiment in eledtricity is the
converting of conducing fubftances into electrics by
cold, and of changing ele&rics into condu&ors by
heat. The firft hath yet been done only in the in-
ftance of water. This is a difcovery of Mr Achavd’s
at Berlin, who, in the month of January 1776,0b-
ferved, that water frozen to the 20th degree below the
freezing point of Reaumur’s thermometer, anfwering
to the 13thbelow oof Fahrenheit’s, is an ele&ric. He
tried his experiments in the open air, where he found,
that a rod of ice two feet long and two inches thick,
was a very imperfect conduftor when Reaumur’s ther¬
mometer was at fix degrees below o ; and that it would
not in the leall condudl when the thermometer was
funk to 20°. By whirling a fpheroid of ice in a pro¬
per machine, he even eledlrified the prime conduc¬
tor fo as to attraft, repel, give fparks, &c. The ice
made ufe of was free from air-bubbles, and quite tran-
fparent; to produce which, he ufed to fet a vefiel con¬
taining diftilled water to be frozen, upon the window
of a room which was rather warm with refpedt to the
ambient air ; fo that the water began to freeze on the
one fide of the vefiel, while on the other it was Hill
liquid.
To prove that glafs and other eleftrics become con-
du&ors when very hot: Take a fmall glafs tube of a-
bout one-twentieth of an inch in diameter, and above
a foot long ; clofe it at one end, and introduce a wire
into it, fo that it may be extended through its whole
length; let two or three inches of this wire projedl
above the open end of the tube, and there fallen it
■with a bit of cork ; tie round the clofed end of the
tube another wire, which will be feparated from the
wire within the tube only by the glafs interpofed be¬
tween them. In thefe circumftances, endeavour to
fend a fliock through the two wires, i. e. the wire in-
ferted in the glafs tube and that tied on its outfide,
by connedling one of them with the outfide, and
touching the other with the knob of a charged jar;
and you will find that the difcharge cannot be made
unlefs the tube be broken ; becaufe the circuit is in¬
terrupted by the glafs at the end of the tube, which is
interpofed between the two wires. But put that end
of the tube to which the wire is tied into the fire, fo
that it may become juft red-hot, then endeavour to
difcharge the jar again through the wires, and you
will find that the explofion will be eafily tranfmitted
from wire to wire through the fubftance of the glafs,
which, by being made red-hot, is become a conduc¬
tor.
In order to afcertain the conducing quality of hot
refinous fubftances, oils, &c. bend a glafs tube in the
form of an arch CEFD, fig. 77. Plate CLXXVII; and
tie a filk firing GCD to it, which ferves to hold it by
when it is to be fet near the fire; fill the middle part Mifcel'a-
of this tube with rofin, fealing-wax, &c. then intro- n‘ous Ex'
duce two wires ^A, BF, through its ends, fo that iKnn'tl't%
they may touch the rofin, or penetrate a little way in
it. This done, let a perfon hold the tube over a clear
fire, fo as to melt the rofin within it; at the fame time,
by connecting one of the wires ^4 or £ with the out¬
fide of a charged jar, and touching the other with the
knob of the jar, endeavour to make the difcharge
through the rofin, and you will obferve, that while the
rofin is cold, no (hocks can be tranfmitted through it;
but it becomes a conductor according as it melts; and
when totally melted, then the (hocks will pafs through
it very freely.
To (how that hot air is a conductor, eleCtrify one of
the cork-ball electrometers fufpended upon the (Land
fig.13. of Plate CLXXIV. or eleCtrify the prime conduc¬
tor with the quadrant eleCtromeier ; then bring a red-
hot iron within a fufficient diltance of the electrometer
or prime conductor, and you will find that they foou
lofe their eleCtricity, which is certainly conducted by
the hot air contiguous to the iron ; for if the experi¬
ment be repeated with the fame iron when cold, i. e.
by bringing it within the fame ditlance of the electri¬
fied electrometer or prime conductor, their eleCtricity
will not be conducted away as before. It has been ob-
ferved, that a battery may be difcharged by introdu¬
cing a red-hot iron between two knobs interpofed, and
Handing at fome diftance from each other in the cir¬
cuit : but if, inftead of iron, there be introduced a
piece of red-hot glafs between the knobs (the diftance
between them remaining as at firft), the battery can¬
not be difcharged: whence we may infer, that either
hot air is not fo good a conductor as has been imagi¬
ned ; or elfe, that air heated by iron is ftronger with
refpeCt to its conducting power, than when heated by
the red-hot glafs. *
The impofiibility of forcing the eleCtric fluid thro’ con
a perfeCt vacuum, is a doCtrine which militate's fo di-"
reCtly againft the theory laid down in SeCl. VI. that we power of a.
cannot by any means omit a very full confideration of-Perf£Ct va»
it. As this, however, would lead us here into a theo- CUum-
retical difquifition, we (hall not enter into any expla¬
nation in this place, but defer what is to be faid on.
that fubjeCt to the laft feCtion, where the ufes of the elec¬
tric fluid in the fyftem of nature are confidered. The.
experiment on which this fuppofition is founded, was
originally made by Mr Wahh ; who found that it was,
pofiible to cleanfe a barometrical tube fo perfeCHy of
air, that no eleCtric light would be vifible in it upon,
agitating the mercury, as is the cafe with tire common:
barometers. It has fince been repeated to more advan¬
tage by Mr "William Morgan, who from his obferva-
tions has deduced fome conclufions concerning the ac¬
tion of the eleCtric fluid very inconfiftent with that ex-
tenfive operation which manyphilofophers have afcribed,
to it, and which is afcribed to it in various articles of
this work. His experiment is publilhed in the Phil.
Tranf. for 1785, which we (hall here extraCt. ^ t
“ The non-conduCting power of a perfeCt vacuum, Mr
is a faCt in eleCtricity which has been much controvert-pan’s expe-
ed among philofophers. The experiments made by mnent on
Mr Wafth, F. R. S. in the double barometer tube clear-thls
ly demonftrated the impermeability of the eleCtric light
through a vacuum ; nor was it, I think, precipitate
to;
Sea.IX. ELECT
Mifcell.!- to conclude from them the impermeability of the elec-
neous Ex- trjc ;tfeif, But this conclufion has not been uni-
pennie.its. verpaj|y admitted 5 and the following experiments were
made with the view of determining its truth or fallacy.
When I firft attended to the fubjeit, I was not aware
that any other attempts had been made befides thofe
of Mr Walfli; and though I have fince found myfelf
to have been in part anticipated in one of my experi¬
ments, it may not perhaps be improper to give fome
account of them, not only as they are an additional
teftimony in fupport'of this fadt, but as they led to the
obfervation of fome phenomena which appear to be
new and interefting.
plate ‘ ‘ A mercurial gage i?. about 15 inches long, carefully
cLxxvm. and accurately boiled till every particle of air was ex-
pelled from the infide, was coated with tin-foil five
inches down from its fealed end A, and being inverted
into mercury thro’ a perforation Z), in the brafs cap E,
which covered the mouth of the ciftern H, the whole
was cemented together, and the air was exhaufted from
the infide of the ciftern thro’ a valve C in the brafs cap
£ juft mentioned; which producing a perfedt vacuum
in the gage, afforded an inftrument peculiarly well a-
dapted for experiments of this kind. Things being
thus adjufted, (a fmall wire £ having been previoully fix¬
ed on the infide of the ciftern to form a communication
between the brafs cap E and the mercury G, into which
the gage was inverted), the coated end was applied to the
condudtor of an eledtrical machine ; and notwithftanding
every effort, neither the fmalleft ray of light, nor the
flighteft charge, could ever be procured in this ex¬
haufted gage. I need not obferve, that if the vacuum
on its infide had been a condudlor of eledlricity, the
latter at leaf! muft have taken place ; for it is well
known, that if a glafs tube be exhaufted by an air-
pump, and coated on the outfide, both light and a
charge may very readily be procured. If the mercury
in the gage be imperfedtly boiled, the experiment will
not fucceed; but the colour of the eledlric light, which,
in air rarefied by an exhaufter, is always violet or pur¬
ple, appears in this cafe of a beautiful green; and what
is very curious, the degree of the air’s rarefadlion may
be nearly determined by this means : for I have known
inftances, during the courfe of tiiefe experiments, where
a fmall particle of air having found its way into the
tube 2?, the eledtric light became vifible,and asufualof
a green colour ; but the charge being often repeated,
the gage has at length cracked at its fealed end, and
in confequence the external air, by being admitted in-
to the infide, has gradually produced a change in the
colour In cledlric light from green to blue, from blue to indigo,
the eleftric and fo on to violet and purple, till the medium has at laft,
light by the become fo denfe as no longer to beacondudtorof eledtri-
admiflion cJty. I think there can be little doubt from the above
air‘ experiments, of the non-conduifting power of a perfedf
vacuum ; and this fadt is ftill more ftrongly confirmed
by the phenomena which appear upon the admiffion of
,a very minute particle of air into the infide of the
gage. In this cafe the whole becomes immediately
luminous upon the llighteft application of eledtricity,
and a charge -takes place, which continues to grow
more and more powerful in proportion as freftr air is
•admitted, till the denfity of the condudting medium
arrives at its maximum, which it always does when the
pcolour of the eledtric light is indigo or violet. Under
R I C I T Y. 483
thefe circumftances the charge may be fo far increafed Mifcdh-
as frequently to break the glafs. In fome tubes, 1 0ils ’-x-
which have not been completely boiled, I have ob- P rilr^e' 8,t
ferved that they, will not condudt the eledtric fluid
when the mercury is fallen very low in them; yet upon
letting in air into the ciftern, fo that the mercury fhall
rife in the gage, the eledtric fluid, which was before
latent in the infide, fhall now become vifible ; and as
the mercury continues to rife, and of confequence the
medium is rendered lefs rare, the light fhall grow more
and more vifible, and the gage fhall at laft be charged*
notwithftanding it has not been near an eledtrical ma¬
chine for two or three days. This feems to prove,
that there is a limit even in the rarefadtion of air, which
fets bounds to its condudting power; or, in other
words, that the particles of air may be fo far feparated
from each other as no longer to be able to tranfmit
the eledtric fluid ; that if they are brought within a
certain diftance of each other, their condudting power
begins, and continually increafes till their approach
alfo arrives at its limit, when the particles again become
fo near as to refift the paflage of the fluid entirely,
without employing violence, which is the cafe in com¬
mon and condenfed air, but more particularly in the
latter. - 13;
“ It is furprifing to obferve how readily an exhaufted priiing
tube is charged with eledtricity. By placing it at 10
or 12 inches from the condudtor, the light may be feen exhaufted
pervading its infide, and as ftrong a charge may fome- tube is
times be procured as if it were in contadl with the con- charged
dudlor: nor does it fignify how narrow the bore of wft!1 e^ec*
the glafs may be; for even a thermometer tube, having tncitlr*
the minuteft perforation poffible, will charge with the
utmoft facility; and in this experiment the phenomena
are peculiarly beautiful.
“ Let one end of a thermometer tube be fealed her¬
metically ; let the other end be cemented into a brafs
cap with a valve, or into a brafs cock, fo that it may
be fitted to the plate of an air-pump. When it is ex¬
haufted, let the fealed end be applied to the condudlor
of an eledtrical machine, while the other end is either
held in the hand or connedted to the floor. Upon the
flightefl: excitation the eledtric fluid will accumulate at
the fealed end, and be difeharged through the infide in
the form of a fpark, and this accumulation and dif-
charge may be inceffantly repeated till the tube is bro¬
ken. By this means I have had a fpark 42 inches
long ; and had I been provided with a proper tube, I
do not doubt but that I might have had a fpark of
four times that length. If, inftead of the fealed end,
a bulb be blown at that extremity of the tube, the elec¬
tric light will fill the whole of that bulb, and then
pafs through the tube in the form of a brilliant fpark,
as in the foregoing experiment: but in this cafe 1 have Tube^rer-
feldom been able to repeat the trials above three or four forated by
times before the charge has made a fmall perforation the eledtiic
in the bulb. If, again, a thermometer filled with mer- fPark.
cury be inverted into a ciftern, and the air exhaufted
in the manner I have deferibed for making the expe¬
riment with the gage, a Torricellian vacuum will be
produced ; and now the tledlric light in the bulb, as
well as the fpark in the tube, will be of a vivid green ;
but the bulb will not bear a frequent repetition of
charges before it is perforated in like manner as when
it has been exhaufted by an air-pump. It can hardly
3 P 2 be
484 ELECT R
Mifcella- be neceflary to obferve, that in tbefe cafes the eleflric
neous £*- fjuj^ affumes thc appearance of a fpark(D), from the
pen.iienI>arrownefg paffage through which it forces its
way. If a tube 40 inches long be fixed into a globe
Why the ® or 9 inches in diameter, and the whole be exhaufted,
fluid af- the ele&ric fluid, after pafling in the form of a brilliant
fumes the fpark throughotit the length of the tube, will, when it
formof a jnto t^e jnf,de of the globe, expand itfelf in all
1 * directions, entirely filling it with a violet and purple
light, and exhibiting a llriking inftance of the vail ela-
fticity of the eleCtric fluid.
“ I cannot conclude this paper without acknow¬
ledging my obligations to the ingenious Mr Brook
of Norwich, who by communicating to me his me¬
thod of boiling mercury, has been the chief caufe of
my fuccefs in thefe experiments(e). I have lately
learned from him, that he has alfo afeertained the non¬
conducting power of a perfeCt vacuum ; but what
fteps he took for that purpofe, I know not. Of his
accuracy, however, I am fo well convinced, that had
I never made an experiment my folf, I Ihould, upon his
teftimoify alone, have been equally affured of the faCt.
To molt of the preceding experiments Dr Price,
Mr Lane, and fome others of my friends, have been
eye-witneffes; and I believe that they were as tho¬
roughly fatisfied as myfelf with the refults of them. I
^ mud beg leave to obferve to thofe who wifh to repeat
Grea^diffi-them, that the firft experiment requires fome nicety,
cuby in and no inconiiderable degree of labour and patience,
making j },ave boiled many gages for feveral hours together
inenrCf,en" without fuccefs, and was for fome time difpofed to be¬
lieve the contrary of what I am now convinced to be
the truth. Indeed, if we reafon a priori, I think we
cannot fuppofe a perfeCt vacuum to be a perfeCt con-
du&or without fuppofing an abfurdity : for if this
Electric were the cafe, either our atmcfphere muft have long
flird fup- ag0 been deprived of all its eleCtric fluid, by being
pofol not every where furrounded by a boundlefs conductor, or
beyond the this fluid mult pervade every part of infinite fpace; and
atmofphere confequently there can be no fuch thing as a perfeCt
of the
earth.
1 C I T Y. Se<3 IX.
vacuum in the univerfe. If, on the contrary, the Mifcella-
truth of the preceding experiments be admitted, it will rieo.U!’
follow, that the conducting power of our atmolpbere Pc:JM6Ilts,i
increafes only to a certain height, beyond which this ^
power begins to diminish, till at lalt it entirely vanifhes;
but in what part of the upper regions of the air thefe
limits are placed, I will not prefume to determine. It
would not perhaps have been difficult to have applied
the refults of fome of thefe experiments to the expla¬
nation of meteors, which are probably owing to an ac¬
cumulation of eledricity. It is not, however, my
prefent defign to give loofe to my imagination. I
am fenfible, that by indulging it too freely, much harm
is done to real knowledge ; and therefore, that one
iaft in philofophy well afeertained, is more to be valued
than whole volumes of fpeculative hypothefes.”
A faCt fo contrary to the generally received opinion
of the conduCling powers of a vacuum, could not but
excite a general furprife, and attempts to repeat the
experiment would no doubt be ardently wilhed for
Unfortunately, however, the experiment itfelf, as muft
evidently appear from the account given of it by Mr Mor¬
gan, is of fuch a precarious nature, as muft undoubtedly
difeourage any ordinary eledrician from attempting it;
for in the firft place, there is no hope of fuccefs without
a very tedious boding of mercury in a tube for feveral
hours ; and even when this is done, the inllrument will
not remain in a ftate of perfection for any length of
time. Mr Cavallo, who has greatly improved the air-
pump, gives an account of fome very curious experi- Cava'llo's
ments made with this inftrument, in order to afcer-cxi er7
tain the truth of Mr Morgan’s pofition; which we (haUme.‘‘t’ w!tI*
like wife give in hia own words, with the conclufions^1*^0'
he draws from them. pump.
“ I. In a glafs receiver, of fix inches diameter and
nine inches in height, having a brafs cap, a brafs wire
of two-tenths of an inch in diameter was fixed to its
cap, and proceeding through the middle of the recei¬
ver, its lower extremity was five inches dillant from
the aperture of the receiver, and of courfe of the plate
(d) “ By cementing the firing of a guitfar into one end of a thermometer tube, a fpark may be obtained as
well as if the tube had been fealed hermetically.”
(e) “ Mr Brook’s method of making mercurial gages is nearly as follows: Let a glafs tube L, (fig. 81.) fealed
hermetically at one end, be bent into a right angle within two or three inches of the other end. At the diftanoe
of about an inch or lefs from the angle, let a bulb K, of about |ths of an inch in diameter,be blown in the curved
end and let the remainder ofthispart of the tube be drawn out/, fo as to be fufficiently long to take hold of when
the mercury is boiling. The bulb K is defigned as a receptacle for the mercury, to prevent its boiling over; and
the bent figure of the tube is adapted for its inverfion into the ciftern : for by breaking off the tube at M within
ith or -Jth of an inch of the angle, the open end of the gage may be held perpendicular to the horizon when
it is dipped into the mercury in the ciftern, without obliging us to bring our finger or any other fubftance into
conta/t with the mercury in the gage, which never fails to render the inllrument impertefl. It is neceffary
to obferve, that if the tube be 14 or 15 inches long, I have never been able to boil it effectually for the expe¬
riments mentioned in this paper in lefs than three or four hours, although Mr Brook feems to preferibe a
much Ihorter time for the purpofe ; nor will it even then fucceed, unlefs the greateft attention be paid that no
bubbles of air lurk behind, which to my own mortification I have frequently found to have been the cafe :
but experience has at length taught me to guard pretty well againft this difappointment, particularly by taking
care that the tube be completely dry before the mercury is put into it; for if this caution be not obferved,
the inftrument can never be made perfeft. There is, however, one evil which I have not yet been able to remedy ;
and that is, the introduftion of air into the gage, owing to the unboiled mercury in the ciftern : for when the
gage has been a few times exhaufted, the mercury which originally filled it becomes mixed with that into which
it is inverted, and in confequence the vacuum is rendered lefs and lefs perfect, till at laft the inftmment is en¬
tirely fpoiled. L have juft conftru&ed a gage fo as to be able to boil tlie mercury in the ciftern, but have not
yet afeertained its fuccefs.” * 1
Sea. IX.
ELECTRICITY.
485
Mifcella- ef the air-pnmp, when the receiver was placed upon it. by the brafs pillar, and adhered to it fome time, be- Mifcella-
* T'm ^ ^ ^ne ^Ben t^reac^ wa3 faftene<i towards the top of caufe, being dry, it did not immediately part with the ne°(^e^tg*
penments, ^ w;re> and about four inches of it hanged freely acquired eleftricity. At various degrees of exhauHion.11 ‘ 'f
along the brafs wire, and .almoft in contaift with it. the electricity being communicated to the brafs ball of
The extremity of the wire, which pafling through the the wire, it was found, that the thread was always at-
brafs cap projected out of the receiver, was furnilhed traCted by the brafs pillar, though from a greater or
with a ball. Thus prepared, the receiver was placed lefs diftance, according as a greater or lefs quantity
upon the plate of the pump, without any leather, or remained within the receiver. Thus when the air
any thing elfe befides a little oil on its outfide edge, was rarefied about too times, the thread was attraCf-
which mull be always underilood in all the other ex- ed from about one inch; when the air was rarefied
periments related in the courfe of this chapter. Then 200 times, it was attraCled from about -^th of an inch ;
the exhauftion was commenced, and at intervals fome when the air was rarefied 300 times, it was attracted
eleftricity was communicated, either by the approach from about r^th; and after this it was always attracted
of the conductor of an eleCtrical machine, or the from about ^th, even when the air within the receiver
knob of a charged jar, to the brafs ball of the was rarefied about 1000 times. It is remarkable, that
wire, in order to obferve the ftrength of the re- when the air in the receiver is rarefied about 300 times,if
pulfion of the thread from the wire in different de- a jaris difchargedthro’the vacuum, bytouching its knob
grees of rarefaClion ; which degrees were afcertained with the ball of the wire on the receiver, the thread is
by the fhort barometrical gage. Proceeding in this not in confequence of it attracted by the brafs pillar:
manner, it was obferved, that till the rarefaCtion did the reafon of which feems to be, becaufe that large
not exceed one hundred, to wit, till the air remaining quantity of ele&rieity opens a way thro’ the vacuum,
within the receiver was not lefs than the hundredth part and paries thro’ every- part of it; whereas a fmall quan-
of the original quantity, whenever the eleClricity was tity of eleCtricity, even the a&ion of a fmall eleftrical
communicated to the brafs ball, the thread firfl adhe- machine in the fame room, at no very great diftance
red to the wire, and then was repelled by it; though from the apparatus, will caufe the thread being at-
this repulfion became fmaller and fmaller, according as traded by the brafs pillar.
the exhauftion came nearer to the above mentioned de- III. “ The brafs (land, with the pillar, and the thread
gree. The clinging of the thread to the wire firft, was which proceeded from the wire, being removed from •
becaufe being dry, it required fome time before it ac- under the receiver, a very fenfible eledrometer wasfa-
quired a fufficient quantity of eledricity from the wire, ftened, inftead of the thread, to the extremity of the
and confequently it was not immediately repelled, brafs wire. This eledrometer coniifted of two very
When the air within the receiver was exhaufted above fine filver wires, each about one inch long, and ,havin<r
100 times, the thread was not firft attraded and a fmall cone of cork at its extremity. The feufibility
then repelled as before, but only vibrated a little back- of fuch an eledrometer is really furprifing ; for even
wards and forwards, and then remained in the fituation the eledricity of a fingle hair excited, does fentibly af-
in which it flood when eledricity was not concerned, fed it ; and, as its fufpeufion is almoft without any
By exhaufting the receiver ftill farther, the vibration fridion or other impediment, it never deceives one by
of the thread when eledrified was gradually diminifli- appearing to be-eledrified when in reality it is not fo.
ed; fo that when the degree of rarefadion was a- With this preparation, the receiver being placed upon
bove 500, fparks and the difeharge of a jar only the plate of the air-pump, the air was gradually ex-
made the thread vibrate in a manner juft fenfible ; but haufted, and at intervals fome eledricity was commu-
this vibration, however fmall, did never become quite nicated to the ball on the outfide of the receiver, either
infenfible, even when the receiver was exhaufted to the by an excited eledric or by a charged jar ; and it was
Utmoft power of the pump, which was very near found that the corks of the eledrometer were always
1000. After this the air was gradually admitted made to diverge by it, even when the air was exhaufted
into the receiver, and at various intervals the ball of as much as polfible. Indeed their divergency was fmaller
the brafs wire was eledrified, in order to obferve whe- and fmaller, and lafted a (horter time, according as
ther the fame phenomena appeared at the different de- the air was more exhaufted, but it was vifible to the laft.
grees of exhauftion as had done before; and they were “ In this experiment,analogous to what has been ob-
found to agree with fufficient exadnefs. ferved in the preceding, when the air was exhaufted
“ II. The brafs wire within the fame glafs receiver above 300 times, if a jar was difeharged through
was made very fhort, and from its extremity a fine the vacuum, or a ftrong .fpark was given to the knob
linen thread, fixes inches long, was fiifpended ; and on the top of the receiver, the corks of the eledrome-
upon the plate of the pump a fmali brafs ftand with a ter diverged very little indeed, and but for an in-
brafs pillar was placed : fo that when the receiver was ftant; whereas a fmall quantity of eledricity made
put upon the plate, and over the brafs ftand, about one them diverge more, and remain much longer in that
inch length of thethread flood parallel to, and at various ftate.
required diftances from, the brafs pillar (f), Inthisdif- “ It feems deducible from thofe experiments, that His c»ne!a-
pofition of the apparatus, whenever any the leallquan- eledric attradion and repulfion take place in every de- h ,n' hom-
tity of eledricity was communicated to the knob of gree of rarefadion, from the loweft to about j 000, ^ern‘
the brafs wire, the thread was immediately attraded but that the power diminifhes in proportion as the
( f ) This diftance was altered by turning the brafs wire which paffed through a collar of leather in the brafs. >
gap of the receiver.
486 ELECT
Mi'fcella- air is more and more rarefied ; and by following the
neo.us Ex‘ law, we may perhaps conclude with F. Beccarra, that
periments there is no ele&ric attraftion nor repulfion in a perfedf
“ vacuum : though this will perhaps be impoifible to be
verified experimentally ; becaufe when in an exhaufted
receiver no attraftion or repullion is obferved between
bodies to which ele&ricity is communicated, it will
be only fufpefted, that thofe bodies are not fuffi-
ciently fmall and light. But if we confult reafon, and
which alone ought to afiift us when decifive experi¬
ments are not practicable, it feems likely that eledtric
attraction and repulfion cannot take place in a perfeft
vacuum, by which I only mean a perfeCt abfence of
air; becaufe either this vacuum is a conductor or a
non-conductor of eleCtricity. If a conductor, and
nearer to perfection as it becomes more free from
air, it muft be a perfeCt conductor at the fame time
that it becomes a perfeCt vacuum; in which cafe elec*
trie attraction or repulfion cannot take place amongft
bodies inclofed in it: for, according to every notion
we have of eleCtricity, thofe motions indicate or are
the confequence of the intervening fpace in fome mea-
fure obftruCting the free palfage of the eleCtric fluid.
And if the perfeCt vacuum is a perfeCt non-conduc¬
tor, then neither eleCtric attraction nor repulfion can
happen in it.
“ IV. In my former experiments,having always obfer-
'Eletftric ved the cleCtric light in the receiver of the air-pump,
Slight al- even when the air was rarefied to the utmofl power of
ways vi- that machine, I thought proper to repeat that ex-
Sinerhe Per‘ment whh receivers of various fizes ; and accord-
•fhCtly^ex- ingiy have ufed receivers of above two feet in height,
; haufted re- and fome of as large a diameter as the plate of the
-esiver. pump could admit, which is about 14 inches; but the
light in it was always vifible, only with different co¬
lours in different degrees of exhauftion, and always
more diffufed, and at the fame time lefs denfe, when
the air was more rarefied; which feems to render it pro¬
bable, that when the air is quite removed from any
fpace, the eleCtric light is no longer vifible in it, as
muff have been the cafe with the experiment of Mr
Walffi’s double barometer ; for it is a maxim very well
eftablifhed in ele&ricity, that the eleCtric light is only
vifible when the eleCtric fluid, in palling from one bo¬
dy to another, meets with fome oppofition in its way;
and according to this propofition, when the air is en¬
tirely removed from a given receiver, the eleCtric fluid
palling through that receiver cannot Ihow any light,
becaufe it meets with no oppofition ; but this will not
account for the receiver ever becoming a non-con*
duCtor.
“ Having juft mentioned, that according as the
air is more and more rarefied in a receiver, fo the
eleCtric light becomes gradually more faint, it will
be proper to add, that the eleCtric light is more' diffu¬
fed and lefs bright in an exhaufted receiver than in air:
Thus, when the receiver is not exhaufted, the difeharge
of a jar through fome part of it will appear like a fmall
globule exceedingly bright; but when the receiver is
exhaufted, the difeharge of the fame jar will fill the
whole receiver with a very faint light : whereas fome
yerfons, by feeing the whole receiver illuminated, are
apt to fay that the light of eleCtricity is rendered
ftropger and greater by the exhauftion.
“ V. It is mentioned by MrNairne, in the 67th voh
5
R I C I T Y. Se£UX,
of the Phil. Tranf. that having put a piece of lea-
ther, juft as it comes from the leather-fellers, in-pg°^,S,cnf,"
to the receiver, of an air pump, and afterwards ha-1 .j
ving rarefied the air in it 148 times, the eleCtric
light appeared very faint in it ; whereas, without the 141
leather, and even when the air was much more rare- F-xpen-
fied, the light of the eleCtric fluid, when made to pafs .
through the receiver, was much more apparent. In varj,ri5
confequence of this bbfervation, I fufpeCted that a little fubftances
moifture in the receiver, or fome other effluvia of fub-’nf° ^ rc*
ftances, might perhaps prevent the appearance of theceiver*
eleCtric light in rarefied air; and with this view I began
to put various fubftances fucceflxvely into the recei¬
ver; and after rarefying the air by workingthe pump,
fome eleCtric fluid was made to pafs through the re¬
ceiver.
“ When a piece of moift leather was put into
the receiver, the air could not be rarefied above 100
times, and the eleCtric light appeared divided into a
great many branches; though at the fame time another
fort of faint light filled up the whole cavity of the
receiver.
“ When- a linen rag, moiftened with a mixture of
fpirit of wine and water, was put into the receiver, the
pump could not exhauft above 40 times, and the
light of eleCtricity appeared divided into many
branches.
“ A wine-glafs full of olive oil placed under the re¬
ceiver, prevented very litile the exhauftion of the
pump, the air being rarefied above 400 times. The e-
leCtric light appeared exaCtly as it ufually does in
the fame degree of rarefaCtion when no oil is under the
receiver, viz. a uniform faint light inclining to purple
or red.
“ Concentrated vitriolic acid placed in a glafs un¬
der the receiver, produced no particular effeCt. As
for the other mineral acids, they were not tried, be¬
caufe, being volatile, they would have damaged the
pump.
“ Dry folids, that had a confiderable fmell, as ful-
phur, aromatic woods previoufly made very dry, and
fome refins,produced no particular effeCI,any more than
fome of them prevented a very great degree of exhau¬
ftion, owing to fome moifture which ftill adhered to
them. _ _ .141
“ From thefe experiments it appears, firft, that in The fight,
the utmoft rarefaClion that can-be effe&ed by theatuaeftion,
belt air-pump, which amounts to about 1000, both a_n<l rePu*r
the eleCtric light and the eleCtric attraction, though
very weak, are ftill obfervable : but, fecondly, that the great de-
attraCtion and repulfion of eleCtricity become weaker in gree-- of ra«
proportion as the air is more rarefied, and in the fame re^a<^ion‘
manner the intenfity of the light is gradually diminifli-
ed. Now by reafoning on this analogy we may con¬
clude, that both the attraction and the light will ceafe
in a perfeCt abfence of air: but’this will never account
for this perfeCt vacuum ever becoming a non-conduCtor
of eleCtricity; for fince the eleCtric fluid is very elaftic,
and expands itfelf with more and more freedom in pro¬
portion as the reliftance of the air is removed, it feems
unnatural that it fhould be incapable of pervading a
perfeCt vacuum : however, the faCt feems to be fully
afeertained by Mr Walfti and Mr Morgan; and the only
thing that remains to be done is to inveftigate the caufe
Of fo remarkable a property.”
With
Sea.IX. ELECT
Mifcella- With regard to the power of the ele&ric fluid, we
neou« ex- jiave alreacly had occafion to fpeak in various parts of
permit.nts. this treatife, and particularly to mention the machine
in Teyler’s Mufeum at Haarlem, as that which was ca¬
pable of accumulating the greateft quantity of electri¬
city that had ever been done artificially. Some of the
effe&s of this machine, without any battery, have alrea-
I43 dy been defcribed ; and thofe which follow are equally
Prochg'ous calculated to give an idea of its vaft power. A battery
power of of 135 vials, containing among them about 130 fquare
the b4ttery feet of coated furface, was charged by about 100
the great° turns °f the glafs plates ; the difcharge of which melt-
machine in ed an iron wire 15 feet long and x-fT of an inch dia-
Tay.'er’s meter; and another time they melted a wire of the
fr'ufeum. fame metal 25 feet long and-rf^th of an inch in diame¬
ter. With fuch an extraordinary power they tried to
give polarity to needles made out of watch-fprings of
three and even fix inches in length, and likewife to
fteel bars nine inches long, from a quarter to half an
inch in breadth, and about the twelfth-part of an
inch in thicknefs. The refult was, that when the bar
or needle was placed horizontally in the magnetic me¬
ridian, whichever way the fliock entered, the end of
the bar that flood towards the north acquired the north
polarity, or the power of turning towards the north
when freely fufpended, and the oppofite end acquired
the fouth. If the bar, before it received the lliock,
, had fome polarity, and was placed with its poles con¬
trary to the ufual dire&ion, then its natural polarity
was always diminiflied, and often reverfed; fo that the
extremity of it, which in receiving the fliock looked
towards the north, became the north pole, &c.
When the bar of needle was ftruck Handing perpen¬
dicularly, its loweft end became the north pole in any
cafe, even when the bar had fome magnetifm before,
and was placed wdth the fouth pole downwards. All
other circumftances being alike, the bars feemed to
acquire an equal degree of magnetic power, whether
they were ftruck whilft Handing horizontally in the
magnetic meridian, or perpendicular to the horizon.
When a bar or needle was placed in the magnetic
equator, whichever way the fliock entered, it never gave
it any magnetifm ; but if the fliock was given through
its width, then the needle acquired a confidetable de¬
gree of magnetifm, and the end of it which lay to¬
wards the weft became the north pole, and the other
end the fouth pole.
If a needle or bar, already magnetic, or a real
magnet, was ttruck in any dire&ion, its power was al¬
ways diminiflied. For this experiment, they tried con-
fiderably large bars ; one being 7,08 inches long, 0,26
broad, and 0,05 thick.
When the fliock was fo ftrong, in proportion to
the fize of the needle, as to render it hot, then the
needle generally acquired no magnetifm at all, or very
little.
The experiments laftly tried with this very powerful
battery were concerning the calcination of metallic,
fubftances, and the revivification of their calces. It ap¬
pears that the eledtric fliock produced both thefe ap¬
parently contradictory effects.
The metallic, calces ufed in thofe experiments were
of the pureft fort ; they were confined between glaffes
whilft the ftiock was paffed over them. By this means
the calces were fo far revivified as to exhibit feveral
, mented.
R I C I T Y.
grains of the metal, large enough to be dilcernedM
by the.naked eye, and to be eafily feparated from the11'"'"
reft. ^ 
As to the calcination of metals, whenever a fliock was
employed much greater than that which was neceffary
to fufe the metal, part of the metal was calcined, and
difperfed into fmake. It is remarkable, that this cal¬
cination or fmoke generally produced feveral filaments,
of various lengths and thickneffes, which fwam in the
air. It was farther obferved, that thofe flying fila¬
ments of metallic calx, if a conductor was prefented to
them, were foon attracted by it ; but after the rirft
contaCt, they were inftantly repelled, and generally
broke into diverfe parts.
Even this vaft power was not the utmoft effect
of the machine. Dr Van Marum, whom we have
already mentioned as principally concerned in ma- ,44
king the experiments, thinking that it was capable ofThe bat¬
charging a larger furface, added to it 90 jars, each ter> a
of the fame fize with the former ; fo that his grand11
battery is now a fquare of 15 jars every way, and con¬
tains 225 fquare feet of coated glafs To afcertain
the degree of the charge, he ufes the ele&rometer in¬
vented by Mr Brook, to be afterwards defcribed,
which is fixed in the centre of the battery, at the
height of four feet above the knobs of the jars.
His firft objeCt was to try whether this- battery
could be fully charged by the machine, and whether
its increafe of power was proportional to- the aug¬
mentation of its furface. In thefe refpeCts, his expec¬
tations were fully anfwered. The former battery dif-
charged itfelf over the uncoated part of the jars after
96 revolutions ; and the prefent did the fame after 160
turns of the machine. With the former battery, the
DoCtor had fplit a cylinder of box three inches in Calculation
diameter and three inches in length, the feCtion of-of the force
which, through its axis, contained nine fquare inches, of its ex-
With the 225 jars, he fplit a fimilar cylinder, four.f*0^011*
inches in diameter and four inches in height, the fec-
tion of which was 16 fquare inches. He found that to
fplit a fquare inch of this wood in the fame direction,
required a force equal to 615 pounds ; and hence cal¬
culates that the power of this explofion was not lefs
than 9840 pounds.
The apparent refemblance between the effeCts of e-
leCtricity and of fire, efpecially in melting metals,
has led many to fuppofe that they aCt upon bodies in. 146
a fimilar manner. In order to examine whether thisTc gths of
fuppofition be juft, Dr Van Marum caufed wires of
different metals to be drawn through the fame hole, of^n^melt-
one thirty-eighth part of an inch in diameter, and ob- ed by it.
ferved how many inches of each could be melted by the
explofion of his battery; taking care, in all thefe ex-,
periments, to charge it to the fame degree as af-
certained by his eleClrometer. The refults were as
follow :
Of lead he melted - 120 inches.
Of tin - - 120
Of iron 3
Of gold - - Si
Of filver, copper, and brafs, not quite a quarter ?
of an inch.
Thefe feveral lengths of wire, of the fame diameter, ,
melted by equal explofions, indicate, according to our .-
author, the degree in which each metal is fufible by.
the.
488 ELECTRICITY. Sed. IX.
Mifcella- the ele&ncal difcharge ; and if thefe be compared with diameter with the former, the refiduum was difcharged Mifcella-
neous Ex- fufibility of the fame metals by fire, a very confi- through 12 inches of the fame wire, which it did notneo.us Ex*
penments dJfference wiH be obferved. According to the melt, but only blued. penments^
experiments of the academicians of Dijon, to melt tin Twenty-four inches of leaden wire-j-^th of an inch in
required a heat of 172 degrees of Reaumur’s thermo- diameter, were entirely calcined by an explofion of this
meter.
Lead
Silver
Gold
Copper
Iron
battery ; the greater part of the lead rofe in a thick
230 fmoke, the remainder was ftruck down upon a paper
430 laid beneath it, where it formed a ftain, which refem-
563 bled the painting of a very dark cloud. When fhorter
630 wires were calcined, the colours were more varied. A
696 plate is given of the ftain made by the calcination of
eight inches of this wire, in which the cloud appears
Thus tin and lead appear to be equally fufible by elec¬
tricity, but not by fire : and iron, which by fire is lefs varioufly fhaded with different tints of green, gray, and
l47 fufible than gold, is much more fo by the eleftrical brown, in a manner of which no defcription can give
iE!e<5trical explofion. From thefe and fome other experiments an adequate idea,
fluid fup- of the fame kind, Dr Van Marum concludes, that, in ~
Pofed.t°a<amelting metals, the electrical fluid acts upon them in
I"*, a manner very different from the adtion of fire, and
that the fuppofed analogy between thefe two power-
On difcharging the battery through eight inches of Curious
tin wire -^th of an inch diameter, extended over a ph6"0?161**
fheet of paper, a thick cloud of blue fmoke arofe, in ^jre tm'
which many calcareous filaments were difcernible ; at
fire. ful agents cannot be proved, either from the fu- the fame time a great number of red hot globules of
r c  ... _ : _r r.-u   ..u-   _ . .1
148
Compat
fion of metals, <
fiances.
By thefe experiments on the fufibility of metals, Dr
Van Marum was induced to make trial of the compara¬
tive efficacy of lead, iron, brafs, and copper, as con-
duftors to preferve buildings from lightning. In this
different f°ur times the fize of one of iron, in order to be equal
metals as in point c# fafety. He has alfo fully proved the fupe-
jcandudters. riority of rods to chains, and of copper to iron, for
this important ufe.
When iron wire is melted by the explofion of the
battery, the red-hot globules are thrown to a very
confiderable diftance, fometimes to that of 30 feet:
this the Doctor juftly afcribes to the lateral force ex¬
erted by the eledtrical fluid. It is, however, remark¬
able, that the thicker the wire is which is melt-
the ignition of combuftible fub- tin, falling upon the paper, were repeatedly thrown
up again into the air, and continued thus to rebound
from its furface for feveral feconds. The paper was
marked with a yellowifh clouded ftain immediately un¬
der the wire, and with ftreaks or rays of the fame co¬
lour iffuing from it in every direction : fome of thefe
>f diT* re*Pe<^> he f°un<i that a Laden conductor ought to be formed an uninterrupted line, others were made up of
r .• .c- r c r :— : j__ u- 1 feparate fpots. In order to be certain that the colour
of thefe ftreaks was not caufed by the paper being
fcorched, the experiment was feveral times repeated,
when a plate of glafs and a board covered with tin
were placed to receive the^globules. Thefe, however,
were ftained exaCtly like the paper. On calcining five
inches of the fame kind of wire, the red-hot globules
were thrown obliquely to the height of four feet, which
afforded an opportunity of obferving that each globule,
in its courfe, diffufed a matter like fmoke, which con¬
ed, the further are the globules difperfed : but this tinued to appear for a little while in the parabolic line
is accounted for, by obferving, that the globules, defcribed by its flight, forming a track in the air of
formed by the fufion of thinner wires, being fmaller, about half an inch in breadth.
are lefs able to overcome the reftftance of the air, and From this phenomenon, Dr Van Marum conjee- Accounted
are therefore fooner flopped in their motion. Hires, that when the globules approach the paper on {or-
Two pieces of iron wire being tied together, the which they fall, the matter iffuing from their lower
fufion extended no further than from the end connec- part ftrik.es againft its furface, and being elaftic, for-
ted with the infide coating of the jars to the knot; tho’ ces them upwards again by its readlion. The clouded
wire of the fame length and thicknefs, when in one ftain immediately under the wire, the Doftor attri-
cohtinued piece, had been entirely melted by an equal butes to the inftant^neous calcination of its furface ;
T49 explofion. whereas the remainder of the metal is melted into glo-
fhortened When a wire was too long to be melted by the dif- bules, which, while they retain their glowing heat,
by°the dif- charge of the battery, it was fometimes broken into continue to be fuperficially calcined, and, during the
charge. feveral pieces, the extremities of which bore evident procefs, part with this calcareous vapour.
marks of fufion; and the effedl of electricity in ftiort- Phenomenafomething fimilar to the above were obfer- with wire
ening wire was very fenfible in an experiment made ved on the calcination of a wire of equal parts of tin and 1 mipafed
with 18 inches of iron wire yy-th of an inch in dia- lead, eight inches long, and -^d of an inch in diame-
meter, which, by one difcharge, loft a quarter of ter. This alfo was melted into red globules, which
Very^flnail an inch of its length. An explofion of this battery were repeatedly driven upwards again from the pa- lead,
wire can through very fmall wires, of nearly the greateft length per on which they fell, and marked it with ftreaks of
not dif- that could be melted by it, did not entirely difcharge the fame kind, but >f a brown colour, edged with a
charge the tjle jars< Qn tranfmitting the charge through 50 yellow tingt . Some of thefe globules, though appa-
ihely^ en’ feet of iron wire of-r^oth of an inch diameter, the rently not left hot, moved with lefs velocity than other*,
Do&or found that the refiduum was fufficient to melt and were foon flopped in their courfe by their burn-
two feet of the fame wire ; but this refiduum was much ing a hole in the paper. In this cafe, a yellow matter
lefs when the wire was of too great a length to be was feen to rife from their furface to the height of
melted by the firft difcharge. After an explofion of one or two lines, which extended itfelf to the width of
the battery through 180 feet of iron wire, ol equal a quarter of an inch. This matter continued, during
KO113. five
Sea.TX. ELECT
Mifcella- five'Cr fix feconds,' to nTue from the globules, and
neoiuEx- formed, on their furface, a kind of effloiefcence, re-
permients. fembj-ng tj,e flowers 0f fulphur produced by the folfa-
• ^ terra. The globules, from which thefe calcareous
flowers had iffued, were found to be entirely hollow,
and to con fill of only a thin Ihell. When this mixed
metal is calcined with a lefs charge of the battery, it
leaves a llain upon the paper, fomething fimilarto that
made by lead, and does not run into globules.
"Stain upon The Doctor has alfo given plates of the {tains
paper by made upon paper, by the calcination of iron, copper,
thecaicina- )-)rafa) {ilver, and gold. Thofe made by copper and
tmn of me'^,.3^ wires are remarkably beautiful, and are variegated
jvith yellow, green, and a very bright brown. Eight
inches of gold-wire, ^th of an inch in diameter, were,
by the explofion, reduced to a purple fubftance,- of
which a part rofe like a thick fmoke, and the, re¬
mainder, falling on the paper, left a ftain divcrfified
with different (hades of this colour. Gold, filver, and
copper, cannot eafily be melted into globules. Our
author has once accidentally fucceeded in this; but
it required a degree of eledlrical force fo very par¬
ticular, that the medium between a charge, which
only broke the wire into pieces, and one which en¬
tirely calcined it, could not be afcertained by the elec-
ISS trometer.
'Effeftsupon Though Dr Van Marum was convinced, by Rf.
fined in0”"Lavoifier’s experiments, that metals, calcined in at-
phlog.ftca- mofpherical air, abforb from it that principle which
Sfcd air. renders it fit for refpiration 5 yet he refolved further
to inveftigate this point, by trying what would be the
effeft of a difcharge of the battery through a piece of
wire confined in phlogifticated air. For this purpofe,
he took air, in ■which a burning coal had been extin-
guifned, and which had afterwards flood eight days
upon water, that it might be entirely cleared from fix¬
ed air; with this he filled a glafs cylinder, four inches in
diameter, and fix inches high, clofed at the upper end
with a brafs-plate; from the centre of this plate the
wire was fufpended, on which the experiment was
made. The cylinder was fet in a pewter dilh filled with
water ; and, to prevent its being broken by the expan-
fion of the air, its lower edges were fupported by two
pieces of wood half an inch high. The lower end of
the wire relied on the dilh, which was connecled with
i55 the outfide coating of the battery.
Inrlephlo- On tranfmitting the charge, in this manner, through
gifucated wires of lead, tin, and iron, of only half the length of
air‘ thofe which were calcined by hn equal explofion in at-
mofpheric air, no calcination took place. The firft
was reduced to a fine powder, which, upon trial by
fpirit of nitre, appeared to be merely lead ; the two
other metals were melted into fmall globules.
The Do£lor then tried the fame experiment in pure
w dephlogifticated air, obtained from red precipitate ;
thinking that, in this, the metals would be more high¬
ly calcined than in common air. His expeftation was
anfwered only by the lead, which was entirely reduced
to a yellow calx, perfedlly refembling maflicot. The
other metals were not more highly calcined in this
than in common air; but the globules of iron acquired
fo great a heat, as to retain it for fome feconds, even
in the water, and to melt holes in the pewter dilh
into which they fell.
In nitrous air, calcination took place as eafily as in
■ Vgj.. VI. Part II.
R I C I T Y.
489
common or in dephlogiftated air. This Was contrary to Mlfcella-
Dr Van Marum’s expedlation ; but he accounts for ljeo"s Ex*
it, by obferving that, from the experiments of Mr lJtn“ eiUs--
Cavendilh and of M. Lavoifier, pure air appears to ^
be one of the component parts of the nitrous acid. Phenomena
In order to illuftrate M. Lavoifier’s theory. Dr Van from the
Marum refolved to examine the phenomena refulting^1^"^'™
from the calcination of metals in water. This he tried U!
with both iron and lead ; and found that, in the mo¬
ment of the explofion, a number of air-bubbles ap¬
peared on the furface, and the calx rofe, like a cloud,
through the water. This, he thinks, is not fo eafily
accounted for by the theory of Stahl as by that of
M. Lavoifier 5 becaufe, according to the former, water
does not readily either receive or part with phlogi-
fton ; whereas the latter fuppofes this fluid to be com-
poftd of the oxigenous principle, united with that of
inflammable air. If this be true, nothing more is ne-
ceffary to calcination, than that the metal Ihould ac¬
quire a greater affinity with the oxigenous principle,
that fublifls between this and that of inflammable air,
united with it in the compofition of water. To col-
left the air generated by thefe calcinations was no
eafy matter; as the violence of the Ihock broke the
glafs receivers employed for this purpofe: at lait,
however, the Doftor contrived a method of receiving
it in a glazed Hone bafon. From the firft; calcination
of lead, about a quarter of a cubic inch of air was pro¬
duced, which Ihowed no figns of inflammability ; but,
on every repetition of the experiment, a lefs quantity
of air was generated ; and on an accurate trial of that
produced by the fourth calcination in the fame water,
it was found to conlill of one part of inflammable and
three of atmofpherical air. Our author defigns to re¬
peat thefe experiments with water deprived of its air,
by being boiled.
In order to imitate the phenomena of earthquakes, phenomena
this ingenious philofopher followed Dr Prieftley’s me- of earth-
thod, and made the eleftrical explofion pafs over a3uakes
board, floating on water, on which feveral columns oftatcd-
wood were erefted ; but this fucceeded only once.
Reflefting that the eleftric explofion exerts the great-
eft lateral force when it paffes through imperfeft con-
duftors, and that water is probably its principal fub-
terraneous conduftor, he laid two fmooth boards upon
each other, moiftening the fides in contaft with water:
upon the uppermoft, he placed pieces of wood, in imi¬
tation of buildings, the bafes of which were 3 inches
long and 1 ^ broad. When the charge of the battery
was tranfmitted between the boards, all thefe were
thrown down by the tremulous and undulatory motion
of that on which they flood. ^9
Mr Brookes, eleftrician at Norwich, has made aBrookes’s
great number of experiments, with a view to determine «peri-
exaftly the force of batteries of an inferior fize in ^"force of
melting fine wires of different kinds. In thefe he batteries.0
was particularly careful to afcertain the degree to
which his batteries were charged ; and this he did by
the method which (hall afterwards be ffiawn to be the
bell, viz. that of determining the power of the elec¬
tricity by the weight which it was capable of raifing-
by its repulfive power; and therefore, in the following
experiments, the phrafe of batteries being charged to
fo many grains, implies that the repullive power of the
knob of the battery was able to raife that, weight.
3 QL Some
49® ELECT
Mifcella- Some of the moil remarkable of thefe experiments were
neous £x- as f0]l0W :
penments. (( a battery 0f n;ne bottles, containing
about 16 fquare feet of coated furface, charged to
32 grains of repulfion, which charge was fent through
R I c I T Y. Sea.IX.
the pieces meafured about 16 inches and an half Mifcella-
long ; but perfectly flattened by its fall on the paper, neous Ex-
as before. periment*.
“ 10. Nine bottles charged to 30 grains, and the v "
charge being fent through eight inches and a half of
a piece of fteel wire 12 inches long and -rl-gth of brafs wire the fize of the laft, wholly difperfed it in
an inch thick 11 times; the wire was fhortened one
inch and a half, being then about 10 inches and an
half long; the 12th time, the wire was melted to
pieces.
“ 2. A charge, with the fame nine bottles, to 32
grains of repulfion, being fent through a piece of fteel
wire 12 inches long and TTuth °f an inch thick, the firft
time melted the whole of it into fmall globules.
fmoke, and left nothing remaining to fall on the fheet
of paper placed under it.
“11. With 12 bottles, charged to 20 grains, the
charge was fent through ten inches of fteel wire one-
hundredth of an inch thick, which made the wire red
hot, but did not melt it.
“12. A fecond charge, the fame as the laft, was.
fent through the fame piece of wire, which heated it
“ 3. A charge of the fame nine bottles charged to red hot as the firft did, but it was not feparated ; this
32 grains, being fent through a piece of brafs wire piece of wire was now ftiortened five-fixteenths of an
- 2 inches long, -r-^oth of an inch thick, the whole of it inch.
was melted, with much fmoke, almoft like gunpowder;
but the metallic part of it, after 4t was melted, formed
itfelf, in cooling, chiefly into concave hemifpherical
figures of various fizes.
'* 4. With only eight of the above bottles charged
3. A charge to jy grains, with the fame 12.
bottles, was fent through the laft piece of wire, which
melted it into many pieces, and mavy globules of cal¬
cined metal.
[4. A charge of 15 bottles, charged to 25 grains
to 32 grains, the charge did but juft melt 12 inches of was fent through ten inches of fteel wire one-hundredth
the fteel wire ,°f an inch thick, fo as to fall
into feveral pieces; which pieces in cooling formed
themfelves into oblong lumps joining to each other
by a very fmall part of the wire between each lump,
which was not melted enough to feparate, but ap¬
peared like oblong beads on a thread at different di-
ftances.
of an inch thick, which melted it the firft time, and
difperfed a great part of it about the room.
“ 15. A charge with the laft 15 bottles, charged to
20 grains, juft melted ten inches of fteel wire the fize
of the fbsmer, fo as to run into beautiful globules, near¬
ly as in exp. 1 3.
16. A charge of 15 bottles, charged to 15
“ 5. The fame eight bottles charged to 32 grains, grains, being fent through ten inches of fteel wire the
fo perfectly heated 12 inches of brafs wire, about fize of the laft, it was barely made red hot; but it was
T-^th of an inch thick, as to melt it, or foften it ftrortened one-tenth of an inch by the ftroke palling
enough for it to fall down by its-own weight (from through it.
the forceps with which it was held at each end)
upon a Iheet of paper placed under to catch it;
and when it fell down, it was fo perfe&ly flexible,
that by falling, it formed itfelf into a bent, or
rather vermicular fhape, and remained entire its
whole length, i. e. about 12 inches when it was put
into the forceps; but after it was fallen on the paper,
it fagged fo much as to be ftretched by its own weight
from 12 to about 15 inches long; and by falling on
the paper it flattened itfelf the whole length of it, fo
that when it was examined with an half inch magni¬
fier, it appeared about five or fix. times broader than it
was in thicknefe.
‘ 6. With nine bottles again, charged only to 20
17. The laft piece of wire having a charge of 15
bottles, charged to twelve and a half grains, fent thro’
it, was not made red hot.
“18. A charge of the fame 15 bottles, charged to
25 grains, was lent through the fame piece of wire,
which feemingly tore the wire into fplinters.
“ 19. Four bottles, charged to 30 grains, juft melt¬
ed three inches of fteel wire one hundred and feven-
tieth of an inch thick, fo as to fall into pieces.
“ 20. Five booties, charged to 25 grains, moil
beautifully melted three inches of fuch wire as the laft
into large globules.
“ 21. Eight bottles, charged to 15 grains, melted
three inches of fteel wire one hundred and feventieth of
grains, the charge was fent through 12 inches of fteel an inch thick, fimilar to the five in the laft experiment
- 1 ^ -c — 1—--j -v »- *- fo nearly alike both in appearance and effedt, that it
might have been faid to be the fame.
“ 22. 1’en bottles charged to twelve and a half
grains, rather exceeded exp. 19. but fcarcely came up
to exp. 20. and 21.
“ 23. Sufpe&ing fomething in exp. 19, 1 found,
that though my bottles hitherto were as nearly of the
fame fize as I could procure them, yetfome of them were
a little larger than others, and, which was the cafe in.
“ 8. A charge of nine bottles, charged to 20 grains, exp. 19. one of the four was fmaller than the other
•font a fecond time through the laft piece of wire, three; fo that I repeated the experiment with four
melted it afunder in three places. bottles more equal in fize, and charged them to 30-
“ 9. Nine bottles charged to 30 grains, and the grains, and the fufion was as perfeft as in any.
charge font through 12 inches of brafs wire -r^gth “ 24. A charge to 20 grains, with the laft eight
of an inch thick, treated it nearly as in experiment bottles, very finely melted fix inches of fteel wire one
5, except that it was foparated in two places, and hundred and feventieth of an inch thick.
3 *$•
wire -rToth of an inch thick, which heated it enough to
melt it fo as to be foparated in many places; and the
pieces formed themfelves into .ftrung-bead-like lhapes,
as in experiment 4.
“ 7. With the fame nine bottles charged to 20
grains, the charge was font through 10 inches of brafs
wire T-roth of an inch thick; the wire was heated fo red
hot as to be very flexible, yet it did not feparate, but
s (hortened near -Iths of an inch.
Sea.IX. ELECTRICITY.
Mifceila- “ 25. With two bottles, charged to 45 grains, the
reous F,x- charge was fent through one inch of fuch iized fteel
penmen's. w;re as tjle which only changed its colour.
v “ 26. Three bottles, with a 40 grains charge, dif-
perfed one inch and a half of Heel wire, the fize of the
laft, all about the room.
“ 27. As a Heel wire of one-hundredth of an inch
thick has nearly double the quantity of metal of a wire
one hundred and feventieth of an inch thick, fo I took
three inches of the former, and fent a 25 grains charge
with ten bottles through it, which melted it juft as the
five bottles did in exp. 20.
“ 28. Twenty bottles, charged to twelve grains and
a half, melted three inches of fteel wire, the fize of the
laft, exa&ly limilar to the foregoing experiment.
“29. Asa fteel ware of one-eightieth of an inch
thick contains nearly twice the quantity of metal in
the fame length as a fteel wire of one-hundredth, or four
times the quantity of a fteel wire of one hundred and
feventieth of an inch thick; fo it might, from the fore¬
going experiments, be expected that 20 bottles, char¬
ged to 25 grains, would melt three inches of fteel wire
one-eightieth of an inch thick; but on a great many
trials 20 bottles could not be procured that would bear
the difcharge, when charged to 25 grains: for at
the difcharge there would be always one or more
bottles broken or perforated. I was now reduced to
the neceffity of being content with getting bottles of
any fize that would bear the required charge, from one
to three gallons each, or that contained from about
15010 300, or more, fquare inches of coated furface,
each ; but all in vain, my only refource left (as I was
not near any glafs houfe), was to increafe the quantity
of furface, and not to charge fo high, and to proportion
the one to the other : a third part was concluded on to
be tried ; that is, inftead of about 36 feet of coating, I
added one third, or 12 feet, which made it 48 feet: and
that, inftead of charging to 25 grains, or 24 grains,
which divides by « better, to omit one-third of the height
of the charge, which leaves 16 grains: and thus 1 fuc-
ceeded perfe&ly well; for 3 inches of fteel wire one-
eightieth of an inch thick was as curioufly melted with
48 feet of coated furface, charged to x6 grains, as any
of the former.
“ Thefe bottles, thus broken in large difcharges, feem
always to break, or to be ftruck through, nearly in the
thinneft, but never in the thickeft place, which ftiows
the neceflity of the fubftance in the glafs.
30. “ As in exp. 19, and 21. where the former is
but half the quantity of coated furface of the latter,
charged to 30, and the latter to 15 grains, to know
how high 48 feet of coating muft be charged to pro¬
duce the fame effe£ exaftly: and as the quantity of
coating in four bottles, confifting of a little more than
fix feet and a half, is contained in 48 feet a little more
than feven times ; fo 1 tried by charging 48 feet only
to a little more than four grains, or only about one fe-
venth part fo high, as four times feven is 28 ; that is,
but two lefs than 30 : and this had exadfly the fame
effeft on the wire, which was one hundred and feven¬
tieth of an inch thick, and three inches long, as the
former.
31. “ As the laft experiment agreed fo exadfly with
exp. 19. and 20. the next thing tried was to fee the ef-
feiSt of 48 feet of coated furface charged to a little more
than four grains, upon fix inches of fteel wire, the fize
of the laft.; but this was only made very faintly red.
32. “ A repetition of the laft experiment with the
fame length of the fame wire, to fee how often the fame
charge might be fent through before it would be melt¬
ed, and to obferve the appearance of the wire after
each ftroke ; the eighth ftroke melted it into feveral
pieces. After the firft ftroke, the rednefs grew lefs
every time, even the laft time, when it was feparated.
The firft ftroke, though little more than fairly red,
made it fo flexible, that by a little more than its own
• weight (about a penny-weight more), it was appa¬
rently made perfe&ly ftraight when it was cooled :
about the third or fourth ftroke it began to appear zig¬
zagged; after the fixth ftroke the furface of it appear¬
ed rough; after the feventh ftroke the furface was very
roughly fcorified or fcaly ; and fome of the feales had
fallen upon a piece of white paper, placed under it, at
about half an inch diftance below it. The eighth
ftroke melted it in three places; and at thofe places
where the angles appeared the (harped or mod acute,
a great number of the fcaly appearances were driven
off about the paper, which appeared like fplinters (fee
exp. 18.); fome of them were almoft one-tenth of an
inch long, and fome of them about a third or a fourth
part of the diameter of the wire in breadth, and very
thin : after the feventh ftroke it was (hortened feven-
fixteenths of an inch : the wire was one hundred and
feventieth of an inch thick.
“ 33. Repeating exp. 31. again with the fame fize
and length of wire, and .the fame battery charged the
fame, in order to obferve the method of the wire ihort-
ening, having fixed an infulated gage parallel to and
about a quarter of an inch diftant from it: after the
firft ftroke, which made the wire fairly red, (it being
fixed at one end, that the (hortening might appear all
at the other, which was held fo as either to contraft or
dilate), I obferved that it fhortened confiderably as it
cooled ; repeating the ftroke, it did the fame, and fo
on till it was melted, which was by the eighth ftroke,
as before. At the inftant that the ftroke paffed thro’
the wire it appeared to dilate a little, and after it was
at its hoteft, it gradually contracted after every ftroke
as it cooled, about one-fixteenth of an inch each time;
the dilating was fo very little, as to bear but a very
fmall proportion to its contraction, and fometimes it
was doubtful whether or not it did dilate at all; but
after all the obfervations it appeared oftener as if it did
dilate, than as if it did not.
34- “ The fame 48 feet, negatively charged to a
little more than four grains, melted three inches of
fteel wire one hundred and feventieth of an inch thick,
the fame as the pofitive charge did in exp. 30.
“ 35- The fame battery of 48 feet of coated fur¬
face, charged to a little more than eight grains, melt¬
ed three inches of ftcel wire one-hundredth of an
inch thick. This is very nearly in proportion to exp.
27. but here the charge was negative, and the fufion
was the molt pleafihg of any I have hitherto had ;
probably owing to the charge, by chance, happening
to be fo well adjufted as to be exaCtly fufficient to melt
the wire and no more : it held hot the longeft, and the
fufed metal ran into the largeft globules : probably the
3 0^2 , length
491
Mifceila-
49* ELEC T
Mlfcelta- length of the time that the heat continued, was owing
neo.us Ex to the charge being juft fufftcient, and to. the fize of
jienmenti. ^ ]UIX1pS that the fufed metal formed itfelf into.
“ 36. A repetition of exp. I. with twelve inches
of fteel wire, one-hundredth of an inch thick, but with
this difference, that as then I ufed only pine bottles,
containing about 1$ fquare feet of coated furface chan¬
ged to 32 grains, I here ufed 18 bottles containing a-
bout 32 fquare feet of coating charged to only 16
grains. This was done, to obferve the progrefs of the
deftruftion of the wire, as in exp. 32, as well as to
prove the fimilarity of the effect. The wire being the
fame fize, fort of metal, and length, as recited juft a-
bove ; the firft ftioke made it fairly red-hot the whole
length of it with fmoke and fmell, changed its colour
to a kind of copperifti hue, and fhortened it confide-
rably ; the fecond ftreke made it of a fine blue, but it
did not appear red, and fhortened it more ; at the
third ftroke, it became zigzagged, many radii were
very vifible at the bendings, and continued to fhorten
till the eleventh ftroke, when one of the bottles in the
fecond row of the battery was ftruck through : the
fratture was covered over with common cement, its
place fupplied by changing place with one in the third
row, fuppofing tfie mended one to be the weakeft ; and
thus, with the battery in this ftate, I made the twelfth
ftroke, which feparated the wire, as in exp. 1. but this
wire was fhortened only one inch.
“ 37. A charge of 48 feet to eight grains, fent
through three inches of copper wire one hundred and
feventieth of an inch thick, feven times, made it zig¬
zagged, but not much fhorter ; the eighth ftroke fepa¬
rated it at one end, clofe to the forceps which held it,
but it did not appear to be made fenfibly red-hot at all,
notwithftanding it muft have been often fo at the place
where it was melted: which fpaee was fo very fmall
as barely to be perceptible, like as when a point is fet
upon any flat furface of iron, and a ftroke from a
pound phial being fent through, both the point and
the flat furface where the point refted, if examined with
a magnifying glafs, will be found to have been melted*,
and a fpeck may be feen ; but the rednefs of the me¬
tal will fcarcely be vifible.
“ 38. A charge of 48 feet, to 16 grains, was fent
through fix inches of lead wire one-fiftieth of an inch
thick, which melted it into-many pieces*
“ 39. A charge of 48 feet, to 15 grains, was fent
through fix inches of wire like the laft, which did not
feparate it, hut made it fmoke.
“ 40. A charge like the laft was fent through the
laft piece of wire a fecond time ; which melted it into
feveral pieces.
liead more “ The law by which wires refift deftruftion, in pro-
portion to the thicknefs of the wire, does not feem to
be fd equable, by much, in the lead as in the fteel
wire. For a charge of four grains, in exp. 34. melted
three inches of lead wire one fixty-fixth of an inch
thick: but it took a charge of about three times that
power to deftroy three inches of lead wire one-fiftieth
of an inch thick ; which is about double the quantity
of metal in the fame length as in that of one fixty-
fixth of an inch thick. Thus it is eafy to find, what
different refiftance a wire of any of the foregoing me¬
tals, of equal fize and length, will make to the dec-
tribal itr^ke or to lightning.
flrudtible
than any
other me¬
tals.
R I C I T Y. Sea. EC
_ “ The length of the eleftric circuit, in which the Mifcella-
different wires were placed, in the foregoing experi- neous Ex-
ments, from the neareft part of the infide to the near- Penment*-
part of the outfide of the battery, exclufive of the v ^
length of the faid wires, was about eight-feet.
“ Notwithftanding the eafy deftrudion of the lead
wire by the ele&rical ftroke, it feems greatly to be
doubted, whether any thunder ftrokes happen in any
place whatever, ftrong enough to deftroy a ftrip of
lead four inches broad and of the thicknefe of about
eight pounds to the foot. Whence it may be pre¬
fumed, that fuch a ftrip of lead may be perfe&ly fafe
for conductors through buildings of any kind what- -
ever: as it is not much fubjetft to decay ,-in any com- -
mon expofure.. ^
“41. Two gentlemen coming in to fee a piece of wire Violent er-
melted by electricity, I proceeded tofthow it them,plofionfrorn,
by fixing x 2 inches of fteel wire one-hundred and fe- an ele&ric.
ventieth of an-inch thick, in the forceps, and thenbauery*'
(fuppofing the electrometer and all other things ready
placed) to charge the battery, but the eleftrometer
did not move.; neverthelefs I continued charging as I
fuppofed ; but ftill the.eleCtrometer remained as it was»
although I had been charging much longer than would
have been neceflhry, contrary to my deftgn,. which
was to take a fmall wire, that a-fmall charge might be
fufficient. Having been charging a long time, I left
off to look about the apparatus, in order to fee if any
thing was not, right : as I was looking, I found there,
was no communication to the ele&rometer, and heard
a fmall crackling in. the battery, which convinced me
that it was charged. Accordingly I made the dif-
charge, expecting nothing unufuai; but the wire was
difperfed feemingly in a very violent manner.. The
report was fo very loud that our ears were ftunned,
and the flaflx of light fo very great, that my fight was
quite confufed for a few feconds. The Angularity of
the appearances attending this experiment, led, me t® .
infert it.”
Though from what has been faid under feftion VT .
the direction of the ele&rie fluid outwards from a bo¬
dy pofitively ele&rified, and inwards from one nega¬
tively fo,. feems to be fufficiently afeertained, yet fome
experiments related by Mr Nicholfon in the laft vo¬
lume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, which feem to ,
militate agarinft this doftrine, require a particular co.t*
fideration ; and for this reafon we fhall here not only
give an account of thefe, but of fome others made on Miner’s
thefubje& of exeitation, and the ftate of a charged account of
phial in general, which feem to throw tfome. light, upon the Leydea
the fubjedt* Mr Milner, who has been at great pains-P^^
to inquire into this matter, makes the following obfer-
vations:
“ I. In the charged phial, when the infide has ei¬
ther kind of eleftricity communicated to it, the out¬
fide is found to poffefs a contrary .power. It appears
alfo from the preceding experiments, that either kind of •
eleftricity always produces the other oruany conduc¬
ting fubftance placed within the fphere of influence*
And as the fame effed is alfo produced on eleftrics
themfelves, in the fame fituatiem, and as fame portion
of the air, fuppofing no other fubftance to be. near
enough, muft be unavoidably expofed to fuch influence,
it neceffarily fallows, that neither power can exift with*
«ut the ether j and therefore, in every polfible cafe3
pofitive
ELEC TRICITY.
Se<£l.IX*
Mifcella- pofittve and'negative electricity aic infeparably u-
neous Ex- nited.
perimei ts. <» jj. A phial cannot be fully charged, by which
" ~ the outlide acquires a contrary eleCtriciiy, unlefs the
external coating has a communication by fome con¬
ductor with the earth. In the fame manner, a full
charge of the contrary electricity cannot readily be
procured in thefe experiments without a fimilar com¬
munication.
“ III. In both cafes the interpofition of an elec¬
tric body between the contrary powers is abfolutely
neceffary. In one cafe that body is glafs, in the o-
ther it is air; and the experiment will not futceed in
either, unlefs both the glafs and the air be tolerably
free from moifture.
IV. It appears from the 18th experiment, that
the influence of eleftricity atts fn the fame manner
through glafs as it does'through the air, and produ¬
ces a contrary power in both cafes.
“ V. A communication of the eleClric matter is
more eaiily made through the fluid yielding fubftance
of the air than through glafs; which is fo hard and
folid a body, as to require a very confiderable degree
of power to feparate its component particles : this,
however, fometimes happens, and a hole is made thro’
the glafs itfelf, without defign, in attempting to charge
a very thin phial as high as poffible, in the molt fa¬
vourable Hate of the atmofphere.
“ VI. A conducting body receives the Itrongell
charge of the contrary electricity, in thefe experi¬
ments when it is brought as near as poflible to the e-
leCtric power, without being within the communicating
diitance. And it is well known that the thinnelt
phial, if it be itrong enough to prevent a communica¬
tion between the two furfaces, will always receive the
higheft charge.
“ VII. The eleCtricity of the external furface of
the charged phial cannot be deltroyed, fo long as the
internal furface remains in force, and continues to
exert its influence through the glafs ; becaufe this
influence was the caufe of the contrary eleCtricl-
ty on the external furface, .and. mu ft. therefore pre-
ferve it.,
“ VIII. If part of the courfe which the eleCtric
matter takes in difcharging a phial be through the air,
a.fmall part of the charge will always remain ; becaufe
the whole of the redundancy on one furface is not ca¬
pable of forcing a paflage through the relxfting medium
of the air, in order to fupply the deficiency on the
other furface. But if every part of the. circuit, from
the internal to the external coating, eenfilts of the heft
conductors, and if the coated furfaces be nearly equal,
and direCtly oppofite to each, other, the phial will then
appear to have retained no part of the charge, fo far
as it is covered with tin-foil; but the parts of it above
the coating.on both fides will, however, ftill retain the
contrary electricities,, after the. circuit has been com¬
pleted (g). Arefidue of the charge may alfo be ob- Mifcdla-
ferved in every other inllance of electrification, in neousSx-
which the degree of eleftricky is fufficient to force a ferin^ents^
communication between the eleCtrified body and a
conductor not infulated, through a fmall portion of
the air: and if the experiment be carefully made, it
will appear, that the whole of the redundancy is not
capable of palling through the refilling intermediate
air, in any cafe, and therefore a part of the charge mull
always remain. This may be conveniently Ihown by
uling a well excited eleCtrophorus of about five inches
diameter, the metal cover of which may be fo ftrongly
eleCtrified, as to force a communication through the
air, to any good conductor not infulated, at the di-
ftance of three quarters of an inch. After this, a fe-
cond communication much weaker than the firil may
be made at the diitance of about the twelfth-part of
an inch, which is the refidue of the charge, or rather
a part of it : for if the fecond communication be care¬
fully made through the air, without touching the co¬
ver, it will be found ftill to have retained enough of the
firft charge to eleCtrify a pair of vertical needles.
“ As it appears from this view, that both thefe
cafes are fimilar in fo many remarkable particulars, it
follows, that they are eflentially the fame, notwith-
ftanding they differ in the degree of power and fome
other circumftances, which may alter the form of an j
experiment without changing its; nature.. It is ap¬
prehended, therefore, that the above mentioned diftinc*-
tion will not only appear to be unneceffary, but
alfo that either power cannot poflibly exift without
the other, as it has been lhown under the firft particu¬
lar, that pofitive and negative eleftricity were infepa- -
rably united. But here it will be proper to examine •
more particularly the. natureof charged glafs. -
“ i. When.a plate of coated glafs has been charged, a phial h •
and the circuit between the coatings has been com. not brought '
tfleted, by the mediation of a good, conducing fub-t0 ,ts^a'
ftance, no part of the coated furface is fuppofed to re-
tain any part of the. charge ; but, according, to the dikharged. ■
commonly received doctrine,, the whole of it is laid to
be difeharged ; or in ocher words, to be.brought into
its natural Tlate. This, however,. is . not really the
cafe, as will evidently' appear from ., the. following
experiment; the defign of. which is to ihow the ef-
fedts .produced by charging and difcharging a plate of ■
glafs.
“ 2._Let the middle of a piece of crown window-
glafs, feven inches fquare, be placed between two cir¬
cular plates of brafs, about the 16th part of an indi
thick, and. five inches in diameter. In order.to enable
thefe plates to retain a greater degree of power, it will
be proper to terminate each of them wkh a round bead
the third part of an inch thick ^ and the wh®le of the
bead Ihould be formed on,one fide of the plate, that
the. other fide may remain quite flat, and,apply well
to the furface of the'glafs. Let the. whole be infu¬
lated •
“(G)Tbe whole remainder of the charged phial muft not, however, be aferibed to the caufe above mention¬
ed : for after taking away that-part of it Belonging to the coated fuif ice, which could not force a paffage ..
through the air, if the phial be allowed to Hand a Ihort time on the table, the coated furface will again gra- -
dually acquire fome power, which muft be derived from the charge of the phial above the coating. An-i-
other fource of the refiduum will appear in the next experiment-’’
4<H
Mifcella- latcd about four inches above the table, and in an ho-
neous Ex- j-iy.ontal petition, by faftening one end of a cylindri-
periments. caj pjece 0f forne good infulating fubftance to the
- v middle of the under plate, the other end of it being
fixed in any convenient ftand. Let a like infulating
ftem be faftened to the middle of the upper plate.
Let a brafs chain, which may eafily be removed,
reach from the under plate to the table. In the laft
place, bend a piece of brafs wire into fuch a thape that
it may Hand perpendicularly on the upper plate; and
let the upper extremity of this wire be formed into an
hook, that it may be removed at any time by the af-
fiftance of a filk ftring, without deftroying the infula-
tion of the plate.
“ 3. The glafs being thus coated with metal on both
fides, and having alfo a proper communication with the
table, will admit of being charged ; and both coatings
may be feparated from the glafs, and examined apart,
without deftroying the infulation of either: for the
upper coating may be feparated by the means of its
own proper ftem ; and the under coating may be fe¬
parated by taking hold of the corners of the glafs, and
lifting the glafs itfelf. As glafs readily attrafts moi-
fture from the atmofphere, it will therefore be neceffa-
ry to warm it in the beginning, and to repeat it feveral
times in the courfe of the experiment, unlefs the air
ftiould be very dry.
“ 4. Excite a fmooth glafs tube, of the common fize,
by rubbing it with filk, and apply it repeatedly to the
bent wire until the glafs be well charged. Then re¬
move the chain, which reaches from the lower plate to
the table, and alfo the charging wire from the upper
plate, by laying hold of its hook with a filk ftring.
It neceffarily follows, from confidering the quality of
the power employed in the prefent cafe, that the up¬
per furface of the glafs, together with the upper coat¬
ing, muft be eleftrified pofitively ; and that the under
furface and coating muft be cleft rifled negatively : but
as it is defigned in this experiment to examine the
powers of charged glaxs, that no virtue may be im¬
puted to the glafs but what really belongs to it, let
both coatings be feparated from it; and after they
have been brought to their natural ftate, by. touching
them with a conducing body not infulated, let the
glafs be replaced between them; and whatever effedts
may now be produced, muft be aferibed folely to the
powers of the charged glafs. On bringing a finger
near the upper coating, a fmall eledtrical fpark will ap¬
pear between that coating and the finger, attended
with a fnapptng noife. . Apply a finger in the fame
manner to the under coating, and the fame thing will
happen. This effedl cannot be produced twice, by
two fucceeding applications to the fame coating ; but
it may be repeated feveral hundred times over, in a fa¬
vourable ftate of the atmofphere, by alternate applica¬
tions to the two coatings ; and the powers of the glafs
will be thus gradually weakened.
“5. This part of the experiment may be explained, by
obferving, that the contrary eleclricities have a natural
tendency to produce, and to preferve each other, on
the oppofite fides of a plate of glafs; and therefore,
the increafe or decreafe of power, on either furface,
muft be regulated by the increafe or decreafe of the
contrary power on the other fide : and as in charging
a plate of glafs pofitively, no gradual addition of elec-
Sefl. IX.
trie matter can be made to the upper furface, with- Mifcella-
out a propet conveyance for a proportionable part to neo.us
pafs away from the lower furface ; fo in this method Pef™em^
of uncharging it, the eledtric matter cannot be gradu¬
ally taken away from the upper furface, without add¬
ing a proportionable part to the under furface: one
operation is the reverfe of the other, and fo are the ef-
fe&s; one cafe being attended with an increafe and
the other with a decreafe of power.
“ 6. Let the glafs be again fully charged, and after
bringing both coatings to their natural ftate as before,
let the glafs be replaced between them ; and on touch¬
ing the upper coating with a finger, and then feparat-
ing it from the upper and pofitive furface of the glafs
by the infulating ftem, this coating will acquire a weak
negative power, which will be fufficient to produce a
fmall fpark while the glafs is in full force, though af¬
ter the power of the glafs has been reduced, it will give
little or no fpark: but, in both cafes, on touching
the coatings alternately two or three times, the negative
power of this coating, when feparated from the pofi¬
tive furface of the glafs, will be fo confiderably increa-
fed, as to produce ftrong negative fparks.— Thiseffedfc
may now be repeated feveral times, by only touching
the upper coating, but the fparks will grow weaker
every time ; and they may be reftored again to nearly
their former ftrength, by alternate applications to both
coatings, as before. The fame things will alfo happen
to the under epating, in the fame circumftances; but
with this difference, that the power of the under coat¬
ing, on be.ing feparated from the under and negative
furface of the glafs, will be pofitive. And thus a long
fucceflion of both pofitive and negative fparks may be
produced in favourable weather; or at any time by
keeping the glafs moderately warm.
“ 7. It appears from this part of the experiment, that
each of the furfaces of the charged glafs has a power of
producing a contrary elexftricity in the coating in
contadl with it, by a momentary interruption of
the infulation. It neceffarily follows in producing
thefe effefts, that more eleftrical matter muft have
paffed away from the upper coating, at the time of
touching it, than the fame coating could receive from
the upper furface of the glafs ; and therefore, the up¬
per coating, by lofing fome of its natural quantity, will
be negatively eleftrified: and alfo, that more electric
matter muft have been added to the under coating at
the time of touching it, than the under furface of the
glafs could receive from it ; and therefore the under
coating, by receiving fome addition to its natural quan¬
tity, will be pofitively eledlrified. It appears further,
that the greateft degree of this influential power, which
may be confiftent with the circumftances of the cafe,
will be produced in either coating, by taking care at
the fame time to bring the oppofite coating into a like
ftate of influential ele&ricity : and thus it is evident,
that the influential powers of the two coatings have '
the fame relation to each other as the contrary powers
of the glafs itfelf, and will therefore always increafe or
decreafe together.
“ 8. The glafs being again well charged as at firft, let
a brafs wire bent in the form of a ftaple be brought in¬
to contaft with the upper and lower coating at the
fame time. By this the common difeharge will be
made : but the equilibrium of the coated glafs will be
only
LECTRICITY.
Sea. IX.
Mifcella- only reflored in part; for a confiderable degree of at-
ntoua Ex- traction will happen at the fame time between the up-
penments. ^ coating and the glafs, which has frequently been
ftrong enough to lift a piece of plate-glafs weighing
ten ounces (h). Neither coating will now fhow the
leaft external fign of ele&ricity while it is in contaft
with the glafs; but on feparating either of them from
it, if care be taken to preferve their infulations, the
upper coating will be llrongly electrified negatively,
and the under coating will be ftrongly eleftrified poii-
tively. Let then both coatings be brought to their
natural Hate, by touching them when feparated from
the glafs, with a conducing body not infulated, and
let the glafs be replaced between them as before. In
this date of things,on touching the upper coating only,
and feparating it from the glafs, it will not be capable
of giving any fpark; but on touching the coatings alter¬
nately five or fix times, it will then give a weak fpark;
and this may now be repeated feveral times by only
touching the upper coating : but on a fecond applica¬
tion of the bent wire to both coatings at the fame time,
a fecond difcharge may be perceived, though much
weaker than the firlt, and the coatings will be again
brought into the fame eleftrical ftate as immediately
after the firfl difcharge. This may frequently be re¬
peated ; and a confiderable number of ftrong negative
fparks may be taken from the coating when it is fe¬
parated from the pofitive furface of the glafs. If the
glafs in replacing it between the two plates be turned
upfide down, the ele&rical powers of both coatings
will be changed by the next application of the dif-
charging wire to complete the circuit; andafucceflion
of ftrong pofitive fparks may be taken from the coat¬
ing when it is feparated from the negative furface of
the glafs.
“ 9. It appears from this part of the experiment, that
the coated part of the charged glafs was not brought
into its natural ftate by completing the circuit be¬
tween the coatings ; but that it ftill retained a degree
of permanent eleftricity ; that the powers of both
coatings were actually changed at thq time of the firft
difcharge ; and that a fucceffion ef the fame powers
may be produced in the coatings, without renew¬
ing the leaft application of electricity to the glafs
itfelf.
‘*10. The whole quantity of eleftric matter added to
the glafs in charging it, is evidently diftinguiftied into
two parts in this experiment. The firft part, which is
by far the moft confiderable, appears to have been readily
communicated from one furface of the glafs to the o-
ther, along the bent wire, when it was firft brought
into contact with both coatings at the fame time. The
fecond part of the charge appears to be more perma¬
nent, and remains ftill united with the glafs, notwith-
ftanding the circuit has been completed (1). This
495
permanent ele&ricity, as well as the other, muft be po- Mifcella-
fitive on the upper furface, and negative on the lower
furfacc; becaufe, in the prefent experiment, the charge Perit”en sj
was given by a frnooth glafs tube excited wfith a filk
rubber. Now, the influence of the oppofite and per¬
manent powders on the difterent Tides of the glafs (each
fide having a tendency to bring the coating in con-
ta6l with it into a ftate of eledricity contrary to its
own) muft affift each ot&er, in caufing part of the elec¬
tric matter naturally belonging to the upper coating to
pafs away from it to the under coating, along the dif-
charging wire, and at the fame time the furcharge to
pafs the fame way. The upper coating, therefore, by
lofing fome part of its natural quantity, muft be nega¬
tively eledrified ; and the under coating, bf’ receiving
an addition to its natural quantity, muft be pofitively-
eledrified. The whole quantity of eledric matter,
which the influence of the permanent eledricity of
the glafs is capable of taking from one coating and
of adding to the other, bears but a fmall proportion
to the whole charge: and therefore the fecond and
every fpbfequent difcharge muft be confiderably weaker
than the firft.
“ 11. It appears from feveral of the preceding experi¬
ments, that a confiderable degree of influential power
may be produced at fome diftance by an eledric in full
force ; and therefore a fmall excited body of a cylin¬
drical ftrape was fufficient to anfwer that purpofe: but
when the excited eledric has been fo far weakened
that it cannot communicate its own power, nor pro¬
duce this influential power in any body, unlefs it be
brought very near or in contad with it, bodies of a
cylindrical form muft then ad to great difadvantage^.
and a fmall degree of power only can be produced ;
becaufe the ftrength of the influential eledricity in this
cafe will be in proportion to thefurfaces of the eledric
and conduding bodies, which are brought near toge¬
ther, or in contad with each other; and therefore a
plate of glafs in the fame circumftances, whether its
permanent power be derived from excitation or com¬
munication, is enabled from its ftiape to produce a
confiderable degree ol the influential powers in the
coatings in contad with it.
“ 12. It appears from this experiment, that the ingeni- Hypothefis'-
ousprofeflbr Volta’s eledrophorus is, in reality, a refin- concerning
ous plate charged with permanent eledricity by fridion: ro’"
and beeaufe there is a lefs difpofition in a body of this V
kind to attrad moifture from the atmofphere than
there is in glafs ; it will retain the power better, and
confequently be the longer capable of producing a con¬
trary eledricity in the infulated metal cover. If it ihould
be thought neceflary to fupport this obfervation by a
dired experiment, it may eafily be done by making a
thin flat plate of any refinous eledric fubftance, and
larger than the infulated cover, but without faftening
ELECTRICITY.
“ ( h ) The whole of this effed muft not be aferibed to the attradion of eledricity. Perhaps the paflage of
eledric matter between the coating‘and the glafs may help to exclude the air; and then the attradion of cohe-
fion, and the preflure of the external air both above and below, may be fuppofed to have the moft confiderable
{hare in producing this eifed.
“ (1) Some new terms feem to be wanted in order to exprefs with precifion the different parts of the charge-
And if that part of it which cannot be deftroyed by completing the circuit, Ihould be called the permanent
part of the charge, or more Amply the charge; then might the other part, or that which may be deftroyed by
completing the circuit, be named the fur charge*
4^
Mifcel’a-
-iieous Ex-
piriments.
How to
ffharge a
phial with-
- out fric-
ELECT
a coating to either furface ; and then* whether this
plate be charged by excitatioa or communication, one
of its-Tides will be pofitive and the other Tide nega¬
tive ; and a fucceffion of pofitive fparks may be pro¬
duced on the negative fide, and of negative fparks on
the pofitive fide, by a proper application of the infla¬
ted metal cover. It will be alio found, that this refi-
fious plate cannot be well charged, either by excita¬
tion or communication, unlefs a coating of Tome con¬
ducing matter ihould be kept in contaC with the un¬
der furface ; and it fliould alfo have feme communica¬
tion with the floor.
“ 13. It has been very ^properly recommended to tife
a particular kind of rubber, and to attend to the ftate
of it, in oi*cler to excite glafs well; but it will not be
neceffary to -pay the leaf! regard to thefe circumftances
in the following experiments, in which a method will
be fhown of charging a fmall phial and a plate of
glafs at the fame time,1 by a gradual accumulation of
power; that power being entirely derived from the
glafs itfelf, aad with no other degree or kind of fric¬
tion than is neceflarily connected with the form of the
experiment.
“ 14. Place a circle of tin-foil five inches in diameter
on the table,between a foft piece of baize and the middle
of the fame plate of glafs that was ufed in the laft ex¬
periment, which will thus be coated on the under fide;
and in order to preferve a proper communication with
this coating; let a fillet of tin-foil reach from it beyond
the extremity of the glafs. The fame infulated metal
cover is to be ufed for the upper coating as before.
Xet a thin ounce-phial of glafs be filled with brafs-
filings, and coated with tin-foil on the outfide to &-
bout one inch from the top. Let a large brafs wire,
the fifth part of an inch in diameter, pafs through the
cork of the phial into the filings, about an inch of it
being left above the cork, and let the upper extremity
of this wire be well rounded. This experiment re¬
quires, that the whole conftru&ion fhould be well
warmed at firft ; and it will be neceffary to repeat it
at proper intervals, unlefs the atmofphere fhould be
very dry.
“ 15. Taking hold of the wire of the phial with one
hand, let it be placed on the upper furface of the glafs,
and its bottom carried in contact over the middle of the
upper furface, as far as the tin-foil coating reaches on
the under fide : and during this part of the operation,
a finger of the other hand muff be kept in contaft with
the fillet of tin-foiL Then lifting the phial by the
wire with one hand, let it be placed on the infulated
metal cover, fufpended in the air with the other hand;
and after fiiifting the hand from the wire to the coating,
let the bottom of the phial be placed on the end of the
tin-foil fillet. Place the infulated metal cover on the
middle of the glafs, and touch it with a finger of one
4iand, while the other hand touches the tin-foil fillet.
Now lift the infulated cover by its ftem, and bring the
head of the cover in contact with the wire of the phial,
and a very fmall fpark of light will appear between them.
Let this be repeated in the fame manner about 15 times,
■taking care to preferve. a proper communication between
the coating and the floor. Then taking hold of the
-phial by the coating, let it be replaced on the infulated
cover while it is fufpended in the air; and after ftiift-
%ng the hand from the coating.to the wire, let it be
■No 113.
R I C I T Y. Sea. IX.
again placed on the middle of the glafs, and let the Mifcdla-
bottom be again carried in contact over the middle of neous E*-
tbe glafs, holding the wire in one hand, while the other Pgrll'u‘nts*i
has a proper communication with the tin-foil coating.
Let the phial be again returned to the tin-foil fillet as
bfcfore, and let the infulated cover be applied repeat¬
edly to the wire, immediately after every reparation
from the glafs ; and a brighter fpark, together with a
-weak fnapping, will now attend each application, if it
be carefully obferved to touch the cover with one hand
before every feparation, while the other hand refts on
the fillet of tin-foil. By proceeding in this manner,
after the third application of the phial to the glafs, a
very weak {hock will be felt in thofe fingers which are
ufed in completing the circuit of the glafs; and after
repeating two rounds more in the manner before men¬
tioned, the phial will be fully charged. By applying
the coating of the phial when it is in full force to the
upper furface as before, the glafs plate will get the
greateft power it is thus capable of receiving, and will
then give a {hock as high as the elbows. After this,
on attempting to lift the infulated cover, the glafs it¬
felf will generally be lifted at the fame time, with the
tin-foil coating adhering to the under furface : but by
continuing the reparations of the cover from the glafs,
a fucceffion of ftrong negative fparks may be produced
by the influence of the upper furface ; and by turning
the glafs over, and leaving the tin-foil -coating on the
baize, a fucceffion of ftrong pofitive fparks may be
produced by the influence of the other fide.
“ 16.This experiment maybe performed more fteadily
by placing the glafs, together with the tin-foil coating
and baize, on a plate of metal about of an inch
thick, and of the fame fquare as the glafs. The whole
maybe fattened together by two fmall holdfafts placed at
the oppofite corners, which will prevent the glafs from
being lifted. This plate of metal will be ufeful in
another view; for after it has been fufficiently warmed,
by retaining heat well, it will help to keep the glafs
dry, and confequently fit for ufe fo much the longer.
But when it {hall be required to fliow the contrary
powers of the oppofite Tides of the glafs, it will be more
convenient not to faften the parts together, and the
whole may be kept fufficiently fteady, by the opera¬
tor’s keeping down one corner of the glafs with a fin¬
ger, and by placing a proper weight on the opp^ite
corner.
“ 17. The bottom of the phial cannot be carried in
contact over the glafs without producing fome little de¬
gree of friction ; from which the power in this experi¬
ment is originally derived. The cover will appear on
examination to be eledtrified negatively after every fe¬
paration from the glafs : but as it was touched in com¬
pleting the circuit between the coatings before every
feparation, it neceffarily follows, that the cover can
have only an influential eledtricity, and oonfequently
that the permanent power of the upper furface of the
glafs muft be pofitive. The negative power of the co¬
ver is communicated to the wire of the phial, by which
the infide is eledtrified negatively and the outfide po-
fitively ; and both thefe powers will increafe with every
application, becaufe the circumftances of the phial are
favourable to its charging. The phial muft be infula¬
ted every time it is required to fhift the hand from the
wire to the coating, or from the coating to the wire ;
for
Sea. IX. ELECT
Mifcella- f0r wltHout this precaution the phial would be difchar-
periments" applying the outfide of the phial to the up-
< per furface of the glafs, in the manner above mention-
‘ ed, the phial will be partly difcharged on that furface:
and though it mull be therefore weakened, the power
of the glafs will beincreafed, and confequently enabled
to produce a proportionably llronger effeft on the brafs
cover, which by the next round of applications will
give the phial a ftronger charge than it had before. And
thus a very fmall degree of original power is fird gene¬
rated, and then employed in forming two different ac¬
cumulations : and by making each of thefe fubfervient
to the increafe of the other, the phial is at lafl fully
charged, and the glafs plate acquires fuch a degree of
the furcharge, as to give a pretty fmart fhock; and after
that, it remains capable, by the influence of its perma¬
nent powers, of producing a fucceflion of pofitive and
negative fparks on the oppofite furfaces.
“ 18,The contrary charge may be given to the phial by
taking hold of the coating, and carrying the wire in
' contadl over the middle of the upper furface of the
glafs, and by applying the power of the infulated co¬
ver to the coating ; for if the operation be conduced
in every other refpeft in the fame manner as before,
then will the infide be eledfrified pofitively, and the
outfide negatively. The powers of the glafs plate will
be the fame as they were in the former cafe.
“19 Afterthe phial has been fully charged negatively,
by the procefs of the laft experiment, let it be infula¬
ted ; and taking hold of the wire, let the bottom be
field uppermoft, and let the hand which holds it reft on
the fillet of tin-foil. Apply the infulated cover to the
glafs, and after touching it with a finger of the other
band, feparate it from the glafs; and on bringing it to¬
wards the coating of the phial, a ftrong fpark wall pafs
between them. After repeating this between 20 and
36 times, the powers of the phial will be deftroyed ;
and by continuing the fame operation, they will be in¬
verted ; for the infide will be at laft fully charged po¬
fitively, and the outfide negatively.
“zo.The fame effedt may be produced, by turning the
glafs over, and by repeatedly applying the influential
ele&ricity, produced on that fide, to the wire of the
phial.
“ 2 1 .When thephial has been fuliycharged negatively,
as in the laft experiment, take hold of the coating of the
phial with one hand, and while the other hand reftson
the tin-foil fillet, apply the wire to the middle of the
upper furface of the glafs, as far as the tin-foil coating
extends on the other fide. By this the powers of the
glafs plate will be changed.
“2 2. Another, and perhaps a better method of applying
the phial, is to place the infulated cover on the furface
of the glafs, and then holding the phial by the coating
in one hand, to apply the wire to the cover, while the
other hand touches the fillet of tin-foil; by which a
flrock will be given, and the fame change of powers
will be produced in an irritant, which before took up
fome little time. On lifting the infulated cover by its
ftem immediately after the ftrock, it will be negative, or
have the fame power as the infide of the phial; but on re¬
placing the cover, and completing the circuit of the glafs
plate, the furcharge will be deftroyed; another ftrock will
be felt; and the power of the cover, after the next fepara-
tion, will be pofitive, or contrary to that of the infide of
Voi.VJ. Part II.
R I C I T Y. 497
the phial. Apply this pofitive power to the wire of the Mifcdla-
phial as before; and after 15 applications, the powers of netnis £x-
the phial will be deftroyed: and by dill proceeding in the Perin^etits‘.
fame manner, the powers of the phial will be changed,
and the infide will be fully charged pofitively and the
outfide negatively, by 60 applications.
“23. Thefe effedls may alfo be produced by a Angle
application of the coating of the phial to the other fide of
the glafs plate ; and by repeated applications of the in¬
fluential eleftricity, produced on the fame fide, to the
coating of the phial.
“24. If it were Amply the objeft in this experiment to
change the powers of the phial, the operation might
then be confiderably rtiortened, by completing the cir¬
cuit of thephial, and confequently deftroying the whole
furcharge : but it was intended to (how what effeds
might be produced, by oppofing the contrary powers
to each other ; and by doing this it appears that either
fide of the glafs plate can deftroy the powers of the phial,
and give it a contrary charge ; that either fide of the
phial can alfo change the powers of the glafs plate ; and
that the powers of the glafs plate, thus inverted, can
again deftroy the powers of the phial, and give it a full
charge of the contrary ele&ricity.
“ 25.Here it may be obferved, that, in fome cafes, the
quality of the-power may be determined by obfervation
alone. When the phial employed in the two laft expe¬
riments has been fully charged, it may be known whe¬
ther the infide be pofitive or negative from the light
which appears at the wire, or from the biffing noife
which attends it: for when the phial has been fully
charged pofitively, if the room be fufficiently dark¬
ened, a bright luminous appearance may be feen, di-
verging in feparate, rays to the diftance of an inch, at¬
tended with an interrupted hiding noife ; and both the
light and the noife continue a very (hort time. But
when the phial is fully charged negatively, a weaker
and more uniform light appears, which does not extend
itfelf more than the fixth part of an inch, and is at¬
tended with a clofer and more uniform hiffing ; and
this noife and light always continue longer than the
former. Even pofitive and negative fparks, paffing be¬
tween the infulated cover and a finger, may be diltin-
guifhed from each other : for the pofitive fparks are
more divided, give lefs light, make a weaker fnapping
noife, and affedl the finger lefs fenfibly than the nega¬
tive.
“26. The ftrongeft fparks which can be produced in
thefe experiments, are thofe that pafs between the coat¬
ing of the phial and the infulated cover, when they pof-
fe(s contrary powers; but they will be more particularly
vigorous, if the coating be pofitive and the infulated
cover negative.” ’ ,
In Se£t. vi. of this treatife we have related fome ex- Mr J
periments, tending to (how, that in the aft of charging Brookes’s
a phial with pofitive eleftricity, both became pofitive; exPcti-
and in the aft of charging one negatively, both be- Jh^Ley"
came negative. Thefe were inferted in the former edi- den-phial,
tion of this work; fince which time Mr Brookes at
Norwich has publiflied a treatife; in which he not only
adopts the opinion, but lays claim to it as his difco-
very, from fome letters wrote in the year 1775. His
experiments are extremely well adapted to elucidate the
point intended ; and the moll remarkable of them are
as follow:
3 R-
1. Let
498 ELECT]
^vlifcellane’ <« i. Let two pound phials be coated with tin-foil
ous Expen-on thejr outfides, and filled to a convenient height with
. common fhot, to fcrve as a coating within-fide, as well
as to keep a wire fleady in the phials without a ftopple
in the mouth of them. Let each phial be furnifhed
with a wire about the fize of a goofe-quill, and about
ten inches long, and let each wire be iharpened a little
at one end, that it may the more eafily be thruil down
into the (hot, fo as not to touch the glafs any where at
the mouth of the phials, yet fo as to Hand ileadily in
them. Let a metallic ball about fix or feven eighths of
an inch diameter be fere wed on at the other end of each
wire : alfo l^t there be in readinefs a third wire, fitted
up like thofe for the phials, except that another ball of
nearly the fame fize as the former may occafionally
be ferewed on over the fltarpened end of it. I fay, in-
ftead of fufpending the phials from the prime condudtor
as before, let one of thofe above deferibed be charged
at the prime condu&or, and then fet it afide, but let it
be in readinefs in its charged ftate : then let the other
be placed upon a good infulating ftand, and let the
third wire alfo be laid upon the Hand, fo that its ball,
or fome part of the wire, may touch the coating of the
phial. Let the fharpened end of this wire projedl five
or fix inches over the edge of the Hand : all of thefe
being now placed clofe to the edge of a table, hang a
pair of cork balls on the iharpened end of the wire, and
make a communication from the prime conduftor to
the ball on the wire on the bottle : on working the
machine, the iharpened end of the wire wdll permit the
bottle to be charged although it be infulated ; and if
the wire be very finely pointed, the bottle may be
charged nearly as well as if it were not infulated: I
fay. on. working the machine, the phial will charge,
and the cork balls will immediately repel each other ;
but whilil this phial is charging, take the firit phial,
which having been previoufly charged at the fame
prime conductor in the hand, and while the fecond
phial is charging, prefent the ball of the firll to the
cork balls, and they will all repel each other. This
plainly proves that the outfide of the fecond bottle is
eledfrifled plus at the time that it is charging, the
fame as the infide of the firft; and the infide of both the
bottles will readily be allowed.to be charged alike,
that is, plus or pofitive.
“ 2. Let the fecond bottle in the laft experiment be
wholly difeharged, and charge it again as before (the
firft bottle yet .remaining charged), and whilft it is
charging, let the ball of the firft approach the cork
halls contiguous with the fecond, and they will, as be¬
fore, all repel, each other: withdraw the ball of the
firfl;,- and fo long as the machine continues to charge
the fecond bottle higher, the cork balls will continue
to repel each other ; but ceafe working the machine,
and the cork balls will ceafe to repel each other till
they touch, and will then very foon repel each other
again ; then let the ball in the firft phial approach
the cork balls, and they will now be attra&ed by it,
inftead of being repelled as above, as in the laft expe¬
riment. This alfo plainly (bows, that both fides of a
Leyden phial are alike at the time it is charging;
and at the fame time evidently Ihows, that the dif¬
ference of the two fides does not take place till after
the bottle is charged, or till the machine ceafes to
charge it higher.
1 I G I T Y. Sea IX.
“ 3. In this experiment, let both the former bottles Mifcellane-
be difeharged, then let one of them be placed upon the ous ExPerI'
infulating ftand. Let a ball be put on over the fiiarpen- ‘
ed end of the third wire, and let it be laid on the ftand
as before, fo as to touch the coating of the phial :
place the other phial on the table, fo that its ball or wire
may touch the ball on the third wire, or any part of the
wire itfelf: make a communication from the ball on the
wire of the firft phial to the prime condu£tor : then,
by working the machine, both bottles will foon become
charged. As foon as they are pretty well charged,
and before the machine ceafe working, remove the fe¬
cond phial from the third wire ; after the fecond phial
is removed, ceafe working the machine as foon as pof-
fible: take the third wire, with its two balls, off the
ftand with the hand, and lay it on the table, fo that
one of its balls may touch the outfide coating of the
fecond phial: remove the firft phial off the ftand, and
place it on the table fo as to touch the ball at the
other end of the third wire ; then, with an infulated
difeharging rod, make a communication from the ball
in ene bottle to the ball in the other: if the outfide
of the firft phial be negative at the time it is charging,
the infide of the fecond will be the fame, and making
the above communication would produce an explofion,
and both bottles would be difeharged ; but the con¬
trary will happen, for there will be no explofion, nor
will either of the bottles be difeharged, although there
be a complete communication between their outfides,
becaufe the infide of them both will be pofitive. This
is a proof, that confidering one fide of a phial to be
pofitive and the other negative at the time they are
charging, is a miftake : as well as that, if any number
of bottles be fufpended at the tail of each other,
all the intermediate furfaces or fides do not con¬
tinue fo.
“ 4. Here alfo let the apparatus be difpofed as in
the laft experiment, till the bottles are highly charged:
then, with a clean ftick of glafs, or the like, remove
the communication between the ball of the firft phial
and the prime conduclor before the machine ceafes
working; then, with an infulated difeharging rod,,
make a communication from the outfide to the infide
of the firft phial; a ftrong explofion will take place on,
account of the excefs within-fide, notwithftanding they
are both pofitive.
“ 5.. This experiment being fomething of a con¬
tinuation of the preceding one, immediately after the
laft explofion takes place, difeharge the prime con-
duAor of its ele&ricity and atmofphere ; then touch .
the ball in the firft phial with the hand, or any con¬
ducing fubftance that is net infulated ; then will the
infide coating of the firft phial, which at firft was fi>
ftrongly pofitive, be in the fame ftate as the outfide
coating of the fecond, having a communication by the
hand, the floor, &c. with each other ; that is, nega¬
tive, if any thing can properly be called negative or
pofitive that has a communication with, the common
flock : but a pair of cork balls that are eledrified
either plus cx minus, will no more be attrafted by
either the infide coating of the firft phial or the out-
fide coating of the fecond, than they will by the tabic
on which they ftand, or a common chair in the room,
while they continue in that iltuation. Remove the
aforefaid communication . from the ball of .the hrft
phial.; ,
Sea. IX. ELECT
Mifcellane- phial; touch the ball in the fecond, as before in the
OU9 Expert- flr[t5 or difcharge the bottle with the difcharging rod,
and the ball in the firft bottle will immediately become
v negative: with a pair-of cork balls, eleftrified nega¬
tively, approach the ball in the firft phial, and they will
all repel each other, or, if the cork balls be ele&rified
pofitively, they will be attra&ed. All thefe circum-
ftances together feem fully to prove what has already
been faid, not only that the infide of the firft phial,
which was fo ftrongly pofitive, may be altered fo as to
become in the fame ftate as the outfide of the fecond,
without difcharging the phial, or any more working
the machine ; but that it may be fairly changed, from
being pofitively charged to being negatively charged.
If a pair of cork balls are now hanged on to the ball
of the w’ire in this phial, by the help of a ftick of glafs,
they will repel each other, being negatively ele&ri-
fied. Make a communication from the outfide of the
bottle to the table, and replace the communication
from the prime conduftor to the ball in the bottle ;
thui, upon moderately working the machine to charge
the bottle, the cork balls will ceafe to repel each other
till they touch, and will foon repel each other again
by being eledrified pofitively. Here the working the
machine anew, plainly (hows that the infide of the
firft bottle, which was pofitive, was likewife changed
„ to negative.
HE method “ In making ele&rical experiments, and in particu-
of prffer- lar thofe in which the Leyden phial is Concerned (a
vingjars number of which together compofe moft ele&rical
batteries), a method to preferve the bottles or jars
broTe by1!? from being (truck through by the ele&ric charge is
difeharge. very definable ; but I do not know that it has hitherto
been accompliftied. The number of them that have
been deftroyed in the foregoing, as well as in many
experiments made long before, have led me to various
conjectures to preferve them : at the fame time I have
been obliged to make ufe of bottles inftead of open
mouthed jars. And as coating the former within-fide
is very troublefome, it has put me on thinking of
fome method more eafy, quicker, and equally firm and
good, as with the tin-foil. With refeft to the new
method of coating, I failed ; though fomething elfe
prefented itfelf rather in behalf of the former: there¬
fore introducing the procefs here will not be of very
great ufe; unlefs in faving another the trouble of
making ufe of the fame method, or giving a hint to¬
wards the former, fo as to fucceed with certainty. My
aim was, to find fomething that ftiould be quick and
clean, and not eafy to come off with the rubbing of
wires againft it, and yet a good condu&or. My firft
eifay was with a cement of pitch, rofin, and wax,
melted together ; into which, to make it a good con-
duftor, I put a large proportion of finely fifted brafs
filings. When this mixture was cold, I put broken
pieces of it into the bottle, and warmed the bottle till
it was hot enough to melt the cement in it fo as to
run, and cover the bottle within-fide ; then I coated
the outfide with tin-foil as is commonly done, and
now it was fit for ufe, or ready to be charged : to
which I next proceeded ; and I believe I had not made
more than four or five turns of the winch before it
fpontaneoufly ftruck through the glafs with a very
ftnall charge. I then took off the outfide coating, and
R I C I T Y. 499
flopped the fradlure with fome of my common cement, Mifcellane-
after which I put the coating on again; and, in asous£xieri-
little time as before, it was ftruck through again inmcnt^'
a different place : and thus I did with this bottle five r^
or fix times; fometimes it ftruck through the cement, Glafseafily
but it ftruck through the glafs in four different''roke by c-
places. This made me confider what it might be
that facilitated the fpontaneous ftriking through the
glafs, and likewife what might retard it. I had longceuient.
before thought that jars or bottles appeared to be
ftruck through with a much lefs charge, juft after
their being coated, or before they were dry, than
when they had been coated long enough for the moi-
fture to be evaporated from the pafte with which I
moftly lay on the tin-foil; and could only confider
the dry pafte as a kind of mediator between the tin-
foil and the glafs, or, in other words, that the moifture
in the pafte was a better condudloi;, and more in ac¬
tual contadl with the glafs, than the pafte itfelf when
dry. And the coating the bottles with the heated ce¬
ment, though long afterward, did not alter my for¬
mer idea ; for it appeared as if the hot cement, with
the conducing fubftance in it, might be ftill more in
adlual contact with the glafs than the moifture in the
pafte. On thefe probabilities I had to confider what
might adl as a kind of mediator more effedlually than
the dry pafte between the glafs and the tin-foil. It
occurred, that common writing-paper, as being nei¬
ther a good conduftor nor infulator, might be fer-
viceable by being firft pafted fmoothly to the tin-foil
and left to dry. The paper then being pafted on one
fide, having the tin-foil on the other, I put them on the
glafs together with the tin-foil outward, and rubbed
them down fmooth. This fucceeded fo well that I
have never fince had any ftruck through that were thus
done, either common phials, or large bottles which con¬
tain near three gallons each, though fome of the lat¬
ter have flood in the battery in common ufe with
the other a long time. And as I have never had
one ftruck through that has been prepared in this
way, I am much lefs able at prefent to tell how
great a charge they will bear before they are ftruck
through, or whether they will be ftruck through
at all.” 160
In the laft part of the Philofophical Tranfadlions for Nicholfon’i
1789, we have the following experiments by Mr Ni-^g^ts on
cholfon, on an improved method of excitation, as well excitation,
as the a&ion of points, and the direction of the fluid
in pofitive and negative eledlricity.
“ i- A glafs cylinder was mounted, and a cufhion ap¬
plied with a filk flap, proceeding from the edge of the
cufhion over its furface, and thence half round the cylin¬
der. The cylinder was then excited by applying an
amalgamed leather in the ufual manner. The electri¬
city was received by a condudlor, and pafled off in
fparks to Lane’s electrometer. By the frequency of
thefe fparks, or by the number of turns required to
caufe fpontaneous explofiqn of a jar, the flrength of the
excitation was afeertained.
“ 2. The cufhion was withdrawn about one inch from
the cylinder, and the excitation performed by the filk
only. A ftream of fire was feen between the cufhion
and the filk ; and much fewer fparks paffed between
the balls of the electrometer.
3 R 2 3. A
500 ELECTRICITY. Sea. IX,
M'fcella- «« 3. A roll of dry filk was interpofed, to prevent the
peo.us Ex' ftream from paffing between the cufldon and the filk.
I c. .men s.^ yer^. few then appealed at the eleArometer.
“4. A metallic rod, not infulated, was then interpofed
inftead of the roll of filk, fp as not to touch any part
of the'apparatus. A denfe ftream of ele&ricity appear¬
ed between the rod and the filk, and the condudtor
gave very many fparks.
“5. The knob of ajar being fubftituted in the place
of the metallic rod, it became charged negatively.
“ 6. The filk alone, with a piece of tin-foil applied
behind it, afforded much ele&ricity, though lefs than
when the cufhion was applied with a light preflfure.
The hand being applied to the filk as a cufhion, pro¬
duced a degree of excitation feldom equalled by any
other cufhion.
“ 7. The edge of the hand anfwered as well as the
palm.
“ 8. When the excitation by a cufhion was weak, a
line of light appeared at the anterior part of the cufhion,
and the filk was flrongly difpofed to receive ele&ricity
from any uninfulated condu&or. Thefe appearances
did not obtain when the excitation was by any means
made very ftrong.
“ 9. A thick filk, or two or more folds of fdk, ex¬
cited worfe than a fingle very thin flap. I ufe the filk
which the milliners call Perfian.
“ 10. When the filk was feparated from the cylinder,
fparks pafled between them ; the filk was found to be
in a weak negative, and the cylinder in a pofitive, ftate.
The filk “ foregoing experiments fhow that the office of
flap the the filk is not merely to ^prevent the return of ekdtri-
principal cJty frorn the cylinder to the cufhion, but that it is the
cau.fe °/ chief agent in the excitation; while the cufhion ferves
only to fupply the ele&ricity, and perhaps increafe the
preffure at the entering part. There likewife feems to
be little reafon to doubt but that the difpofition of the
eleftricity to efcape from the furface of the cylinder is
not prevented by the interpofition of the filk, but by a
compenfation after the manner of a charge; the filk
being then as ftrongly negative as the cylinder is po¬
fitive: and, laftly, that the line of light between the filk
and cufhion in weak excitations does not confift of re¬
turning ele&ricity, but of ele&ricity which pafies to
the cylinder, in confequence of its not having been
fufficiently fupplied during its contaft with the rub¬
bing furface.
“11. When the excitation was very flrong in a cy¬
linder newly mounted, flafhes of light were feen to fly
acrofs its infide, from the receiving furface to the fur¬
face in contact with the cufhion, as indicated by the
brufh figure. Thefe made the cylinder ring as if (truck
with a bundle of fmall twigs. They feem to have
arifen from part of the eleftricity of the cylinder taking
the form of a charge. This appearance was obferved
in a 9-inch and a 12-inch cylinder, and the property
went off in a few weeks. Whence it appears to have
been chiefly occafioned by the rarity of the internal air
produced by handling, and probably reftored by gra¬
dual leaking of the cement.
ttatVof the “ I2‘ With a view to determine what happens in the
infide of a infide of the cylinder, recourfe was had to a plate ma-
cylinder chine. One cufhion was applied with its filken flap,
during ex- piate was 9 inches in diameter and -r^ths of an
JamLued.6" *nc^ During the excitation, the furface oppo-
fite to the cufhion ftrongly attracted eleftricity, which' it Mifcelia-
gave out when it arrived oppofite to the extremity of the neo.us £x*
flap: fo that a continual ftream of eleftricity pafledPelin‘CRta\
through an infulated metallic bow terminating in balls, V -
which were oppofed, the one to the furface oppofite the
extremity of the filk, and the other oppofite to the
cufhion; the former ball fhowing pofitive and the latter
negative figns. The knobs of two jars being fubfti¬
tuted in the place of thefe balls, the jar applied to the
furface oppofed to the cufhion was charged negatively,
and the other pofitively. This difpofition of the back
furface feemed, by a few trials, to be weaker the
ftronger the adtioh of the cufhion, as judged by the
ele&ricity on the cufhion fide.
“ Hence it follows, that the internal furface of a cylin¬
der is fo far from being difpofed to give out ele£tricity
during the friction by which the external furface ac¬
quires it, that it even greedily attra£ls it.
“ 13. A plate of glafs was applied to the revolving
plate, and thruft under the cufhion in fuch a manner
as to fupply the place of the filk flap. It rendered the
electricity ftronger, and appears to be an improvement
of the plate machine; to be admitted if there were not
effential objections againft the machine itfelf.
“ 14. Twocufhions were then applied on the oppo¬
fite furfaces with their filk flaps, fo as to clafp the plate
between them. The eleCtricity was received from
both by applying the finger and thumb to the oppofite
furfaces of the plate. When the finger was advanced a
little towards its correfpondent cufliion, fo that its di-
ftance was lefs than between the thumb and its cufhion,
the finger received ftrong eleCtricity, and the thumb
none ; and, contrariwife, if the thumb were advanced
beyond the finger, it received all the eleCtricity, and
none pafled to the finger. This eleCtricity was not
ftronger than was produced by the good aCtion of one
cufhion applied fingly.
“ 15. The cufhion in experiment 12. gave moft eleCtri¬
city when the back furface was fupplied, provided that
furface was fuffered to retain its eleCtricity till the
rubbed furface had given out its eleCtricity.
“From the two laft paragraphs it appears, that no ad-No^atan-
vantage is gained by rubbing both furfaces; but that tage gained
a well managed friCtion on one furface will accumulate by rubbing
as much eleCtricity as the prefent methods of excitation lwo fides
feem capable of collecting ; but that, when the exci-
tation is weak, on account of the eleCtric matter not chine,
paffing with fufficient facility to the rubbed furface,
the friCtion enables the oppofite furface to attraCt or
receive it, and if it be fupplied, both furfaces will pafs
off in the pofitive ftate; and either furface will give out
more eleCtricity than is really induced upon it, becaufe
the eleCtricity of the oppofite furface forms a charge.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that I am fpeaking of
the faCts or effeCts produced by friCtion ; but how the
rubbing furfaces aCt upon each other to produce them,
whether by attraction or otherwife, we do not here en¬
quire.
“ It will hereafter be feen, that plate machines do not
colleCt more eleCtricity than cylinders (in the hands of
the eleCtrical operators of this metropolis) do with half
the rubbed furface; which is a corroboration of the in¬
ference here made.
“ 16. When a cylinder is weakly excited, the appear¬
ances mentioned (par. 8.) are more evident the more
rapid
Sea. IX. ELECT
Mifcella- rapid the turning. In this cafe, the avidity of the fur-
iicoiis i.x- pace 0f t].ie cyPmier beneath the fdk is partly fupplied
penn.tn . . £rom_tjlc ec]ge 0f t]le pjb, which throws back a broad
l6^ cafcade of fire, fometimes to the diilance of above 12
Velocity inches. From thefe caufes it is that there is a deter-
neceffary minate velocity of turning required to produce the
to produce maximum of intenfity in the condudtpr. The ftronger
d^rcTof^ t,ie exc*tat*on> tlie quicker may be the velocity; but it
-excitation. rarety exceeds five feet of the glafs to.pafs the culhion
in a fecond.
“ 17. If a piece of filk be applied to a cylinder, by
drawing down the ends fo that it may touch half the
circumference, and the cylinder be then turned and ex¬
cited by applying the amalgamed leather, it will be¬
come very greedy of ele£lricity during the time it paffes
under the filk. And if the entering furface of the
glafs be fupplied with eleflricity, it will give it out at
the other extremity of contaft ; that is to fay, if infu-
lated condu&ors be applied at the touching ends of the
filk, the one will give, and the other receive, elettricity,
until the intenfities of their oppofite ftates are as high
as the power of the apparatus can bring them ; and
thefe ftates will be inftantly reverfed by turning the cy¬
linder in the oppofite direction.
THow^to “ difcovery promifes to be of the greateft ufe
produce - in ele&rical experiments, becaufe it affords the means
both elec- of producing either the plus or minus ftates in one and
tricities m tbe fame conductor, and of inftantly repeating experi-
•eondudor ments w*t*1 e,t^er power, and without any change of po-
fition or adjuftment of the apparatus, it evidently de-
ferved the moft minute examination.
“ 18. There was little hope (par. 6.) that cufliions
could be difpenfed with. They were therefore added;
and it was then feen, that the eleftrified conduftors
were fupplied by the difference between the a&ion of
the cufhion which had the advantage of the filk, and
that which had not; fo that the naked face of the cy¬
linder was always in a ftrong ele&ric ftate. Methods
were ufed for taking off the preffure of the receiving
cufhion ; but the extremity of the filk, by the con-
ftruftion, not being immediately under that cufhion,
gave out large flafhes of ele&ricity with the power that
was ufed. Neither did it appear practicable to prefent;
a row of points or other apparatus to intercept the
eleCtricity which flew round the cylinder; becaufe
fuch an addition veould have materially diminifhed the
intenfity of the conductor, which in the ufual way was
fuch as to flafh into the air from rounded extremities
of four inches diameter, and made an inch and half ball
become luminous and blow like a point. But the
gr-eateft inconvenience was, that the two ftates with the
backward and forward turn were feldom equal; becaufe
the difpofition of the amalgam on the filk, produced by
applying the leather to the cylinder in one direction
of turning, was the reverfe of what muft take place
when the contrary operation was performed.
“ Notwithftanding all this, as the intenfity with the
two cufhions was fuch as moft operators would have
called ftrong, the method may be of ufe, and I ftill
mean to make more experiments when I get poffeflion
g of a very large machine which is now in hand,
tnproved “ 19. The more immediate advantage of this difcovery
method of is, that it fuggefted the idea of two fixed cufhions with
.citation. a moveable filk flap and rubber. Upon this principle,
which is fo Ample and obvious, that it is wonderful it
R I C I T Y. 501
fhould have been fo long overlooked, I have conftruAed Mifcelia-
a machine with one conduCIor, in which the two op- neo.us Eic*
pofite and equal ftates are produced by the fimplepro- Perim£litf'.
cefs of loofening the leather-rtibber, and letting it pafs J
round with the cylinder (to which it adheres) until it
arrives at the oppofite fide, where it is again faftened.
A w'iflt to avoid prolixity prevents my defcribing the
mechanifm by which it is let go and faftened in an in-
Jlant, at the fame time that the cufhion is made either
to prefs or is withdrawn, as occafion requires.
“ 20. Although the foregoing feries of experiments
naturally lead us to confider the filk as the chief agent
in excitation ; yet as this bufinefs wras Originally per¬
formed by a cuftiion only, it becomes an objeCt of en¬
quiry to determine what happens in this cafe. i(,
“ 2 £. The great Beccaria inferred, that in a fimple in what
cufhion, the line of fire, which is feen at the extremity manner ex~
of contaCt from which the furface of the glafs recedes, cirat'0:i is
confifls of returning eleCtricity ; and Dr Nooth ground-
ed his happy invention of the filk flap upon the fame rubber ^
fuppofition. The former afferts, that the lines of light without a,
both at the entering and departing parts of the furface
are abfolutely fimilar; and thence infers, that the cufhion
receives on the one fide, as it certainly does on the
other. I find, however, that the fact is direftly con¬
trary to this affertion ; and that the oppofite inference
ought to be made, as far as this indication can be reck»
oped conclufive: for the entering furface exhibits mapy
luminous' perpendiculars to the cufhion, and the de¬
parting furface exhibits a neat uniform line of lights
This circum tance, together with the confideration that
the line of light behind the filk in par. 8. could not
confift of returning eleftricity, fhowed the neceffity of
farther examination. I therefore applied the edge of.
the hand as a rubber, and by occafionally bringing for¬
ward the palm, I varied the quantity of eleCtricity which,
paffed near the departing fur face. When this was the
greateft, the fparks at the electrometer were the molt
numerous. But as the experiment was liable to the
objection that the rubbing furface wras variable, I pafted
a piece of leather upon a thin flat piece of wood, then
amalgamed its whole furface, and cut its extremity off
in a neat right line-clofe to the wood. This being ap¬
plied by the conftant aCtion of a fpring againft the cy¬
linder, produced a weak excitation; and the line where
the contaCt of the cylinder and leather ceafed (as abrupt¬
ly as poffible) exhibited a very narrow fringe of light..
Another piece of wmod was prepared of the fame width
as the re* ber, but one quarter of an inch thick, with,
its edges rounded, and its whole furface covered with
tin-foil. This was laid on the back of the rubber, and
was there held by a fmall fpring, in fuch a manner as
that it could be Aided onward, fo as occafionally to,
projeCt beyond the rubber, and cover the departing and
excited furface of the cylinder without touching it.
The fparks at the electrometer were four times as nu¬
merous when this metallic piece was thus projected
but no eleCtricity was obferved to pafs between it and
the cylinder. The metallic piece was then held in thet
hand to regulate its diftance from the giafs; and it wjas
found, that the fparks at the eleCtrometer increafed in.
number as it was brought nearer, until light appeared,
between the metal and the cylinder; at which time they
became fewer the nearer it was brought, and at fait
ceafed when it was in contaCh
«TLc
I C I T Y.
Sea. VIII.
of a 3-xnch ball in a fucceffion too quick to be count- Mifcdlane-
ed, and a ball of inch diameter was rendered lu- 0U5 Kx?eri-
minous, and produced a ftrong wind like apoint. A nients~
9-inch cylinder with an 8-inch cufhion occafioned fre- v -
quent flafhes from the round end of a conduftor 4 inches
diameter: with a ball of 24 inches diameter the flalhes
ceafed now and then, and it began to appear luminous:
502 E L E G T R
Mifcellane. The following conclufions appear to be deducible
ous Experi- from thefe experiments. 1. The line of light on a cy-
?nent*' Under departing from a Ample cuihion confilts of return-
168 *n£ ele&ricity: 2. The projeifting part of the cufliion
Conclufions compenfates the ele&ricity upon the cylinder, and by
from rhefe diminilhing its intenfity prevents its flriking back in
- experi- large quantities as it would otherwife do: 3. That
ments. j£- was no compenfation, very little of the a ball of i-j- inch diameter Srft gave the ufual flafhes,;
excited eleftricity would be carried off: And, 4. That then, by quicker turning, it became luminous with a
the compenfation is diminifhed, orthe intenfity increafed, bright fpeck moving about on its furface, while a con-
in an higher ratio than that of the diflance of the com- ftant ftream of air rufhed from it; and, lafily, when
penfating fubftance; becaufe if it were not, the eleftri- the intenfity was greateft, brufhes of a different kind
city which has been carried off from an indefinitely from the former appeared. Thefe were lefs luminous
fmall diftance, would never fly back from a greater di- but better defined in the branches ; many ftarted out
, fiance and form the edge of light. at once with a hoarfe found. They were reddifh at
How to in- “ 22- I hope the confiderable intenfity I fhall fpeak the ftem, fooner divided, and weregreenifh at the point
creafe the of will be an apology for defcribing the manner in next the ball, which was brafs. A ball of-/oths of an
intenfity of which I produce it. I wifh the theory of this very inch diameter was furrounded by a fteady faint light,
todr^ 0hfcure procefs were better known ; but no conjee- enveloping its exterior hemifphere, and fometimes a
degreed ture mine *s worth mentioning. The method is as flafh ftruck out at top. When the excitation was
follows : ftrongeft, a few flafhes ftruck out fideways. rr" " 1
“ Clean the cylinder, and wipe the filk.
Efferts of
diffc'ent
Greafe the cylinder by turning it againft a greafed
leather till it is uniformly obfeured. I ufe the tallow
of a candle.
“ Turn the cylinder till the filk flap has wiped off fo
much of the greafe as to render it femitranfparent.
“ Put fome amalgam on a piece of leather, and fpread
it well, fo that it may be uniformly bright. Apply
this _againft the turning cylinder. The friflion will
immediately increafe, and the leather mull not be re¬
moved until it ceafes to become greater.
“Remove the leather, and the adtion of the machine
will be very ftrong.
“ My rubber, as before obferved, confifts of the filk
flap palled to a leather, and the cufhion is preffed againfl
the filk by a flender fpiral fpring in the middle of its
back. The cufhion is loofely retained in a groove,
and refls againfl the fpring only, in fuch a manner that
by a fort of libration upon it as a fulcrum, it adapts it-
felf to all the irregularities of the cylinder, and never
fails to touch it in its whole length. There is no ad-
juftment to vary the preffure, becaufe the prefiure can¬
not be too fmall when the excitation is properly made.
Indeed, the adlual withdrawing of the Cuihion to the
diftance of ^th of an inch from the filk, as in par. 2.
will not materially affeft a good excitation.
“ The amalgam is that of Dr Higgins, conapofed of
zinc and mercury. If a little mercury be added to
melted zinc, it renders it eafily pulverable, and more
mercury may be added to the powder to make a very
foft amalgam. It is apt to cryflallize by repofe, Which
feems in fome meafure to be prevented by triturating it
with a fmall proportion of greafe ; and it is always of
advantage to triturate it before ufing.
“ Avery ftrong excitation may be produced by apply¬
ing the amalgamed leather to a clean cylinder with a
clean filk : but it foon goes off, and is not fo ftrong as
the foregoing, which lalts feveral days.
“ 23. Tq give fome diftindlive criterions by which
The ho¬
rizontal diameter of the light was longefl, and might
meafure one inch, the ftem of the ball being vertical.
“ This lafl phenomenon is fimilar to a natural event Surprifing
related by M. Loammi Baldwin*, who raifed an elec-appearance
trical kite in July 1771 during the approach of a fe-on raifuig
vere thunder-florm, and obferved himfelf to be fur-
eledtri-
rounded by a rare medium of fire, which as the cloud ^Memoin
rofe nearer the zenith, and the kite rofe higher, conti- 0fthc Jme-
nued to extend itfelf with fome gentle faint flafhes. rkan Aca-
Mr Baldwin felt no other effedl than a general weak-
nefs in his joints and limbs, and a kind of liftlefs feel-p° ’ ]
ing ; all which he obferves might poffibly be the effedl *
of furprife, though it was fufficient to difeourage him
from perfilling in any farther attempt at that time.
He therefore drew in his kite, and retired to a flrop
till the florm was over, and then went to his houfe,
where he found his parents and friends much more
furprifed than he had been himfelf; who, after expref-
fing their aflonifhment, informed him, that he appeared
to them (during the time he was railing the kite) to
be in the midfl X)f a large bright flame of fire, attended
with flafhings: and that they expedled every moment
to fee him Fall a facrifice to the flame. The fame was
obferved by fome of his neighbours, who lived near the
place where he flood.
‘‘ This fa£l is fimilar to another obferved by M. de
Sauflure on the Alps, and both are referable to my lu¬
minous ball with the fecond kind of brufh. The cloud
mull have been negative.
“With a 12-inch cylinder and rubber of 74- inches,
a five-inch ball gave frequent flafhes, upwards of [4
inches long, and fometimes a 6- inch bail would flafh.
I do not mention the long fpark, becaufe I was not
provided with a favourable apparatus for the two lar¬
ger cylinders. The 7-inch cylinder affords a fpark of
1 oj: inches at beft. The 9-inch cylinder, not having
its condudlor infulated on a fupport fufficiently high,
afforded flafhes to the table which w'as 14 inches di-
llant. And the 12-inch cylinder, being mounted on-
other eleftricians may determine whether the intenfity ly as a model or trial for conflrudling a larger appura-
they produce exceeds or falls fhort of that which this
method affords, I fhall mention a fewfafts.
“With a cylinder 7 inches diameter and cufhion 8
inches long, three brufhes at a time conftantly flew out
tus, is defe£tive in feveral refpe&s which I have not
thought fit to alter. When the five-inch ball gives
flafhes, the cylinder is enveloped on all fides with fire
which rufhes from the receiving part of the condudor.
4 1
*
Sea. IX. ELECT
Miftrliane-1 never ufe points, but in a fimple machine bring the
due i.xpen. tonciu<3;0r almott in contadl with the cylinder. In this
, apparatus that culhion to which the rubber is not ap-
j.j plied ferves that purpofe.
Ja * char- “ 24. Thefe marks exhibit the intenfity as deduced
ged by from Ample eleftrifying I will now mention the rate
them. 0f charging, which was nearly the fame in all the three
cylinders.
*• A large jar of 350 fquare inched, or near 2± fquare
feet, with an unc&ated varnilhed rim of more than four
inches in height, was made to explode fpontaneoufly
over the rim. The jar, when broken, proved to be
0.082 inches thick on an average ; and the number of
fquare fee* of the furface of the cylinder which was
rubbed to produce the charge of one foot, was, when
17S leaft, 18.03, and "heh moft, with good excitation,
i Mr Nichcl-19.34. The great machine at Haarlem charges a
t fm’s ma- Angle jar of one foot fquare by the fri&ion of 66.6
I chines f 1- fqt]are an(j charges its.battery of 225 fquare feet
I Van°Ma- at t^ie rate 9+'^ fquare feet rubbed for each foot,
rum’s The intenfity of eleftricity on the furface of the glafs is
therefore confiderably lefs than ^th of that here fpoken
of; but if w e take the moft favourable number 66.6 at
the commencement of turning, and halve it on account
of the unavoidable imperfeftion of a plate machine
(as fhown in par. 14.), it will be found, that the ma¬
nagement applied to that machine would caufe a cylin¬
der to charge one fquare foot by the fri&ion of 33^
fquare feet. It mull be obferved, however, that M.
Van Marum’s own machine, confifting of two plates
33 inches diameter, hag only half the intenfity, though
he reckons it a very good one.’ This machine is about
equal in abfolute power to ray 9-incficylinder, with its
fiiort rubber; but it is near 30 times as dear in price.
In all thefe deductions I omit the computations, for the
fake of brevity, and Ijecaufe they are eafily made. The
data are found in the defcription-of the Teylerian ma¬
chine, and its continuation publifhed at Haarlem in the
I74 years 1785 and 1787.
Gradual “ I {hall here take the liberty of ofcferving, that the
improve- aClion of the cylinder, by a fimple cufhion or the hand,
excitation w^‘c^‘ excited l^e aftonifhmen*: of all Europe, in the
memory of our cotemporaries, was firft improvsd by
the addition of a leathern flap ; then by moiftening the
rubber ; afterwards by applying the amalgam ; and,
la Illy, by the addition of a fiik flap. Now I find by
experiment, that we at prefent obtain upwards of 40
times the intenfity which the bare hand produces; and
confequently, that, fince 18 times our prefent intenfity
will equal the utmoft w'e can now condenfe on ftrong
glafs even in the form of a charge, we have a lefs ftep
to take before we arrive at that amazing power than
our immediate predeceffors have already made. My
9-inch cylinder, when.broken, proved to be of an inch
thick.
Difference “ 25. Some of the luminous appearances with balls in-
in the ap- the pofitive ftate, have been {lightly noticed as criteri-
pearance ofons 0f jntenfity. I {hail here add, that the efcape of
and*, e-a negat‘ve electricity from a ball is attended with the ap-
tive {parks, pearanceof'ftraight {harpfparkswith ahoarfe orchirping ■
noife. When the ball was lefs than two inches in dia¬
meter, it was ufually covered with Ihcrt flames of-this
kind, which were very numerous.
“ 26. When two equal balls were prefented to each
other, and one of them,was rendered ilrongly ppfitive,
R I C I T Y. 503
while the other remained in connection with the earth,Mifcellane-
the pofitive brufli or ramified fpark was feen to pafs ous ExPer>*
from the ele&rified ball: when the other ball was elec- .
trified negatively, and the ball, which before had been
pofitive, was conne&ed with the ground, the eleftricity
(palling the fame way according to Franklin) exhibi¬
ted the negative flame, or denfe, llraight, and more lu¬
minous fpark, from the negative ball; and when the
one ball was electrified plus and the other minus, the
figns of both^ledricities appeared. If the interval was
not too great, the long zig-zag fpark of the plus ball
ftruck the ftraight flame of the minus ball, ufually at
the diftahee of about -fd of the length of the latter
from its point, rendering the other yds very bright.
Sometimes, however, the pofitive fpark ftruck the ball
at a diftance from the negative flame. Thefe eflfe&s
are reprefented in Plate CLXXV1II. fig. 86, 87, 88.
“ 27. Two conductors of three-quarters of an inch
diameter, with fpherical ends of the fame diameter, were
laid parallel to each other, at the diftance of about two
inches, in fuch a manner as that the ends pointed in
oppofite directions, and were fix or eight inches afun-
der. Thefe, which may be diilinguifhed by the letters
P and Jlf, were fuccelfively electrified as the balls were
in the laft paragraph. When one conductor P was
pofitive, fig. 90. it exhibited the fpark of that eleftricity -
ar its extremity, and (truck the fide of the other con¬
ductor M. When the laft mentioned conductor M was
electrified negatively, fig. 89. the former being in its
turn connected with the earth, the fparks ceafed to
ftrike as before, and the extremity of the eleCtrified
conductor AT exhibited negative figns, and ftruck the
fide of the other conductor. And when one conduc¬
tor was eleCtrified />/us and the other minus, fig. 91. both
figns appeared at the fame time, and continual ftreams
of eleCtricity palled between the extremities of each
conductor to the fide of the other conductor dppofed
to it. In each of thefe three cafes, the current of
eleCtricity, on the hypothefis of a Angle fluid, paffed :
the fame way. ^
“ 28. Ir. drawing the long fpark. from a ball of four Of the dif¬
inches diameter, I found it of fome confequence,.that.P°fition
the ftem fhould not be too Ihort, becaufe the vicinity
of the large prime conduCtor altered the difpofition of ^idty6as"
the eleCtricity to efcape : I therefore-made a fet of ex-their items
periments, the refult of which {bowed, that the difpo-are long os.:
fition of balls to receive or emit eleCtricity is great-^ort‘
eft when they Hand remote from .other furfaces in
the fame ftate; and that between this greateft difi-
pofition in any ball,' whatever may be its diameter,
every pcffible lefs degree may be obtained by withdraw¬
ing the ball towards the broader or lefs. convex furface
out of which its ftem projects, until at length the ball,
being wholly deprefied beneath that furface, lofes the
difpofition entirely. From thefe experiments it fol¬
lows, that a variety of balls is unneceflary in eleCtri¬
city ; becaufe any fmall ball, if near the prime con-
dudtor, will be equivalent to a larger ball whofe ftem
is longer.
“ 29. From comparing fome experiments made by 0f
myfelf many years ago with the prefent fet, I con-tion of
fidered a point as a ball of an indefinitely fmall diame- points,
ter, and conftruCted an inftrument confifting of a brafs
ball of fix inches diameter, through the axis of which a
ftem, carrying a fine point, was fere wed. When this
ftenv.
504 E L E C T R
Mifcella- ftem is fixed in the prime condu£i;or, if the ball be
perimenu move^ on ,ts ax]S *n either diiedtion, it caufes the fine
i point either to protrude through a fmall hole in its ex¬
ternal furface, or to withdraw itfelf; becaufe by this
means the ball runs along the Item. The difpofition of
the point to tranfmit eleftricity may thus be made equal
to that of any ball whatever, from the minuteft fize to
•the diameter of fix inches. See fig. qz.A.
“ 30. The adlion of pointed bodies has been a fubjeft
of difcufiion ever fince it was firlt difcovered, and is not
yet well explained. To thofe who afcribe this effe&
to the figure of 'ele&ric atmofpheres, and their difpo-
fition to fly off, it may be anfwered, that they ought
firfl; to prove their exiftence, and then fhow why the
caufe which accumulated them does not prevent their
efcape ; not to mention the difficulty of explaining the
nature of negative atmofpheres. If thefe be fuppofed
to confiit of eledlrified air, it will not be eafy to fhow
why a current of air paffing near a prime condu&or
dots not deflroy its effedls. The opinion fupported
by the celebrated Volta and others, that a point is the
coating to an infinitely fmall plate of air, does not ap¬
pear better founded : for fuch a plate muft. be broken
through at a greater diftance only becaufe higher
charged; whence it would follow, that points fhould
not aft but at high intenfities. I muft likewife take
notice, as a proof that the charge has little to do here,
that if a ball be prefented to the prime conduftor, at
the fame time that a point proceeds from the oppofite
fide of the ball, the eleftricity will pafs by the point,
though it is obliged to go round the ball for that pur-
pofe; but it can hardly be doubted, that whatever
charge obtains in this cafe is on the furface of the ball
next the conduftor, and not on the remote fide to which
the eleftricity direfts its courfe.
“ 31. The pointed apparatus defcribed (par. 29.)
fhows that the efteft of points depends on the remote-
•nefs of their extremities from the other parts of the
conduftor. This leads to the following general
law: In any ekclrijiecl conduclor, the tranjhion or efcape
of electricity will he made chiefly from that part of the
furface which is the mojl remote from the natural fate.
Thus in the apparatus of the ball and Item, the
point having a communication with the reft of the
•whole conduftor, conftantly pofl’efles the fame inten-
fity; but the influence of the furrounding furface of
the ball diminifties its capacity. This diminution is
lefs the farther the ball is withdrawn, and confequent-
ly the point will really polfefs more eleftricity, and be
more difpofed to give it out when it is prominent than
when depreffed. The fame explanation ferves fi>r. ne¬
gative eleftricity.
“ 32. The effeft of a pofitive furface appears to ex¬
tend farther than that of a negative for the point
afts like a ball when confiderably more prominent if
it be pofitive than it will if negative.
“ For the fake of concifenefs, I pafs over many fafts
.which have prefented themfelves in the courfe of my
experiments on the two eleftricities, and content my-
felf with obferving, that there is fcarcely any experi¬
ment made with the pofitive power, which will not af¬
ford a refult worthy of notice, if repeated with the
negative.”
With regard to the direftion of the eleftric fluid,
we ihali only farther take notice of two experiments,
,N° 113-
I C I T Y. Sea. IX.
which have been thought to prove direftly the paf- Mifcella-
fage of the fluid outward from the pofitive and inward neo.us Ex'> I
to the negative fide of the phial. Fig. 18. reurefents ;
an eleftric jar, whofe exterior coating is made up of piate* ®
fmall pieces of tin-foil placed at a fmall diftance from CLXXIvJ
each other. This jar is to be charged in the ufual 178
manner, when fmall fparks of the eleftric fluid will pafs Conftruc- J
from one piece of tin-foil to the other, in various di- |
reftions, forming a very pleafing fpeftacle. The fe- courfe of
paration of the tin-foil is the caufe of this vifible paf- the ele&riq
fage of the fluid from the outfide to the table ; and the
experiment is fimilar in appearance to that of the fpiral
tube mentioned in the foregoing feftion. If the jar
be difcharged by bringing a pointed wire gradually
to the knob /, the unfealed part of the glafs between
the wire and knob will be agreeably illuminated with
a crackling noife of the fparks. If the jar be fud-
denly difcharged, the whole outfide will be illumina¬
ted. The jar, in this experiment, muft be very dry
when ufed.
Fig. 19. reprefents two jars, or Leyden phials, pla¬
ced one over the other, by which various experiments
may be made in order to elucidate the' common theory.
Bring the outfide coating of the bottle A in contaft
with the prime conduftor, and turn the machine till
the bottle is charged ; then place one ball of the dif-
charging rod Upon the coating of £, and with the
other touch the knob of the jar A, which will caufe
an explofion ; now place one ball of the difcharger on
the knob A, and bring the other ball to its coating,
and you have a fecond difcharge. Again, apply one
ball of the difcharger to the coating of B, and carry
the other to' the coating of A, and it will produce a
third difcharge. A fourth is obtained by applying
the difcharger from the coating of A to its knob.
The outer coating of the under jar communicating
with the infide of the under one, conveys the fluid
from the conduftor to the large jar, which is there¬
fore charged pofitively : the upper jar does not charge,
becaufe the infide cannot part with any of its eleftric
fluid ; but when a communication is formed from the
outlide of A to the infid£ of B, part of the fire on the
infide of A will be conveyed to the negative coating
of B> and the jar will be difcharged. The fecond ex-
plolion is occaiioned by the difcharge of the jar Ai
but as the outfide of this communicates, by conduc¬
ting fubftances, with the pofitive infide of the jar B,
if the ball of the difcharging rod remains for a little
time after the difcharge on the knob of A, part of the
fire of the infide of A will efcape, and be replaced by
an equal quantity on the outfide from the jar B, by
which means A is charged a fecond time ; the difcharge
of this prUduces the third, and of B the fourth ex¬
plofion.
Fig. 20. is an eleftric jar, which ferves to illuftrate
the contrary Hates of the fide of a Leyden phial while
charging. B B is the tin-foil coating ; C a Hand which
fupports the jar; D a focket of metal, carrying the
glafs rod E, a bent brafs wire pointed at each end,
and fixed at the end of the rod G ; which rod is move-
able in the fpring tube N at pleafure : that tube being
fixed by a focket on the top of the glafs rod E, the
jar is charged by the infide wire, which communicates
with the different divifions of the infide coating by ho¬
rizontal wires.
6
Place
eft. IX.
tm
th(
he variouf
kinds of ain
:th Dr
ELECT
Place tlie jar to the condu&or as ufual; and, when
charging, a luminous fpeck will appear upon the up¬
per .point of the wire aiF, clearly fhowing, according
to the commonly received opinion, that the point is
then receiving the ele&ric fluid. From the upper ring
of coating B, on the outfide of the jar, a fine ftream
or pencil of rays will at the fame time fly off, beauti¬
fully diverging from the lower point of the wire F u-
pon the bottom ring of the coating of the jar. When
the appearances ceafe, which they do when the jar is
charged, let a pointed wire be prefented towards.the
conductor : this will foon difcharge the jar filently ;
during which the point will be illuminated with .a
fmall fpark, while the upper point of the wire will
throw off a pencil of rays diverging towards the upper
i-ing of the coating.
We fhall conclude this feclion with an account of
fome effefts of the eledlrical fluid upon various elaftic
, vapours. Thefe were tried to the greateft advantage
by Dr Van Marum with the great machine already
Van, Ma- mentioned: and for this purpofe he ufed a cylindri-
*ledrifalCat receiver five inches long and an inch and a
machine, qnarter in diameter, into which different forts of- ela-
ftic fluids were fucceflively inferted, and were confined
by quickfilver or water. To a hole made in the bot¬
tom of the inverted glafs receiver an iron wire was
faflentd, the external part of which communicated
with a conductor, which being prefented to the prime
•condu&or of the machine, received the fparks from it.
In this difpofition of the apparatus it evidently ap¬
pears, that the fparks pafled through the elaftic fluid
contained in the receiver, by going from the inner ex¬
tremity of the wire to the quickfilver or water in which
the receiver was inverted. With this apparatus it was
found, that dephlogifticated air, obtained from mer¬
curial red precipitate, loft -r^th of its bulk ; but its qua¬
lity was not fenfibly altered, as it appeared from exa¬
mining it with the eudiometer. This experiment be¬
ing repeated when the receiver was inverted in lime-
water, and likewife in the infufion of tnrnfole, there
enfued no precipitation, no change of colour, nor any
phlogiftication of the air. On pouring out this air,
the ufual fmell of the ele&ric fluid was perceived very
fenfibly.
Nitrous air was diminifhed of more than the half of
its original bulk ; and in that diminifhed Hate, being
mixed with common air, it occafioned no red colour,
nor any fenfible diminution. Tt had loft its ufual
fmell, and it extinguifhed a candle. In palling the
fparks through the nitrous air, a powder is formed
on the furface of the quickfilver, which is a part of
that metallic fubftance difl'olved by the nitrous acid.
Inflammable air, obtained from iron and diluted vi¬
triolic acid, communicated a little rednefs to the tinc¬
ture of turnfole. The ftream of eleftric fluid through
this air appeared more red, and much larger, than in
common air, being every where furrounded by a faint
blue light.
The inflammable air, obtained from fpirit of wine
and vitriolic acid, was increafed to about three times
its original bulk, and loft a little of its inflammability.
Fixed air,f rom chalk and vitriolic acid, was a little
increafed in bulk by the a&ion of eledlricity; but it
was rendered lefs abforbable by water.
Vox,. VI. Part II.
R I C T I Y. 505
Vitriolic acid air, obtained from vitriolic acid and Mifcella-
charcoal, was diminifhed a little, and black fpots were neo.us £x'
formed on the infide of the glafs receiver. Afterwards periment8jj
it was obferved, that only one-eighth part of the eleftri-
fied elaftic fluid was abforbed by water. It extinguifh¬
ed a candle, and had very little fmell.
Marine acid air feemed to oppofe in great meafure
the paffage of the eleftric fluid ; fince the fparks
would not pafs through a greater length than 2 jth
inches of this air. It was confiderably diminifhed, but
the reft was readily abforbed by water.
Spathous air was neither diminiflred, nor any other
way fenfibly altered, by the ele&ric fparks.
Alkaline air, extra&ed from fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac, was at firft almoft doubled in bulk ; then it
was diminifhed a little ; after which it remained with¬
out any augmentation or diminution. It became mr*
abforbable by water, and by the conta&of flame it ex¬
ploded, like a mixture of inflammable air and a good
deal of common air.
Common air was laftly tried, and it was found to
give a little faint rednefs to the tinfture of turnfole ;
becoming at the fame time fenfibly phlogifticated.
The experiment was repeated thrice at different times,
and in each time after the electrization it was examin¬
ed by the admixture -of nitrous air in Mr Fontana’s
eudiometer, and it was compared with the fame air not
ele&rified ; the latter always fuffering the greateft di¬
minution. In the firft experiment the diminutions
were 4^4 and rii 5 >n t^e fecond, ai*d -f&u > an<i
in the la ft, and
On- attempting to repeat Mr Cavendifh’s experi¬
ment,* in which he produced the nitrous acid by a See Aro/a.
mixture of pure with phlogifticated air; inftead of zgy, a° 77*
fyphon, the Doctor made ufe of a glafs tube ^-th part
of an inch in diameter, clofed at one end, into which
an iron wire, -rf^th of an inch in diameter, had been in¬
ferted : into this tube, filled with mercury, and fixed
in a vertical pofition, was introduced the air with
which the experiment was to be tried. The dephlo-
gifticated air was obtained from red precipitate, and
Jiad been thoroughly purified by alkaline falls, from
any acid it might have contained. With a mixture of
5 parts of this and 3 of common air, the tube was
filled to the height of 3 incites, to which was
added -rTths of an inch of lixivium, of the fame kind
with that ufed by Mr Cavendifh. The refult was,
that, after tranfmitting through the tube a continued
ftream of the ele&rical fluid during 15 minutes, 2
inches of the air were abforbed by the lixivium : more
air being introduced into the tube till it was filled to the
height of 3 inches, when it was again eleftrified. This
procefs was repeated till 8|ths inches of air had been
ahforbed by the lixivium : this was now examined,
and found to be, in fome degree, impregnated with the
nitrous acid; but it was very far from being faturated.
With the farrfe lixivium, of which a quarter of an inch
remained in the tube, ritoM$eriment was continued
till 14 inches more of ai^iad been abforbed ; bur its
diminution was not perceived to decreafe, though the
lixivium had now abforbed 77 meafures of air, each
equal to its own ; whereas, in the experiment related
by Mr Cavendifti, only 38 meafures of air were ab¬
forbed by the alkali. But notwithftanding th;a
3 S greater
Our author then goes on to fome experiments
made by fuffering the electric fluid to pafs
continued ftream through various kinds of air, in-
506 ELECTRICITY. Sea.IX,
Mifce'.la- greater abforption, the lixivium was yet far from be- would abforb it; but upon being eledtrifled 15 mi- Mifcella-
reo.us Ex' ing faturated. nutes, the column rofe to the height of j^th inches. neou' Ex*
per.i.^ents, 'pjie experiment was repeated'with pure air, pro- It was fuffered to ftand in the tube till the next Perimei t8-1
duced by minium, moiftened with the vitriolic acid, day, when it was found to have funk to its original
and deprived of its'fixed air ; feven parts of this were dimenfions.
mixed with three of phlogifticated air. and lixivium add- Nitrous air, confined by lixivium, being electrified
ed to the height of-jth of an inch. Here, as in the for- during half an hour, loft 3 quarters of its bulk; the
mer experiment, the diminution continued without any lixivium appeared to have, abforbed a great deal of ni-
decreafe ; and the lixivium, after it had abforbed 22|th trous acid ; and the air remaining in the tube did not
inches, and confequently 178 times its own meafure feem to differ from common phlogifticated air. Some
of air, was very far from being faturated with the ni- of the fame nitrous air, confined by lixivium, was, by
trous acid. Handing 3 weeks, diminiftied to half its bulk, and this
On this Dr Van Marum wrote to Mr Cavendifh ; refiduum alfo proved to be phlogifticated air. Tims
and finding, by his anfwer, that this gentleman had eleftricity very fpeedily effeCIs that ffcparation of the
ufed pure air, obtained from a black powder produced nitrous acid from nitrous air, which isflowly produced
by lhaking mercury with lead, he requefted to. be in- by the lixivium alone.
formed of the procefs by which it is generated : but Inflammable air obtained from Iteel-filings and the
Mr Cavendifh, not choofing to communicate this at diluted vitriolic acid, being confined by an infufion of
prefent, he determined to defer the repetition of the turnfole, was electrified for 10 minutes without any
experiment till this ingenious philofopher flrall have change of colour in the infufion, or any alteration
publiihed his mode of obtaining the pure air ufed in the bulk of the air. The tube being filled with
the fame air to the heighth of 2 |- inches, and placed
in diluted vinegar of lead, was expofed to the electric
Itream during 12 minutes, in which time the inclofed
u air rofe to y inches; but the vinegar remained per^
clofed for this purpofe in the little glafs tube ufed fedtly clear. Three inches of inflammable air obtairi-
in thfe laft experiments. ed from a mixture of fpirits of wine with oil of viti iol,
Pure air obtained the week before from red preci- on being eleftriiied for 15 minutes, rofe to 10 inches;
pkate, being placed over mercury, and electrified for thus dilated, it loft all its inflammability, and when ni-
30 minutes, was diminiftied by ith, the furface of trous air was added, no diminution enlued.
the quickfilver foon began to be calcined, and to- A column of alkaline air obtained by heat from
wards the end of the experiment the glafs tube was fo fpirit of fal ammoniac, 3 inches high, was eleCtrified
lined with the calx as to ceafe to be tranfparent. By 4 minutes, and rofe to 6 inches, but did not rife high-
introducing a piece of iron, the eleCtric ftream was er when eleftrified 10 minutes longer. It appears that
made to pafs through the air without immediately this air is not expanded more by the powerful eleClric
touching the mercury ; yet this was equally calcined, ftream from this machine than by the common fpark.
This phenomenon the Do&or aferibes folely to the Water would not abforb this eledfiified air, which was
diffolution of the pure air, the principle of which in part inflammable.
unites itfelf with the metal; as in thefe experiments The tube, being filled to the height of an inch
the mercury had not acquired any fenfible heat. Two with fpirit of fal ammoniac, and inverted in mercury,
inches and 3 quarters of the fame kind of air being was electrified 4 minutes ; in which time the tube
placed over water, and eleCtrified in the fame manner was filled with 8 inches of air, which proved to be
during half an hour, loft a quarter of an inch ; and equally inflammable, and as little abforbed by water
being fuffered to ftand 12 hours in the tube, was as the alkaline air- Hence Dr Van Marum con¬
found to have loft -^th of an inch more. This was very jeCtures that this air is only the volatile alkali rendered
nearly the fame diminution of the air that had taken elaftic.
place when it was elcCfrified over mercury; but, in " The following experiment is very curious, and may
this cafe, the procefs appears to be more flow, and the ferve to illuftrate fome phenomena obferved in thunder- ^ur‘
detached principle not fo readily abforbed. The air ftorms. Two balloons, made of the allantoidesofawnh bri-
itmaining after thefe experiments, being tried by the calf, were filled with inflammable air, of which each loom fi!led
eudiometer, did not differ from unele&rified pure air contained about 2 cubic feet. To each of thefe was " '
taken from the fame receiver. fufpended, by a filken thread about 8 feet long, fucha
To determine whether the pure air retained any of weight as was juft fufficient to prevent it from rifing
the acid employed in its production, the DoCtor re- higher in the air; they were conneCted, the one with
peated the experiment with air obtained from red pre- the pofitive, the other with the negative conductor,
cipitate, confined by an infufion of turnfole, but could by fmall wires about 30 feet in length, and being kept
xvot perceive in it the leaft change of colour. He alfo near 20 feet afunder, were placed as far from the ma-
eleCtrified air obtained from minium and the vitriolic chine as the length of the wires Would admit. On
acid, placed over fome diluted vinegar of lead ; but this being eleCtrified, thefe balloons rofe up in the air as
was not rendered at all turbid. high as the wire allowed, attraCfed each other, and '
Three inches of phlogjfticated air being eleftrified, uniting as it were into one cloud, gently defeended.
during the firft 5 minutes were angmented to 3|-th The rifing of thefe artificial clouds is aferibed to the
Inches, and in the next 10 minutes to 3^th inches: expanfion of the air they contained, in confequence of
Line lixivium was then introduced to try whether this the rcpulfive force communicated to its particles by
elec-
ifc
Sea: IX. ELECT
Mifcella- 'eleftricity: when in contaft, their oppofite ele&rical
neous iix- p0wers dellroyed each other, and they recovered their
penments. ppecjgc gravJty by lofing the caufe of its diminution.
* In order to render this experiment more perfectly imi¬
tative, the Doftor fufpended to the balloon which was
connected with the negative conductor, a bladder filled
with a mixture of inflammable and atmofpherical air,
which, being kindled by the fpark that took place
on the union of thefe clouds, gave a confiderable ex-
plofion. From thefe experiments, the Dodtor ex¬
plains the fudden elevation of the clouds, and the vio¬
lent fhowers of rain and hail, which often accompany
thunder-ftorms.
Dr Prieft- t^ie courfe °f ^'s experiments upon air and elec-
ley’s txpe- trie fluid, Dr Prieftley found, that, by means of the
riments on fpark, he was able to turn vegetable blues to a red co-
* f* ^0Ur ’ t;hough we are not to imagine that this was any
trie fluid61"* indication of the acidity of the eledtric fluid, but mere-
on air. ty °f the decompofition of the air, and its converfion
into fixed air or aerial acid. The inftrument ufed in
this experiment is a glafs tube about 4 or 5 inches
long and 1 or-/^ths of an inch diameter in the infide;
a piece of .wire is put into one end of the tube, and
fixed there with cement; a brafs ball is placed on the
top of this wire; the lower part of the tube is to be
filled with water, tinged blue with a piece of turnfole
or archil. This is eafily effe&ed, by fetting the tube
in a vefiel of the tinged water, then placing it under a
receiver on the plate of the air-pump; exhauft the
receiver in part, and then, on letting in the air, the
tinged liquor will rife in the tube, and the elevation
will be in proportion to the accuracy of the vacuum ;
now take the tube and veffel from under the receiver,
and throw ftrong fparks on the brafs ball from the
prime conduftor.
When Dr Prieftely made this experiment, he per¬
ceived, that after the eledlric fpark had been taken
between the wire and the liquor about a minute, the
upper part of it began to look red ; in 2 minutes it
rvas manifeftly fo, and the red part did not readily mix
with the liquor. If the tube was inclined when the
fparks were taken, the rednefs extended twice as far
on the lower fide as on the upper. In proportion
as the liquor became red, it advanced nearer to the
wire, fo that the air in which the fparks were taken
w’as diminilhed ; the diameter amounted to about -i-th
of the whole fpace ; after which, a continuance of the
. electrification produced no feniible effcCf.
To determine whether the caufe of the change of
colour was in the air or in the eledric matter. Dr
Prieflley expanded the air in the tube by means of an
air-pump, till it expelled all the liquor, and admitted
frelh blue liquor in its place : but after this, eledrici-
ty produced no ienfible tffed on the air or on the
liquor; fo that it was clear, that the eledric matter
had decompofed the air, and made it depofit fome-
thing of an acid nature. The refult was the fame
with wires of different metals. It was alfirdhe fame
when, by means of a bent tube, the fpark was made
to pais from the liquor in one leg to the liquor in the
other. The air thus dimiinfhed was in the higheil de¬
gree noxious.
In palTing the eledric fpark through different
claftic fluids, it appears of different colours. In fix¬
ed air, the fpark is very white; in inflammable and
R 1 C I T Y.
alkaline air, it appears of a purple or red colour. Mifeelia-
From hence we may infer, that the condudinofneollii Ex'
power of thefe airs is different, and that fixed air is Penment^
a more perfed non-condudor than inflammable air.
The fpark was not vilible in air from a cauffic
alkali made by M. Lane, nor in air from fpirit of fait;
fo that they feem to be more perfed condudors
of eledricity than water or other fluid fubftances.
The eledric fpark, taken in any kind of oil, pro¬
duces inflammable air. Dr Prieftley tried it with
ether, oil of olives, oil of turpentine, and eficntial oil
of mint, taking the eLdric fpark in them without any
air to begin with; inflammable air was produced in
them all.
Dr Prieftley found, that on taking a fmall eledric
explofion for an hour, in the fpace of an inch of fix¬
ed air, confined in a glafs tube T^th of an inch di¬
ameter, when water was admitted to it, only ^th
of the air was imbibed. Probably the whole would
have been rendered immifcible in water, if the elec¬
trical operation had been continued a fufficient time.
The eledric fpark, when taken in alkaline air, ap¬
pears of a red colour; the eledric explofions, which
pafs through this air, increafe its bulk ; fo that, by
making about 200 explofions in a quantity of it, the
original quantity will be fometimes increafed ^th. If
water is admitted to this air, it wiilabforb the original
quantity, and leave about as much elaftic fluid as was
generated by the eledtricity, and this elaftic fluid is a
ftrong inflammable air.
Dr Prieftley found, when the eledric fpark was
taken in vitriolic acid air, that the infide of the tube
in which it was confined was covered with a blackifti
fubftance. He feems to think, that the whole of the
vitriolic acid air is convertible into this black matter,
not by means of any union which it forms with the
eledric fluid, but in confequence of the concuflion
given to it by the explofion ; and that, if it be the
calx of the metal which fupplied the phlogifton, it is
not to be diftinguifhed from what metal, or indeed
from what fubftance of any kind, the air had been ex-
traded.
Dr Prieftley made 150 explofions of a common jar
in about a quarter of an ounce meafure of vitriolic acid
air from copper, by which the bulk was diminiftied
about and the remainder feemingly not changed, be¬
ing all abforbed by water. In the courfe of this pro-
ceis, the air was carefully transferred three times from
one veffel to another; and the laft vefiel, in which the
explofions were made, was, to all appearance, as black
as the firft; fo that the air feems to be alb convertible
into this black fubftance.'
Thinking this diminution of the vitriolic acid air
might arife from its abforption by the cement with
which the glafs tubes employed in the laft experiment
were doled, he repeated it with the air from quickiil-
ver, in a glafs fyphon confined by quickfilver, and the
refult.was the fame.
That this matter comes from the vitriolic acid air
only, and not from any combination of the elec¬
tric matter with it, will appear from the following ex¬
periment.
He took the Ample eledric fpark from a conduc¬
tor of a moderate fize, for the fpace of 5 minutes
without interruption, in a quantity of vitriolic acid
3 S 2 air,
5^7
508 E L E C T E
Mifcella air, without producing any change in the infide of the
i eou< Ex- giapg . w}ien immediately after, making in it only two
; enments. eXpj0jjong 0f a common jar, each of which might be
produced in lefs than a quarter of a minute with the
fame machine in the fame ftate, the whole of the in¬
fide of the tube was completely covered with the black
matter. Now, had the ele&ric matter formed any
union with the air, and this black matter had been the
refult of that combination, all the difference that
would have arifen from the fimple fpark or the explo-
fion, could only have been a more gradual or a more
fudden formation of that matter.
A large phial, about an inch and a half wide, being
filled with this air, the explofipn of a very large jar,
containing more than 2 feet of coated furface, had no
effedt upon it; from which it ihould feem, that in thefe
cafes the force of the fhock was not able to give the
quantity of air fuch a concuffion as was neceffary to
decompofe any part of it.
He had generally made ufe of copper, but after¬
wards he procured this air from almoft every fub-
ftance from which it could be obtained; the eledtric
explofion taken in it produced the fame effedt. But as
fome of the experiments were attended with peculiar
circumftances, he briefly mentions them as follows.
When he endeavoured to get vitriolic acid air
from lead, putting a quantity of leaden fhot into a
phial containing oil of vitriol, and applying only the
ufual degree of heat, a confiderable quantity of heat
was produced ; but afterwards, though the heat was
increafed till the acid boiled, no more air could be got.
He imagined, therefore, that in this cafe the phlogifton
had in fadt been fupplied by fomething that had ad¬
hered to the fhot. However, in the air fo produced,
he took the eledlric explofion ; and in the firft quanti¬
ty he tried, a whitifh matter was produced, almoft
covering the infide of the tube ; but in the fucceeding
experiments, with air produced from the fame fhot or
from fomething adhering to it, there was lefs of the
whitifh matter ; and at laft nothing but black matter
was produced, as in all the other experiments. Wa¬
ter being admitted to this air, there remained a con¬
fiderable refiduum, which was very flightly inflam¬
mable.
Vitriolic acid air is eafily procured from fpirit of
wine, the mixture becoming black before any air is
yielded. The eledtric expiofion taken in this air alfo
produced the black matter.
The experiments made with ether feem to throw
moft light upon this fubjedt, as this air is as eafily pro¬
cured from ether as any other fubflance containing
phlogifton. In the air procured by ether the' eledtric
explofion tinged the glafs very black, more fo than in
any other experiment of the kind ; and when water
had abforbed what it could of this air, there was a re¬
fiduum in which a candle burned with a lambent blue
flame. But what was moft remarkable in this experi¬
ment was, that befides the oil of vitriol becoming very
black during the procefs, a black fubftance, and of a
thick confiftence, was formed, which fwam on the fur-
face of the acid.
It is very poffible, that the analyfis of this fub¬
ftance may be a means of throwing light upon the na¬
ture of the black matcer formed by electric explofions
I C T T Y. Sea. IX.
in vitriolic acid air, as they feem to refemble one ano- Methods of
ther very much. mcafuring
The eledlric fpark or explofion taken in common gcc ,c
air, confined by quickfilver in a glafs tube, covers the ■
infide of the tube with a black matter, which, when
heated, appears to be pure quickfilver. This, there¬
fore, may be the cafe with the black matter into which
he fuppofed the vitriolic acid air to be converted by
th^ fame procefs, though the effedt was much more
remarkable than in the common air. The explofion
will often produce the diminution of common air in
half the time that fimple fparks will do it, the ma¬
chine giving the fame quantity of fire in the fame
time : alfo, the blacknefs of the tube is much fooner
produced by the fhocks than by the fparks. When
the tube confiderably exceeds ^ths of an inch in
diameter, it will fometimes become very black, with¬
out any fenfible diminution of the quantity of
air.
Sect. X. Of the Methods of meafuring Electricity
both artificial and natural; of condenfmg and
doubling it,fo that the fmallefi Quantity may be
made perceptible; of dijiinguifhing the t-wo Kinds
of Electricity from one another^ &c.
We have already had occafion to mention, and in
part to explain, the inftruments for this purpofe named
electrometers. When the eledlricity is very evident,
many obvious contrivances may be fallen upon to deter¬
mine its quality and ftrength, when compared with that
of any other body eledlrified alfo to a confiderable de¬
gree. But in many cafes the quantity of eledb icity is
fo fmall that it does not difeover itfelf by any of the-
ordinary eledlrometers; and in others, though the
quantity be very great, yet we are deftitute of any pro¬
per itandard which might enable us to compare it with
another of apparently the fame height, or which might
determine the degrees of charge which the eledfrified
fubtlance progreffively receives.
In the former cafe, Dr Prieftley recommends a Angle f .
thread of filk as it comes from the worm; which being fffff
extremely light and flexible, very readily difeovers the ele<5trome-
eledlric properties of any body, by being firft attradfed ters.
and then repelled by it: and, as this fubftance at the
fame time has a power of retaining its eledlricity very
ftrongly, we have thus an opportunity of determining
whether the body from which it received the eiedlricity
was pofitive or negative. Even this eiedlrometer has
not been found to be endowed with all the fenfibility
to be wiftied for; fo that others have been contrived
which anfwer to a ftill greater degree of exadlnefs. For
ordinary purpofes the following inftruments are molt
commonly made ufe of.
Fig. 13. reprefents a (land fupporting the eledtro- piate
metfrrs Z).D, C C. B is the bafts of it, made of com-CLXXlV.
mon wood. A \% z pillar of wax, glafs, or baked
wood. To the top of the pillar, if it be of wax or
glafs, a circular piece of wood is fixed; but if the pil¬
lar be of baked wood, that may coirftitute the whole.
From this circular piece of wood proceed four arms of
glafs. or baked wood, fufpending at their ends four
eledtrometers, two of which DD are filk threads a-
bout eight inches long, fufpending each a fmall downy
feather
Sea.X. ELECT
Methods of feather at its end. The other two ele&rometers CC
rneafuring are tl10fe wJth very fmall balls of cork, or of the pith
^ec ncity, . an(j are conftracfe(l in the following
Y-—j manner, ab \%-& ilick of glafs about fix inches long,
covered with fealing-wax, and lhaped at top in u ring:
from the lower extremity of this Ilick proceed two tine
linen threads (k) cc about five inches long, each fuf-
pending a cork or pith-ball d about -g-th of an inch in
diameter. When this eledlrometer is not electrified,
the threads ce hang parallel to each other, and the
cork-balis are in contafl; but when eleftrified, they re¬
pel one another, as repreferited in the figure. When
it happens to be inconvenient to ufe the infulating
Hand B, the eleflrometers may be eafiiy fupported
by a glafs rod or tube.
pjare Another fpecies of the above electrometer is repre-
CLXXIV. fented in fig. 14. which confids of a linen thread, ha¬
ving at each end a fmall cork-ball. This electrometer
is fufpended by the middle of the thread on any con¬
ductor proper for the purpofe, and ferves to fhow the
kind and quantity of its eleCtricity.
Fig. 15. reprefents Mr Henly’s quadrant eleCtrome-
ter fixed upon a fmall Hand, from which it may be oc-
cafionally feparated and fixed upon the prime conduc¬
tor, or in any other place, at pleafure. This electro¬
meter confifts of a perpendicular Item formed at the
top like a ball, and furnilhed at its lower end with a
brafs ferule, by which it may be fixed in one of the
holes of the prime conductor, or in its proper fland, as
occafion requires. To the upper part of the Item or
pillar, a graduated ivory femicircle is fixed ; about the
middle of which is a brafs arm, which contains a pin,
or the fmall axis of the index. The index confilts of a
very flender Hick, which reaches from the centre of the
graduated femicircle to the brafs ferule, and at its lower
extremity is fattened a fmall cork-ball, nicely turned
in a lathe.
When this eleCtrometer is not eleCtrified, the index
hangs parallel to the pillar ; but when it is eleCtrified,
the index recedes more or lefs, according to the quan¬
tity of eleCtricity from the item. See FGDI, in
fig. 14. and cib in fig 6. both of which are new and
improved ways of applying it; by which the quantity
of the ihocks are regulated in the moil convenient man¬
ner, as will be more particularly explained under Me¬
dical Electricity, SeCt. XII.
Brookes’' ^8 16. and 17. reprefent an eleCtrometer nearly
eltdtrome- to th3* contrived by Mr Brooke. The twm
ter. inftruments are fometimes combined in one, or ufed fe-
parately, as in thefe figures. The arms .£’///£, fig. 17.
when in ufe, are to be placed as much as poffible out
of the atmofphere of a jar, battery, prime conductor,
&c. The arm FH and the ball K are made of copper,
and as light as pofiible. The divifions on the arm FH
are each of them exactly a grain. They are afeertained
at fir it by placing grain weights on a brafs ball which
is within the ball L (this ball is an exaCt counterba¬
lance to the arm FH and the ball K when the fmall
Hide on this arm is at the firft divifion) ; and then re¬
moving the Aide till it, together with the ball K, coun¬
terbalances the ball L and the weight laid on it.
H, fig. 16. is a dial-plate, divided into 90 equal parts.
R I C I T Y. 5o9
The index of this plate is carried once round, when the Methetfs of
arm has moved through 90 degrees, ora quarter raeati’riv8
of a circle. That motion is given to the index by the ^ rlCK}r,
repulfive power of the charge aCling between the ball ,
F) and the ball B *. ./>&/.«rra„.
The arm B C being repelled, fiiows when the charge voi. Ixxxii.
is increafing, and the arm FH (hows what this repul- P- 384*
five power is between two balls of this fize in grains,
according to the number the weight relts at when lifted
up by the repuliive power of the charge : at the fame
time the arm BC points out the number of degrees to
which the ball B is repelled; fo that, by repeated trials,
the number of degrees, anfwering to a given number of
grains, may be afeertained, and a table formed from
thefe experiments, by which means the eleCtrometer,
fig. 16. may be ufed without that of fig. 17.
Mr Brookes thinks, that no glafs charged (as we call
it) with eleCtricity, will bear a greater force than that
whofe repulfive power, between two balls of the fize he
ufed, is equal to 60 grains; that in very few inftances
it will Hand 60 grains weight; and he thinks it hazar¬
dous to go more than 45 grains.
Hence, by knowing the quantity of coated furface,
and the diameter of the balls, we may be enabled to
fay, fo much coated furface, with a repulfion between
balls of fo many grains, will melt a wire of fitch a fize,
or kill fitch an animal, &c.
Mr Brookes thinks, that he is not acquainted wittt
all the advantages of this eleCtrometer; but that it is
clear, it fpeaks a language which may be univerfally
underftood, which no other will do ; fbr though other
electrometers will fhow whether a charge is greater or
lefs, by an index being repelled to greater or finaller
dillances, or by the charge exploding at different di-
ftances, yet the power of the charge is by no means
afeertained : but this eleCtrometer fnows the force of
the repulfive power in grains; and the accuracy of the
inftrument is eafiiy proved, by placing the weights on
the internal ball, and feeing that they coincide with the
divifions on the arm FH, when the Hide is removed, to
them.
Mr Achard has ffiown clearly, that if the fcale of an
eleCtrometer is divided into equal parts (degrees for
example), the angle at which the index is held fufpend¬
ed by the eleCtric repulfion will not be a true meafure
of the repulfive force ; to eftimate which truly, he de-
monftrates that the arc of the eleCtrometer fhould be
divided according to a fcale of arcs, the tangents of
which are in arithmetical progreflion.
The eleCtrometer of which this is an imitation was
invented by Mr Brookes, and deferibed in his treatife
already quoted. An account of it is given in that
treatife, along with a very full reprefentation . of it by
plates ; but as thefe are fomewhat difficult to be under¬
flood, 'we muff for further particulars refer to the trea¬
tife itfelf. On this eleCtrometer, however, we muff
obferve, that it is conftruCted on the only true principle
on which machines for meafuring the quantity of elec*
tricity can be made. The mere attraction of any light
body fhows indeed that the fubftance which attrafts it
is eleCtrified; but this property is by no means calcu¬
lated to difeover the comparative ftrength of it, on ac-
(k.) Thefe threads Ihould be wetted in a weak folution of fait.
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. X.
>f count of its continual variation. Thus, if we hold any¬
body within the electrified atmofphere of another,
r’ though it be firjl attracted pretty Itrongly, yet that at-
ly, and thus deprive them in a moment of their elec- Methods of
tricity. To prevent this defeCt, and yet give them a
fufficient degree of motion, it is neceffary to ufe larger f
^traCtion will be conftantly diminifhing, and at laft glafles than thofe. that are generally applied to Mr Ca-
changed into a repulfive power ; but the latter, after it
has once taken place, continues invariable as long as
any degree of eleCtric charge remains.
The eleCtricity of the atmofphere particularly, has
engaged the attention of philofophers ; and by reafon
of its infinite variety, requires the molt delicate inft.ru-
ments to obferve its minutiae. Befides the kite former¬
ly defcribed, which was an invention of Dr Franklin’s,
Mr Cavallo has invented feveral others. Fig. 61. re-
prefents a portable atmofpherical electrometer, the
1S5
M. Sai f
proven,e
on this el
vallo’s eleCtrometer; two or three inches diameter will
be "found to anfwer the purpofe very well. But as it
is neceffary to carry off the eleCtricity which may be
communicated to the infide of the glafs, and thus be
confounded with that which belongs to thofe fubft^n-
cCs that are under examination ; four pieces of tin-foil
fhould be pafted on the infide of the glafs; the balls
fhould not be more than -jhjth of an inch diameter, fuf-
pended by filver wire, moving freely in' holes nicely
rounded. The bottom of the eleCtrometer fhould be
principal part of which is a glafs tube CD AIN, ce- of metal; for this renders it more eafy to derive them
mented at the bottom into the brafs piece AB, by
which part the inftrument is to be held when ufed for
the atmofphere ; and it alfo ferves to fcrew the inftru-
.ment into its brafs cafe ABO, fig. 69. The upper
of any acquired eleCtricity, by touching the bottom
and top at the fame time. jgg
This eleCtrometer may be ufed inftead of the con- Serves in-
denfer of M. Volta, by only placing it on a piece of ftead of M.
• ’ ’ > • ^ '•.V,; Volta’scon.
part of the tuf>e CD MN'is fhaped tapering to a fmall oiled filk, fomewhat larger than the bafe of the inftru-
extremity, which is entirely covered with fealing-
to this tapering part a fmall tube is cemented; the lower of the
extremity, being aifo covered with fealing-wax, pro- tact with the fubftance
jeCts a fmall way within the tube CDMN\ into this plored.
fmaller tube a wire is cemented, which with its under "
ment: but in this cafe it is the bafe and not the top
ftrument, which mult be brought into con-
hofc eleCtricity is to be ex-
By this inftrument, it is eafy to afeertain the degree Afcertains
extremity touches the flat piece of ivory H, fattened to of conducting power in any fubftance. For example, the conSuc-
the tube by means of a cork ; the upper extremity of if it is placed on an imperfeCt conductor, as dry wood ‘‘"g.Ppwer
or marble, and if the inftrument is eleCtrified ftrongly, f^ftance”1
and afterwards the top is touched, the eleCtricity will *
appear to be deftroyed; but on lifting up the inftrument
by the top, the balls will again open, becaufe the im-
the wire projeCts about a quarter of an inch above the
tube, and ferews into the brafs cap EF, which cap is
open at the bottom, and ferves to defend the waxed
part of the inftrument from the rain, &c.
/Tlfand isfiVare two narrow flips of tin-foil, ftuck perfeCf conductor formed with the bafe a kind of elec-
to the infide of the glafs CD AIN, and communicating trophorus, by which the eleCtric fluid was condenfed,
with the' brafs bottom AB. They ferve to convey and loft its tenfion, till the perfeCt conductor was fe-
that eleCtricity which, when the balls touch the glafs, is parated from the imperfeCt one ; whereas, if the con-
communicated to it, and being accumulated, might duCtor had been more perfeCt, it would have been de-
difturb the free motion of the balls.
To ufe this inftrument for artificial eleCtricity, elec¬
trify the brafs cap by an eleCtrified fubftance, and the
divergence or convergence of the balls of the eleCtro¬
meter, at the approach of an excited eleCtric, will ftrow
'the quality of the eleCtricity. The belt manner to
eleCtrify this inftrument is, to bring excited wax fo
near the cap that one or both of the corks may touch
the fide of the bottle CD AIN, after which they will
foon collapfe and appear uneleCtrified. If now the
wax i removed, they will again diverge, and remain
eleCtrified pofkively.
When this deCtrometer is to be ufed to try the
prived of its eleCtricity immediately on the application
of the hand.
It is eafy to difeover alfo, by this inftrument, the 0r their e-
eleCtricity of any fubftance, as of cloaths, hair of dif- kdtricity.
ferent animals, &c. For this purpofe, it mull be held
by the bafe, and the fubftance rubbed briikly (only
once) by the ball of the eleCtrometer; the kind of
eleCtricity may be afeertained in the ufual manner. It
is proper, however, to obferve here, that as the top of
the eleCtrometer ads in this cafe as an infulated rubber,
the eleCtricity it acquires is always contrary to that of '
the rubbed body.
in order to colleCt a great quantity of deCtricity How to
eleCtricity of the fogs, air, clouds, &c. the obferver is from the air, the electrometer is furnilhed with a point- coliedt t
to do nothing more than to unferew it from its cafe, ed wire 15 inches or two feet long, which unferews 8reat <luan-
and hold it by the bottom AB to prefent it to the air in three or fqiir pieces, to render the inftrument more
a little above his head, fo that he may conveniently fee portable ; lee fig. 62. When it rains or fnows, the Cai eiedtri-
the balk P, which will immediately diverge if there is imall cover, fig. 63. is to be fere wed on the top of city,
any eleCfricity ; i. e. whether pofitive or negative may the inftrument, as by this its infulation is prefevved,
be afeertained, by bringing an excited piece of fealing- notwuhftanding the rain.
wax or other eleCtric towards the brafs cap EF. 'i hisunttrument indicates not only the eleCtricity of0r
An improve'ment of Mr Cavallo’s elerftrometer has fogs, but th:it alfo of ftrene weather, and enables us ;errain the
been made by M. Sauffure. The principal circum- to difeover the kind of eleCtricity which reigns in the kind of it.
<• ft.ar.ces in which they differ are, 1. The fine wires' by atmolphcre : and to a certain degree to form an efti-
r* which the balls are fufpended, (hould not be long e- mate of its quantity, and tha; under two different
nough to reach the tin-foil which is palled on the in- points of view, the degree of inter,lity, and the dif-
fuk of the glafs; becaufe the eleCtricity, when ftrong, tame from the earth ?! v. o ch itfirftbegins to be lenfible.
will caufe them to touch this tin-foil tw'ice confecutive- A conductor exhibits figns of eleCtricity only when
1 'the
SedX. ELECTRIC ITY. 511
Methods of the eledtric fluid is more or lefs condenfed in the air le&ricity decreafed alfo in the fame proportion as the Methods <*f
meafann* than in the earth. Though the air refifts the paflage pofitive. The following table may therefore be con-
Rledricity, ^ eie(^rjc jt ;s not abfalutely impermeable fidered as giving a general, though not exaft, '^ea ^ nC‘ y>
  u  to it; it fuffers it to pafs gradually, and generally with of the increafe in force, which correfponds to dilfe-  y——>
j^j more cafe in proportion as its mafs or thicknef. is lefs. rent degrees of divergence in the .balls; it is only
How high It is therefore interefting to difcover at what height it calculated to every fourth of a line; the force of elec-
it is necef- js neceflary to be elevated, in order to find a fenlible tricity is always expreffed by whole numbers, as it
would be ridiculous to put a greater degree' of axaid-
^ndu&ors6 difference between the ele&ricity of the earth and that
in Her to °f the air. A very fenlihle difference may be generally
produce difcovered by this inftrument at the diilance of four
figns ofe- or five feet from the ground ; lometimes it may be feen
Je&ricity. •£ ^ inftrument is placed even on the ground, while
at others it muft be raifed feven or more feet before
the balls will open ; fometimes, though feldom. this
height is not fufiicient. This diftance is generally
greateft wdien the eleddricity is itrongeft, though ne-
ceffarily modified by a variety of circu.n(lances, fome
of which are known, as the degree of drynefs or humi¬
dity of the air, and others are unkown
The degree of intenfity, at a given height, may be
difcovered thus ; raife the electrometer, and judge by
the divifions which are placed on the edge thereof the
degree of their divergence. To find the relation be¬
tween this degree of divergence and the force of
the eleftricity, M. Sauffure took the following me¬
thod : As he could not with certainty double or triple
a given quantity of eleftricity ; yet as a given force
may be reduced one half, a fourth, or eighth, &c. by
dividing it between two equal and fimilar bodies, the
eleCtricity contained in one ; he took two of his un¬
armed electrometers, which were as fimilar as pofiible,
and eleCtrified one of them, fo that the balls feparated
precifely 6 lines: he then touched the top -thereof by
the top of that which was not eleCtrified ; in an inftant
the electricity was equally divided between them, as
was evident by the divergence of the halls, which was
4 lines in each ; confequently, a diminution of half the
denfity had only leflened the divergence one third. One
of thefe electrometers was then deprived of its eleCtri-
nefs in the numbers than is to be found in the experi¬
ments which form the baits of the calculation (l).
Diitance of the balls Correfponding forces
in fourths of a line. of eleCtricity.
!3
H
15
16
23
24
•4
17
29
32
36
40
44
48
5*
5^
60
64
Thofe who are defirous to carry this meafure of the
eleCtric force further, may do it by having fimilar e-
city, and was afterwards brought in contaCt, with the leftrometers conftruCted, but made upon a larger fcale,
other, as before; the remaining eleCtricity divided it- and with heavier balls, which would only feparate one
felf again between them, and the balls fell from 4 to line, with the degree of eleCtricity that makes the
28 lines, nearly in the fame proportion as before ; in fmaller ones diverge 6 lines ; thefe would confequently
the third operation they fell to 19; in the fourth to meafure a force 1024 times greater than that which
one, where he was obliged to flop, as there was not forms the unity of the preceding table; and thus by
now fufficient force in the fluid to pafs from one elec¬
trometer to the other, and diitribute itfelf uniformly
between them. The fame experiment repeated feveral
times gave very nearly the fame refults. Negative e-
degrees we may be enabled to difcover the ratio of the
(trongeft difcharge of a great battery, or perhaps even
of thunder itfelf, to that of a piece of amber, which only
attrads a bit of itraw or any other light fubttance. ( m ).
In
(l) M. Sauffurc, in a long note, anticipates the objections that may be made to the foregoing method of
eftimating the force of eleCtricity ; but as at the moil they only (how that this fcience is at prefent in a ftate of
confiderable imperfeCtion, it will be unneceflary to take notice of them here.
(m) The confideration of the repuliive force is not fufficient to difcover the abfolute force of an explofion or
eleCtrical difcharge : for M. Volta has (hown, that the force of a difcharge depends principally on the quan¬
tity of the eleCtric fluid which paffes from one body to another. Now the repulfive force of the eleCtrometer
only indicates the ratio of this quantity in equal and fimilar bodies, and which are alfo fimilarly fituated. If
equal quantities of the eleCtric fluid were imparted to two unequal and feparate conductors, the ekCtric fluid
being lefs condenfed on the largelt, would aCt with the lead force on the electrometer; though it is probable,
the force of the difcharge in the two conductors would be equal. The repulfive force ferves, however, to (how
what M. Volta calls the eletlrkal capacity of a body, the quantity of the eleCtric fluid it actually contains, or is
capable of containing. To effeCt this, and have points of comparifon, we (hould life light metallic balls, of'
different fixes, fufpended by filk thread. One of thefe balls, uneleCtrified, being brought into contaCt with the
fubitance -
512 E L E C T R
Methods of jn order to obferve the electricity of the atmo-
pleftridf fp^ere w’t*' t^'s >nftriiment> we nrutt firft bring the e-
&c. leitric fluid contained in the ele&rometer to the fame
• — degree of denfity with that at-the furface of the earth;
I92 this is eafily done by letting the bottom and top touch
fd°ve the t^ie groun^ at t^le ^ame time t^len ra’^e P°int>
ledtricity oi keeping the bottom ftill in contact with the ground,
the at mo- from whence it may be lifted up in a vertical polition
fphere. tjjj balls are level with the eye.
How to r^'^e fecond circdmtlance is to render the divergence
render of the balls, which is occafioned by the eletfricity of
the figns of the air, permanent. This is effedted by touching the
ek£triciry t0p Gf tjie deftrometer with the finger : but here the
trometeV^ acquired e> tiicity becomes contrary to that of the
permanent, body by which they are ele&riiied. Let us fuppofe,
for example, that the eledhometer is at five feet from
■the ground, and the balls diverging; touch the top of
the ele&rometer with the finger, and the balls will
clofe ; but they will again open if the eledirometer is
.withdrawn from the influence of the eledlricity of the
air, by being brought nearer the ground, or into the
hoOfe. M. Sauffure only employed this method
- when the eledtaicity was fo weak that he could not
perceive any until the eleftrometer was raifed con-
ilderably above his eye : as in this cafe he could not
perceive the divergence of the balls, he always endea¬
voured to obtain a permanent eledricity in the forego-
194 ing manner.
How to dif- To know whether the balls feparate with pofitive or
twoekd'f negalave eleftricity, bring a piece of excited wax gra¬
vities! C U" dually near the top of the eledrometer ; if the balls
feparate further on the approach of the wax, they are
negatively ele&rified, or of the fame nature with the
electricity of the wax; if on the other hand they come
nearer together on the approach of the wax, then the
ele&ricity is pofitive, or in a contrary ftate to that of
the wax. If glafs is ufed, the refults will be exactly
the reverfe of the preceding.
The following example will render the ufe of the
foregoing obfervatior.s more familiar. Choofe an open
fituation free from trees and houfes, ferew the con-
du&or on the top of the ele&rometer, lay hold of it
by its bafe, and place it fo that the bafe and conduc-
toi may touch the ground at the fame time; then ele¬
vate it "to the height of the eye, and obferve the quan¬
tity of lines, or fourths of a line, that the balls have
diverged ; now lower it till the balls almoft touch each
other, and obferve at what diftance the top of the
condudor is from the ground; and this is the height
from the ground at which the eledricity of the air
begins to be fenfible. If the eledricity of the air is
fufiiciently ftrong to make the balls diverge when it
N° 113. 5
I c I T Y. Seel. X.
Hands upon the ground, ©ne of the lengths of the elec- Methods of
trometer muft be unferewed from it. If the balls how- m,eaI'hir:S
ever ftill diverge, the other pails of the condudor ^ rlcIty»
ftiould alfo be unferewed, and you may mark down, y
that the eledri'eity is fenfible at zero, or on the furface
of the earth. If, on the contrary, the eledricity is fo
weak, as not to caufe the balls to diverge when they
are even with the eye, and canfequently when the con¬
dudor is two feet higher, or feven feet from the
ground, you fhould then raife it a foot higher; while
it is thus elevated, touch the top with the other hand;
when this hand is taken away, lower the eledrometer,
and if it is eledrified you may fay the eledricity is
fenfible at eight feet; if it is not, raife it as high as the
arm can reach, and repeat the fame operation ; if any
eledricity is found, write down eledricity fenfible at
nine feet ; if not, marko, or no eledricity relative to
this inftrument, and this mode of employing it; for
figns of eledricity may ftill be obtained, by throwing
a metallic ball 50 or 60 feet into the air, which is at
the fame time conneded with the eledrometer by a me¬
tallic thread.
One advantage of this inftrument is, that it will of¬
ten exhibit figns of eledricity when none can be ob¬
tained from a conJudor of 100 feet in height, be-
caufe it can more eafily be preferved from humidity,
&c. which deftroy the infulation of the large conduc-
tors.
Aerial eledricity varies according to the fituation; Obfervati-
it is generally ilrongeft in elevated and infulated fitua- ons on at-
tions, not to be obferved under trees, in ftreets, in hou- m< fpben-
fes, or any inclofed places; though it is fometimes to^t eiii
be found pretty ftrong on quays and bridges. It is al¬
fo not fo much the abfolute height of the places as
their fituation ; thus a projeding angle of a high hill
will often exhibit a ftronger eledricity than the plain
at the top of the hill, as there are fewer points in the
former to deprive the air of its eledricity.
The intenlity of the atmofpheric eledricity is varied
by a great many circumftances, fome of which may be
eafily accounted for, others with more difficulty.
When the weather is not ferene, it is impoffible to af-
fign any rule for their variation, as no regular corre-
fpondence can then be perceived with the different
hours of the day, nor with the various modifications of
the air. The reafon is evident ; when contrary and
variable winds reign at different heights, when clouds
are rolling over clouds, thefe winds and clouds, which
we cannot perceive by any exterior fign, influence how¬
ever the ftrata of air in which we make our experiments,
produce thefe changes of which we only fee the refult,
without being able to affign either the caufe or its
rela-
fubftance whofe eledricity is to be explored, will diminifn the tenfion or repulfive force of this fubftance ; and
the quantity diminifhed by the contad of the ball will give the ratio of the capacity of thi^ fubftance with that
of the ball. Let us fuppofe a Leyden phial uninfulated, but fo concealed, that only the knob is vifible, and
v/e are therefore ignorant of its fize, and the ftrength of the fhock it will give. Let the top of M. Sauf-
fure’s eledrometer be in contad with the knob of the bottle, and the balls of the eledrometer feparate 6 lines,
 from this folitary fad, we lhall gain no information relative to the force of the (hock ; becaufe, if the jar is
very large, this degree of tenfion will give a very painful fenfation ; when, if it is very fmall, with the fame in¬
dicated ten fion, the fenfation may be almoft imperceptible. But if we bring a ball of a foot diameter, in con¬
tad with the knob of the bottle, and after having thus taken a part of the fluid therefrom, the eledromerer is
po-ain put in contad with the knob thereof, the remaining quantity of repulfive force will (how the relation be¬
tween its contents and that of the globe of metal, and by this means the intenfity of its charge.
Sea. X.
EL ECTRICITY.
r'V' ods of relation. Thus, in ftormy weather, we fee the eketri-
’ '1I?8 city ftrong, then null, and in a moment after arife to
^ts former force ; one inftant pofitive, the next nega-
s --t— live, without being able to affign any reafon for thefe
changes. M. Sauffure fays, that he has feen, thefe
changes fucceed with fuch rapidity, that he had not
time to note them down.
5T3
ther remarkable, that raoft of the great colds, which Methods «.£
have been obferved at Geneva, were preceded by, or at m.ea^ui111^
leaft accompanied with, a little S. W. breeze. .llci:y,
From the firft 18 obfervations made during thefe
three days, when the Iky was quite ferene, we learn that. I9g
the ele&ricity was pretty ftrong at nine in the morn- Of the
ing ; that from thence it gradually diminillied till to-maximum
When rain falls without a ftorm, thefe changes are wards fix in the evening, which was its tirft minimum ; and n
not fo fudden ; they are, however, very irregular, par¬
ticularly -with refpeft to the intenfity of force; the
quality thereof is more conftatjt. Rain or fnow almoft
uniformly gives pofitive eleftricity.
In cloudy weather, without rain or ftorms, the e-
leftricity follows generally the fame laws as in ferene
weather.
Strong winds generally diminiih its intenfity ; they
mix together the different ftrata of the atmofphere,
and make them pafs fucceffively towards the ground,
and thus diftribute the electricity uniformly between
the earth and the air. M. Sauffure has obferved a time render them more uncertain,
ftrong eledtricity with a ftrong north wind.
The ftute of the air in which the eledlricity is
ftrongeft, is .foggy weather : this is always accompa¬
nied with eledlricity, except when the fog is going to
refolve into rain.
The moft interefting obfervations, and thofe which
cal flux and throw the greateft light upon the various modifications
fe^u\l>k °f eledlricity in our atmofphere, are thofe that are
196
A pei
th^eledri-nia^e 111 ferene weather. In winter (during which
city of the moft of M. Sauffure’s obfervations were made),
a "mo- and in ferene weather, the eledlricity was generally
fphere. weakeft in an evening, when the dew had fallen, until
the moment of the fun’s rifing : its intenfity after¬
wards augmented by degrees, fometimes fooner and
fometimes later ; but generally before noon, it attain-
after which it increafed again till eight, its feeond
maximum; from whence it again gradually declined till of the af¬
fix the next morning, which was the time of its fecond mofphere
minimum ; after which, it again increafed till ten in ofl tll*s oc*
the morning, which was the firft maximum of the fol-ca on‘
lowing day ; as this was cloudy, the eledlric periods
were not fo regular.
The eledtricity of ferene weather is much weaker In ElecTridty
fummer than in winter, which renders it more difficultwea;cer in
to obferve thefe gradations in fummer than in winter ; jhaifln'
befides a variety of accidental canfes, which at the fame winter,
time render them more uncertain. In general, in fum¬
mer, if the ground has been dry for fome days, and
the air is dry alfo, the eledlricity increafes from the
rifing of the fun till three or four in the afternoon,
when it is ftrongeft; it then diminifhes till the dew be¬
gins to fall, which again reanimates it ; tho’ after this
it declines, and is almgft extinguifhed during the night.
But the ferene days that fucceed rainy weather
in fummer, generally exhibit the fame diurnal pe¬
riods or ftates of eledlricity, as are to be obferved in
winter.
The air is invariably pofitive in ferene weather, both Air always
in winter and fummer, day and night, in the fun or in pofitively
the dew. It would feem, therefore, that the eledlricity ekdtrified.
of the air is eftentially pofitive ; and that whenever it ap¬
pears to be negative, in certain rains or in ftorms, it
ed a certain maximum, from whence it again declined, probably arifes from fome clouds, which have been ex-
till the fall of the dew, when it would be fometimes pofed to the preffure of the eledlric fluid contained in
ftronger than it had been during the whole day; .after
which, it would again gradually diminiflr during the
whole night; but it is never quite deftroyed, if the
weather is perfedlly ferene.
Atmofpherical eledlricity feems, therefore, like the
the upper part of the alm.ofphere, or to more elevated
clouds that have difeharged a part of their fluid upon
the earth, or upon other clouds.
In order to find out the caufe of thefe phasnome-
M. Sauflure inftituted a fet of experiments on e-
fea, to be fubjedl to a flux and reflux, which caufes it vaporation, avoiding the ufe of M. Volta’s conden-
197
M. Sauf-
to increafe and dim.inifh twice in 24 hours. The
ments of its greateft force are feme hours after the ri¬
fing and fetting of the fun ; thofe when it is weakelt,
precede the rifing and fetting thereof.
M. Sauflure has given an inftance of this periqf
die flux in eledlricity: On the 2 2d of February 1785,
fervanons (one Gf the coldeft days ever remembered at Geneva),
je&inan t^e hygrometer and thermometer were fufpended in
extraordi- ll16 °Pen a*r on 3 terrace expofed to the fouth-weft ;
nary de- the eledlrometer, from its iituation, indicated an elec-
£rff °f tricity equal to what it would have fhown if it had
' been placed on an open plain. The height of the ba¬
rometer was reduced to what it would have been if the
mercury had been conftantly at the temperature of 10
degrees of Reamur’s thermometer. The place of ob-
fervation was elevated 60 feet above the level of. the
lake. The obfeivations of the day preceding and fol-
lojj'ing this great cold were marked down by kim ;
becaufe it is pleafing to. have thefe which precede and
follow any Angular phenomena. There Was a weak
S. W. wind during the whole three days; and it is ra-
VOL.VI. Part II.
To produce a ftrong evaporation, he threw a mafs SauflTure’s
of red hot iron into a fmall quantity of water, which experi-
was contained in a coffee-pot with a large mouth, and ment' fo
fufpended by filk firings ; by this he obtained a ftrong tlTlTub?
pofitive elfftricity ; though, according to M. Volta’soAhephc-
fyftem, it ought to have been negative: the experi-nonunaof
ment was repeated Ceveral times, varying fome of the atm fthe-
circumftances, but the refult was always the fame. f1—1 elec"
As it was not eafy to think fo able a philofopher as nClty
M. Volta was deceived, it was neceffary to try the ex¬
periment in a manner more analogous to that of M.
Volta. A fmajl chafing-difh was therefore infulated
by filk cords, and the coffee-pot, with a fmall quan¬
tity of water, placed on it; ope eleftrometer was con-
netffed with the coffee-pot and another with the cha¬
fing-difh ; the fire was raifed by a pair of bellows •
when the water had boiled ftrongly for a few mi¬
nutes, both ek&rometers exhibited figns of elec¬
tricity, which, on examination, was found to be ne¬
gative; proving the truth of M. Volta’s experiment.
3 T The
514 ELECT
Methods of The evaporation produced by the effervefcence of iron
in the vitriolic acid, and by that of chalk in the fame
^e ncity, gave ajp0 nCgat;ve eleftricity.
1 It was now neceffary to inquire, why the vapour,
excited by the heated iron, produced pofitive eledtri-
city ; while that from boiling water in any other way
produced a negative electricity ?
Immenfe jyj Sauffure fufpe&ed, that the intenfity of heat
of eiedh-i- to which the water is expofed, by the contaS of a
city ex- body in a (late of incandefcence, was the caufe of the
tricated ele&ricity produced by its evaporation ; and that a
«uoes °&c comb'natI'on was then formed, by which a new quanti-
1 ty of the eleftric fluid was produced. This conjedture
may at firft fight feem improbable; but the quantity of
eleftricity produced by this experiment will aftonifh
thofe that repeat it: and this quantity is the more fur-
prifing, becaufe, if it is true, according to the fyftem
of M. Volta, that the waters abforb, while they are
forming a quantity of the eleftric fluid, there muft,
therefore, be enough developed in this experiment for
the formation of the great quantity of vapours produ¬
ced by the heated' iron, and afterwards a fufficient
quantity to eleftrify ftrongly the apparatus, and all
thefe vapours..
This experiment Ihows clearly the caufe of that
prodigious quantity of eleffricity which is unfolded
in the eruption of volcanos ; as it is probable that the
water in thefe, from many circumftances, acquires a
much greater degree of heat than is given to it in. our
403 experiments.
Pofitiye. To verify this conjefture, that it was in fome mea-
eleftncxty fure ^ combuftion of the water or the iron that pro-
duteFby^duced the pofitive eleftricity, it was proper to try whe-
the com- ther, by a regular moderation of the heat of the iron,
bullion of pofitive ele&ricity would always be obtained. This
X9U‘ was effayed in the following manner: A large iron
crucible, five inches high, four in diameter, and fix
lines thick, was heated red hot, then infulated ; after
which, fmall quantities of water were thrown into it,
each projection of the water cooling more and more
the crucible ; thus defcendingby degrees till there was
only fufficient heat to boil the water ; carefully obfer-
ving, and then deftroying, the eleCtricity produced
at each projection. The eleCtricity was always pofi¬
tive or null; at the firlt projections it was very ftrong;
it gradually diminilhed to the twelfth, when it was
fcarce fenfible, though always with a tendency to be
pofitive.
On repeating this experiment, and varying it in dif¬
ferent ways, a remarkable circumftance was obferved :
When a fmall quantity of water was thrown into the
crucible, the moment it was taken from the fire, while
it was of a pale red, approaching what is called the
■104 while heat> no eleftricity was obtained.
Water e- This fad feemed to have fome conneftion with an-
more^flow- other mentioned by Muffchenbroek, that water eva-
ly on a pprates more flowly on-a metal, or any other irtcande-
red hot *fcent body, than on the fame body, heated only a
metal than fmall degree above boiling water. To examine this
ieated to relation, and to find whether there was any between
a lefler de- the periods of evaporation and the production of elec-
gree. tricity, M. Sauffure made a great number of expe¬
riments, which are moft accurately deferibed in his
work ; but as the detail would be much too long, we
R I c I T Y. Sea. x;
lhall only prefent the reader with the heads thereof. Methods of
and a defeription of the apparatus.
The apparatus-confifted of a pot of clay, well ba-ncity^
ked or annealed, 15 lines thick and 4 inches diame-
ter ; this was infulated by a dry glafs goblet; upon _
this pot was placed the crucible, or any other heated Apparatus
fubllance on which the water was to be thrown, in or-for making
der to be reduced into vapour ; the crucible was con- t*ie experi-
tiguous to a wire connected with an eleCtrometer; a
meafure, containing 54 grains weight of diltilled wa¬
ter, was thrown upon the heated crucible : the time
employed in the evaporation thereof was obferved by a
fecond watch ; the eleCIricity produced by this evapo¬
ration was noted. When this meafure of water was re¬
duced into vapour, the eleCtricity of the apparatus is
deftroyed, and a frelh meafure of water is thrown into
the crucible, proceeding in the fame manner till the
crucible is almoff cold. 20s
The fitft experiment was with an iron crucible, from Experi-
which it was found that Muffchenbroek was not Wlt^'
right in faying that the evaporation was flowelt whenraJ^P*>a*
the iron was hotteft ; for at the inllant it was taken
from the fire, it required 19 feconds to evaporate the
water, and took more time till the third projection,
when it took 35 feconds, though from that pe¬
riod it employed lefs time, or in other words, the e-
vaporation accelerated in proportion as the iron cool¬
ed.
With refpeCt to the eleCtricity, it was at firft o,
then pofitive, afterwards negative, then o, and after¬
wards pofitive to the end of the experiment. The va¬
pour was not vifible till the 7th projection.
In the fecond experiment with the fame crucible,
though every endeavour was made ufe of to render
them as fimilar as poflible, the eleCtricity was conftant-
ly pofitive.
The third experiment was with a copper crucible :
here alfo the eleCtricity was pofitive; and the longed
time employed in evaporation was not the inftant of the
greateft heat. It was very curious to fee the water en¬
deavouring to gather itfelf into a globule, like mercury-
on glafs, to be fometimes immoveable, and then to turn
on itfelf horizontally, with great rapidity ; fometimes
throwing from fome of its points a little jet, accom¬
panied with an hilling noife.
The fourth experiment was with the fame crucible;
the eleCtricity was at firft. negative, then conftantly po¬
fitive.
The fifth was with a. crucible of pure filver: a
confiderable time was employed here in evaporatiag
the fame quantity of water ; even in the inftant of
the greateft heat it took 5 minutes 6 feconds ; the
eleCtricity was weak; three times np eleCtricity was
perceived; five times negative eleCtricity was difeo-
vered.
In a fixth experiment with the fame crucible, a
pofitive eleCtricity was obtained at the fecond pro¬
jection, after which none of any kind was perceived.
The feventh with the fame, gave at firft a ftrong ne¬
gative eleCtricity; the fecond and third projection gave
a weak pofitive eleCtricity.
The eighth was made with a porcelain cup: here the
evaporation was flower at the fecond than the firft pro¬
jection j but from this it took longer time till it was
3 cold*.
Sefl.X. '■£ L ' E C T
'Methods of cold, contrary ts wliat happened with the metals; the
tleftricity was always negative.
‘&.c. C The ninth and tenth experiments with the fame cup
produced limilar effe&s.
The eleventh experiment was with Jpirits of wine
in a filver crucible : there was no electricity produ¬
ced at the two firft projections, and what was _ after¬
wards obtained was negative.
Twelfth experiment with ether: here the eleCtricity
was alfo negative. Thefe two inflammable fluids, in
evaporating, followed the fame laws as water, being
dillipated at firft. molt rapidly in the greateft heat, af¬
terwards taking a longer and longer time before they
w'cre evaporated to a certain period, then employing
lefs time, or evaporating quicker, till the crucible was
nearly cold.
Now as china and filver always produced negative e-
leftricity, while iron and copper have generally given
pofitive eleftricity, we may conclude, that eleChicity
is pofitive with thofe bodies that are capable of de-
compofing water, or of being decompofed themfelves
by their contaft with the water; and negative with
407 t thofe which are not at all decompofed or altered.
®au.ffliTe 3 From hence M. Sauflure conjectures, that the elec*-
concerning tr*c may be looked upon as formed by the
the nature union of fire with fome unknown principle, perhaps a
cf the e- fluid analogous to inflammable air, but exceedingly
fldd*C more fubtle. This analogy feems to him fufficiently
proved by the inflammation of the eleCtric fluid, and
by the diminution of the air in which this inflamma¬
tion is made. Though many doubts have been at¬
tempted to be thrown on this inflammation, there
feems to be one reafon which forces us to admit it,
w-1 ich is the lofs of a quantity of this fluid at every
fpark ; we may diminifli at pleafure any quantity of
this fluid by taking a number of fparks from it.
From whence alfo it may be inferred, that a con-
fiderable quantity is deftroyed every day by thun-
408 der.
©onfequen- According to this fyftem, when the operation, which
of M. converts water into vapour, produces at the fame time
J a decompofition, it then generates the eleCtric fluid.
A part of this fluid combines itfelf immediately with
thefe vapours, and ferves even to form them. The
veficl in which this operation is performed, will ac¬
quire a pofitive eleCtricity, none at all, or a negative,
according as the quantity of the fluid generated is fu-
perior, equal, or inferior to that which the formation
of the vapour confumes. When no decompofition
accompanies the evaporation, the eleCtricity ought to
be conftantly negative, becaufe there is nothing to re¬
place the quantity of this fluid which is employed in
forming the vapour.
If in the foregoing experiments, thofe ,fubftances
which were fufceptible of calcination had conftantly
given a pofitive eleCtricity, and thofe which do not
calcine had always given the negative, every thing
would have been explained by thefe principles, and
they would thence have acquired a greater degree of
probability : but the phenomena have not always fol¬
lowed this law. We have feen iron and copper fome-
times give a negative eleCtricity, and filver the pofitive.
The firft cafe is not difficult to account for; it is well
known with what facility iron and‘copper calcine in a
brifk fire ; they become covered with a fcaly cruft.
Sauflure’
lyftem.
fobferva-
tions up-
R I C I T Y. 5,5
which is not fufceptible of any further alteration with Methods ot
the fame heat. If the bottom of the crucible acquires uwafiinng
this crufty coating, the drop of water placed thereon ^cearicltr*
will be no longer in contact: with a calcinable fub- -C‘ t
ftance ; there will be no farther decompolition, no ge¬
neration of the eleftric fluid : the vapours, however,
which are ftill formed, will abforb a part of the fluid
naturally contained in the apparatus, and this will
therefore be ele&rified negatively. If fome of the
feales fhould be fo far detached, that the water may
gain fome points of contaCt, the quantity thus gene¬
rated may compenfate for what is abforbed by the va¬
pours, and thus the eleClricity will be null. If more
are detached, it will fuperabound and be pofitive.
For the fame reafons, a large mafs of water, by at¬
tacking the iron in a greater number of points, always
gives pofitive ele&ricity ; and hence, alfo, a ftrong po¬
fitive eleClricity is obtained, by throwing a piece of red-
hot iron into a mafs of water.
It is not fo eafy to explain why filver gives fome-
times a pofitive eleCtricity, but by fuppofing it to have
been mixed with fome fubftances capable of calcina¬
tion ; and this the more, as the white porcelain always
gave negative eleCtricity. This fuppofition was veri¬
fied by fome fubfequent experiments, in which the
fame filver, when purified, always gave a negative elec¬
tricity.
M. Sauffure owns himfelf incapable of explain¬
ing why heated charcoal always gives negative elec¬
tricity ; unkfs it can be attributed to the prompti¬
tude with which fo rare a fubitauce lofes its heat by
the contaCt of water.
One faCt aftoniftied him, namely, that by combuf-No Ygns
tion properly fo called, although it is an evaporation, of eledtri-
nay, the higheft degree of evaporation, he never ob-city .to he
tained any ligns of eleCtricity, though he tried to °b-fr^ned
tain it in a variety of ways. Probably the currentco^t^
produced by the flame difperfes and diflipates theftion.
eleCtricity as foon as it is formed. The cafe, how¬
ever, muft not be looked upon as general, becaufe
M. Volta obtained figns of eleCtricity from bodies in
combuftion by means of his condenfer.
Another Angular faCt was, his not being able to
obtain eleCtricity without ebullition, though he en¬
deavoured to compenfate by the quantity of furface
for the quantity of vapours that were elevated by boil¬
ing water ; and indeed, the fame quantity of water,
if extended over too large a furface, will not give any
eleCtricity. 2Ir
But of all the inftruments by which it hath been Mr Beri-
attempted to meafure eleCtricity, none have been found net’s c!f<'3
to anfwer the purpofe equally well with that invented
by Mr Bennet, of which an account is given in the 6 Cn 6
77th volume of the Philofophical TranfaCtions, and
which is reprefented fig. 64. It confifts of two flips
of leaf gold, a a, fufpended in a glafs cylinder 6. The
foot r may be made of wood or metal, and the cap d
of metal; the latter being made flat at top for the
‘Convenience of putting any thing upon it that is to be
‘eleCtrified. The cap is about an inch wider than the
diameter of the glafs, and its rim about three quarters
of an inch broad, hanging parallel to the glafs to keep
it fufficiently infulated, and to turn ofl the rain.
Within -this is another circular rim about half as
broad as the former, lined with filk or velvet, fo that
3 T * it
5i6
ELECTRICITY. Sea. X.
Methods of j't may fce'made to fit tile outfide of the glafs exactly,
^learicif t^ie caP may ^afily taken off to repair any ac-
&c- nClty’ cident happening to the gold-leaf. From the centre
t*.!.'. ; of the cap hangs a tin tube fomewhat longer than the
depth of the inner rim, in which a fmall peg / is
placed, which may be taken out occafionally. To
this peg, which is rounded at one end and flat at the
other, two flips of leaf-gold are faftened with pafte,
gum-watef, or varfiifli. Thefe are about a fifth-part
of an inch broad, and two inches long, tapering to a
fliarp point- In one fide of the cap is a fmall tube g,
to place wires m: hh are two long pieces of tin-foil
faftened with varnifti on oppofite fides of the internal
furface of the glafs, where the leaf-gold may be ex-
pefted to ftrike, and in connexion with the foot.
The upper end of the glafs is covered and lined with
'fealing-wax as low as the outermoft rim, to make the
infulation more perfeft. An improvement on this e-
leftrometer is to make the cylinder pretty long, and
to have a fmall additional tube of gum-lac on the end
of it. The flips of tin-foil reach almoft to the edge
of the outer rim, and are fharp pointed at top ; widen¬
ing in the middle, and decreafing in breadth again as
they defcend.
Its extreme The fenfibility of this electrometer is extreme, as
fenfibility. appears from the following examples.
1. On putting powdered chalk into a pair of bel¬
lows, and blowing it upon the cap, the latter was e-
ledtrified politively when the nozzle of the bellows was
about fix inches from it; but at the diftance of three
feet from the nozzle, the fame ftream electrified it nega¬
tively. Thus it appears that the electricity may be chan¬
ged frompefitivetonegative from the merecircumftance
of the wider diffufion of this ftream of chalk in the air.
It may alfo be changed by placing a bunch of fine wire,
filk, or feathers, in the nozzle of the bellows; and it is
likewife negative when blown from a pair of bellows
without their iron-pipe, fo that it may come out in a lar¬
ger ftream : but this laft experiment was found to an-
fwer belt in wet weather. There is likewife a remark¬
able difference between the experiment in which the
eleCfricity is pofitive and that in which it is negative ;
the former being communicated with fome degree of
permanency to'the cap, fo that the gold-leaf continues
for fome time to diverge ; but the latter being only
momentary, and the gold-leaf collapfing as foon as the
cloud of chalk is difperfed. The reafon why the for¬
mer continues is, that the chalk fticks to the cap.
2. A piece of chalk drawn over a brufh, or pow¬
dered chalk put into the brufh, and projefted upon the
cap, elcftrifies it negatively ; but its eleCfricity is not
communicated.
3. Pbwdered chalk blown with the mouth or bel¬
lows from a metal plate placed Upon the cap, electri¬
fies it permanently pcfitive. Or if the chalk is. blown
from the plate, either infulated Or not, fo that the
powder may pafs over the cap, if not too far off, it is
alfo pofitive. Or if a brufh is placed upon the cap,
and a piece of chalk drawn over it, when the hand is
withdrawn, the leaf gold gradually opens with pofitive
tleftricity as the cloud of chalk difperfes.
4. Powdered chalk falling from one plate to ano¬
ther placed upon the inftrument, eleCfrifies it negative-
ty-'
Other methods of producing cledricity with chalk
and other powders have been tried; as projeding Methods of
chalk from a goofe wing, chalking the edges of books pie^u”nK
and clapping the book fuddenly together, alfo lifting ncuy»
the powder upon the cap ; all which eledrified it ne-   t
gatively : but the inftrument being placed in a dufty
road, and the duft ftruck up with a ftick near it, elec¬
trified it pofitively. Breaking the glafs-tear upon a
book eledrified it negatively, but when broken in wa¬
ter it did not eledrify it.
Wheat-flour and red-lead are ftrongly negative in
all cafes where the chalk is pofitive. The following
powders were like chalk : red ochre and yellow rofirt,
coal afhes, powdered crocus metallorum, aurum mo-
faicum, black-lead, lampblack (which was only fenfi-
ble in the two firft methods), powdered quick-lime,
umber, lapis calaminaris, Spanifh brown, powdered
fulphur, flowers of fulphur, iron-filings, ruft of iron,
fand. Rofin and chalk, feparately alike, were chan¬
ged by mixture ; this was often tried in dry weather,
but did not fucceed in damp : white lead alio fome-
times produced pofitive and fometimes negative electri¬
city when blown from a plate.
If a metal cup be placed upon the cap with a red-
hot coal in it, a fpoonful of water thrown in eleftrifies
the cap negatively ; and if a bent wire be placed in
the cap, with a piece of paper faftened to it to increafe
its furface, the pofitive eleftricity of the afeending
vapour may be tried by introducing the paper into it.
Perhaps the eledfrifieation of Fogs and rain is well illu-
ftrated by pouring water through an infulated cullen¬
der, containing hot coals, where the afeending vapour
is pofitive and falling drops negative.
The fenfibility of this ele&rometer may be confider- OonMer-
ably increafed by placing a candle upon the cap. By ably au^-
this means, a cloud of chalk, which in the other cafe mented by >
only juft opens the leaf-gold, will caufe it to ftrlke the a
fides for a long time Together; and the ele&ricity, c^rujie>
which Was not before communicated, now paffes into
the electrometer, caufing the leaf-gold to repel after
it is carried away. Even fealing-wax by this means
communicates its ele&ricity at the diftance of 12
inches at leaft, which it would fcarcely otherwife do
by rubbing upon the cap.
A cloud of chalk or wheat flower may be made in
One room, and the electrometer with its candle be af¬
terwards leifurely brought from another room, and the
cloud will eledtrify it before it comes very near. The
air of a room adjoining to that wherein the eleCtrical
machine was ufed, was very fenfibly eleCtrified, which
was perceived by carrying the inftrument through it
with its candle.
In very clear weather, when no clouds were vifible, applies,
the eleCtrometer has been often applied to the infiria-tion to e-
ted firing of kites without metal, and their pofitive lyrical
eleftricity caufed the leaf-gold to ftrike the fides ; but^68*
when a kite was raifed in cloudy weather with a'wire
in the firing, and when it gave fparks about a quarter
of an inch long, the eleCtricity was fenfible by the e-
leCtrometer at the diftance of ten yards or more from
the firing; but when placed at the diftance of fix feCt,
the leaf-gold continued to (frike the fides of the elec¬
trometer for more than an hour together, with a velo¬
city increafing and decreafing with the denfity or di¬
ftance of the unequal clouds which palled over.
Sometimes the eleCtricity of an approaching cloud
has
Sea.X. ELECT
Methods of has been fenfible without a kite, though in a very tm-
favourable fituation for it, being in a town furrounded
1 1 with hills, and where buildings encompaffed the wall
w—^ on which the ele&rometer was placed. A thunder¬
cloud palling over, caufed the leaf-gold to ftrike the
215 fides of the glafs very quick at each flafh of lightning.
Other ex- No fenfible electricity is produced by blowing pure
penments, ajr> proje£ting water, by fmoke, flame, or explofions
thereat of gunpowder.
fenfibility A book was placed upon the cap, and ftruck with
of this e- fiik, linen, woollen, cotton, parchment, and paper,
ledrome- all which produced negative repulfion ; but when the
other fide of the book was ftruck with filk, it became
pofitive ; this fide, ftruck at right angles with the
former, was again negative; and by continuing the
ftrokes which produced pofitive, it changed to nega¬
tive for a little while ; and, by flopping again, became
pofitive. No other book would do the fame, though
the fides were fcraped unchalked, upon a fuppofition
that altering the furface would produce it. At laft,
one fide of a book was moiftened, which changed it;
whence it was concluded, that one edge of the book
had lain in a damp place ; which conjeCture was far¬
ther confirmed by all the books becoming pofitive in
damp weather, and one of them being dried at the fire
again became negative.
When the cap is approached with excited fealing-
wax, the leaf-gold may be made to ftrike the fides pf
the glafs more than twelve times; and as the fealing-
wax recedes, it ftrikes nearly as often ; but if it ap¬
proaches much quicker than it recedes, the fecond
number will fometimes be greater.
The quantity of ele&ricity neceffary to caufe a re¬
pulfion of the leaf-gold is fo fmall, that the fharpeft
point or edges do not draw it off without touching;
hence it is unneceffary to avoid points or edges in the
conftruftion of this inftrument.
To the experiments on blowing powders from a pair
of bellows it may be added, that if the powder is
blown at about the diftance of three inches upon a plate
which is moiftened or oiled, its ele&ricity is contrary to
that produced by blowing upon a dry plate. This ftiows
that the eledfricity of the ftreams of powder iffuing
out of the bellows is only contrary to the more ex¬
panded part, becaufe it is within the influence of its
atmofphere ; for when this is deftroytd by the adhefion
of the powder to the moiftened plate, it is negative
when the bellows are pofitive, as it was before pofitive
aig when the more expanded cloud was negative. The
How to experiments on evaporation of water may be tried
make expe- with more eafe and certainty of fuccefs by heating the
the eva o" ^rna^ end of a tobacco-pipe, and pouring water into
radon cf° head; which running down to the heated part, is
water. fuddenly expanded, and will ftiow its electricity when
projected upon the cap of the eledtrometer more fenfi-
bly than any other way that has been tried. If the
pipe be fixed in a cloven ftick, and placed in the cap
of one eledtrometei whilft the fleam is projedted upon
another, it produces both eledtricities at once. Spirit
ef wine and ether are eledtrified like water. Oil and
vitriolic acid produced fmeke without any change of
eledtricity. In thefe experiments a long pipe is better
than a fhort one.
Befides thefe inftruments, there are feveral others in¬
vented by Mr Cavallo which anfwer the purgofe of obfer-
R 1 c I t Y. 5,7
ving the eledti icity of the atmofphere extremely well, Method* of
tho’ not with fuch great accuracy as that juft now de- msafuring
feribed ; and of which he gives the following account. 1^6trlcnY’
, “ Fig. 67. reprefents a very iimple inftrument forma- ^ ^
king experiments on the eledlricity of the atmofphere; 21-3
and which, on feveral accounts, feems to be the moft iV[r paval-
proper for that purpofe. SJ H is a common jointed
fifhing-rod, without the laft or fmalleft joint. From obfervir.^
the extremity of this rod proceeds a flender glafs tube the eledlri-
C, covered with fealing-wax, and having a cork D atcity hi*
its end, from which a pith ball eledhometer is fufpend-£T0"
ed. H GI is a piece of twine faltened to the other ^ Cre"
extremity of the rod, and fupported at G by a fmall
ft ring F G. At the end (/) of the twine a pin is fa¬
ttened; which when puftied into the cork £>, renders
the electrometer F uninfulated. When I‘ would ob-
ferve the eleftricity of the atmofphere with this inilru-
ment, I thruft the pin (/) into the cork Z>; and holding
the rod by its lower end project it out from a win¬
dow in the upper part of the houfe, into the air, rai-
fing the end of the rod with the ele&rometer, fo as to
make an angle of about 50° or 6p° with the horizon.
In this fituation I keep the inftrument for a few fe-
conds ; and then pulling the twine at B, the pin is
difengaged from the cork I) : which operation caufes
the firing to drop in the dotted fituation KL, and
leaves the ele&rometer infulated, and eleftrified with
an ele&ricity contrary to that of the atmofphere. This
done, I draw the eledirometer into the room ; and ex¬
amine the quality of the elediricity without obftrudtion
either from wind Or darknefs. With this inftrument
I have made obfervatious on the elediricity of the at¬
mofphere feveral times in a day for feveral months.”
His eledirometer for rain is fhown Plate CLXXVII. His elec-
fig. 70. and of this he gives the following defeription. trometer
“ A B CI is a ftrong glafs tube about two feet and afor raitu-
half long, having a tin funnel D E cemented to its ex¬
tremity, which funnel defends part of the tube from the
rain. The outfide furface of the tube from A to B is
covered with fealing-wax; fo alfo is the part of it which
is covered by the funnel. FD is a piece of cane, round
which brafs wires are twitted in different diredliotvs, fo
as to catch the rain eafily, and at the fame time to
make no refiftance to the wind. This piece of cane is
fixed into the tube; and a flender wire proceeding from
it goes, through the bore of the tube, and communi¬
cates with the ftrong wire A G, which is thruft into a
piece of cork fattened to the end A of the tube. The
end G of the wire ^ G is formed in a ring, from which
I fufpend a more or lefs fenfible pith-ball eledirometer
as occafion requires. This inftrument is fattened to the
fide of the window-frame, where it is fupported by
ftrong brafs hooks at CB; which part of the tube is
covered with a filk lace, in order to adapt it better to
the hooks. The part F C is out of the window, with
the end /'elevated a little above the horizon. The re¬
maining part of the inftrument comes through a hole
in one of the lights of the fafli within the room, and
no more of it touches the fide of the window than the
part CB. When it rains, efpecially in palling (bowers,
this inftrument, (landing in the fituation above deferi-
bed, is frequently eledtrified ; and, by the diverging
of the eledirometer, the quantity and quality of the
elediricity of the rain may be obferved without any.
danger of a midake. With.this mftrument I have ob-
fervedi.
ELECTRIC/IT */. St&X.
is generaHy-, though not alwayn, tricky, till it became fufficient to affeift an eleftrdme* Merhods of
$ 1*8
Method* of ferved, that the
I'kdtndt” e^e<^r^ie^ negatively; and fometimes fo ftrongly, that
tir nCUy’ I have been able to charge a fmall coat-ed phial at the
sip
All the!
merits u
perfect.
charge a fmall coat-ed phial at the
wire si G. This inftrument (hould be fixed in fuch a
manner that it may be eafily taken off from the window
and replaced again as occafion requires; fpr it will be
neceffary to clean it very often, particularly when a
fiiower of rain is approaching.”
Notwithstanding the great accuracy of thefe inftru-
i- ments, however, there are Hill many degrees of elec¬
tricity too fmall to be obferved by any of them.
ter, to give fparks,-&c. The merit of this invention nieafuri!3£
is certainly confiderable; but the ufe of it is far from ^<ftncny»
precife and certain. ,
“ This apparatus corififls of three brafs plates, which
we fhall call ^,'5, and C ; each of which is about three
or four inches in diameter. The firft plated is placed
upon the gold-leaf eledtrometer, or it may be fupport-
ed horizontally by any other infulating Hand, and it*
upper part only is thinly vamifiied. The fecond plate
i? is varnhhed on both fides, and is furnifhed with a
To be able to colleft thefe, it is neceflary to have infulating handle, which is faftened laterally to the edge
one capable of retaining the eleftricity it receives of it. The third plate C is varniflied on the under fide
for a confiderable time, and of allowing it to ac- only, and is furnifhed with an infulatine-handle, which
cumulate till it becomes capable of being meafured is perpendicular to its upper furface.
by fome 'bf the common methods. Upon inllru-
ments of this kind Mr Cavallo gives the following dif-
Mr Caval-
lo’s dilTer-
•‘1 his apparatus is ufed in the following manner. The
plate B being laid upon the plate ji, the fmall quan»
tity of eleftricity, which is required to be multiplied,
‘ Befides the way of afeertaining fmall quantities of is communicated to the under part of the plate and
fertation.
at the fame time the upper part of B is touched with
a finger ; then the finger is firft. removed ; the plate B
is afterwards removed from over the plate B. The
  1 -j   n J   r. ,
•ele&ricity by means of very delicate electrometers, two
rneafuring .methods have been Communicated to the philofophical
fmall <fe- world, by which fuch quantities of electricity may be
'°^t J‘enc^ere<i man'^eh; as could not be perceived by other plate C is now laid upon.fi, and its upper furface h
e nci ^ means. The firft of thofe methods is an invention of touched, for alhort time, with a finger. By this ope-
M. Volta, the apparatus for it being called the conden- 'f •* •4'"* ;f  - J
fer of eleBricity, and is deferibed in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, Vol. LXXII. The fecond is a contri¬
vance of the above-mentioned Mr Bennet, who calls
-the apparatus the doubler of eleBricity. A defeription
of it is inferted in the Philofophical TranfaCtions,
Mr Vol. LXXVII.
Volta’s M. Volta’s condenfer cOnfifts of a flat and fmooth
clear, that if the ele&ricity communicated
to the plate B is pofitive, the plate B muft have acquired
a negative eletftricky, and the plate C muft have ac¬
quired the pofitive, viz. the fame of the plate J. Now
the plate B, being feparated from C, is laid as before
upon si; the edge of C is brought into contaft with
the under part of the plate si, and at the fame time
the upper part of B is touched with a finger; by which
condenfer. metal plate,'furnilhed with an infulating handle, and means the plate jfi, being afted upon by the atmofpheres
o 0f ^oth the plates si and C, will acquire nearly twice
as much eleftricity as it did the firft time, and of courfe
will render the plate C, when that is laid upon it, pro*
portionably more electrified than before : thus, by re-
a femicondu&ing, or imperfeftly infulating, plane.
■ When one wifties to examine a weak eleftricity with
; this apparatus, as that of the air in calm arid hot
■weather, which is not generally fenfible to an ele&ro-
meter, he muft place the above-mentioned plate uponthe peating this operation, the eleftricity may be increafed
femicondu&ing plane, and a wire, orfome other conduCf- to any required degree.
ing fubftance, muft be connected with the metal plate,
and muft be extended in the open air, fo as to abforb
its eleftricity; then, after a certain time, the metal
..plate muft be feparated from the femicondu&ing plane ;
and being prefented to an eledrometer, will ele&rify it
much more than if it had not been placed upon the
above-mentioned plane.
“ The principle on which the aftion of this appa¬
ratus depends is, that the metal plate, whilft {landing
contiguous to the femicondu&ing plane, will both ab-
“ The varnifli on thofe furfaces of the plates which
are to lie contiguous to each other, ferves to prevent the
metal of one touching the metal of the other; for in
that cafe, inftead of one plate caufing a contrary elec¬
tricity in the other, the ele&ricity of the firft would
be gradually communicated to the others, and would be
diffipated.
“ As foon as J underftood the principle of this con¬
trivance, I haflened to conftrud fuch an apparatus, in
order to try feveral experiments of a very delicate na-
forb and retain a much greater quantity of ele&ricity ture, efpecially on animal bodies and vegetables, which
than it can either abforb or retain when feparate, its could not have been attempted before, for want of
-capacity being increafed in the former and diminiflied
in the latter cafe.
“ Whoever confiders this apparatus, will eafily find,
method of afeertaining exceedingly fmall quantities of
electricity ; but after a great deal of trouble, and ma-
. ny experiments, I was at laft forced to conclude, that
that its office is not to manifeft a fmall quantity of the doubler of eleftricity is not an inftrument to be de-
ele&ricity, but to condenfe an expanded quantity of pended upon, for this principal reafon, viz. becaufe it
eleCtricity into a fmall fpace : hence, if by means of multiplies not only the eleCtricity which is willingly
-this apparatus one expeCted to render more manifeft communicated to it from the fubftance in queftion ;
.. n„ ...i  : ._.i but it multiplies alfo that eleCtrieity which in the courfe
of the operation is almoft unavoidably produced by ac-
of a hair when rubbed, he would find himfelf cidental friction ; or that quantity of eleCtricity, how-
“ ever fmall it may be, which adheres to the plates ia
fpite of every care and precaution.
“ Having found, that with a doubler conftruCled
in the above deferibed manner, after doubling or muU
tiplying
than it generally is, when communicated immediately
to an electrometer, the eleCtricity of a fmall tourma¬
lin, or of
aa* mlftaken.
Mr Ben- “ It is Mr Bennet’s doubler that was intended to
bkrob'1* an^wer tliat end; viz. to multiply, by repeated doubling,
|edted to. a ail<l otherwife unperceivable, quantity of elec-
Sea.x: ELECT
Methods of tiplylng 20 or 30 times, it always became ftrongly
eleftrified, though no eleftricity had been communi-
^,c ncity? cated to it before the operation, and though every en-
-r—deavour of depriving it of any adhering electricity had
been praCtifed ; I naturally attributed that eleCtricity
which appeared after repeatedly doubling, to fome fric¬
tion given to the varnilh of the plates in the courfe of
the operation. In order to avoid entirely this fource
of miftake, or at leait of fufpicion, I conltruCted three
plates without the leaft varnilh, and which, of courfe,
could not touch each other, but were to Hand only
within about one-eighth of an inch of each other. To
effeCt this, each plate flood vertical, and was fupport-
ed by two glafs flicks, which were covered with feal-
ing-wax. Thefe were inferted into a wooden pedellal
7 r inches long, 2|- broad, and l^th inch thick, being
kept fall by cement both to the pedeftal and likewife
to another piece of wood faftened to the back of the
plate. The plate itfelf is of ftrong tin, and meafures
about eight inches in diameter. The {land projeCls
very little before the plate; by which means, when two
of thofe plates are placed upon a table facing each o-
ther, the wooden Hands will prevent their coming into
aCtiml contaCt.
“ I need not deferibe the manner of doubling or of
multiplying with thofe plates ; the operation being ef-
fentially the fame as when the plates are conftruCted
according to Mr Bennet’s original plan, excepting that,
intlead of placing them one upon the other, mine are
placed facing each other; and in performing the ope¬
ration they are laid hold of by the wooden ftand AB •,
f<i that no friCtion can take place either upon the glafs
legs or upon any varnifh ; for thefe plates have no need
of being varnifhed. Sometimes, inftead of touching
the plates themfelves with the finger, I have fixed a
piece of thin wire to the back of the plate, and have
then applied the finger to the extremity of the wire,
fufpeCting that fome friCtion and fome eleCtricity might
pofiibly be produced when the finger was applied in full
contaCt to the plate itfelf.
“ It is evident, that as the plates do not come fo
near to each other in this as they do in the other eon-
ftruCtion, the eleCtricity of one of them cannot pro¬
duce fo great a quantity of the contrary eleCtricity in
the oppofite plate : hence, in this conftruCtion, it will
be neceflary to continue the operation of doubling
fomewhat longer; but this difadvantage is more than
repaid by the certainty of avoiding any friCtion.
“ Having conftruCted thofe plates, I thought that
I might proceed to perform the intended experiments
without any further obftruCtion : but in this 1 found
myfelf quite miftaken ; for on trying to multiply with
thofe new plates, and when no eleCtricity had been pre-
vioufly communicated to any of them, I found, that
after doubling to, 15, oral moft 20 times, they be¬
came fo full of eleCtricity as to afford even fparks. All
my endeavours to deprive them of eleCtricity proved in¬
effectual. Neither expofing them, and especially the
glafs (ticks, to the flame of burning paper, nor breath¬
ing upon them-repeatedly, nor leaving them untouch¬
ed for feveral days, and even for a whole month, during
which time the plates remained connected with the
ground by means of good conductors, nor any other
precaution I could think of, was found capable of de¬
priving them, of every veftige of ekCtricity; fo that
R I C I T Y. 515
they might (how none after doubling 10, 15, or at moft. Methods of
20 times. meafuring
of the fame fort; for fometimes it was negative for two u
or three days together; at other times it was pofitive
for two or three days more ; and often it changed in
every operation. This made me fufpeCt, that pofiibly
the beginning of that eleCtricity was derived from my
body, and being communicated by the finger to the
plate that was firft touched, was afterwards multiplied.
In order to clear this fufpicion, I adually tried thofe
plates at different times, viz. before and after having
walked a great deal, before and after dinner, &c. no¬
ting very accurately the quality of the eleCtricity pro¬
duced each time ; but the effeCts feemed to be quite
unconnected .with the above mentioned concomitant
circumltances; which independence was further con¬
firmed by obferving that the eleCtricity produced by the
plates was of a fluctuating nature, even when, inftead of
touching the plates with the finger, they had been
touched with a wire, which was connected with the
ground, and which I managed by means of an infla¬
ting handle.
“ At laft, after a great variety of experiments, which
it is unneceffary to deferibe, I became fully convinced,
that thofe plates did always retain a final] quantity of
eleCtricity, perhaps of that fort with which they had .
been laft eleCtrified, and of whuch it was almoft impof-
fible to deprive them. The various quality of the elec¬
tricity produced was owing to this, viz. that as one of
thofe plates was poffeffed of a fmall quantity of po¬
fitive eleCtricity, and another was poffeffed of the ne¬
gative eleCtricity, that plate which happened to be the
mod powerful, occafioned a contrary eleCtricity in the
other plate, and finally produced an accumulation of
that particular fort- of eleCtricity.
“ Thofe obfervations evidently (how, that no precife
refult can be obtained from the ufe of thofe plates; and
of courfe, that when conftruCted according to the ori¬
ginal plan, they are (till more equivocal, becaufe they
admit of more fources of miftake,
“ As ;’<»* fe plates, after doubling or muhiplying only
four or five times, (how no figns of eleCtricity, none
having been communicated to them before, I imagi¬
ned that they might be ufeful fo far only, viz. that
when a fmall quantity of eleCtricity is communicated
to any of them in the courfe of fome experiment, one
might multiply it with fafety four or five times, which
would even be of advantage in various cafes; but in this
alfo my expectations were difappointed.
“ Having obferved, after many experiments, that, oe-
feris paribus, when Ibeganto multiply from a certain plate,
which we (hall call A, the eleCtricity which refulted was
generally pofitive; and when I began with another
plate B, viz. confidered this plate B as the firft plate,
the refulting eleCtricity was generally negative; I com¬
municated fome negative eleCtricity to the plate A., ..
with a view of deftroying its inherent pofitive eleCtrici¬
ty. This plate A being now eleCtrified negatively,
but fo weakly as juft to affeCt: an eleCirometer, I began
doubling ; but after having doubled three or four -■
times, I found, by the help of an electrometer, that the
communicated negative eleCtricity in the plate was di-
minilhed inftead of being increafed ; fo that fometimea
it van idled entirely, though by continuing the oue$a >
^tioa.'d
520 E L E C T R
Methods of tlon it often began to increafe again, 'after a certain pe-
Ele&ririt* r’oc^' (h°ws» that the quantity of electricity,
^.c> v/liich however fmall it may be, remains in a manner
w—y-—< fattened to the plates, will help either to increafe or to
diminifti the accumulation or multiplication of the com¬
municated electricity, according as it happens to be of
the fame or of a different nature.
f “ After all the above mentioned experiments made
■with thofe doubling or multiplying plates, we may
come to the following conclufion, viz. that the inven¬
tion is very ingenious, but their ufe is by no means to
be depended upon. It is to be wittied that they may
be improved fo as to obviate the weighty objections
that have been mentioned; the firft defideratum being
to conftruCt a fet of fuch plates as, when no electricity
is communicated, they will produce none after having
performed the operation of doubling for a certain num-
213 > ber of times.
o ini!>n o.f <l Upon the whole, the methods by which fmall quan-
them'”- titles of eleCtricity may be afcertained with precillon
thods by are, as far as 1 know, only three. If the abfolute
which quantity of eleCtricity be fmall and pretty well condeu-
tities ofUan as t^iat produced by a fmall tourmalin when heated,
electricity or by a hair when rubbed, the only effectual method of
can be . manifefting its prefence, and afcertaining its quality, is
meafured. t0 communicate it immediately to a very delicate elec¬
trometer, viz. a very light one, that has no great ex¬
tent of metallic or of other conducting fubttance ; be-
eaufe if the fmall quantity of eleCtricity that is commu¬
nicated to it be expanded throughout a proportionably
great furface, its elafticity, and of courfe its power of
feparating the corks of an eleCtrometer, will be dimi-
nilhed in the fame proportion.
“ The other cafe is, when one wants to afcertain
the prefence of a confiderable quantity of eleCtricity,
■which is difperfed or expanded into a great fpace, and
is little condenfed, like the conflant eleCtricity of the
atmofphere in clear weather, or like the eleCtricity
which remains in a large Leyden phial after the firft or
fecond difcharge.
His appa- “ To effeCt this, I ufe an apparatus, which in principle
raws for ' is nothing more than M. Volta’s condenfer# but with
this pur- certain alterations, which render it lefs efficacious than
in the original plan, but at the fame time render it
much lefs fubjeCl to equivocal refults. I place two
of the above defcribed tin-plates upon a table, fa¬
cing each other, and about -|th of an inch afun-
der. One of thofe plates, for inftance is connec¬
ted with the floor by means of a wire, and the other
plate B is made to communicate, by any convenient
means, with the eleftricity that is required to be col-
leCled. In this difpofition the plate B, on account of
the proximity of the other plate, will imbibe more elec¬
tricity than if it ftood far from it, the plate si in this
cafe a Cling like the femkonduCting plane of M. Vol¬
ta’s condenfer, though not with quite an equal effeCl,
becaufe the other plate B does not touch it; but yet,
for the very fame reafon, this method is incomparably
lefs fubjeCt to any equivocal refult. When the plates
have remained in the faid fituation for the time that
N° 113.
I C I T Y. Setf.X.
may be judged neceffary, the communication between Methods of
the plate B and the conducting fubftance which con- meafuring
veyed the electricity, mutt be difcontinued by means 0f E!e<ftricity,
a glafs ftick, or other infulating body ; then the plate , c'
si is removed, and the plate B is prefented to an elec- '' _
trometer, in order to afcertain the quality of the elec¬
tricity ; but if the eleCtrometer be not affeCtcd by
it, then the plate B is brought with its edge into con¬
tact with another very fmall plate, which Hands upon
a femiconduCting plane, after the manner of M. Vol¬
ta’s condenfer (n ) ; which done, the fmall plate, being
held by its infulating handle, is removed from the infe¬
rior plane, and is prefented to the eleCtrometer : and it
frequently happens, that the fmall plate will affeCt the
eleCtrometer very fenfibly, and quite fufficient for the
purpofe; whereas the large plate itfelf Ihowed no clear
figns of eleCtricity.
“ If it be alked, why I ufe the femiconduCting plane
for this fmall plate, and not for the large one ? the an-
fwer is, firft, becaufe the large femiconduCting plane is
incomparably more difficult to be procured than the
fmall one ; and, fecondly, becaufe the fmall plane may
be eafily deprived of any accidental eleCtricity which
may adhere to it ; but the large one is more difficultly
rendered fit for the purpofe, efpecially as the large plate
-ought in geneaal to remain upon it a much longer time
than the fmali plate is to remain upon its femi-conduc¬
ting plane.
“ The third and laft cafe is, when the ele&ricity to be
afcertained is neither very confiderable in quantity nor
much condenfed ; fuch is the eleCIricity of the hair of
certain animals, of the furface of chocolate when cool¬
ing, &c. In this cafe the heft method is to apply a
metal plate, furnifhed with an infulating handle, like
an electrophorus plate, to the ekCtrified body, and to
touch this plate with a finger for a Ihort time whilft
Handing in that fituation ; which done, the plate is
removed, and is brought near an eleCtrometer ; or its
eleCtricity may be communicated to the plate of a fmall
condenfer, as directed in the preceding cafe, which
will render the eleCtricity more confpicuous. It is e-
vident, that in this cafe the metal plate will acquire
the eleCtricity contrary to that of the fubftance in quef-
tion : but this anfwers the fame purpofe ; for if the
eleCtricity of the plate be found to be pofitive, one muft
conclude, that the eleCtricity of the body in queftion
is negative, and contrariwife. In this operation, care
muft be had not to put the metal plate too near, or in
full contaCt with the fubftance to be examined, left the
friction, likely to happen between the plate and the
body, Ihould produce fome eleCtricity, the origin of
which might be attributed to other caufes.
“ Having thus far defcribed the fureft methods of
afcertaining the prefence and quality of eleCtricity,
when its quantity or degree of condenfation is fmall,
I ffiall now beg leave to add fome farther remarks on
the fubjeCt of eleCtricity in general, and which have
been principally fuggefted by what has been mentioned.
“ On the hypothefis of a fingle eleCtric fluid, it is
faid, that every fubftance in nature, when not eleCtri-
3 fied
(n) This fmairplate is nearly of the fize of a fhillmg, and the femiconduCting plane is of wood covered with
copal varnilh.
Sea.X. ELECT
Methods of fied, contains its proper fhare of ele&ric fluid, which
neafuring ;s proportionate to its bulk, or to fome other of its
Eledtricity, pr0pertj£S. an(j ;t ;s generally believed, that this equal
* ^ . or proportionate diftribution of eledtric fluid takes place
ias with the greateft part of natural bodies. However,
Every fub- the fad is far from being fo; and I may venture to
ft-ce elec- affert, that, ftrictly fpeaking, every fubftance is al-
ata!1wayseledrified, viz. that every fubftance, and even the
various parts of the fame body, contain at all times
more or lefs eledtric fluid than that quantity of it which
it ought to contain, in order to be in an ele&rical equi¬
librium with the bodies that furround it.
“ At firft fight it may be thought quite immaterial
to know, whether the eledric fluid is difperfed in the
juft proportion among the various fubftances which are
not looked upon as eledrified, or whether it deviates
in a fmall degree from that proportionate diftribution ;
but it will hereafter appear, that one of thofe aflertions
will lead us to the explanation of an interefting phaeno-
menon in eledricity, whereas the other does not admit
of it; befides, what is called a fmall difference of the
proportionate diftribution, infomuch as it does not af-
fed our inftruments, may be fufficient for feveral o-
perations of nature, which it is our intereft to invefti-
gate.
“ If we inquire what phenomena evince this alter¬
ed diftribution, or the adually eledrified ftate of all
bodies, the preceding obfervations will furnifli fome
very unequivocal ones; efpecially that of the doubling
plates made after my plan, which fhowed to be eledri¬
fied even after having remained untouched for a whole
month, during which time they had been in commu¬
nication with the ground ; for if each of them had con¬
tained an equal fhare of eledric fluid, the eledric at-
mofphere of one of them could not pofiibly occafion a
contrary eledricity in the other, and confequently no
225 accumulation of that power could have happened.
Experiment “ A great number of inftances are related in books
^ruth'Hf 'h'6 °n t^e ^uk.ie^ eledricity, and in the Phil. Tranf. of
dodrine! 'Sp*eces g^8’ fulphur, of fealing-wax, &c. having
remained eledrified fo far as to affed an eledrometer
for months after they had been excited, or even touch¬
ed ; but the following experiment will fhow, in a clear¬
er manner, the great length of time that a quantity of
eledricity will remain upon a body.
“ Having conftruded a gold-leaf eledrometer in the
niceft manner I could, and which, on account of the
non-conduding nature and conftrudion of its upper
part, could remain fenfibly eledri^ed for feveral hours
together, I communicated fome eledricity to it, which
caufed the flips of gold-leaf to diverge with a certain
angle ; and as the eledricity was gradually diffipated,
the divergency dimiaifhed in the fame proportion.
Now, whilft this diminution of divergency was going
on, I looked through a fmall telefcope, and, by means
of a micrometer, meafured the chords of the angles of
divergency, fetting down the time elapfed between each
pair of contiguous obfervations; and as the chord of
the angle of divarication is in the dired Ample propor¬
tion of the denfity of the eledric fluid (a), 1 could
by this means know how much eledric fluid was loft
by the eledrometer in a certain time, and of courfe
Vol.VI. Part II.
R I C I T Y. 52i
what portion of the eledricity firft communicated to Methods of
the eledrometer ftill remained in it. Let us make the meafuring
chord of the angle of divarication on firft eledrifying ^<aricit5r*
the eledrometer, or rather when firft obferved, equal '
to 16; or let us conceive that quantity of eledricity to
be divifible into 16 equal parts.
“ I obferved, that, when the chord of the angle
became equal to eight, the time elapfed between this
and the firft obfervation was one minute; when the
chord became equal to four, the time elapfed between
this point and the preceding obfervation was 3' 307;
when the chord became equal to two, the time elapfed
fince the preceding obfervation was 17'; and when the
chord became equal to one, the time elapfed fince the
preceding obfervation was one hour and a quarter ; af¬
ter which the eledrometer remained fenfibly eledrified
for a long time.
“ In repeating this experiment, the times elapfed be¬
tween the correfponding obfervations did not follow
ftridly the fame proportion of increafe ; nor did they
increafe regularly in the fame experiments, which may
be attributed in great meafure to the inaccuracy in ob-
ferving, and to the fluduating ftate of the air; but it
could be fafely inferred from all the experiments, that
the times required for the difperfion of the eledricity
were at lead greater than the inverfe duplicate propor¬
tion of the denfities of the eledricity remaining in the
eledrometer. And if we imagine, that they continue
to diminifh in the fame proportion of increafing time,
which is far from being an extravagant fuppofition, we
fhall find, by a very eafy calculation, that about two
years after the eledrometer would ftill retain the -r^th
part of the eledricity communicated to it in the be¬
ginning of the experiment; and as we do not know
how far a quantity of eledricity is divifible, or to what
extent it may be expanded, we may conclude with
faying, that ftridly fpeaking the eledrometer would
remain eledrified for many years.
“ It may be inferred from this, as well as from
many other experiments, that the air, or in general
any fubftance, is a more or lefs perfed condudor of
eledricity, according as the eledricity which is to pafs
through it is more or lefs condenfed ; fo that if a given
quantity of eledric fluid be communicated to a fmall
brafs ball, one may take it away by Amply touching
the ball with a finger; but if the fame quantity of e-
ledric fluid be communicated to a furface of about 100
or 1 coo fquare feet, the touching with the finger will
hardly take away any part of it.
“ If it be aflted, what power communicates the e-
ledricity, or originally difturbs the equilibrium of the
natural quantity of eledric fluid in the various bodies
of the univerfe ? we.may anfwer, that the fluduating
eledric ftate of the air, the paflage of eledrified clouds,
the evaporation and condenfation of fluids, and the
fridion arifing from divers caufes, are perpetually ad-
ing upon the eledric .fluid of all bodies, fo as either to
increafe or diminifti it, and that to a more confiderable
degree than is generally imagined.
“ I fhall conclude, with briefly propofing an expla¬
nation of the produdiom of eledricity by fridion,
which is dependent upon the above ftated propofition,
3 U viz.
(a) This propofition was firft afeertained by F. Beccaria. See Philofophieal Tranfadions, Vol. LVI.
522 ELECT
Methods ofTO'z. that bodies are always ele&rified in fome degree;
meafuring an(j Ukewife.upon the well known principle of the ca-
ncity, p„cjty 0p ij0<j;es for holding eleftric fluid being increa-
^ i‘ -t-- - fed by the proximity of other bodies in certain circum-
ftances.
“It feems to me, that the cylinder of an ele&rical ma¬
chine mull always retain fome ele&ricity of the pofi-
tive kind, though not equally denfe in every part of its
furface; therefore, when one part of it is fet contiguous
to the rubber, it mull induce a negative eledricity in
the rubber. Now, when, by turning the cylinder, a-
nother part of it (which fuppofe to have a lefs quantity
ofpofitive eledricity than the preceding) comes quickly
againft the rubber ; the rubber being already negative,
and not being capable of lofing that eledricity very
quickly, mull induce a ftronger pofitive eledricity in
the former part which is now oppofite to it: but this
part cannot become more pofitively eledrified, unlefs
it receives the eledric fluid from fome other body, and
therefore fome quantity of eledric fluid palfts from the
loweft part of the rubber to this part of the glafs; which
additional quantity of eledric fluid is retained by it a-
lone only whilft it remains in contad with the rubber;
for after that, its capacity being diminifhed, the elec¬
tric fluid endeavours to efcape from it. Thus we may
conceive how every other part of the glafs acquires the
eledric fluid, &c. and what is faid of the cylinder of
an electrical machine may, with proper changes, be
aay applied to any other eledric and its rubber.”
Cava!lb’s An inllrument for obferving very fmall quantities of
inftrument eledricity has likewife been invented by the fame author,
for obfer- atMj defended in the fecond part of the volume jufl quo-
R I C I T Y. Sea. X.
well infulated. GHIL KM and NOP V art two frames Methods of
^uantitk0 te(^ ^ properties of this machine, which from its of-
cf eleitn- fice may be called a colhSor of electricity, art, frjl, that
when conneded with the atmofphere, the rain, or in
Ihort with any body which produces eledricity flowly,
or which contains that power in a very rarefied man-
1 ner, it colleds the eledricity, and afterwards renders
both the prefence and quality of it manifeft, by com¬
municating it to an eledrometer. 2dly, This collec¬
ting power, by increafing the fize of the inftrument,
and efpecially by ufing a fecond or fmaller inftrument
of the like fort to colled the eledricity from the for-
' mer, may be augmented to any degree, idly. It is
conftruded, managed, and preferved with eafe and
certainty ; and it never gives, nor can it give, an equi¬
vocal refult, as he has proved experimentally, and as
will appear by confidering its conftrudion.
Plate CLXXVIII. exhibits two perfpedive views
of this colledor. Fig. 93. (hows the inftrument in the
ftate of colleding the eledricity ; and fig. 94- (hows it
in the ftate in which the colleded eledricity is to be
rendered manifeft. An eledrometer is annexed to
each. The letters of reference indicate the fame parts
in both figures.
jlBCD is a flat tin plate, 13 inches long and 8
inches broad; to the two fhorter fides of which are
foldered two tin tubes JlD and BC, which are open at
both ends. DE and CF are two glafs flicks covered
with fealing-wax by means of heat, and not by diffol-
ving the fealing-wax in fpirits. They are cemented
into the lower apertures of the tin tubes, and alfo in
the wooden bottom of the frame or machine at E and
F; fo that the tin plate ABCD is fupported by thofe
glafs flicks in a vertical pofition, and is exceedingly
4
of wood, which being faftened to the bottom-boards
by means of brafs hinges, may be placed fo as to Hand nci
in an upright pofition and parallel to the tin-plate, as ^
fhown in fig. 94. or they may be opened, and laid upon
the table which fupports the inflrument, as fhown in
fig. 93. The inward furfaces of thofe frames from
their middle upwards are covered with gilt paper XT;
but it would be better to cover them with tin-plates
hammered very flat. When the lateral frames Hand
flraight up, they do not touch the tin plate ; but they
Hand at about one-fifth part of an inch afunder. They
are alfo a little fhorter than the tin-plate, in order that
they might not touch the tin-tubes AD, BC. In the
middle of the upper part of each lateral frame is a
fmall flat piece of wood S and T, with a brafs hook ;
the ufe of which is to hold up the frames without the
danger of their falling down when not required, and
at the fame time it prevents their coming nearer to the
tin-plate than the proper limit. It is evident, that
when the inflrument Hands as fhown in fig. 94. the gilt
furface of the paper XT, which covers the infide of
the lateral frames, Hands contiguous and parallel to the
tin-plate.
When the inftrument is to be ufed, it muft be placed
upon a table, a window, or other convenient fupport;
a bottle eledlrometer is placed near it, and is connec¬
ted, by means of a wire, with one of the tin tubes
AD, BC ; and by another conducing communication
the tin-plate muft be conne&ed with the eledtrified
fubftance, the ele&ricity of which is required to be
colle&ed on the plate ABCD : thus, for inftance, if
it be required to colleft the eleftricity of the rain
or of the air, the inftrument being placed near a win¬
dow, a long wire muft be put with one extremity into
the aperture A or B of one of the tin-tubes, and with
the other extremity proje&ing out of the wiqdow. If
it be required to colledl the electricity produced by
evaporation, a fmall tin pan, having a wire or foot of
about fix inches in length, muft be put upon one of
the tin-tubes, fo that, the wire going into the tube, the
pan may ftand about two or three inches above the
inftrument. A lighted coal is then put into the pan,
and a few drops of water poured upon it will produce
the defired effedl. Thus far may fuffice with refpeft
to the mechanical defeription of the inftrument: the
power and ufe of it will be made apparent by the fol¬
lowing experiments.
1. Communicate to the tin-plate ABCD a quan¬
tity of eleftricity, for inftance, as much as would
very fenfibly affedl a common cork-ball eleftrometer ;
then, if the lateral frames GHM, NOP, ftand upright,
as in hg. 94. the electrometer IV will (how no diver¬
gency ; but if the frames are opened and let down, as
in fig 93. the balls of the eleftrometer IV will imme¬
diately repel each other, and by the approach of an
excited piece of fealing-wax, the quality of the eledlri-'
city may be ealily afeertained after the ufual manner..
Put up the lateral frames again, and the electricity
will apparently vanifli; let them down, and the elec¬
tricity will re-appear, and fo on. If you touch any.
part of the tin-plate or tin-tubes with your finger, the
ele&ricity is thereby entirely removed, and that will
be the cafe whether the lateral, frames, are up or
down.
Z. Take
Sea. X.
Methods of 2. Take an extended piece of tin-foil, about four
meafunng yards fquare, and, holding it by a filk thread, elec-
&c rlClty’ trify it fo weakly as not to be capable of affefting
» an eleftrometer; then bring it in contaft with the
tin-plate of the colledtor, whilft the lateral frames are
up. This done, remove the tin-foil, let down the la¬
teral frames one after the other; and on doing this
the electrometer JV will immediately manifeft a confi-
derable degree of ele&ricity. But if the eledtrometer
were to fhow no fenfible degree of eledlricity, a fmal-
ler collector, viz. one having a tin-plate of about four
fquare inches, muft be brought into contadf with the
tin-plate of the large collector, whilft the lateral frames
of the latter only are down ; and then the fmall col¬
lector being removed from the large one, its lateral
frames are opened, and its tin-plate is prefented to an
electrometer, which will thereby be eleCtrified to a
much greater degree than the electrometer IV was by
the large collector.
3. Let a common cork-ball electrometer be fa¬
ttened to an infulated conductor, having about two
or three fquare feet of furface, and communicate to it
fuch a quantity of eleCtricity as may be fufficient to
let the balls of the electrometer ftand at about one inch
afunder. In this ftate bring the conductor in contaCt
with the tin-plate of the collector for a very fhort
time, and it will be found, that the balls of its electro¬
meter will immediately approach and touch each other,
Ihowing that the eleCtricity of the conductor is gone
to the plate of the collector; and, in faCt, if you let
down the lateral frames, the balls of the eleCtrometer
IV will immediately repel each other to a very great
degree.
It feems, therefore, to be clearly fhown by thefe ex¬
periments, that the tin-plate of this inftrument can
colleCt and retain a vaft quantity of eleCtricity, when
the conducting furfaces of the lateral frames are con¬
tiguous to it, in comparifon to that quantity which it
can either colleCt or retain when thofe furfaces are re¬
moved from its vicinity.
The quantity of eleCtricity which the tin-platey/5CZ)
is capable of collecting, principally depends on three
circumftances, viz. lit, on the diftance between the tin¬
plate and the conducting lateral furfaces ; the fmaller
that diftance is, the greater being the collecting power :
zdly, on the fize of the inftrument: and, 3dly, on the
quantity of eleCtricity poflefled by the body from which
it muft be collected or taken away.
The principle upon which the aCtion of this inftru¬
ment depends, is the fame as that of the eleCtropho-
rus of M. Volta’s condenfer, and of many other elec¬
trical experiments ; namely, that a body has a much
greater capacity for holding eleCtricity when its fur-
face is contiguous to a conductor which can eafily ac¬
quire the contrary eleCtricity, than when it ftands not
in that fituation.
Plate The eleClrical air thermometer, fig. 34. is an in-
^ a28XV' ^rumcnt dcfigned to fhow the power of eleCtricity by
Eleflricai *ts rarefaCtion of the air through which the fluid paf-
air thermo- fes- But though this inftrument in theory might
meter. be fuppofed capable of manifefting the very leaft de¬
grees of eleCtricity, the rarefaCtion of the air by its
means is fo very fmall, that unlefs the power of elec¬
tricity be very confiderable, no expanfion will be per¬
ceived. The inftrument, however, certainly has its
52^
ufes, and many curious experiments may be performed Methods of
with it. vi B reprefents a glafs cylinder having a brafs
cap, with a wire and knob palling through it, and &c 1
which is demented on the open part of the glafs. The  y-—*
under part is inverted into a fmall difh B C, containing
quickfilver or fome other liquid, which may rife in the
fmall tube V! H by any expanfion of the air in the cy¬
linder sf B. C Z) is an infulating ftand, which ferves
to fuftain the whole; B is an hook by which a com¬
munication may be made to the ground ; and F ano¬
ther for connecting the whole with the prime con¬
ductor of an electrical machine. The difcharges of
eleCtricity made by the fparks between the knobs G
and I expand the air, and force up the fluid into the
fmall tube ^ H; and its rife there is marked upon a
graduated fcale. This inftrument will likewife anfwer
for fhowing the diminution or increafe of any kind of
air by the eleCtric fpark, as well as its fudden expan¬
fion by a fpark or fhock of a phial. Mr Morgan has
fhown that the mercury in a common thermometer, if
well made, may be raifed by the eleCtric blaft.
In a treatife lately publifhed by the Reverend Mr Be„.
Abraham Bennet, he gives an account of the machine net’s doub-
called the doubler of electricity, with fome improvements let of ejec-
upon it by Mr Nicholfon ; by which means the ma- t:icity *“1'
chine becomes lefs liable to the objections of Mr Ca- Nicholfon.
vallo above-mentioned. In its improved ftate, it con-
fifts of two infulated and immoveable plates about two
inches in diameter, and a moveable plate alfo infulated,
which revolves in a vertical plane parallel to the two
immoveable plates, patting them alternately.
“ The plate A is conftantly infulated, and receives the pjat(.
communicated eleCtricity. The plate j3 revolves; and CLXXVI.
when it is oppofite the plate A, the connecting wires Fig. 65.
at the end of the crofs piece D muft touch the pins of
A and C at EF, and a wire proceeding from the plate
B muft touch the middle piece G, which is fupported
by a brafs, wooden, or other conducting pillar in con¬
nection with the earth. In this pofition, if eleCtricity
be communicated to the plate A, the plate B will ac¬
quire a contrary ftate ; and patting forwards, the wires
alfo moving with it by means of the fame infulating
axis, the plates are again infulated till the plate B is
oppofite to C, and then the wire at H touches the pin
in C, connecting it with the earth, and communica¬
ting the contrary ftate of eleChicity to that of B, but
of the fame kind with that of A. By moving the
handle ftill further, B is again brought oppofite to A}
and the connetting wires joining A and C, they both
aft upon B, which is connected with the earth as be¬
fore, and nearly double its intenfity, whilft the elec¬
tricity of C is abforbed into A; bccaufe of the increa-
fed capacity of A, whilft oppofed to B, capable by its
connexion with the earth of acquiring a contrary ftate
fufficient to balance the influential atmoipheres of both
plates.
“ Thus by continuing to revolve the plate B, the
procefs is performed in a very expeditious and accurate
manner.
“ The ball / is made heavier on one fide than the o-
ther, and ferewed upon the axis oppofite to the handle,
to counterbalance the plate B, which may therefore be
flopped in any part of its revolution.
“ Yet notwithftandingthe convenience and accuracy
of this doubler, it always produced fpontaneous eleCtri-
3 u 2 city.
ELECTRICITY.
524 ELECT!
Methods of city, even after all the refinous fubftances ufed in its
Ele&ridt’ con^rui^^on had been melted over a candle, and after
&c. nC! y’ Handing a long time with its plates in connexion with
wo—the earth. I therefore conje&ured that this fpontaneous
eleflricity was not owing to accidental fri&ion, but to
the increafed capacity of approximating parallel plates
which might attract and retain their charge tho’ nei¬
ther of them were infulated. To prove my hypothe-
fis, I firil endeavoured more eife&ually and fpeedily to
deprive the inftrument of the eleftricity laft communi¬
cated, and that I might know whether this fponta¬
neous charge, fuppofed to arife from the increafed capa¬
city of the parallel plates, would be always of the fame
kind.
“ To effeft this deprivation, I connected the plates^
and C together by a wire hooked at each end upon
two fmall knobs on the backs of the plates, the middle
of the fame wire touching the pillar which fupports the
doubler. Another wire was hooked at one end upon the
back of the plate B, and at the other end to the brafs
ball which counterbalances this plate. Thus all the
plates were connefted with the earth ; and by turning
the handle of the doubler, it might be difeharged of e-
leftricity in every part of its revolution.
“ After often trying this method of depriving the
doubler, I obferved that its fpontaneous charge was al-
moit always negative, I then touched B and C with a
pofitively charged bottle, and turned the doubler till it
produced fparks for a long time together ; and after
this ftrong pofitive charge, I hooked on the wires as a-
bove, and revolved the plate B about i qo times, which
to deprived the doubler of its pofitive electricity, that
when the wires were taken off, it produced a negative
charge at about the fame number of revolutions which
it required before.
“Thepofitively charged bottle was again applied; and
the wires being hooked upon the plates as before, B
was revolved only 50 times ; yet this was found fuffi-
cient to deprive it of its pofitive charge, and in many
experiments 5 or 6 revolutions were fufficient: but I
never thought it fafe to flop at fo few, and have there¬
fore generally turned the handle 40 oryo times between
every experiment.
“ Left eleftricity adhering to the electrometer fhould
obftruCt the above experiments, I did not let it ftand
in contaCt with the doubler during its revolutions, but
touched the plate B with the cap of the electrometer,
after I fuppofed its eleftricity was become fufficiently
fenfible : but left even this contaCt fhould communicate
any eleftricity, I made a cap for my electrometer of
fhell-lac, having a fmall tin tube in the centre, to
which the gold leaf was fufpended within the glafs,
and a bent wire was fixed to the top, which might eafi-
ly be joined to. the plate vf of the doubler ; and thus
the gold-leaf was more perfectly infulated, and the e-
leCtricity could not be diffufed over fo large a furface.
The glafs which infulates the plates and crofs piece of
23° > the doubler was alfo covered with fhell-lac.”
]Nicholfon’s p'jg. gg. fliows an inftrument invented by Mr Ni-
for diftin-1 cholfon for diftinguifhing the two electricities from
guifbing one another, B and B are two metallic balls placed
the two at a greater or lefs diftance from each other by means
electricities. 0f the joint at C ; the two branches C A being made
of varnifhed glafs. From one of the balls B proceeds
a fhort point towards the other ball A. If the two be
l I C I T Y. Setf.x.
placed in the courfe or current of the ekCtric matter. Methods of
fo that it may pafs through the air from one to the mealtiring:
other, its direction will be known. For if the eleftric j'1*lftnclty->
matter pafs from A to B, there will be a certain di- --IMf
fiance of the balls dependent on the ftrength of elec¬
tricity, within which the denfe fparks will pafs from
the point; but if its courfe be in the contrary direc¬
tion, no fpark will be feen, unlefs the balls be almofl
in contaCt with the point.
We fhall conclude this feClion with fome obferva- Obferva-
tions on the eleCtrical kite ; which perhaps may after tl”nsfon,ths
all be found, the only inftrument that will certainly tleCtncaf
fhow the eleClricity of the atmofphere upon all occa- kite,
fions. The ufe of it, however, is very troublefome,
as it obliges the obferver always to go abroad, which
fometimes muft be difagreeable. By means of the ap¬
paratus reprefented fig. 72. this inconvenience may be Plate
avoided. A B reprefents the firing of the kite, infu-CLXXVII.
lated by means of the filk cord C, tied about the foot
of a table in the room where the experiments are to be
made. This firing paffes out through a window of the
room, and fupports the kite; the eleClricity being
conveyed by means of a fmall wire to the infulated
conduClor D, having a quadrant eleCtrometer applied
to it, as in the figure. G is a glafs tube about 18 inches
long, with a brafs wire and knob proceeding from it ;
by taking a fmall fpark with which from the conduc¬
tor, the quality of the eleClricity may be obferved.
Fig. 68. 69. reprefent a pocket eleCtrometer, which A
may be very conveniently ufed when the atmofpheric ent pocket
eleClricity is collected in any quantity. The cafe or ele&roine?
handle of this eleCtrometer is formed by a glafs tube a-ter-
bout three inches long and x’oths of an inch.in dia¬
meter, half of which is covered with fealing-wax.
From one extremity of this tube, viz, that without
fealing-wax, a fmall loop of filk proceeds, which,
ferves occafionally to hang the eleClrometer on a pin,
&c. To the other extremity of the tube a cork is ad¬
apted, which, being cut tapering on both ends, can
fit the mouth of the tube with either end. From one
extremity of this cork two linen threads- proceed, a
little fhorter than the length of the tube, fufpending
each a little cone of pith of alder. When this eleClro¬
meter is to be ufed, that end of the cork which is
oppofite to the threads is pufhed into the mouth of
the tube ; then the tube forms the infulated handle of
the pith eleClrometer, as reprefented fig. 69. But
when the eleClrometer is to be carried in the pocket,
then the threads are put into the tube, and the cork
flops it as reprefented fig. 68. The peculiar advan¬
tages of this eleClrometer are, its convenient fmall.
fize, its great-fenfibility, and its continuing longer in
good, order than any other. Fig. 68. reprefents a cafe
to carry the above deferibed eleClrometer in. This cafe
is like a common toothpike-cafe, except that it hath a
piece of amber fixed on one extremity A, which may.
occafionally ferve to eledrify the eleClrometer nega-.
lively ; and- on the other extremity it hath a piece of
ivory faftened upon a piece of amber B C. This am¬
ber i?,G, ferves only to infulatethe ivory ; which when
infulated,, and rubbed againft woollen cloths, acquires,
a pofitive eleClricity, and is therefore, ufeful to eledrify
the eledrometer pofitively.
In making experiments with the kite, it is fome¬
times neceffary to ad with caution, on account of,
the
Sea. XT. ELECT
Method® of great quantity of electricity collected by it. Of this
meafurirg we have already given fotne initances, to which we fhall
Electricity, the following from Mr Bennet; viz. that having on
f * .. the 5th of July 1788 raifed a kite with 200 yards of
i33 firing, when it had been flying about an hour, a dark
Experi- cloud appeared at a great diftance, and changed the
ments with e]e£tricJty from pofitive to negative. The eleftric
fometimes Power increafed till the cloud became nearly vertical,
dangerous, when fome large drops of rain fell ; and our author at¬
tempting to fecure the firing from wet, received fuch a
firong fliock in his arm, as deprived it for a few feconds
of fenfation. The explofion was heard at the diftance
of about 40 yards, like the loud crack of a whip.
Sect. XI. 0/ the EffeEls of Electricity on Vege¬
tation.
It is a very confiderable time fince eleftrieians began
to make experiments on this fubjeCt; and it was ge¬
nerally agreed that the eleCtric fluid was favourable to
the growth of vegetables. For a long time, however,
fuch refearches feem to have been laid afide ; nor in¬
deed did it feem very probable that any quantity of the
fluid could be collected artificially fufficient to be of
ufe. But in a late treatife the fubjeCi has been revived
by the Abbe Bertholon; who not only fhows a method
of collecting the fluid from the atmofphere fo as to be
ufeful in ordinary practice, but endeavours to cure by
means of this fluid fome of thofe difeafes to which
plants are liable from infeCts, and which cannot be re-
moved by any of the ordinary remedies.
The upper “ In the firft place (fays the Abbe), there i. continually
parts of the and everywhere diffufed in the atmofphere (particularly
atmofphere jn the upper regions) a confiderable quantity of the elec-
feound with tr*c On the mountains efpecially, it is always felt
eleftric with moil energy, and ihows itfelf in greater abundance
matter. than on the plains. On the former, if you ereCt con¬
ductors, or lanch elc&ric paper-kites, in order to feek
out and direCt this fluid towards the furface of the
earth, where feveral caufes fometimes prevent its ap¬
pearance ; you will find it very foon fubjeCled to your
power, defcend, as if at your command, from heaven
itfelf, and creep at your feet to execute your orders.
Thefe are fads extremely well afcertained; but if
one doubts of them, he has nothing to do but to
erect a fimilar apparatus or fet off eleCtric kites to be
convinced of the truth. Thefe will immediately and
at all times obtain an eleCtricity fo much the more
ftrong as the height of the apparatus lhall be the
more confiderable. Being informed, that in Eng¬
land this experiment was tried with the moil con¬
vincing effeCt, I mention it, as it has hitherto not been
publilhed. Upon a high mountain there were lanch-
ed two eledric paper-kites, one of which was fixed to
the inferior extremity of the other, thus gaining a double
advantage in point of height; the confequence of which
was, that the eledric effeds were incomparably greater,
than thofe produced by a Angle inftrument. But I fup-
pofe it entirely ufelefs to infill longer upon a fad fo.
well demonllrated and univerfally admitted
Elefitxo- “ This principle being granted : in order to reme-
yegetome- dy the deficiency of eledric fluid which has already
ter defcrl- been proved to be hurtful to vegetation, we mull ered
in the fpot which we want to fecundate the fol¬
lowing new apparatus, which has had all poffibje fuc-
R I C I T Y. 525
cefs, and which I lhall call by the name of the eleBro- EfTetSs of
vegetometer. This machine is as Ample in its conllrudion E!e&ncity
as efficacious in its manner of ading; and I doubt t°"r^e®et^
not but it will be adopted by all thofe who are fuffi- i
ciently inftruded in the great principles of nature. ^
“ This apparatus is compofed of a mad AB (Plate
CLXXX. fig. 82.), or a long pole thruft juft fo far in¬
to the earth as to Hand firm and be able to refill the
winds. That part of the mall which is to be in the
earth mull be well dried at the fire ; and you mull take
care to lay on it a good coat of pitch and tar after
taking it from the fire, that the refinous particles may
enter more deeply into the pores of the wood, which
will then be dilated, at the fame time that its humidity
will be expelled by the heat. Care mull likewife be
taken to throw around that part fixed in the earth a
certain quantity of coal-duft, or rather a thick layer of
good cement, and to build befides a bafe of mafon-
work of a thicknefs and depth proportionable to the
elevation of the inftrument, fo as to keep it durable and
folid. As to the portion of it above the ground, it will
be fufficient to put upon it fome coats of oil-paint, ex¬
cept one choofes rather today on a coat of bitumen the
whole length of the piece.
“ At the top of the mall there is to be put an iron-
confole or fupport Cwhofe pointed extremity you
are to fix in the upper end of the mall, while the other
extremity is to terminate in a ring, in order to receive
the hollow g!afs-tube which is feen at D, and in which
there is to be glued an iron rod rifing with the point
E. This rod, thus pointed at its upper extremity, is
completely infulated, by reafon of its keeping a llrong
hold of a thick glafs-tube, which is-filled with a quan¬
tity of bituminous matter, mixed with charcoal, brick-
duft, and glafs-powder; all together forming a fuffi-
ciently good and ftrong cement for the objeA in view.
To prevent rain wetting the glafs tube, care muft be •%
taken to folder to the rod Aa funnelof white-iron; which
confequently is entirely infulated. From the lower
extremity of the rod E hangs a chain G, which enters
into a fecond glafs-tube H, fupported by the prop I.
The lower end of the above-mentioned chain refts
upon a circular piece of iron-wire, which forms a part
of the horizontal conductor KLMN. In L is a break¬
er with a turning joint or hinge, in order to move to
the right or left the iron-rod L MN'y there is likewife-
another in 4^, to give Hill greater effedf to the cir¬
cular movement. 0 and P are two fupports termi¬
nating in a fork, where there is fixed a filken cord
tjghtly ftretched, in order to infulate the horizon¬
tal. conductor:. in N are feveral very fharp iron-
points.
“ In fig. 83. you fee an apparatus in the main like the Another
former, but with fome difference in the conftru&iom form of thit
At the upper extremity of the mail ab there is bored inftl'utaeri£’
a hole into which enters a wooden cylinder r, which
has been carefully dried before a.great fire, in order to
extradl its humidity, dilate its pores, and faturate it
with tar, pitch,, or turpentine, applied at repeated
intervals. The more heat the wood and bituminous
matter receives, the more the fubftance. penetrates, and;
the infulation will be the more complete. It is more¬
over proper to befmear the. circumference of the little--1
cylinder with a pretty thick coat of bitumen. This
preparation being made,, we jjext infert-the. cylinder x
6 iutOi
5 26
JEffV&s of into the hole b of the mail; and it is eafy to join
Ele&riaty together thefe two wooden pieces in the molt perfedt
tioin^613* manner.
■ ‘ ^ “At the upper extremity of the cylinder c we ftrong-
ly attach an iron-rod gf; which, inftead of one, is
terminated by feveral lharp points all of gilded iron.
In e you fee a branch of iron refembling the arm
of an iron-crow, from whence hangs an iron chain
bi, at the end of which there is hooked a piece
of iron refembling a mafon’s fquare, and ending in a
fork. The piece of iron / is a ring with a handle en¬
tering a little into the glafs-tube m filled with ma-
lliche, in the fame manner as does the iron-rod n.
The conductor /> o is to be confxdered as an additional
piece to aft in that marked p. There are likewife put
iron-fpikes inq : the fupport j refembles thofe of 0 and
P in the former figure. In.this new machine you can
lengthen or ftiorten the horizontal conduftor as you
pleafe ; and as the iron-ring / turns freely in a circu¬
lar gorge made in the mail, the conduftor is enabled to
defcribe the entire area of a circle.
Effedts of “The conftruftion of this eleclro-vegctometer once well
thefeinftru-undertlood, it will be eafy for us to conceive its effefts.
menu The eleftricity which prevails in the aerial regions will
foon be drawn down by the elevated points of the up¬
per extremity. This effeft of the points is proved by
the moft decifive experiments, and is called by philo-
fophers the power of the points.
“ The eleftric matter brought down by the point E,
or by thofe marked f ff, will be neceffarily tranfmit-
ted both by the rod and chain ; becaufe the infulation
produced at the upper extremity of the mail com¬
pletely prevents its communication with the timber.
The eleftric fluid pafles from the chain to the horizon¬
tal conduftor KM or no: it then efcapes by the
points at P and q ; becaufe the fame points that have
the power of bringing down the eleftric fluid, have
likewife that of puftiing it forward; a thing well known
8 by experience.
Method of “ The manner of ufing this inftrument is not more
ufing them, difficult than the knowledge either of its conduftor or
effefts. Suppofe, for example, we are to place it in
the midft of a kitchen-garden. By making the ho¬
rizontal conduftoi turn round fucctffively, you will be
able to carry the eleftricity over the whole furface of
the propofed ground. The eleftric fluid thus drawn
down, will extend itfelf over all the plants you want to
cultivate ; and this at a time when there is little or
no eleftricity in the lower regions nigh the furface of
the earth.
“ On the other hand, when it happens that the elec¬
tric fluid fhali be in too great abundance in the atmo-
fphere, in order to take off the effeft of the appa¬
ratus in K fig. 82. and in n fig. 83. you have only to
hang to it an iron chain reaching to the ground, or
elfe a perpendicular iron-rod, which will have the fame
effeft. viz. that of deftroying the infulation, and of
infenfibly tranfmitting the eleftric fluid in the fame
proportion as it is drawn by the points ; fo that there
fhall never be an overcharge of this fluid in the inftru¬
ment, and its effeft fhall be either fomething or no¬
thing, according as you add or remove the fecond
chain or the additional rod.
“ There will be nothing to fear from the fpontaneous
difeharge of this apparatus, becaufe it is terminated
Sea. XI.
below by proper points in P and q of both machines; Effea* of
and it is a certain faft, that a pointed conduftor makes £'i£<5lricit)r
no explofion, and that inftead of flafhes there are only
luminous ftreams. However, it will be eafy to furnifh ft t ■
one, by means of which we may approach the appa¬
ratus with perfeft fecurity ; it is only neceffary to hold
the hand before it. This has the form of a great C,
and is of a height equal to the diftance that takes place
betwixt the horizontal conduftor and the furface of
the earth. This difeharger near the middle muft be fur-
nifhed with a glafs-handle ; and at that extremity which
is direfted towards the conduftor, there muft hang an
iron-chain made to trail on the ground. This inftrument
is an excellent fafeguard. See fig. 84.
“ By means of the eleftro-vegetometer juft now de- Great ad-
feribed, one may be able to accumulate at pleafure vantages
this wonderful fluid, however diffufed in the regions10Jr,
above, and conduft it to the furface of the earth, in jn^°m
thofe feafons when it is either fcantily fupplied, or its ftruments.
quantity is infufficient for vegetation ; or although it
may be in fome degree fufficient, yet can never pro¬
duce the effefts of a multiplied and highly increafed
vegetation. So that by thefe means we fhall have an
excellent vegetable manure or nourifhment brought
down as it were from heaven, and that too at an eafy
expence ; for after the conftruftion of this inftrument,
it will coft you nothing to maintain it : It will be
moreover the moft efficacious you can employ, no other
fubftance being fo aftive, penetrating, or conducive to
the germination, growth, multiplication, or reproduc¬
tion of vegetables. This heavenly manure is that
which nature employs over the whole habitable earth ;
not excepting even thofe regions which are efteemed
barren, but which, however, are often fecundated by
thofe agents which nature knows fo well to employ to
the moft ufeful purpofes. Perhaps there was nothing
wanting to bring to a completion the ufeful difeo-
veries that have been made in eleftricity, but to fhow
this fo advantageous an art of employing eleftricity
as a manure ; confequently, that all the effefts which
we have already mentioned, depend upon eleftrici¬
ty alone; and lallly, that all thefe effefts, viz. accele¬
ration in the germination, the growth, and produftion
of leaves, flowers, fruit, and their multiplication, &c.
will be produced, even at a time when fecondary caufes
are againft it: and all this is brought about by the
eleftric fluid, which we have the art of accumulating
over certain portions of the earth where we want to
raife thofe plants that are moft calculated for our ufe.
By multiplying thefe inftruments, which are provided
at no expence (fince iron-rods of the thicknefs of one’s
finger, and even lefs, are fufficient for the purpofe),
we multiply their beneficial effefts, and extend their ufe
ad infnitum.
“ This apparatus having been raifed with care in the
midft of a garden, the happieft effefts were perceived,
viz. different plants, herbs, and fruits, in greater for-
wardnefs than ufual, more multiplied, and of better
quality. At the fame time it was obfervable, that,
during the night, the points P and q, as well as the
upper extremities, were often garniftied with beautiful
luminous fparks. Thefe fafts are analogous to an ob- Vegetation
fervation which 1 have often made, viz. that plants m<’ft vig°-
grow beft and are moft vigorous near thunder-rods,
where their fituation favours their developement. They ro(jSi
ke-
ELECTRICITY.
Sea.XI. ELE CTRICITY. 527
Effecfts of iikevvife ferve to explain why vegetation is fo vigorous broad, fupported by four glafs-pillars, like thofe Effedls of
Elcftncxty ;n lofty forefts, and where the trees raife their heads ufed for ekftrical machines. One tnuft take care''to Eie<aricity
tion e®eta far from the furface of the earth, fo that they feek, place above the infiilator a wooden tray full of °j”IJre^eta'
as it were, the elettric fluid at a far greater height water, and to caufe mount upon the kool a
than plants lefs elevated ; while the fharp extremities
of their leaves, boughs, and branches, ferve as fo
many points granted them by the munificent hand of
nature, to draw down from the atmofphere that elec-
"c fluid, which is fo powerful an agent in forwarding
man car- u
rying a fmall pump in the form of a fyringe. If you
eftablifh a communication between the man and an
eleftrical machine put in motion (which is eafily done
by means of a chain that connedts with the condudtor
of the machine), then the man thus infulated (as well
vegetation, and in promoting the different fundtionsof as every thing upon the ftool) will be able, bypufhing
plants.
“ This eledfro-vegetometer may be fet up not on¬
ly in a kitchen-garden, but in an orchard, in a field
of corn, olive-yard, See. &c. Everywhere the fame
effedts are produced, namely, fecundity in the foil,
quicknefs of vegetation, increafe of produce, fuperio-
rity in the quality, See. This machine is applicable to
all kinds of vegetable productions, to all places, and all
feafons; and if I am to believe the moft enlightened and
forward the fucker, to water the trees, by pouring
upon them an eledtrical fliower; and thus diffufing over
all the vegetables under its influence a principle of fe¬
cundity that exerts itfelf in an extraordinary manner
upon the whole vegetable economy : and this method
has moreover this advantage, that at all times and in
all places it may be pradtifed and applied to all plants
whatever.
Every one knows that the eledfricity is communi-
intelligent of my friends, the eledfro-vegetometer is cated to the water thus employed ; and it would be eafy
one of the moft noble and ufeful difeoveries that have to obtain the moft ample convidtion (if any one doubt-
been made in the prefent century.
The elec- “ Befides the advantages of the eledfro-vegetometer,
tricity of 0f which we have been fpeaking above, there is ftill
be'thuVde5 anot^er vel7 important one, namely, that by applying
termined to ^ a large eledtrometer or grand condudtor, we may
by a large thus find out the eledfricity of the atmofphere. For
eledh-ome- this purpofe we muft take away the points HR
ter’ (fig. 82. andr. fig.83.) which are feen ini?r. This ma¬
chine will likewife ferve the purpofe of a thunder-rod,
if one takes care to thruft into the earth, to the depth
of about 10 or 15 feet, a leaden tube, whofe upper -
ed it), by receiving upon his face or hand this eledtri¬
cal fliower; he immediately feels fmall punctures or
ftrokes, which are the effedts of the fparks that iflue
from each drop of water. This is perceived moft
fenfibly if there is prefented a metal-difh to this elec¬
trical dew ; for at the very inftant of contact, brilliant
flafhes are produced.
“ That the eledtricity received by the man from
the chain may be communicated to the tray, we
muft put a fmall cake of white-iron, upon the end
of which he may place his foot. The tray filled with
tremity may rife a few inches above the furface of water is a kind of magazine or refervoir to ferve as <
the ground ; and into this tube you are to pafs the
long iron chain or perpendicular rod fet apart for de-
ftroying the infulation, and whofe upper end is to be
hooked to a chain in //, fig. 82. or in i, fig. 83. Thefe
two chains are very ftrong, and are fit for ferving as
an excellent condudtor. Or if you choofe, you may
fubftitute in their room wefts of white thread, or
iron-wires, which will make no difference in the effedts
of the apparatus. In the figures we have preferred
chains, that the diftindtion of the different parts may
be the more fenfibly perceived. With thefe additions
the eledtro-vegetometer will be as good a thunder-rod
as any that are ordinarily conftrudted.
“ It is not only by means of the eledtricity in the
atmofphere, colledied by the above apparatus, that
rs one can fupply the eledtric fluid, which is fo ne-
ai.. ceffary to vegetation; but the eledfrici-ty named ar¬
tificial elec- tificial anfwers the fame purpofe. However aftonifti-
tficity.
augment
I the powe
I of v: geta
I tion by-
continual fupply to the pump. After watering one
tree, you tranfport the ftool to a fecond, a third, and
fo on fucceffively ; which is done in a fhort time, and
requires very little trouble. -
“ Inftead of the chain, it is better to employ a cord
or twift of pinchbeck or any other metal; by means of
which there can be no lofs of the eledtric matter, as
there is in the cafe of the chain by the ring-points.
Moreover, this metal cord or thread being capable of be¬
ing untwifted and lengthened, there will be no occafionof
tranfporting fo often the eledtrical machine. It is al-
moft needlefs to add, that this ftring~or metallic chord,
which is always infulated, may reft upon the fame kind
of fupports with thofe which have been exhibited in
0 P and r of fig. 82. and 83. This method is Ample,,
efficacious, and no wife expenfive, and cannot be too
much employed. 24.3
“If one wants towatereitheraparterreorcom-Eafyme-
ing the idea may be, or however impoflible it may ap- mon garden-beds and platforms of flowers, or any tEo.d of ai*
pear to realize it, yet nothing will be found more eafy other plots in which are fown grain or plants of diffe-
upon trial Let us fuppofe that one wants to augment rent ages and kinds, no method is more eafy and ex- thisman*
the vegetation of trees in a garden, orchard, Sec. with- peditious than the following : Upon a fmall carriage ner.
out havingj recourfe to the apparatus- deftined to with two wheels there is placed a framed infulator in
pump down as it were the electricity from the atmp- form of a cake of pitch and rofin, as we have mentioned
fphere, it is fufficient to have a large infulating ftool.- before in.fig. 82. The carriage is drawn the whole length
This may be made in two ways ; either by pouring of the garden by a man or hor-fe fixed to it. In propor-
a fufficient quantity of pitch and melted wax up- tion as you draw the carriage, the metallic cord winds
on the above ftool,;, whofe borders being more raifed itfelf upon a bobbin, which turns as ufual. This lafl
than its middle, will form a kind of frame-; or more is iniulated, either becaufe the little apparatus that
limply, the ftool (which is likewife called the infula- fuftains the bobbin is planted in a mafs of rofin (wnen
tor) (hall only be compofed of a plate longer than you choofe the axle to be of iron), or elfe becaufe
this s
5^8
Effects of
E!e6li icity
on Vegeta-
544
To eledlri*
fy water
kept in re-
Jervoirs,
&c.
Vegetables
injured by
the eledtric
flxock.
ELECTRICITY. Sea.XI.
this moveable axis is a tube of folid glafs. There ed men of the Royal Society of London, prove fuffi-Effedb of
mull alfo be a fupport, which ferves to prevent the ciently this truth. An eleftric battery, very ilrong, Electricity-
gold-thread or the metallic-cord from trailing on the was difcharged upon a branch of balfam ftill holding0."Vegeta'
ground, and thus diffipating the ele&ricity ; and, by its trunk. Some minutes after, there was obfervedt!^!^^
moreover, it ferves as an infulator. To accomplifh a remarkable alteration in the branch, of which the
this laft purpofe, it is neceflary that the ring into which lefs woody parts immediately withered, drooped to¬
il pafles be of glafs. One may likewife employ the wards the ground, died next day, and in a fliort
infulators and fupports marked OP and s, in fig. 82. time entirely dried up; at the fame time that another
and 83. If a gardener, mounted upon an infij- branch of the fame plant that had not been put un-
lator, holds in one hand a pump full of water, and der the ele&ric chain, was not in the fmalleft degree
with the other takes hold of a metallic-cord, in order affedled.
to tranfmit the ele&ricity which comes from the “ This experiment repeated upon other plants fliowed
conductor ; in this cafe, the water being ele&ri- the fame effects ; and it was remarked that the attrac-
fied, you will have an eledlrical ihower; which fall- tion, occafioned by a ftrong difcharge of the eledtri-
ing on the whole furface of the plants which you city, produced an alteration different according to the
want to eleftrify, will render the vegetation more different nature of the plants. Thofe which are lefs
vigorous and more abundant. A fecond gardener is woody, more herbaceous, more aqueous, experience in
to give additional pumps full of water to him who is proportion impreffions that are ftronger and much more
upon the infulator, when he (hall have emptied thofe fpeedy in their operation.
he holds; and thus in a little time you will be able to “ A branch of each of the following plants, com-
eledtrify the whole garden. This method takes hardly poling an electrical chain, it was obferved by thefe
longer time than the ordinary one ; and although it able philofophers, that the balfam was affefted by
fhould be a little longer, the great advantages refult- the difcharge of the battery in a few moments af-
ing from it will abundantly recompence the fmall addi- ter, and perilhed next day. The leaves of a marvel
tional trouble. of Peru did not drop till the day following that; and
“ By repeating this operation feveral days fucceflive- the fame phenomenon happened to a geranium,
ly, either upon feed fown or plants in a ftate of growth, Several days elapfed before there was obferved any
you will very foon reap the greateft advantages from fatal effect on the cardinal flower. The branch of a
it. This operation, equally eafy with the preceding laurel did not fhow any fymptoms till after the lapfe
defcribed upon the fubjedt of watering trees, has been of about 15 days, after which it died ; but it was a
put in practice with the greateft fuccefs. Several full month before they perceived any fenfible change
ether methods, anfwering the fame purpofe, might be on the myrtle ; at the fame time they conftantly ob-
devifed ; but they are all of them pretty fimilar to ferved that the bodies of thofe plants and branches
that juft defcribed. which'had formed no part of the chain, continued to
“ I cannot finifti this article without mention- be frefli, vigorous, and covered with leaves in good
ing another method relative to the prefent objedl, al- condition.
though it be much lefs efficacious than the preceding “ It hardly ever happens that the fuperabundance of
ones. It confifts in communicating to water kept in the eledtric fluid exifting in a fmall portion of the at-
bafons, r<tfervoirs, &c. (for the purpofe of watering), mofphere where a plant is fituated, can be fo great as
the eledtric fluid, by means of a good eledtrical ma- that which took place by the explofion of the ftrong
chine. To this end, one muft plafter over with a battery of Mr Nairne, diredled particularly upon one
bituminous cement all the interior furface of the bafon branch ; or if this ftrould happen, it can only be upon
deftined to receive the water that ferves for irrigation: a few individual plants in very fmall number; as when or
the nature of this cement anfwering the purpofe of in- lightning falls upon a tree, breaks it, ftrips it of itsmildewfup-
fulation, will prevent the eledhic fluid that communi- bark, or withers its leaves; or in the cafe of blafting orPofedt°l)ei
cates with the water from being diffipated; and the mildew in corn, which feveral farmers aferibe to the ”w/ng.to
water thus charged with eledlricity will be the more force of lightning. “ This fentiment (fays M; dulg tmng*
fitted for vegetation. Hamel) has acquired much probability fince the dif-
“ The method juft now laid down of eledlrifying wa- .covery of the great effedls of that eledtricity which is
ter for the purpofe of watering trees is both eafy and diffufed fo abundxntly in the atmofphere when the
cheap ; the expence of the cement being inconfiderable, weather is difpofed to be ftormy.” (Element d'Agric.
as it requires but once to be done, and as it prevents Tom. I. p. 346.)
the water from filtrating and being loft, as well as from “ It is not propofed Here to preferibe the means of
hurting the walls themfelves, which would otherwife have remedying the pernicious effedls which may be pro-
occafion to be oftener repaired ; confequently you are duced upon this occafion ; as there are none of them
fufficiently indemnified by its utility for all the trouble in circumftances exadlly fimilar to that of the experi-
you take. A machine applied to the extremity of the ments of the philofopher juft now quoted. But al-
axle of the eledlric apparatus might communicate to it though this enormous excels of the eledtric fluid of
a rotatory movement, and ftill further diminifti the which we have been fpeaking, never takes place through
expence of the operation. any great extent of fpace, neverthelefs this excefs,
“ If the deficiency of the eledtric fluid, or rather a though even but inconfiderable, may be too great in
fmall quantity of it, is apt to be hurtful to vegetables, feveral refpedts regarding the vegetable economy; and
a too great abundance of this matter will hkewife it is in this cafe that it is proper to feek the means of
fometimes produce pernicious effedts. The experi- remedying it.
ments made by Mcffrs Nairne, Banks, and other learn- “ Let us fuppofe that one has fome plants or ffirubs,
N° 114. ‘ or
Sea. XI.
Effedts of or fome valuable trees cr exotics that he wants to pre-
^nrcl,y ferve, and is fenfible that too great a quantity of elec-
ELECTRICITY.
529
“ The Leyden phial, by the mere force of its fhock, Effedb of
T • itivc, ciuyx laxvuiiuit luci luu gitai- <* 4uan1.11.}' m inti.- which can be augmented gradually, is capable of de- £!e^ricity
n cte a'tricity predominant in the atmofphere becomes hurtful ftroying not only rabbits and pigeons, but bulls cgeU'
oxen, efpecially when |we employ electrical batteries *
to them, there are two methods that may ferve to ob¬
viate the evil of which he is apprehenfive. One is, to
water plentifully thefe vegetables, fo that their whole
furface may be kept fufficiently wet ; the confequence
of which is, that the ele&ricity prevailing in the atmo¬
fphere will be tranfmitted to the earth by the water
adhering to the outfide of the plants, as it is well
known that water is an excellent condu&or of the
ele&ric fluid : The other is, to place near thefe trees
metallic points, which may be eafily accompliflred
by Ample lathes or wooden-poles; along which one
muft faften by bandages plain iron-wires, fo as to over¬
top them by fome inches. Thefe poles thus prepared,
being thruft into the earth, will then draw down the
eleftric fluid, and tranfmit it to the earth.’’
of great fize, and containing a great number of elec¬
trified jars. Of confequence then it may be em-
ployed even with little apparatus to kill a tender ande(t by an *
delicate caterpillar, which, in order to flicker itfelfelectric
from the impreffions of the air, is obliged to keep ftodr.
perpetually fliut up in the heart of trees, or in that of
twigs, branches, or trunks themfelves.
“ In order to fucceed in killing thefe animals at the
time when they begin to (how their ravages, which
mark likewife the place where the caterpillar is con¬
cealed, it is fuflicient to make an ele&ric chain with two
plain iron-wires, and to place betwixt the two that part
of the tree where it is fuppofed the infeft refides. One'"
need not be afraid of taking in even a larger fpace, for
Our author now proceeds to confider of methods of the experiment will fucceed as well in a great extent
deftroying deftroying the infefts which frequently infell and de-
ftr°y vegelables 5 which, he thinks, may be obtained
1CI y’ by means of the ele&ric fluid.
“ Experience (fays he) proves, that in years when
vegetation is moft vigorous and abundant, infe&s, if
nothing oppofes them, will then be moft multiplied;
and in fadt they are fometimes fo to an aftonilhing de¬
gree. How great mifchief they produce on thefe oc-
cafions, every body knows, and as ardently defires to
find a remedy for the calamity. The damage is in¬
deed fo confiderable, that people imagine it is not pof-
as in a fmall; and befides, one runs no rifle of mifling
the enemy he wants to combat. Let us fuppofe, that
one be affured from the forementioned fymptoms,
that there is an infedt in the tree; in this cafe you
place iron-wires above and below the place where
you fufpedt it to be lodged. Next, you muft take
care to make the one communicate with the exterior
furface of an ordinary jar charged with eledlricity, and
the other with the interior furface, which it is eafy to
do by bending thefe iron-wires fo as to make them ap¬
proach the eledtrical jar ; then upon difcharging thi*
fible by any means to put a ftop to it; but I am of veflel where the eledtric fluid fuperabounds, the explo-
opinion, it is one of thofe evils to which eledtricity
may be applied with effedt.
fion is made to traverfe the part where the animal
lodges : the violence of the Ihock makes him die with-
  ‘ It has been often remarked, that feveral fpecies of out recovery, and fo deftroys the evil in its fource.
done by ca-worms or caterpillars are found in-the heart of ihoots, If the ravage has not been carried to a high pitch,
tcrpilhrs twigs, and even the trunks of trees, of ftirubs, and of the tree recovers very foon, as I have often obferVed--
foe the heart Plants of Afferent forts. There are numbers, for ex-
of twigs, ample, in pear and other fruit trees. As foon as the
animal has got to the infide of a branch, he forms a
gallery according to the length of it: armed with
ftrong fcaly jaws, he foon reduces the woody fubftance
to powder; and this fame delicate caterpillar makes
the wood, hard as it is, his favourite nouriihment.
Other infects generally ftiowthemfelves in open day: but
this one, like a pioneer, marches always in obfcurity
within; and we are apprifed of his prefence only by the
mifchief he produces, namely, by obferving the tops of
branches to wither, the leaves to fade and incline to
the earth, and in tine the whole infefted bough to de¬
cay and die away. In vain do you feek for this frail
though terrible animal on the leaves; he enters the
flcin and penetrates the thickeft bark of the furface;
he goes even to the heart of the woody fubftance ;
and you can extirpate him only by cutting off the
wood; and if this is a remedy, you muft confefs that
it is at leaft equal to the mifchief.
“ This evil fo much the more merits attention, that
it extends itfelf particularly over a very great number
of fruit-trees ; in which, for the fame reafon, we are as
particularly interefted, Electricity, however, furnifhes
us with a remedy of the moft efficacious fort to ftop
the progrefs of the evil, by attacking the enemy in
his quarters, and deftroying him in tus own mine; wnich
in this event is to become his tomb.
Vou VI. Part II.
but whatever be the refult as to the re-eftablifh-
ment in certain circumftances, the evil proceeds no
further ; its progrefs flops; and it is always a great ad¬
vantage to have arrefted it in its march.
“ Several experiments have convinced me of the
fuccefs of this method. Upon cutting off feveral
branches on which I difcharged my jar or Leyden
bottle, I conftantly obferved the animal dead ; and
you never fail of killing it when the diftance betwixt
the two extremities of the iron-wires is not too great,
and when you take care to approach or remove them
fucceflively by repeating the fhock feveral times.
“ The bottle here employed cannot hurt the vege¬
table economy, btcaufe its dimenfions are not too
great, and no batteries are brought in play. The
electric fhock, given in certain bounds, is ufeful to
animals; it therefore cannot be noxious to plants in
the fame circumftances.
“ This operation is not tedious even when employed HowJm
upon a great number of trees; but if one wants ftillpe.iorm
further to abridge it, I here give him a method by '-fie opera-
which the experiment can be made in the fame in-tion on 3
ftant upon all the trees of an orchard, aud will not ber^f"trees
be more tedious than if it were employed upon one at once,
tree only. You have only to provide a fufficient num¬
ber of iron-wires, and to difpofe them as was done
for the tirft tree we fpoke of juft now, and in the fame
manner ; by which means all thefe.trees forni an elec-
3 X trical
530 ELECT
•EfTcfts of tfical chain, and the fluid in. theexplofion of the bottle
Eledricity w;}} run over through the whole, fuppofing that you
t;on b have difcharged the bottle in the ordinary way, and at
the fame time taken care of what is very effential, that
while the free extremity of the firfl wire touches the
exterior furface of the ele&rical jar, the end of the
other may communicate with the inlide of- the fame
25I charged phial.
How tode- “ If the caterpillar be in the root, the operation is
ftroy aca- pretty much the fame. By taking away, for an in-
thtfroot of ^ant’ a ^tt^e earth, you eafily put the affefled roots
a tree. within the chain : but if one is ignorant of the par¬
ticular ramification of the root which is attacked,
without uncovering the tree, you need only infert in
the earth two wires cppofite in their dircdlions, and
then perform the Leyden experiment, which is eafily
done. After having placed thefe two wires north
and fouth, you may repeat the experiment by pla¬
cing them eaft and weft. You can hardly then mifs
the infeft, efpecialiy if, in order to take in more fpace,
you infert one of the wires farther than the other : for
in this cafe the eleftric fluid will defcribe a diagonal,
as we have already fliown in regard to branches.
To prevent “ This method ferves not only to prevent the progrefs
thefe ani- of the evil, but in fome fenfe to anticipate it. In re-
mals from garcj t0 thefe deftruilive infe&s there are epochs as for
ffplants'^ plants 5 both of them have marked times for their
birth, their developement, their growth, their multi-
. plication, and that relative both to their genera and
ipecies. When the time is come that infedls, cater¬
pillars, and other animals attack plants, one mull em¬
ploy, by way of precaution, the method we have juft
now laid down ; and by repeating the fame from day
to day for a certain fpace of time, we will at laft
fucceed in preferving trees from the ravages of in-
fefts. The operation is neither tedious nor expenfive ;
why then not have recourfe to it for thofe curious and
rare trees which come from afar at a great expence, and
thofe valuable other trees that yield us yearly the molt
delicious fruits ?
Advantages “ The method juft mentioned is the moft effedtual
to be ex- that can be imagined, fince it purfues the enemy
pededfrom t0 moft concealed corners in the inmoft tex-
thod1”6* ture t^ie woo<^ anc* *s of killing him
in the very heart of trees, under the bark when
he is to be found there, in the branches, and in the
heart of the roots themfelves: all which we have made
appear in the foregoing remarks. I may further add,
that there is no other remedy known but by eleftri-
city; for how is it poffible to find out under the
bark of a tree one or more infefts that gnaw and
deftroy it ? Mutt we not in this cafe ftrip the men-
tirely of their bark?'and would not, therefore, the
remedy be often worfe than the difeafe ? Befides, by
what means could we penetrate into the heart of the
tree ? Would not the inftrument employed to cut and
lop it, rather add to the mifchief, efpecially in the be¬
ginning of its progrefs ? How again could we rum¬
mage to the infide of the roots ? The tree thus un¬
covered, would it not fuffer, efpecially in the great
heats, when a perfpiration more abundant muft render
neceffary a nouriftiment, whofe quantity ought at all
times to be equal at lead to the wafte ? Thus the
celebrated Linnaeus, ftruck with the calamities which
R I C I T Y. Sea. XXL
fruit-trees in particular fuffer from iufefts and their Effecft* of
caterpillars, cried out: “ Who (hall deliver us from E'e&ricity
this fcourge ?” Quis pojjit Uberare arbores Jruciiferas a °." VeSeta-
tarvis?” tlal}', f
On this fubjeft we cannot help obferving, that there
is fome reafon to fuppofe that the Abbe has over-rated
the power of his remedy with regard tolhe deftruo
tion of infedfts. There is not the leaft doubt that an
infetft will be deftroyed by finding a Ihock of electrici¬
ty through its body ; but while this infedt is defended
by the vegetable which it has pierced, and in which
it lodges, the vegetable wall alfo receive a very con-
fiderable part; and thus the infeCl may ftill efcape, un-
lefs the ftiock be augmented to fuch a degree as to in¬
jure the vegetable alfo. His other experiments, it is
faid, have been confirmed by the obfervations of mo¬
dern eleCtricians.
Sect. XII. Effects of EleBricity on Anim.ils; of
the Gymnotus, Torpedo> and other Elettric Fijhes;
Medical EleBricity.
Soon after the difeovery of the eleCtrical fhock, and
the method of augmenting the power of eleCtricity, it
naturally became an objeCt with philofophers to in-
veftigate the effeCts of it upon animal bodies. Thefe
were quickly found to be entirely fimilar to fuch as
are produced upon any other conducting fubftances,
viz. an emiffion of fparks, attraction, and repullion,
&c. By degrees it was found, that very ftrong figns.
of eleCtricity were exhibited by fome animals, even
wivhout the application of any artificial apparatus. 2
The experiment of producing fparks by ftroking the Some ani- |j
back of a cat in frofty weather, readily (bowed that mals natu- J
the eleCtric fluid may exift in a very aCtive (late in the rally elec- J
body of an animal without injuring any of its functions. tn lc
From animals of the inferior kind a tranfition was
made to the human fpecies; and figns of eleCtri'city
were difeovered in them where it had not been fuf-
peCted before. Some people have been remarkable
for an extreme luftre of their eyes; and others have
been fo much eleCtrified naturally, as to give evident
(igns of it when a fenfible eleCtrometer had been ap¬
plied to them. Others have manifefted an extreme
lenfibility of even the fmalleft degrees of eleCtricity, in-
fomuch that they would be affeCted by a'flaih of
lightning, though fo remote that the thunder could
not be heard. All this (bowed that the fubtile fluid
we treat of bears a very aCtive part in the animal eco¬
nomy, and led to more important refearches on the
fubjeCt. One of the firft difeoveries was, that fome
creatures are fo ttrongly ele&rilied naturally as to
have it in their power to give a ftrong (hock at plea-
fure, capable of deftroying any fmall animal that comes
near them. Of thefe, however, only three, and thofe
of the aquatic kind, have yet been obferved, viz. the
gymnotus ele&ricus, the torpedo, and another called
the ftlurus ele8ricus.
Thegymnotus* haththe aftonilhingpropertyofgiving » See tlie 1
the eleCtric (hock to any perfon, or number of perfons, article
either by the immediate touch with the hand, or by the Gymnetus.
mediation of any metallic conductor; and a perfon who
kept fome of them told Dr Garden, that they had this
property much ftronger when firft catched than after¬
wards.
Sea. XII. ELECT!
Effl-dh on wards. The perfon (fays he) who is to receive the
/u“nials muft take the fifii with both hands, at fome con-
fiderable diftance afunder, fo as to form the commu-
Ele^Uical nicati°n» otherwife he will not receive it, at leall I
propei ties never faw any one fhocked from taking hold of it with
oitl e gym-one hand only ; though fome have alfured me, that
notus. they were fhocked by laying one hand on it. I my-
felf have taken hold of the largeft with one hand
often without ever receiving a ihock ; but I never
touched it with both hands, at a little diftance afun¬
der, without feeling a fmart fhock. I have often re¬
marked, that when it is taken hold of with one hand,
and the other is put into the water over its body with¬
out touching it, the perfon received a fmart fhock ; and
I have obferved the fame effedf follow when a num¬
ber joined hands, the perfon at one extremity of the
circle taking hold of or touching the fiftr, and the per¬
fon at the other extremity putting his hand into the wa¬
ter over the body of the fifti. The (hock was com¬
municated through the whole circle as fmartly as if
both the extreme perfons had touched the fifti. In-
this it feems to differ widely from the torpedo, or elfe
we are much mifinformed of the manner in which the
benumbing effedf of that fifh is communicated. The
fhock which the gymnotus gives feems to be wholly
eledtricaf; and all the phenomena or properties of it
exadtly refemble thofe of the electric aura of our at-
mofphere when colledted, as far as they are difcover-
able from the feveral trials made on this fifh. This
ftroke is communicated by the fame condudtors, and
intercepted by the interpofition of the fame origi¬
nal electrics, ©r eledtrics per fe as they ufed to be
called. The keeper of this fifh informs me, that he
catched them in Surinam river, a great way up, be¬
yond where the falt-water reaches ; and,that they are
a frefh-water fifh only. He fays, that they are eaten,
and by fome people efteemed a great delicacy. They
live on fifh, worms, or any animal-food if it is cut
fmall fo that they can fwallow it. When fmall fifties
are thrown into the water, they firft give them a fhock,
.which kills or fo ftupifies them, that they can fwallow
them tafily and without any trouble, if one of thefe
fmall fifties, after it is fhocked, and to all appearance
dead, be taken out of the veffel w'here the electrical fifti
is, and put into frefh water, it will foon revive again.
If a larger fifh than they can fwallow be thrown into
the water, at a time that they are hungry, they give
him fome fmart fhocks till he is apparently dead, and
then they try to fwallow or fuck him in ; but, after
feveral attempts, finding he is too large, they quit him.
Upon the moft careful infpedtion of fuch fifti, I could
never fee any mark of teeth, or the leaft w'ound or
fcratch on them. When the ele&rical fifti are hungry,
they are pretty keen after their food ; but they are
foon fatisfied, not being able to contain much at one
time. An eledtrical fifti of three feet and upwards in
length cannot fwallow a fmall fifti above three or at
Some5very mo^ t^ree inches and a half long. I am told, that fome
large ones of thefe have been feen in Surinam river upwards of 12
found in feet long, whofe ftroke or fhock proved inftant death
Surinam to any perfon that unluckily received it.”
river. Several other accounts of this fifh have been pub-
lifhed by different perfons, but none of them fo full
and diftindt as the above. They all agree that the
1 I C 1 T Y. Jjt
eledlric virtue of the fifti is very flrong. _ Mr Fer- EfTjfU ,n
min, in his natural hiftory of Surinam, publilhed in A:limils-,
1765, tells us, that one cannot touch it with the " "v
hands, or even with a ftiek, without feeling a hor¬
rible numbnefs in the arms up to the (boulders;
and he farther relates, that, making 14 perfons grafp
each other by the hands, while he grafped the hand
of the laft with one of his, and with the other
touched the eel with a flick, the wdiole number felt
fo violent a fhock, that he could not prevail on them
to repeat the experiment. V. Vanderlott, in two let¬
ters from Rio EfTequebo, dated in 1761, makes two
fpecies, the black and the reddifh ; though he ac¬
knowledges, that, excepting the difference of 001001*
and degree of ftrength, they are not materially differ¬
ent. In moft experiments with thefe animals, he re¬
marked a furprifing refemblance between them and an
eledtrical apparatus: nay, he obferved, that the ftiock
could be given to the finger of a perfon held at
fome diftance from the bubble of air formed by the
fifti when he comes to the furface of the water to
breathe; and he concluded, that at fuch times the
eledtrical matter was difeharged from his lungs. He Remark-
mentions another characterizing circumftance, which aMe d>ffe-
is, that though metals in, general were condudtors
its eledlric property, yet fome were found to be fen-( fS
fibly better than others for that purpofe. Of this metals with
property Dr Piieftley takes notice, and fays* that arefra^t0
gold ring is preferable to any thing elfe. The fame*hls fl101-15,
is likewife obferved by Linnasus. Dr Prieftley adds,
that the fenfation is ftrongeft when the fifh is in
motion, and is tranfmitted to a great diftance; fo
that if perfons in a fhip happen to dip their fingers
or feet in the fea, when the fifh is fwimming at the
diftance of 15 feet from them, they are affedted by
it. He alfo tells us, that the gymnotus rtfelf, not-
wrthftanding all its eledtric powers, is killed by the lob-
fter. •. . . 2?8
The furprifing property of the torpedo* in giving a of the tor-
violent fhock to the perfon who takes it in his hands, orpedo.
who treads upon it, was long an objedt of wonder. ’ For its
For fome time it was in general reckoned to be en*
tirely fabulous ; but at laft the matter of fadt being af- the article
certained beyond a doubt, philofophers endeavoured 7?^, of
to find out the caufe. M. Reaumur refolved it into which the
the adtion of a vaft number of minute mufcles, which t0l!Ped.0 ”
by their accumulated force gave a fudden and violent ^ a‘
ftroke to the perfon who touched it. But folutions of
this kind were quite unfatisfadtory, becaufe the ftroke
was found to be communicated through water, iron,
wood, &c. When the phenomena of eledtricity began
to be better known, it was then fufpedted that the
Ihock of the torpedo w-as occafioned by a certain ac¬
tion of the eledtric fluid ; but as not the leaft fpark of
fire, or noife, could ever be perceived, this too feemed
infufficient. Of late, however, Mr Wallh has with in-^rf;fic;aj
defarigable pains, not only explained this furprifing one made
phenomenon on the known principles of eledtricity, Fy Mf
but given a denaonftration of his being in the right, by
conftrudting an artificial torpedo, by which a (hock re-
fembling that of the natural one can be given.
The eledtric organs of the torpedo confift of two
fets of very fmall cylinders lying under the fkin, one
of which is eledtrilied pofitively and the other nega-
3X2 lively,
532
ELECT
460
Why no
fpar> is d
Effects on tively, feemingly at the pleafure of the fifh. When
, Animals. a cornnlun;cation is made between the fet of cylinders
~"V" T^ pofitively eleftrified and thofe which are negatively fo,
a difcharge and (hock enfue, like what happens in the
cafe of the Leyden phial. The only difficulty now is to
account for the total abfence of a fpark (which in the
cafe of the torpedo never exifts even in the fmalleft
degree), and the impoffibility of condutting the fhock
through the fmalldt interval of air. But this alio is
explained in a latisfaftory manner by Mr Wallh, and
ffiown to be nothing eife than what every day takes
place in our electrical experiments. It is well known,
that a fmall charge of eledtricity, if put into a little
the ihock phial, will occafion a bright fpark and loud noife when
given 1 y diicharged; but if the fame charge is put into a phial
the turpe- much larger, the fpark and noife will be lefs in pro¬
portion ; neither will the fpark break through near
fuch a fpace of air in the latter cafe as in the former;
though the fhock would in both cafes be the fame to
a perion who received it through his body. !f, in-
fteau of a large phial, we fuppofe the charge to t>e dif-
fuied all over a large battery, the fhock would ftill be
the fame, and yet the fpark and noife atten ling it
would be almoft imperceptible. The cafeisjuli the
fame with the torpedo. Each of the eleCtric organs
is a battery compofed of innumerable fmall cylinders,
which difeharging themfelves all at once produce a
formidable fhock; but by reafon of the fmallnefs of
the charge of each, the fpark is imperceptible, and
cannot break through the leaft fpace of air. The
truth of this was exemplified in Mr Walfh’s artificial
torpedo, which though it would give a very confider-
able fhock through a conductor totally uninterrupted,
yet on the leaft breach therein, even for the breadth
of a hair, no fhock was felt.
In every other refpeCt the eleCtricity of the torpedo
agrees with that ex fbited by the common eleCtrical
machines. An iniulated perfon cannot receive a fhock
by touching one of the eleCtric organs of the fifh ;
but a violent flroke is given to the perfon, whether
infulated or not, who lays one hand on the pofitive and
the other on the negative organ. The fifh, as is rea-
fonable to imagine, feems to have this eleCtric pro¬
perty in its own power ; and appears fenfible of his
giving the fhock, which is accompanied by a kind of
161 winking of his eyes.
Of the filu- The third fifh which is known to have the powrer of
-^ri- giving the fhock, is found in the rivers of Africa, but
we have a very imperfeCt account of its properties (o).
This animal belongs to the order called in Willoughby’s
fyflemfilurus; henceit is commonlycalledfiluruseleBticus.
Some of thole fifties have been feen even above 20 inches
long. The body of the filuru.' eleCtricus is oblong,
fiiiooth, and without feales; being rather large, and flat¬
tened towards its anterior part. The eyes are of a middle
iize, and are covered by the flein which envelopes the
whole head. Each jaw is armed w ith a great number
of i'mall teeth. About the mouth it has fix filamentous
appendices, viz. four from the under lip and two from
the upper ; the two external ones, or farthermofl from
the mouth on the under lip, are the longed. The co-
It I C I T Y. Sea.XIL
lour of the body is greyifh, and towards the tail it has EffeSTTn"
fome blackifh fpots. The eleCtric organ feems to be An‘niab-
towards the tail, where the flein is thicker than on the y"~
reft of the body; and a whitifh fibrous fubflance, which
is probably the eleCtric organ, hasbeendiflinguifhed under
it. It is faid that the filurus eleCtricus has the property
of giving a fhock or benumbing fenfation like the tor¬
pedo, and that this fhock is communicated through fub-
ftances that are conductors of eleCtricity ; but no other
particular about it is known with any confiderable de¬
gree of certainty.
An inquifitive mind will immediately afk, for what
purpofe has nature furmfhed thofe animals with fo
Angular a property ? But the prefent .knowledge of
the fubjeCt feems to furnifh no other anfwer, except
that they are endowed with the power of giving the
fhock for the fake of fecuring their prey, by which
they mud fubfifl, and perhaps of repelling larger ani¬
mals which might otherwife annoy them.
The ancients confidered the fhocks given by the tor¬
pedo as capable of curing vari us diforders; and a mo¬
dern philofopher will hardly hefitate to believe their af-
fertions, after that <eleCtricity has been found to be a re¬
medy for many difeafes.
Befides thefe animals which manifeft their eleCtric Othe elec*
power evidently by giving a drong fhock, there are 1 ani-
others in which the fluid feems to aft by the emiffion mals‘
of light. This indeed has not been proved by aCtual
experiment,tho’ it would certainly be well worth while
to try whether by infulating a number of them, any
more evident figns of eleCtricity could be obtained.
Thefe creatures are of the infeCt tribe; fome of them
furnifhed with wings, as the fhining flies in the warm
countries; while others, as the glow-worm, crawl per¬
petually on the earth. It is mod probable alfo, that
the fparkling of fea-water is owing to the eleCtncity of
the infeCts which occafion it. Be this as it will, how¬
ever, from the indai\ces already adduced, it is certain
that the eleCtric fluid pervades at all times the whole
body of every animal; whence, by exciting or dimi-
nifhing its aCtion, it is reafonable to fuppofe that many
important changes might be made in the human body,
and hence the foundation of Medical EleSricity. 263
Though the effeCts of this fluid as a remedy for dif- Medical
eafes fall particularly to be mentioned under the article e eitnc‘tf‘’
Medicine, we cannot help here taking notice, that a
very drange uncertainty remains concerning what we
ftiould imagine to be its fird and moll obvious effeCts ;
namely, whether Ample electrification has any effeCt in
quickening and augmenting the plilfe ? This was laid
to be the cafe by the fird electricians, but denied by
their fucceffors; and even when the great machine at
Haarlem is made ufe of, it dill remains doubtful whe¬
ther there be any effeCt of this kind or not.
The fhock of the Leyden phial having been found
effectual in removing' fome complaints, the ufe of it
was introduced into the common practice of medicine;
and is dill continued, though a more gentle method of ,
ufing the fluid is now generally preferred. The ap- Appaiatus
paratus for the medical eleCtrician, befides the machine fir apply-
already defcribed, confids of the following parts. 1. An n ,t: tor
pofeiof me*
(o) Meffrs Adanfon and Forfkal make a fhort mention of it, and M. Brouffonet deferibes it under the French-
name of le Tn'inlleur in the Hid. de TAcademie Royale des Sciences for the year 1782.
Sea. XII. ELEC TRICITY. 533
Medical infulating ftool witfi glafs feet, or, what is much bet- tricity. G, the lower part of .which is inclofed in the Medial
. e ‘ICIt^• ter, an arm chair, well rounded at the edges of the pillar Ft is made of wood baked and boiled in linfeed-
wooden parts, and fixed on a large ftool with glafs feet, oil, and bored cylindrically for two-thirds of its length. v
which fhould be at leatt nine or ten inches in length ; The brafs work is fixed to the pillar by the fcrew H,
for the longer the feet are, the better will the infula- and is moveable in the groove /, fo that it may be rai-
tioiv be. The infide part of the buck of the chair fed higher or lower as the height of the jar Z) requires,
fhould move on an hinge, that it may occafionally be A fteel fcrew L paffes through the brafs work, having
let down to the ftool, and fo the back of the patient its threads about x^th of an inch diftant from one ano-
be eleftrified more conveniently ; the arms of the chair ther. To the end of this, and oppofite to K, is fixed a-
fhould be made longer than ordinary. 2. A Leyden hemifpherical and well polifhed piece of brafs; and a
bottle with a difcharging ele&rometer. 3. A pair of brafs ball M, likewife well polifhed, is fixed to the
directors of confiderable fize, with glafs handles and prime conduftor. To this fcrew is annexed a circular
wooden points. 4. A large metallic ball of brafs or plate 0, divided into 12 equal parts ; and in every re¬
copper, with a metallic handle to receive the fparks. volution of this fcrew pointing to the divifions of the
The ball fhould be unfcrewed, and the wire long and fcale N, each of which are equal to one turn of the
fharp pointed to receive the ftream of eleftric fire, fcrew. The ufe of this ele&rometei is to difcharge
5. A few glafs tubes of different bores, fome of them tne jar D, or any battery connected with the prime
with capillary points. 6. Several yards of brafs wire conductor, when the machine is not applied to medical
or chain ; or, which is much better, feveral lengths of purpofes. If a perfon holds a wire faftened to the
wires with loops at the end ; the part of the wire be- fcrew H in one hand, and another wire .(fixed to i? by
tween thefe being covered with fome non-condudting a loop of brafs) palling from the frame of the ma-
fubftance, as a filk ribbon, &c. chine to a tin-plate on which the jar D Hands, or the
CLXXV 'The directors are reprefented by fig. 29. the handles hook £ connected with it, he will perceive no fliock
being of glafs, one of them having a ball on its end when K and M are in contact; and the degree of
reprefented by si; the other is without the ball, ha- explofion, as well as the quantity of ele&ricity accu-
ving its wire<bent for the conveniency of conducing mulated in the jar, will be regulated by the diftance of
the eledtric ftream on the eye, &c. Either of the balls K and M from each other.
maybe unfcrewed from the wires, and the wooden The improved way of applying the difcharging el^c-
point B fcrewed in its place, or the pointed end of trometer to the conductor, is found to be much more
the brafs wire ufed. The glafs handles fhould be held convenient and ready than any ©ther ; as it has alfo
as far from the brafs work as poffible. To convey the the advantage of being ufeful to a jar or battery of any
eleftric fluid to the ear or throat, glafs tubes with fli- fize. See fig. 6. where reprefents the eleCtrometer
ding brafs wires through them fhould be made ufe of, as applied to the conductor ; c d the improved medical'
fuch as are reprefented in fig. 30 jar fufpended at a fmall diftance from it. A fmall glafs
Fig. 31, 32. reprefent the eleCtric forceps, which tube e/is fixed in this jar, a part'of the lower end oF
is thought by fome electricians to be more convenient which is coated.- Two wires pafs through the brafs
for giving the fhock than the directors. Fig. 33. is ball C on the top of this tube ; one of which is con-
the medical jar, with an eleCtrometer, that regulates neCted with the bottom of the jar, and the other goes
the ftrength of the fhock, and enables the operator to only to the internal coating of the fmall tube. The*
give a fuccelfion of them of nearly equal force. On wires are moveable at pleafure, and the jar is fufpend-
the upper part of a bent.piece of glafs C is cemented ed from the conductor by a brafs ring; and a chain or
a brafs focket D, which is faftened to a fpring tube wire muft be fixed to the hook Z at the bottom. From
E; a wire A1 moves in this tube, fo that the ball G a bare infpeCtion of the figure, it appears that the arm
may be fet at any required diftance from the ball H. will receive the fhock by the difcharge of the jar acd:
The end I of the bent piece of glafs is alfo cemented to for, by turning the cylinder round, the jar foon becomes -
a fpring tube, which Aides upon the wire K, communi- charged either with one or both wires in it; and directly
265 eating vvith the infide of the jar. as the charge becomes fufficiently ftrong to pafs thro’
How to To ufe this medical jar, the ball H muft be placed the air, it will explode, and the fluid pafs to the end -
give iifhock jn conta£t with the conductor of the eleCtrical machine, of b next to it, going through the wire to the wrift, and
cu'a>-Ppart' or at beconne&e(l with it by a wire; after which from thence up to the other chain at the fhoulder. By
ofthe body it is to b£ charged in the ufual manner. If a wire reverfing the pofitions or the connections of the two
proceeds from the ball L to the outfide coating, the wires, the progrefs of the fhocks will be reverfed, viz.
jar will be immediately difeharged, as the accumula- from the fhouldcr to the wrift. If the fhort wire alone
tion of the eleCtric fluid is fufficiently powerful to be left in the jar c d, and the difchar ging ball of the
pafs through the fpace of air between the two balls : eleCtrometer abc be placed from a quarter of an inch
hence a (hock may be communicated to the arm by to a whole one from the conductor, a moft delicate-
means of the wires and directors as in the figure, and fmall ftrock may be given, and repeated any number of
it will be ftronger in, proportion as the diftance of the times at pleafure. This is called the electrical vibrating
ball G from H is augmented. This eleCtrometer aCts Jhock.
in the manner of the common difchargvng rod, and- Fig. 31. ^ reprefents the bottle director. It is hoi-Plate
therefore has received the name of the difcharging elec- low, and coated like a common jar, aCting as fueh, ande'-LXXW-
trometer. in fome cafes is looked upon as convenient. With this,
Plate In fig. 6. we have a reprefentation of Mr Lane’s as with the common director, it is proper to prefs the
CLXXIIJ. eleCtrometer applied to the machine for medical elec- ends againft the part where the fliock is to be applied/1
Fige,-
534 E L E C T R
Medical Fig eg. reprefents a fmall pocket eledrical apparatus,
Bleftiicity. w}1jc}1 may fometimes be of ufe for medical purpofes
^ as well as others. It is packed up in a very frnall fize,
CLXXVI. being only five inches long, two broad, and one deep.
a66 It is capable of a tolerable ftrong charge or accumu-
Pocket e- lation of ele&ricify, and will give a fmall (hock to one,
le£tncalap-two> tjlreej or a great;er number of perfons.
paratus. ^ .g Leyden phial or jar that holds the charge;
B is the difcharger to difcharge the jar when required
without ele&rifying the perfon that holds it ; C is a
filk ribbon prepared by a coating of varpilh, fo as to
be excited, and communicate its ele&ricity to the jar;
D are two hair, See. Ikin rubbers, which are to be pla¬
ced on the firft and middle fingers of the left hand, and
ferve to excite the ribbon C.
To charge the jar. Place the two finger-caps D on
the firfl. and middle fitiger of the left hand ; hold the
jar at the fame time at the joining of the red and
black E on the outfide between the thumb and firft
finger of the fame hand; then take the ribbon in your
right hand, and fteadily and gently draw it upwards
' between the two rubbers D, on the two fingers, taking
care at the fame time the brafs ball of the jar is kept
nearly clofe to the ribbon while it is palling through
the fingers. By repeating this operation 12 or 14 times
the eledlrical fire will pafs into the jar, which will be¬
come charged; and by placing the difcharger C againft
it, as in the plate, you will fee a fenfible fpark pafs
from the ball of the jar to that of the difcharger. If
the apparatus is dry and in good order, you will hear
the crackling of the fire when the ribbon is palling
through the fingers, and the jar will difcharge at fome
diftance.
To eleffrify a perfon. You muft defire him to take
the jar in one hand, and with the other touch the knob
of it: or, if diverfion is intended, defire the perfon
to fmell at the knob si of it, in expe&ation of fmelling
the feent of a rofe or a pink : this lalt mode has occa-
fioned it to be fometimes called the magic fmelling bottle.
The following are the principal methods by which
eledtricity may be applied to the human body with a
medical view.
Various I. By merely placing the patient in an infulaled chair,
methods of an(l conneEting him with the prime conductor.—When
IwFmcit’ C" t^e mach‘ne is in aftion, he will thus be filled with
iC1 y‘ the eleftric fluid, which will be continually diffipated
from the points and edges of his clothes : and though
the effefts of this are probably too flow to be rendered
very advantageous, yet a fedentary perfon might per¬
haps derive lome benefit from fitting in an infulated
chair, having before him an infulated table, the chair
to be connefted with the ball of a large charged jar or
battery'; by which means a fmall quantity of the fluid
will be continually palling through thofe innumerable
capillary veffels, on the right ftate of which our health
fo much depends.
2. By throwing the fluid upon, or extraEting it from a
Patient, by means of a wooden point.—This may be ef¬
fected in a twofold manner : ifi. By infulating the pa¬
tient, and connecting him either with the cufhion or
the pofitive prime conductor, the operator prefenting
the point. 2d, Let the patient Hand upon the ground,
and the wire of the director be connected either with
the pofitive or negative parts of the machine. The
I C I T Y. Sea. XII.
fenfation produced by the fluid when aCting in this Medical
manner is mild and pleafing, refembling the foft kleftricity.
breezes of a gentle wind; generating a genial warmth, ’ * f
and promoting the fecretion and dilfipation of tumors,
inflammation's, See.
3. By the electric friEtion.—Cover the part to be rub¬
bed with woollen cloth or flannel. The patient may
be feated in an infulated chair, and rubbed with the
ball of a direftor that is in contaft with the conduc¬
tor; or he may be connected with the conductor,
and rubbed with a brafs ball which communicates with
the ground. The friction thus produced is evidently
more penetrating, more aCtive, and more powerful,
than that which is communicated by the flelh brufh;
and there isvery little fearof being thought too fanguine.
This, when ufed but for a few minutes, will be found
more efficacious than the other after feveral hours appli¬
cation.— EleClricity applies here with peculiar propriety
to fpafm, pleurify, and fome ftages of the palfy ; and in
every cafe anfwers the end of bliftering where the dif¬
charge is not wanted, being the moft fafe and powerful
ftimulant we know.
4. By taking flrong fparks from the patient. Here,
as in every other cafe, the operator may conned the
ball of the diredor with the pofitive or negative con-
dudor, or he may conned the patient with either of
thefe and the ball with the ground. Now it is clear
from what has been already laid down, that if the di¬
redor be conneded with the pofitive condudor, the
fluid is thrown upon the patient, if with the culhion
the fluid is extraCled from him. Let the patient be
infulated, and the adion is in fome meafure reverfed ;
if he is joined to the negative condudor or culhion,
he will receive a fpark from a perfon Handing on the
floor ; but if he communicates with the pofitive con¬
dudor, he will give the fpark to the perfon on the
ground.
5. By caufmg a current of the electric fluid to pafs
from one part of the body, and thus confining and con¬
centrating its operation without communicating the Jhock.
Place the patient in an infulated chair, and touch one
part of the body with a diredor, joined to a pofitive
condudor; then with a brafs-ball communicating with
the ground touch another part; and when the machine
is in adion the fluid will pafs through the required
part from the condudor to die ball ; the force of the
ftream will be different according to the ftrength of
the machine, &c. Or conned one diredor with the
culhion and the other with the pofitive condudor, and
apply thefe to the part through which the fluid ,is to
pals, and when the machine is in adion the eledricity.
will pafs from one ball to the other. It is not necef-
fary to infulate the patient in this cafe.
6. By thejhock. Which may be given to any part
of the human body, by introducing that part of the
body into the circuit which is made between the outfide
and infide of the bottle. This is conveniently effeded,
by conneding one diredor by a piece of wire with the
eledrometer and the other with the outfide of the bottle;
then hold the diredors by their glafs-handles, and ap¬
ply the balls of them to the extremity of the parts
through which the Ihocks are to be paffed. The force
of the Ihock, as we have already obferved, is augment¬
ed or diminilhed by increafing or leffeuing the dillance
5 between
Sea. XIT.
Mescal between the two balls, which muft be regulated by the
E'edtricify. operator to the ftr^ngth and fenfibility of the patient.
Inftead of the common bottle, we may have a fmall one
with a glafs tube proceeding from it, through which
proceeds a wire and hook to hang it upon the machine,
with a longer one from the outfide coating, and which
is to be carried by means of a director to the patient.
When this is ufed as a common bottle, both wires are
to be left there, and the fhock is communicated by
two directors, one connefted with the bottom, the
other with the top. The operator will often find him-
felf embarraffed in giving fmall fhocks, the fluid palling
from the conduftor to the ball of the electrometer,
inftead of going through the circuits he defires: when
this happens, which may be known by the chattering
noife of the fpark, the refiftance formed to the difcharge
is fo great, that the fluid cannot force its way through
the circuit: to remedy this, pafs two metallic pins
through the cloathing, fo that they may be in contaCf
with the Ikin, which will leflen the refiftance and con-
duft the fluid.
y. By a fmjation between a Jhocl and the /park,
which does not communicate that difagreeabk feeling at¬
tending the common Jhock. This is effefted by taking
out the long wire from the fmall medical bottle, and
leaving the Ihorter one which is connected with the
tube in its place, the directors to be connected and
ufed as before. The elfeCt of this fpecies of Ihock, if
it may be called one, is to produce a great vibration in
the mufcular fibres, without inducing that pungent
fenfation which the (hock effects. It is therefore ap¬
plicable to fome ftages of palfy and rheumatifm; it
may alfo ferve as an artificial means of exercife.
fig 31. 8. By the bottle-director. Infulate the patient, and
place one of the balls in contact with him; by which
means this direCtor is charged. Now if a wire is con¬
veyed from the bottom of this to the top of another
director, the bottle-direCtor will be difeharged when¬
ever the other ball h is brought in contaCt with the
patient; fo that by bringing it down with rapidity, any
number of fmall {hocks may be procured in a minuter
or conneCt the infulated patient with the top or iniide
of a large charged jar, and then this apparatus ufed in
the foregoing manner will difcharge from the large
jar at each fpark its own contents, and by repetition
difcharge the whole jar: thus a number of {hocks
may be given without continually turning the'ma¬
chine or employing an affiftant.
9. By pafjing the whole fluid contained in the Leyden
phial through a difeafed part without giving the Jhock.
ConneCt a direCtor, by means of a wire, with the ball
of a Leyden jar ; charge the jar either completely or
partially, and then apply the ball or point of the con¬
ductor to the part intended to be eleCtrified, and the
fluid which was condenfed in the phial will be thrown
on the part in a denfe flow ftream, attended with a
pungent fenfation which produces a confiderable degree
of warmth. If a wire that communicates with the
ground is placed oppofite to the end of the direCtor, the
pafiage of the fluid will be rendered more rapid, and
the fenfation ftronger. Or infulate the patient, con¬
neCt him with the top of a jar, charge this, and then
apply a metal wire or piece of wood to the part thro’
which you mean to make the fluid pafs. It is obvi-
.
ous,'that in this cafe the circuit between the infide Medical
and the outfide of the jar is not completed, therefore £’e&ricity.
the fhock will not be felt. The condenfed fluid paffes v
in a denfe flow ftream through the required part, while
the outfide acquires a fufticient quantity from fub-
ftances near it to reftore the equilibrium.
It is in all cafes moft advifable to begin with the
more gentle operations, and proceed gradually to in-
creafe the force as the ftrength and conftitution of the
patient or the nature of the diforder requires. The
ttream from a wooden point, a wooden ball, or brafs
point, may be firft ufed ; fparks, if neceflary, may
then be taken, or fmall {hocks given.
In rheumatic cafes the eleCtric friCtion is generally
ufed. If the pains are local, fmall {hocks may be
given. To relieve the toothache, very fmall {hocks
may be pafled through the tooth ; or, cover the part
affeded with flannel, and rub it with a direCtor com¬
municating with the machine.
In inflammations and other diforders of the eyes,
th.e fluid Ihould be thrown from a wooden point: the
fenfation here produced is that of a gentle cooling
wind; but, at the fame time, it generates a genial
warmth in the part aflefted.
In palfies, the ele&ric fri&ion and fmall {hocks are
adminiftered. Streams of the fluid ftrould always be
made to pafs through the affeded part.
The only treatife we have yet had from the faculty
on the fubjeCt of medical eledricity is a pamphlet, in-
titled, Confiderations on the Efficacy of Eledricity in
removing Female ObftruCtions, by Mr Birch ; and if
its merits were to be confined to this difeafe alone (in
which it may be reckoned a fpecific), it would be in-
titled to the attention of-praditioners; but we have
reafon to exped much more from it, fince the preju¬
dices of the faculty feem removed, and the pradice is
becoming more general every day.
Sect. XIII. Of the Ufes of the EleElric Fluid in
the Syjicm.of Nature at large.
These are fo many and fo various, that it may be-
faid without much exaggeration, that whether we look
to the heaven above or to the earth beneath, we can
fcaree perceive any thing, that is not aded upon, and
in a manner perfedly fubjeded to the operations of 26^
this wonderful fluid. If we attend to the common Ele&ncity
phenomena of our atmofphere', experiments fhow that
eledricity is conneded with every one of them. Ifdudtbn^
we evaporate water by means of heat, it appears from clouds,ran*,
the experiments of M. Sauflure, related n^ 201. et feq. hail> hoWf
that a ftrong eledricity is produced. If vapour is&c-
condenfed into rain, a quantity of eledricity is alfo
produced ; and if water is frozen into ice, if it defeends
in hail or fnow, eledricity appears to be equally con¬
cerned. When clouds emit their eledricity in great
quantities, they inftantly diflblve in rain ; which is
more or lefs heavy according to the quantity of elec¬
tricity difeharged, as in thunder-ftorms; and when
this quantity is exceffive, a vaft many difeharges are
frequently made before the rain can delcend. Hence
it is reafonable to conclude, that though heat may be
the caufe of the firft rife of vapour, it is the eledric
fluid which unites it with the air in fuch a manner as to-
be
ELECTRIC ITY.
536 E L E C T R
Ufes in the be perfectly diffolved and become tranfparent in it (p).
Samre°f This is confirmed by an obfervation related under the
. article Cloud; namely, that fmall clouds floating in
.the atmofphere will frequently be feen to attradl one
another, and fo meet together ; after which, if they
have been of nearly an equal fize, both will almoft in-
flantly vanifh. Tranfparency itfelf, as we have feen
in many inftances through the courfe of this treatife,
depends on the vibratory motion of the ele&ric fluid ;
and when we are aflured that it depends on this in fe-
veral cafes, we may conclude from analogy that it does
fo in all. In the cafe of vapour diflblved in the atmo¬
fphere, therefore, as long as this particular motion con¬
tinues through it, the vapour remains diflblved and
tranfparent-; but when the ele&ricity comes to be dif-
pofed to aflume the other motion, of which it is ex¬
ceedingly fufceptible, viz. that of running in a ftream
From one place to another, the vibratory motion ceafes,
the vapour formerly diflblved lofes its tranfparency,
and appears in the form in which it was originally
raifed by heat, viz. that of an opaque fmoke or mill.
As this milt mull always be ele&rified (for it is in the
difpofition of the fluid to fly to a diftant place that
eledlricity confifts), the fluid then begins to exert its
power of attraftion, and the mill colledls in bodies
larger or fmaller according to the quantity of motion
with which the eledlric matter is affe&ed: and thus
we fee how by means of this difpofition of the fluid,
cloudy weather, rain, or the moll violent thunder-
269 llorms, may be produced.
■It regulates On looking farther into the operations of nature,
°f we find the eleilric fluid adling in a Hill higher capa-
rent di-" ^*7’ anc* regulating the temperature of the different
mates. climates throughout the world. Under the article
Chemistry, nc99. it has been Ihown, that what is heat
in fummer becomes eledlric fluid in winter; and under
the article Cold, it has been Ihown that cold as well as
heat is a pofitive fubftance. In the prefent treatife it has
heenprovedat length, that the eleftricfluid and the light
of the fun are the fame ; the former being in truth no
other than the folar light abforbed by the earth, en¬
tangled among its particles, becoming fubjecl to new
laws, and ailing in many cafes as if it were a diltinil
fluid. Hence it becomes a proper antagonift to the
light itfelf: for as the latter is only the fluid of elec¬
tricity moving in a vibratory manner, and what we
call eleitricity is the fame fluid either in a compara¬
tively flagnant fituation, or difpafed to run with vio¬
lence from one place to another ; it is plain that the
motion of the light mull be opp fed by the fluid tho’
ftagnant, and much more if it be moving in any oppo-
fite manner. But the a&ion of light when augment¬
ed is heat : the power which oppofes it therefore,
i. e. the ele&ric fluid moving in an oppofite direction,
as explained under Chemistry, n'102. is eo/r/itfelf;
and hence the ftrong electric appearances in the atmo¬
fphere in cold countries, or in cold weather even in
our oVvn country. Hence alfo the ele&ricity of the
No 1,4
I C I T Y. Sea. XII.
ferene fky is weaker in fummer than in winter; and Ufes in the
combullion, which is a very ftrong vibratory action of ®yfleni °f
theeledlric matter, produces no eleblricity, the one ac- atu^e' f
tion being inconfiftent with the other. The ele&ric
fluid therefore regulates the light and heat of the fun
throughout the whole world, and is itfelf regulated by
them ; fo that neither heat nor cold can ultimately
predominate any where.
Defcending from the atmofphere into the earth it- Adis in
felf, we find the eledtric matter no lefs coacerned many va-
there than in the atmofphere. It has been already ob-nous way»
ferved, that its vibratory motion probably gives tranf-"
parency to all bodies. Sometimes this motion is aug- the earth
mented to a great degree, as in the waters of the o- itfelf.
cean, which become unufually clear before tempefts
and hurricanes. Its adlion in producing earthquakes
is explained at large under the article Earthquake,
as well as in fetting fire to volcanoes under the ar¬
ticle Volcano. Like other fluids, its adlion feeips
to gain a great increafe of power when it runs for
a confiderable way along any condudlor. This may
be eafily conceived from the confideration, that the
fubftance along which it runs is every where prefled
by a fluid of the fame kind, which continually ac¬
celerates its motions, and at laft gives them an in-
tenfity capable of adling as the mod vehement fire.
The fadl has been long obferved, and is confirmed
by the experiments of Mt Wilfon in the Pantheon
as well as by thofe of later eledlricians. In the
former, the fpark taken from a vail conductor of
155 feet in length, was fo ftrong that it refembled
the difeharge of a large jar, or rather a fmall bat¬
tery ; and was fo very pungent, that few who had
tried it once would venture on a fecond experiment.
The lateft experiments were made with a number of
tin conductors joined to each others ends: in which ii-
tuation it was found that the fpark taken from them
was much ftronger than when they were laid at each
others fides, though the furface was in both cafes
exaCtly the fame. Hence we fee, that if by any means
the eleClric fluid fhall meet with an unufually good
conduClor for a confiderable way through the earth,
the extremity of that conducting part may be heated,
fet on fire, or violent explofions iffuefrom it; and the
fame thing will take place in the atmofphere. Upon
this principle then may we account for natural hot-bachs;
explofioris fuddenly iffuing from the earth, by which
people have fometimes been killed ; clouds and whirl¬
winds charged with an enormous quantity of eleCtri-
city, and far beyond what in the ordinary way they
could contain, &c.
Thus, to the aCtion of the eleClric fluid we are in an A
efpecial manner to aferibe the temperature of the air tene..riai
throughout the whole globe; all the phenomena ofpheno->ena
rain, fnow, hail, lightning, teropells, and' in all pro-to a(cri*
bability the currents of the air itfelf named 'winds.becl t0 ^
Certain it is at ieail, that every electrified fubllance
has an atinofphere round it refembiing a gentle biaft
• of
(p) In this there appears fome inaccuiacy of exprellion but as it is fomewhat difficult to find terms at
once efficiently accurate and intelligible, we fhall hear obfeive, that by the word heat wc mean tne elctlric
or univerlal fluid moving in a certain manner, viz. from a centre to a circumference ; by coidt - the fame fluid
pveffin ; from a circumference to a centre; by the electric jluid limply, the fame either comparatively ftagnant, or
/moving in any other way than thoiejuft mentioned.
a
Tlate CXDCXDL
Sea. XIH.
ELECTRICITY. i37
and It is alfo very remarkable, that the rofe-pink, or any of the ordinary colours ground very We® in the
Ufes in the of cool .... ,   „   , x , y t 0  t
Syftem of ele<ar;c fluid itfdf cannot be blown away from any fine. TL : * afieft way of applying them feems to be by 8yftem °*
. atu^e~ , fubftance, even by the moft violent blaft of air we can a barber’., puff-bellows. ^atu^e'
imagine.' An undoubted evidence of this is, that if This tendency of the ele&rical fluid to produce ra-
you fet up a fmall ball or pointed body upon the con- unifications in its paflage through other fubftances,
duftor of a ftrong machine, fo that a ftream of elec- is likewiie evident from the figure of the pofitive
trie light may ifiue from it, it will not be in your flafhes deferibed by Mr Nicholfon, and reprefented
power to turn this flame afide in the fmalldl degree by Plate CLXXVIII. It may indeed be objedied, that
the moft violent blaft of a bellows. On the contrary, in both cafes the fluid has to make its way thro’ non-
if any body is prefented to it which has a tendency to conducing fubftances, where it meets with a confider- ’
attradl, the flame will move acrofs the blaft of air di- able refiftance ; fo that the cafe cannot be applicable
reftly contrary to it, or in the fame direttion with it,. to vegetation, where a ready conduftor is always found
the very fame manner as if no fuch thing was pre- in’ the moifture with which the earth abounds. But
fent. As the eledtric fluid therefore a&s independent
of the air, and cannot have its motions controlled by
it, it is highly probable that all the motions of the at-
mofphere are controlled by this fluid alone : and in¬
deed if vve allow it to be the proper antagonift to the
light of the fun itfelf, we muft readily allow it alfo to
be the regulator of every other power on this earth.
Its effedls on vegetaiion have been treated of in the
the caufe ol laft fedfion, though we cannot certainly fay that it is
vegetation tjie original caufe of this procefs. It feems, however,
to be the true caufe of Crystallization; which, as
remarked under that article, probably is only an inci¬
pient or imperfedf vegetation. The moft convincing
proof of this is from the experiments of Mr Lichten-
*7*
I I*, probably
if we confider that the earth, and everything contain¬
ed in it, is already faturated with eledfric matter, it
muft readily appear that no new quantity can be for¬
ced into it without meeting with a confiderable refift¬
ance ; and therefore it will branch out and divaricate
in the very fame manner when pafling through the
earth, that it does when artificially fent through the air,
or made to diffufe itfelf on the furface of an eledfric
fubftance. If in the earth it meets with fuch particles
as ferve to facilitate its paffage, thefe will be arranged
according to the diredtion of the fluid itfelf; and thus
thefe particles being confolidated by other powers, or
by eledlricity itfelf adling in a different manner, may be
fuppofed to affume the figures of branched roots;
berg with a latge eledtrophorus; in which the knob of while the continual accumulation of new matter aug-
an eledtrified phial being drawn over the furface of the
eledtric plate, finely powdered rofin afterwards fifted
upon the place affumed the figure of ftars and other
beautiful ramifications, indicating not only an inclina¬
tion -to arrange itfelf in the fame regular order wuth
the cryftals of falts, but to run out into branches like
thofe of vegetables. Thefe experiments have been re-
Curi«us fi- peated to great advantage by the Reverend Mr Ben-
gures made net, according to whofe method the figures reprefent-
byt-meansedjn piate CLXXIX were made. The apparatus ufed
nHhed plate f°r making them confifted only of a common Leyden
cf glafs. phial, and a plate of glafs 15 inches fquare covered
on one fide with a varnilh of gum lac'diffolved in fpi-
rit of wine (qJ, and feveral times laid over. The other
fide is covered with tin-foil laid on with common pafte.
When it is to be ufed, the glafs-plate is put upon a
metallic Hand with the tin-foiled fide laid undermoft ;
the phial is to be charged, and the knob drawn .over
the varnifhed fide. Thus any kind of figure may be
■drawn or letters made as reprefented in the plate; and
from every figure beautiful ramifications will proceed,
longer or ftiorter according to the ftrength of the
charge. On fome occafions, however, the charge may
be too ftrong, particularly where we wilh to reprefent
mentsthem in bulk, and is what we call growth of
the plant, or its drawing nourifhment from the ground.
It is not indeed pretended that we can explain the
manner in which plants grow ; the utmoft we can do is
to attain fome flight and general idea of the caufe,
and how by the adlion of that caufe, dire&ing itfelf ac¬
cording to the laws given it by the Author of nature,
the effedls may be produced. This is fufficient to fa-
tisfy the curiofity natural to the human mind : a far¬
ther knowledge would not only be entirely ufelefs,
but in all probability is inconfiftent with the limited
ftate of our faculties at prefent. What is here faid
concerning vegetation, may be applied equally to the
formation and growth of animal bodies; but this fub-
jeft is ftill more obfeure and difficult: it has been fup¬
pofed by many, however, that the nervous fluid is the
fame with that of ele&ricity; for which many probable
reafons might be affigned, though the fubtilty and in-
vilibility of both muft for ever prevent us from obtain¬
ing any direft proof on this fubjedl. -
When we confider the reft of the terreftrial pheno-js the cam's
mena, we find the fame fluid concerned in every one dfof magne-
them, or rather a<Stitig as their only caufe. There istihn, and '
not in nature a more furprifing phenomenon than that
letters, fo that the whole will be blended into one con- of the magnet; and this, by repeated experiments, has^f every
fufed mafs. The round figures are formed by placing ——A  J — -i~a1v'f -
metallic rings or plates upon the ele&rical plate ; and
then giving them a fpark from the eleftrified bottle, or
fending a (hock through them. The figures may be
rendered permanent by blowing off the loofe chalk,
and clapping on a piece of black-fized paper upon
them ; or if they are wanted of another colour, they
may eafily be obtained by means of lake, vermilion,
Vol.VI. Part II.
been proved to depend on eleftricity. Magneticalkind.
needles have often been endowed with their virtue by
means of artificial eleftricity, and iron, has been known
to receive it from lightning ; whence we may reafori-
ably conclude, that the power of the magnet at all times
depends upon the fecret operation of the ele&ric fluid.
By extending its power to theproduftion of attraftive
and repulfive forces in all cafes, and which from many
3 Y na-
(qJ Two ounces of ftiell-lac powdered and mixed with fix ounces of fpirit of wine anfwersyery well for this
purpofe. The glafs muft be watfned, 'and the varnilh fpread upon it with a camel’s hair pencil. Care tnuft be
taken, however, not to lay it on too thick, otherwife the effed will not follow.
530 ELECTRICITY. Sea.XIIL
Ufes ip the natural phenomena is extremely probable, we (hall ftill
Nature S'v£; ^ a rank >n the fyftem of nature. We
. , iball now find it guiding the planets, in their courfes
thrcugh the heavens, giving liability and cohefion not
only to terreftrial fubftances, but to the globe of
475 earth itfelf, and to all other bodies in the univerfe.
CountTref» A fyftem of natural philofophyon this principle was
in the year 1747, and lately publilhed by the
philofophy. Count de Treffan. In this the eledlric fluid is confi-
dered as the firft principle of motion in the univerfe,
and the immediate agent by which the fyftem of na¬
ture is governed. According to him, the fixed liars
themfelves are no other than as many foci of a&ion
communicating ele&ricity to their furrounding planets,
which have eledric atmofpheres of different extents.
He ftiows the operation of the fluid in all the different
phenomena of earth, air, water, lire, &c. defcending
even to the moll minute, as well as confidering the
moll grand and fublime, exhibitions of nature. That
the eledric fluid is capable of imitating many of thefe
phenomena, is certain ; as for example, thofe of earth¬
quakes, water-fpouts, tides, &c. of which an account
is given under their proper articles. By means of the
fame fluid alfo we may imitate the planetary motions ;
and for this feveral contrivances have been fallen upon :
the principal are as follow.
Methods of 1- From the prime condu&or of an eledric ma-
imitating chine, fufpend fix concentric hoops of metal at diffe-
the planeta- rent, diftances from one another, in fuch a manner as
motions. to reprefent Jn fome meafure the proportional diftances
of the planets. Under thefe, and at the diftance of
about half an inch, place a metallic plate, and upon
this plate, within each of the hoops, a glafs-bubble
blown very thin and light. On ekdrifying the hoops,
the bubbles will be immediately attraded by them,
and will continue to move round the hoops as long as
the elcdrification continues. If the eledricity is very
ftrong, the bubbles will frequently be driven off, run
hither and thither on the plate, making a variety of
furprifing motions round their axis; after which they
will return to the hoop, and circulate as before; and if
the room is darkened, they will all appear beautifully
illuminated with eledric light.
2. Provide a ball of cork about three quarters of an
inch in diameter, hollowed out in the internal part
by cutting it in two hemifpheres, fcooping out the
infide, and then, joining them together with, pafte.
Having attached this to a filk thread between three
and four feet in length, fufpend it in fuch ia manner
that it may juft touch the knob of an eledric jar, the
cutfide of which communicates with the ground. On
the firft contad it will be repelled to a confiderable di¬
ftance, and after making feveral vibrations will remain
ftationary ; but if a candle is placed at feme diftance
behind it, fo that the ball may be between it and the
bottle, the ball will inftantly begin to move, and will
turn round the knob of the jar, moving in a kind of
ellipfis as long as there is any eledricity in the bottle.
This experiment is very ftriking,. tho’ the motions are
far from being regular ; but it is remarkable that they
always affed the elliptical rather than the circular form.
3. Cut a piece of India paper in the fliape of
an ifofceles triangle, whofe fides are about two
inches long, and two-tenths of an inch in breadth ;
then ered a hraf* ball of two or three inches dia¬
meter on a brafs wire one-fixth of an inch in thick-Ufes in the
nefs, and two feet fix, inches long, on the prime con- of
dudor: eledrify the condudor, and then bring the ' '
obtufeend of tlie; piece of paper within the atmofphere
of the ball; let.it go, and it will revolve round the
ball, turning often round its own axis at the fame time.
We (hall not here enter into any fpeculations com- oi,jedhotis
cerning.the way in which it might be fuppofed poffible from an ei-
to produce the planetary motions by means of the ef- penment of
flux of the fun’s light, and the return of the eledric Mr,Mor's
fluid towards him. Before we can make excurfions
into thefe celeftial fpaces, it is abfolutely neceffary to
remove an objedion deiced from Mr Morgan’s exper
riment, that the eledric fluid cannot pervade a perfed
vacuum ; and from which he concludes, that the elecr
trie fluid cannot pafs beyond the limits of our atmor
fphere. On this experiment, however, we muft obr
ferve, that though it were really proved in a much more
decifive manner than is done by this experiment, that
the fluid cannot be artificially driven through a va¬
cuum, this would not prove that it cannot naturally
pafs through it, unlefs we (hould fuppofe the powers,
of nature and of art to be equal to one another. But;
that even the powers of art, in Mr Morgan’s experi¬
ment, have not a fair chance of fuccefs, is evident from .
an infpedion of fig. 80. Here he endeavours to force .
the eledric fluid through a long courfe of perfed va¬
cuum, and finds the power of his machine infuffieient
for the purpofe. Yet one of Mr Morgan’s own expe;-
riments might have led him to vary this one in fnch a
manner as would perhaps have (hown the poflibility of
tranfmitting the fluid through the mod perfed vacuum ,
that can be made. He informs us, that, a fpark, which
in the open air cannot exceed one quarter of an inch
diameter, will appear to fill the whole of an exhaufted
receiver four inches wide and eight inches long; tho’ '
in the latter cafe it will be excellively faint in compa-
rifon with what it w.ould. have been in the atmofphere:
yet, in order to prove that the faintpefs of the eledric
light in vacuo depends on the enlarged fpace through
which it is diffufed,we have only to introduce two point¬
ed wires into the vacuum, fo that the fluid may pafe
from the point of the. one to the point of the other ; and
when the diftance between, them is not more than the
tenth of an inch, in. this cafe we (hall find, the fpark 3$
bright as in the open air.
The inference to be derived from, this experiment is
obvious. Had Mr Morgan, inftead of attempting to
caufe the fluid pafs through the whole length of the.
vacuum, put two. wires in the infide at a fmall diftance
from each other, as deferibed in the experiment juft
now mentioned, it is very probable that the fluid
would have made its way through that fmall diftance.
It muft be acknowledged indeed, that, confidering the
very great difficulty of making this experiment at any
rate, we could fcarce expeft that this additional
trouble could be taken : but without this, or fome-
thing equivalent, bis conclufion, cannot by any means
be allowed ta be juft ; nor, even if it. bad been tried,
would it have determined the queftion in his favour.
The great difficulty in. this experiment is to give a
reafon why in a certain degree of exhauftion the va¬
cuum (hould be fo eafily penetrated by the fluid, and
in another (hould make fuch refiftance; but the follow¬
ing confiderationi will probably throw feme light op
2
Tlate Cl,XXX.
^,v/;
EXEC TRIG ITT.
6V.
{Sr't/t. //tr/.'. /#?/#*/.
■—'t' ■
Sea. XIII. ELECT
Ufes in the this fubjeft. : I. In ail cafes where the fluid is obliged
feature to pervade the fubftance of any medium whatever, it
. a u^c' moves'with difficulty. Thus, if a vaft quantity of elec-
: tricity is feht through a fmall wire, the refiftance it
* meets with is fo great that the wire is difperfed with
' violence ; and if the battery is large, it cannot be totally
• difcharged, as was the cafe with Dr Van Marum’s bat¬
tery, mentioned n° 150. Again, if the fpark be taken
vin water, a moll violent explofion takes place; and yet
both metals and water are good conductors of eleftri-
city. 2. In all cafes where we fet the eleftric fluid in
motion, the utmoft we can do is to give it a tendency to
circulate; and unlefs we allow it to do fo, no electricity
will be produced. Thus, if we extricate the fluid from
the earth by means of an electrical machine, difcharge
it upon a conductor, and form a communication be¬
tween that and another part of the earth, the circula¬
tion will go on very readily, and the fluid will eafily
return to the place from whence it came. If the com¬
munication betwixt the earth and conductor be cut off
by an electric, the circulation will neverthelefs go on ;
the fluid will evaporate in the air, and from thence
reach the earth by channels inviftble to us. The effect
will be the fame in all cafes where its motion in a cer¬
tain direction is flopped : but what we call flopping
it, is only rendering its paffage more difficult in
one particular place than in another; for as to any
abfolute flop or impediment, fuch as could refill
the whole force of the fluid, as Mr Morgan fuppofes,
there is not the leaft probability that it exifts in na¬
ture. The whole that can be inferred from Mr Mor¬
gan’s experiment therefore is, that the eledlric fluid
will more readily evaporate and pafs filently thro’ the
air than through a complete vacuum. The queftion,
however, ftill recurs: Since this fluid paffes very readily
through rarefied air, why does it hefitate after a certain
degree of rarefaction, and at laft flop altogether when
the air is totally exhaufted ? To this it may be replied,
that when air is heated it becomes lefs eleftric than
when cold, and by an increafe of heat becomes at laft
an excellent conductor. On the other hand, by an in*
creafe of cold its eleftric properties become propor-
tionably greater, and confequently the difficulty with
which the fluid gets through it increafes in proportion.
Under the article Elastic Vapours, it is ftiown that
R t C I T Y. 539
the true principle of elafticity is heat; and under the Vfes in the
article Chemistry, n° 99. it is Ihown, that heat and of
electricity are convertible into one another. In proper- ‘ f
tion as the air is rarefied, therefore, it abforbs heat, and
confequently becomes a better conductor ; but when it
is totally exhaufted, nothing remains but the fluid of
electricity itfelf; the fame indeed with that of heat, but
deprived of motion, and confequently capable of ma¬
king a much greater refiftance. Now the ftrongeft
fpark that can be drawn from any of our machines per¬
haps does not equal -rg^th of an inch in diameter, as
appears from the holes made by them in paper or cards-
when pierced, as directed in Sect. VIII. But when a
perfect vacuum is made, this fmall fpark is obliged tor
act upon a cylinder of electric matter perhaps 6000 or
7000 times greater in diameter than itfelf, each point
of which refills with the whole force the explofion it¬
felf has ; and what is worfe, the whole of this mull be
put in motion before any difcharge can be made. The
refiftance therefore is fo violent, that the fluid rather
paffes through the air as already explained : neverthe-
lefs, if it were poffible to make aperfedl vacuum of na
greater diameter than that of the eledlric fpark, there
is no reafon to fuppofe that it would not be penetrated
by it; and of this Mr Morgan’s experiments with the
two wires above mentioned feems to be a confirmation.
On the whole, it is evident, that we cannot from this
or indeed any other experiment argue againft the poffi-
bility of the paffage of the eleclric fluid from any part
of the creation to another. IVe canrtot force it, it is
true, becaufe it is difpofed by its own natural laws to
refill our efforts; but where it is difpofed by thefelaws
to yield in one place, there will undoubtedly be a current
of it thither from fome other, which we would find our-
felves equally unable to Hop by all the machines that
ever have been or will be invented. There is as yet
therefore not the leaft proof that the eledlric fluid does
not pervade the moll diftant regions of fpace, and there
perform all thofe great operations which have been a-
feribed to unknown and inexplicable powers. For a
further account of the operations of this fluid in pro¬
ducing the phenomena of nature, fee the articles At¬
mosphere, Aurora Borealis, Earthquake, Hail,
Hurricane, Lightning, Meteor, Rain, Snow*
&c.
INDEX.
A
AcharA's obfervations on the
divifion of the fcale of an e-
ledlrometer, n° 183.
JEpinus’s experiments on the
electricity of melted fulphur
poured into metal cups, 53.
Agate, when difeovered to be
an eleCtric fubftance, 1.
Air of a room, how eleftrified,
94. How to charge a plate
of it, 95. Penetrated by the
eleftric fluid, ib. Electrici¬
ty only Ihows itfelf in the
air, 106. Changes the co¬
lour of the ekClric light by
admiffion into a vacuum, 132.
Experimentson various kinds
of it with the great machine
at Haarlem, 179. Is al¬
ways pofitively eleCtrified,
200. Its eleftricity may be
determined by a large elec¬
trometer, 241. See Atmo-
fphere.
Amalgam for eleClrtcal purpo-
fes, bell madp of mercury
and zinc, 21. Mr Nichol-
fon’s directions for preparing
it, 169.
Amber, its eleCtric properties
difeovered by Thales, t.
Gives the name to eleCtric
fubftances from its Latin
name EleSrum, 2. Account
of its eleCtric properties, 53.
Animal fluids favour the paf¬
fage of the eleCtric flalh over
their furface, 92.
Animals, fome naturally eleCtri-
fied, 254.
Apparatus, ehBrical, deferibed,
p. 424. Directions for u-
fing and making experiments
with it, p. 465.
Atmofphere : vifible eleCtric one,
p. 469, n° 13. The elec¬
tric fluid fuppofed not to
3
reach beyond the atmofphere
of the earth, 137. How to
colleCt a great quantity of
eleCtricity from it, 189.
How high it is neceffary to
raife conductors in order to
produce figns of eleCtricity,
191. How to obferve the
eleCtricity of the atmofphere,
192. Obfervations on the
eleCtricity of it, 195. A
periodical flux and reflux
obferved in the eleCtricity of
the atmofphere, 196. M.
Sauffure’s obfervations upon
it in an extraordinary degree
2 of
540
of cold, 197. Of the maxi¬
mum and minimum of elec¬
tricity in the atmofphere,
198. The eleftricity weak¬
er in fummer than in win¬
ter, 199. Sauffure’s attempt
to inveftigate the caufe of
atmofpherical electricity, 201.
The upper parts of the at¬
mofphere abound-with elec¬
tric matter, 234. Inftru-
ments for bringing it down
from thence, meafuring it,
See. S'ee £kdro-vegetorneter.
Electrometer, and Kite.
Attraction and repulfion difeo-
vered by Sir Ifaac Newton
to penetrate glafs, 3. Per¬
petual attraction in fome e-
leCtrics, difeovered by Mr
Grey, 6. Strong attraCtiou
and repulilon between elec¬
trified .filk ftockings, 43.
Why eleCtric attraction and
repulfion penetrate glafs, 71.
The caufe of them particu¬
larly inveftigated, 104.
Shown by experiment, p.
467. n° 2. Attraction of
every kind probably caufed
by eleC^ricity, 274.
Aurum Mujivwn may ferve in-
itead of amalgam for excit¬
ing a cylinder, 21.
B
Baled 'wood, bell rubber for it,
n° 24. . Its eleCtrical phe¬
nomena, 53.
Baldwin, M. Loammi, in dan¬
ger from a great quantity of
eleCtricity brought down by
a kite, 171.
Balloons: curious experiment
with two inflammable air
ones, 180.
Balls, dancing, p. 473, n° 29.
Of the difpofition of brafe
balls to receive eleCtricity,,
according to the length of
their ftems, 176.
Bertholon, Abbe, on the efleCts
of eleCtricity on vegetation,
334> etM-
Battery, electrical, deferibed, 38.
Why the jars of a battery
are fometimes apt to break,
39. Mr Brookes’s method
of conftruCting batteries, 40.
Prieftley’s experiments of
fending the fhocks of batte¬
ries over the furface of diffe¬
rent bodies, 89—92. Pro¬
digious power of the battery
©f the great machine in Tey-
ier’s mufeum at Haarlem,
E L E C T R
143, 144. Calculation of
the force of its explofion,
145. Lengths of wire melt¬
ed by it, 146. Wires fhort-
ened by the difeharge, 149.
A complete difeharge can¬
not be made by very fmall
wires, 150. Curious pheno¬
mena produced by its explo¬
fion , upon tin-wire, 151.
Accounted for, 152. With
wire compofed of equal parts
of lead and tin, 153. Stains
on paper made by its explo-
fions, 154. Its effeCls on
metals confined in phlogifti-
cated air, 155. In dephlo-
giflicated air, 156. Pheno¬
mena of metals calcined in
water, 157. Phenomena of
earthquakes imitated by it,
158. Brookes’s experiments
on the force of eleCtrical
batteries in melting wires,
159. Lead more eafily de-
ftruCtible than any other me¬
tal, 160. A violent flafh
and explofion from the dif¬
eharge of a battery, 161.
Beatification, an imaginary pro-
cefs of Mr Bofe, 11.
Beccaria’s fubflitute for glafs in
the conflruCtion of an elec¬
tric battery, 26. His expe¬
riments on glafs plates, 48.
His hypothefis concerning
excitation, 79. Plis experi¬
ments to fhow that the elec¬
tric fluid throws light con-
duCling fubftances before it,
in order to facilitate its paf-
fage from one place to ano¬
ther, 124.
Bells eleClrified, p. 475, n° 35'.
Bennet\ eledrometer deferibed,
211. Its extreme fenfibility,
213. Confiderably augment¬
ed by having a lighted can¬
dle placed upon it, 213. Ap¬
plied to eleftrical kites, 214.
Various experiments fhow-
ing its great fenfibility, 215.
How to make experiments
with it on the evaporation
of water, 21 6. Objections
by Mr Cavallo to his dou¬
bler, 222. Improvements
on it byMrNicholfon,which
render it lefs liable to objec¬
tion, 229.
Bergman’s directions for cau-
fing eleCtrical globes aCt well,
45-
Bladder, eleCtrified, p. 472.
n° 2 7..
I C I T Y.
Blajling of vegetables fuppofed
to be an effeCt of lightning,
246.
Bolognian Jlone, artificial, illu¬
minated by eleCtric light, p.
468, n° 9.
Bofe’s account of the eleCtric
properties of jet and am¬
ber being difeovered, 1.
Glafs globes introduced by
him, 8. His enthufiafm
concerningthe eleCtric (hock,
10. His imaginary procefs
of beatification, 1 i. Obliged
by Dr Watfon to own the
fallacy of his experiment, il.
Bottles, how cemented fo as to
be ufeful after having been
broken by a difeharge, 41.
Boxwood, how rendered lumi¬
nous by the eleCtric fliock,
p. n°477, 41. SplitbyVan
Marum’s large machine 147.
2?<y/e’sdifcoveries in eleCtricity,
2.
Brooles’s method of confi.ruc-
ting batteries, 40. His ce¬
ment for mendingbottles bro¬
ken by a difeharge, 41. His
method of making mercurial
gages perfectly free from air,
p.484,«.E. His experiments
on the force of batteries, 159.
His experiments on the Ley¬
den phial, p. 497. n° 157.
His electrometer, 183.
C
Candle, lighted, increafes the
fenfibility of Bonnet’s elec¬
trometer, 213.
Canton’s experiments on the du¬
rability of the eleCtric virtue
in glafs, 52.
Card, or other fubftance, how
pierced by the eleCtric ex¬
plofion, p. 470, n° 16. Ef¬
feCt of a fhock fent over the
furface of it, p. 471, 17.
Catalogue of eleCtric fubftances.
Caterpillars do vaft damage to
vegetables, 248. Eafily de-
ftroyed by an eleCtric fhock,
249. How deftroyed in the
root of a tree, 251.
Cavallo’s experiments with glafs
tubes, 51. His folution of
a difficulty concerning the
repulfion of bodies negative¬
ly eleCtrified, 68. This fo¬
lution infufficient, 69. His
obfervations on the continu¬
ance of the virtue of the e-
leCtrcphorus, 113. Various
experiments with it, 1,14.
Indfx.
Miftakes in his obfervations,
115. His experiments on
colours, p. 478, col. 1. His
experiments with an impro¬
ved air-pump on the paffage
of the eleCtric matter thro’
a vacuum, 138. Conclufions
from them, 139. Hisinftru-
ment for obfervfng the elec¬
tricity of the atmofphej-e,
217. His diflertation on
meafuring fmall quantities of
eleCtricity,220. His opinion
of the method by which thefe
might be mcafured,223. Ce¬
ment proper to be ufed for
eleCtrical purpofes, 17. Mr
Brookes’s cement for jars
broken by an eleCtrie dif¬
eharge, 41.
Chain ftiortened by the eleCtric
fliock, 81.
Charcoal, in what manner the
eleCtric fluid pafles through
it, 97.
Cigna’s experiments on ribbons,
44.
Clay fwelled, and tubes broken
by the eleCtric explofion, p.
471. n°1$.
Coating for globes, moft proper
compofition for that purpofe,
18. Directions for coating
jars, 25.
Coiffier, a joiner in France, the
firft who took a fpark from
a rod eleCtrified by thunder,
‘fl¬
ew makes water eleCtric, 128.
M. Saufiure’s obfervations on
the atmofpherical eleCtricity
in a very great degree of
cold, 197.
Colours: Mr Cavallo’s experi¬
ments on them, p.478 col.i.
Combufiion produces no figns of
eleCtricity, 210.
Condenfer: M. Volta’s deferibed,
221. Its defeCls,
Conducting power of various fub¬
ftances afeertained by means
of an electrometer, 187.
Conductors diftinguifhed from e-
leCtrics by M. du Fay, y.
Ufed for preferving houfes
from lightning, 16. Whether
the eleCtric fluid pervades
their fubftance, 80. Of the
difeharge of eleCtricity by
fparks on blunt conductors
and filently by pointed ones,
105. The luminous conduc¬
tor; p. 468. n° 10. Different
metals compared as conduc¬
tors, 148. How to prpduce
both.
Index.
both deftricities in the fame
condu&or, p. 501. n° 165.
Contaft: Difficulty of bringing
bodies into that ftate, 80.
Cotfon de&rified, p.472. n° 26.
Cuntcus, one of the firft who
exhibited the Xeyden phial,
and from whom it took its
name, 9.
Cylinders of glafa, &c. ufed for
electric purpofes, 17. Why
an exhaufted cylinder can¬
not be excited, 101. Nor
one filled with- condenfed
air, 102. State of the infide
of one during excitation,
162. Effe&s of different
cylinders excited after Mr
Nicholfon’s improved me¬
thod, 170. Why the cy¬
linder of an ele&ric machine
always retains fome electri¬
city, 226.
D.
I)aTilard, M. the firfl in Eu¬
rope who erected an appara¬
tus for atmofpherical dedri-
city, 13.
Dancing Balls, p. 4.73, n° 29.
Delor, M. erects an apparatus
for atmofpherical dedricity,
13- . .
Dtphlogijlicated Air: how to fire
a piece of iron wire in it,
p.476. n° 38. Effedsofthe
great Haarlem machine on
metals confined in this kind
of air, 156. >
Diamonds: their dedric light
obferved by Mr Boyle, 2.
Difcharger oi elcdricity deferi-
bed, 36. Mr Henley’s uni-
verfal difcharger, ib.
Difcharging Rod deferibed,
27.
Doubler oi dedricity, Mr Ben-
net’s objeded to by Cavallo,
222. Improved by Mr Ni-
, cholfon, 229.
Du Fay difeovers the vitreous
and refinous dedricities, 8.
His hypothefis of two elec¬
tric fluids, 56.
Dujl driven off from a brafs
chain by a ftrong dedric
fliock, 80.
E
Earthquakes: their phenomena
imitated withthegreat Haar¬
lem machine, ^158.
EJJluvia, unduous, fuppofed to
be the caufe of the pheno¬
mena of dedricity, 55.
Eggs, how rendered luminous
E L E C T R
by the eledsic fpark, p. 476.
n° 40.
EleBric Subjlances deferibed, p.
418, col. 1. Several of them
difeovered >by Mr Gilbert,
n 2. Difference between
them and condudors difeo¬
vered by Mr Gray, 5. Per¬
petual attradive power dif¬
eovered in them by him, 6.
Identity of the dedric fluid
and lightning fupported by
Dr Frankl in, 12. His fuf-
picions verified, 13. Cata¬
logue of eledric fubllances,
with their different powers,.
42. Objedions to the af-
figning any dedric power
to metals, 432, col 2. Elec¬
tric fubftances and conduc¬
tors approximate each other
in their properties, ib. Elec¬
tric fubftances, how divided,
ib. Durability of the elec¬
tric virtue of glafs in fome
cafes, 52. Two eledric
fluids fuppofed by M.du Fay,
56. The dedric matter fup¬
pofed to come from the
earth, 57. Difficulty in de¬
termining its courfe, 59.
Different opinions concern¬
ing its nature, 61. Is found
to ad according to the quan¬
tity of furface, 64. Cannot
be proved repulfive of itfelf,
78. Whether it pervades
the fubftance of condudors,
80. A chain fhortened by
the dedric fliock. 81. An
inquiry into its nature, p 450.
Proved to be the fame with
elementary fire or the light
of the fun, ib. eol. 2. Gun¬
powder fired by the eledric
blaft, ib. np 83. Its adion
compared with that of light,
84. Identity of dedric mat¬
ter and light farther confi-
dered, ib. Eledrie fubftances
proved to be penetrated by
the ekdric fluid, 85. Light
proved to be a vibration of
it, 88. Of the paffage of
the dedric fluid over the
furface and through the fub-
ilance of different bodies, 89,
et feq. Circular fpots pro¬
duced by its explofions, 93.
The fluid pervades the fub¬
ftance of eledrics, but gene¬
rally moves over the furface
of condudors, ib. Globes
burft by the fluid, 96. Proofs
I C I T Y.
ofitspaffing over the furface
of condudors, 97. Is re¬
filled by the vacuum of an
ordinary pump, ib. The vaft
ftrength and velocity of the
eledric fluid occafioned by
the mutual adion of the air
and fluid upon themfdves
and one another, ib. The
fluid is not repulfive of itfelf,
98. In what manner an e-
ledric fubftance becomes ex¬
cited, or diffufes its eledric
virtue, 99. Proofs of the
vibratory motion of the elec¬
tric fluid, too. Eledric fub¬
ftances of the fame kind will
not produce any dedricity
by being rubbed upon each
other, 102. Howto deter¬
mine the diredion of the
fluid, 104. Eledric attrac¬
tion and repulfion accounted
for, ib. Why eledric ap¬
pearances continue fo long,
105. Why a motion of the
eledric fluid on one fide is
fuddenly propagated round
any body, 107. Star and
pencil of eledric light ex¬
hibited, p. 467, n05- Elec¬
tric light flafhing between
two metallic plates, p. 468,
n° 7. Artificial Bolognian
ftone illuminated by eledric
light, ib. n" 9. The vifible
eledric atmofphere, p. 469.
n° 13. To pierce a card by
the eledric explofion, p.470.
n 16. To fwell clay and
break fmall tubesby itsmeans,
p. 47i.n°i8. To make the
eledric fpark vifible in wa¬
ter, ib. n0 19. Metals cal¬
cined and revived by the e-
ledric (hock, n° 123. The
fluid throws light conduding
fubftances before it, 124.
Dr Prieftley’s experiments
on this fubjed, 125. Ex¬
periments concerning the ve¬
locity of the fluid, 126.
Sometimes it feems to move
more flovvly, 127. Water
becomes eledric by cold,
128. Eledricfubftances-be-
come condudors by heat,
129. Changes of colour in
the ekdric light by the ad-
miffion of air into a vacuum,
132. Tubes perforated by
the eledric fpark, x 34. Why
the fluid afi’umes the form of
a fpark, 135. Suppofed by
54'
Mr Morgan not to reach be¬
yond the limits of our atmo¬
fphere, 137. Eledlric light
always vifible in the nloft
perfedly exhaufted receiver,
140. Diminiflies in a great
degree, of rarefadion, 142.
The fluid fuppofed by Van
Marum to ad in a different
manner from fire, 147. Dr
Prieftley’s experiments on
the effeds of eledric fluid
on different kinds of air,
181. Sauffure’s conjedure
concerning the nature of the
fluid, 207.
Electrical Apparatus for the pock¬
et, 265.
Electricity defined, p.41 S.col. r.
Definitions of terms ufed in
the fcience, ib. Hiftory of
it, p. 419. When firft men¬
tioned, nG 1. Difcoveries in
it by Mr Gilbert and Mr
Boyle, 2. By OttoGuericke
and Sir IfaacNewton, 3. By
Mr Haukfbee, 4. By Mr
Gray, 5, 6, 7. By M. du
Fay, 8. By M. Van Kleift,.
9. By Cunseus, ib. Sup¬
pofed difcoveries by Bofe and
others, 11. By Dr Frank¬
lin, Dalibard, &c, 12, 13.
By Signior Volta, 16. Ap¬
paratus for exciting it, p.
424. et feq. Different theo¬
ries of it, p. 440. Theory of
unduous effluvia by the firfl
eledricians, n0$$. Of two
eledric fluids by M. du Fay,.
56. Of afflux and efflux by
Dr Watfon, 38. Of two
fets of pores along with the
afflux and efflux by the Ab¬
be Nollet, 60. Of the iden¬
tity of the eledric fluid with
the ether of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton byMrWilfon, 62. Great
power of eledricity accumu¬
lated by fome philofophers,
63. Dr Franklin’s theory
of plus and minus, or pofi-
tive and negative eledricity,
6 j. Proofs of atmofpherical
eledrisity, 73. Great quan¬
tity of eledricity drawn down
from a cloud by M. Cavallo,
75. Attempt to explain the
phenomenaofeledricityfrom
the known laws by which
fluids ad upon one another,
p. 450. Reafon of the pro¬
digious power of eledricity,
n° 99. Pofitive and negative
ELECTRICITY.
ele&ricity explained, 103.
Methods of changing them
into one another, 103. Its
4i (charge by fparks on blunt
conduftors, and filently on
pointed ones, 103. Shows
itfelf only in the air, 106.
Why'pofitive electricity tends
to introduce the negative
kind, 106. Zones of pofi-
tive and negative eleftricity
accounted for, 108. Rules
for uling the apparatus and
performing experiments in
de&ricity, p. 465. Enter¬
taining experiments, p. 467.
■ To draw off the electricity
iilently from the prime con¬
ductor by a point, p. 472.
110 25. The fpider feeming-
ly animated by eleCtricity.
p. 473. n° 28. How to pro¬
duce the two electricities in
the fame conductor, 165.
How to increafe the inten-
■ jity of eleChicity to a great
degree, 169. Great quanti¬
ty brought down by a kite
during a thunder-ftorm, 171.
Of the difpofition of balls to
receive eleCtricity as their
Items are longorfliort, 176.
Of the methods of meafuring,
condenling, and doubling, e-
leCtricity, and of diftinguifli-
ing the two-kinds from one
another, p. 508. EleCtrici¬
ty of different fubftances di-
ftinguifhed by means of Sauf-
fure’s improvedeleCtrometer,
188. How to colleCt a great
quantity of atmofpherical e-
leCtricity, 189. Or to af-
certain the kind'of it, 190.
How high it is neceffary to
raife conductors in order to
■ produce fignsof it,T 91. How
'to difcover the intenfity at
< various heights, ib. How to
* obferve the eleCtricity of the
atmofphere, 192. To ren¬
der the figns of it permanent
•in the eledtrometerj 193. To
diftinguifh the two electrici¬
ties in the atmofphere, 194.
Obfervations on atmofpheri¬
cal eleCtricity, 193. A pe-^
riodical flux and reflux of e-
leCtricity obfervable in the
atmofphere, 196. M. Sauf-
fure’s obferyations on it in a
-great degree of cold, 197.
•of the maximum and mini-
Tnum of it in the atmofphere,
198. -Is weaker in fummer
than in winter, 199., Al¬
ways pofitive in the atmo¬
fphere, 200. Sauflure’s ex¬
periments to determine the
caufe of atmofpherical elec¬
tricity, 201. Immenfe quan¬
tity of it extricated from
volcanoes, 202. Pofitive e-
leftricity always the efteCt of
burning iron, 203. No figns
of eleCtricity to be obtained
by combuftion, properly fo
called, 210. Cavallo’s dif-
fertation on meafuring fmall
quantities of eleCti icity, 2 20.
His opinion concerning the
methods by which they may
be meafured, 223. His ap¬
paratus for thatpurpofe, 224.
Univerfal diffufion of eleCtri-„
city, 225. Gavallo’s inftru-
ment for meafuring fmall
quantities of eleCtricity, 2 27.
Bennet’s doubler of eleCtri-
• city improved by Nicholfon,
229. Nicholfori’s inftrument
for diftinguiftling the two e-
•kCtricities,23o. How to ap¬
ply artificial eleCtricity to the
. purpofes of vegetation, 242.
Eafy method of applying e-
leCtricityin this manner, 243.
•Various ways of appplying
eleCtricity medicinally, 268.
Is concerned in the produc¬
tion of clouds, rain, hail,fnow,
-&c. 268, p.536. Regulates
the heat of the various cli¬
mates, 269. ACts in many
various ways in the fubftance
of the earth, 270. Almoft
all the terreftrial phenomena
to be afcribedto it, 27j. Is
probably the caufe of vege¬
tation, 272. Curious figures
made by its means on a plate
of varniflred glafs, 273. Is
the caufe of magnetifm, and
probably of every other kind
of attraction, 274. Objec-
jeCtions from an experiment
of Mr Morgan’s anfwered,
277.
EleSrometers: various kinds of
them, 27, 183. EleCtrified
corkball eleCtrometer, p.467.
n°i. Defcription of different
electrometers,!82. Brookes’
eleCtrometer, 183. Mr Ca¬
vallo’s atmofpherical eleCtro-
ter, 184. Improved by M.
Sauffure, 185. Mr Bennet’s
eleCtrometer, 211. Mr Ca¬
vallo’s eleCtrometer for rain,
218. ImperfeCtion of all
thefe inftruments, 219. A
convenient pocket eleCtro¬
meter, 232.
Ekdrophorus invented by M.
Volta, 16. Its phenomena
accounted for, rn. Con-
ftruCtion of the machine,
112. Mr Cavallo’s obferva-
'tions, 113. -Experiments
with it, 114. Miftakes in
Mr Cavallo’s obfervations,
115. Singular appearance of
an excited eleCtrophorus,
116. General reafon of all
the phenomena, 117.
E letlro ■ vegetometer defcribed,
235-
Enthufiafm, ridiculous, of fome
eleCtricians, to.
Ether: identity of it with the
eleCtric fluid fuppofed by
Mr Wilfon, 62.
Evaporation : eleCtricity pro¬
duced by it, 20!. Howto
make experiments on the e-
vaporation of water, 216.
Excitation: Beccaria’s hypo-
thefis concerning it, 79.
The fubjeCt particularlycon-
fidered, p. 457. col. 2. Ni-
cholfon’s experiments upon
it, p. 499. n° 160. The
fllk flap joined to the rub¬
ber the principal caufe of it,
p. 500, n0i6i. Improved
method of exciting eleCtric
fubftances, 166. How ex¬
citation takes placebya fimple
rubber without a filk flap,
167. Gradual improvements
in it, 174.
Excited[ubjlances defined, p.418.
col. 2.
Experiments, entertaining, p.
467. The eleCtrified cork-
ball eleCtrometer, ib. At¬
traction and repulfion of
light bodies, ib. The fly¬
ing feather or fhuttle-cock,
ib. EleCtric well, ib. Star
and pencil of eleCtric light,
ib. Drawing fparks, p. 468.
EleCtric light flafhing be¬
tween two plates, ib. To
fire inflammable fpirits, ib.
Artificial , Bolognian flone
illuminated by eleCtric light,
ib. The luminous conduc¬
tor, ib. The conducting
glafs tube, p. 469. Vifible e-
leCtric atmofphere, ib. Of
charging and difcharging a
phial in general, ib. The
Leyden vacuum, p. 470. To
pierce a card or other fub-
Tndex*
ftance by the eleCtric explo-
fion, ib. EfFed of the fhock
fent over the furface of a card
or other fubftance, p. 471.
To fwell clay and break
fmall tubes by the eleCtric
explofion, ib. To make the
eleCtric fpark vifible in wa¬
ter,To fire gunpowder,
ib. To ftrike metals into
glafs, ib. To ftain paper
or glafs, p. 472. The lateral
explofion, ib. To difcharge
a jar filently, ib. Drawing
eleCtricity from the prime
conductor by a point, ib.
The eleCtrified cotton, ib.
The eleCtrified bladder, ib.
The fpider feemingly ani¬
mated by eleCtricity, p. 473.
The dancing balls, ib. The
eleCtrical jack, ib. The feif-
moving wheel, ib. The ma¬
gic picture, p. 474. The
thunder-houfe, ib. The e-
leCtric fly, p. 475. The elec¬
trified bells, ib. To fire a
piftol or cannon by inflam¬
mable air, p.476. The fpiral
tube, ib. To fire a piece of
iron wire in dephlogifticated
air, ib. To illuminate eggs,
ib. To render ivory or box¬
wood luminous, p. 477. To
illuminate water, ib. To
make a beautiful appearance
in vacuo, ib. To render gold-
leaf or Dutch metal lumi¬
nous, ib. To perforate a
glafs tube, ib. The inflam¬
mable air-lamp, ib.
Experiments, mifcellaneous, p.
478. On colours, ib. On
the calcination and revivifi¬
cation of metals, n° 123.
M. Beccaria’s experiments
to fhow that the eleCtric fluid
throws light conducting fub-
flances before it to facilitate
its paffage through the air,
124. Dr Prieltley’s expe¬
riments on this fubjeCt, 125.
On the velocity of the elec¬
tric fluid, 126, 127. On
the change of water into an
electric fubftance by cold,
128. On the change of e-
leCtrics into conductors by
heat, 129. On the non¬
conducting power of a per¬
fect vacuum, 130. Mr Mor¬
gan’s experiments on this
fubjeCt, 131. Changes of
•colour in the eleCtric light
by the admiilion of air into
Index.
a perfect vacuum, x 3 2. Sur-
prifing cafe with which an
exhaufted tube is charged
with eleftricity, 133. Tubes
perforated by the ekftric
fpark, 134. Why the fluid
aflumes the form of a fpark,
1,35. Cavallo’s experiments
en this fubjeft with an im¬
proved air-pump, 138. Ex¬
periments with the great
machine at Teyler’s mufeum
in Haarlem, 143. Force of
the explofion of its battery
calculated, 145. Lengths of
wire of different kinds melt¬
ed by it, 146. Compara¬
tive efficacy of the different
metals as conduftors, 148.
Wires fhortened by the dif-
charge, 149. The battery
cannot be entirely difchar-
ged by very fmall wires, 150.
Curious phenomena with tin
wire, 15.1. Accounted for,
jya. With wire eompofed
ef lead and tin, 153. Stain
on paper by the calcination
of metals, 154. EffeCls of
the battery on metals con¬
fined in phlogifticated air,
1.55. In dephlogifticated
air, 156. Phenomena on
> calcining metals in water,
157. Phenomena of earth¬
quakes imitated, 158.
B’rookes’s experiments on
the farce of batteries, 159.
Violent explofion from his
battery, 161. Milner’s ac¬
count of the Leyden phial,
and experiments upon it,
162—165. How to charge
a phial without friftion, 165.
Brookes’s experiments on the
Leyden phial, p. 497, n°
157. Nicholfon’s experi*
ments on excitation, p. 499*
n° 160. How to produce
both ele&ricities in the fame
cpndudfor, p. 501, n° 165.
To augment the intenfity of
eledlricity to a great degree,
169. Effeds of different
cylinders excited after his
manner, 170, Surpri.fing
appearance on railing au e-
ledrical kite during a thun-
der-ftorm, 171. On the dif¬
ferent appearance of pofitive
and negative fparks, 1.75.
On the difpofition of balls
to receive the ele&ric matter
according, to the -length, or
ELECT
fhortnefs of their Hems, 176.
On the a&ion of points, 177.
On different kinds of air
with Dr Van Marum’s great
machine, 179. Curious ex¬
periment with balloons filled
with inflammable air, 180.
Dr Prieftley’s experiments
on different kinds of air, 181.
Explofion, lateral, p. 472, n°23.
Violent from Mr Braokes’s
battery, n° 161.
F.
eledrified,alwayskeeps
the fame fide towards the
body which eledrifies it,
n° 3. Eledrified feather or
fhuttle-cock, p. 467. n° 2.
Figures, curious ones made by
eledricity on a varnifhed
plate of glafs, 2 74.
Finger rendered transparent by
eledricity, 86.
Fire fuppofed by Van Marum
to ad on metals in a diffe¬
rent manner from eledrical
fluid, 147.
Florence flajhs incapable of re¬
ceiving a charge of eledrici¬
ty, 25.
Fly, eledric, p. 475. n° 34.
Franklin, Dr, fufpeds the i-
dentity of eledric fluid and
lightning, 12. His fufpi-
cions verified, 13. Account
of his theory, 65. His ex¬
planation of the phenomena
of the Leyden phial, 70.
Infufficiency of his hypo-
thefis concerning pofitive
and negative eledricity, 82.
Frisian, how to charge a phial
without employing any,
,6J- G.
Gages, mercurial,, Mr Brookes’s
method of preparing them
fo as to be entirely free from ,
air, ,135, note E-.
Geometrical fgwes beautifully
ffiown by means of the elec¬
tric light, p. 468. n° 9.
Gilbert's difcoveries rin eledri¬
city, n° 2.
Glafs, attradion and repulfion
through it difcovered by Sir
Ifaac Newton, 3. Moll
commonly ufed for produ¬
cing eledricity, 17. Com-
pofition for coating glafs
globes orcylinders, i8. Glafs
tubes a neceffary part of the
eledrical apparatus, 24. Di-
redionsfor coatingglafs jars,
R I C I T Y.
25. A fubftance capable of
being fubftituted for it, 26.
Phenomena of excited glafs,
41. All kinds of it not
equally proper for eledrical
purpofes, 45. Mr Sym-
mer’s experiments on glafs
plates, 47. Beccaria’s expe¬
riments on them, 48. Mr
Henley’s experiments on the
fame, 49. Condudingpower
of glafs tubes, 50. Cavallo’s
experiments with them, 51.
Durability of the eledric
virtue of glafs, 52. Argu¬
ments for the impermeabili¬
ty of glafs by the eledric
fluid refuted, 77. Objedion
on that fubjed anfwered,
85. Conduding glafs tube,
p. 469, n° n. To ftrike
metals into glafs, p. 471.
n’' 2i. To ftain it by an
eledrical explofion, p. 472,
n° 22. To perforate a glafs
tube, p. 477, n° 45. Eafily
broke by eledricity, when
covered with cement,p.499.
n° I59-
Globes introduced into the elec¬
trical apparatus by Mr Bofe,
8 . The proper fize of them
for this purpofe, 17. How
to adapt feveral globes to
one machine, 29. Accounts
of globes burft by eledrical
explofions, 96.
Gold-leaf rendered luminous by
the eledric fluid, p. 477. .
n° 44-
Gold-leaf eleftrometer, experi¬
ments with one, 226. See
B ninety
Gray, Mr, difcovers the dif¬
ference between condudors
and non-condudors, 5. Dif¬
covers a perpetual aetradive
power in eledric fubftances,6.
Imagines he can imitate the
planetary motions, 7. Proba¬
ble reafon for his opinions in
this refped,_53.
Guericke, Otto, his difcoveries
in eledricity, 3.
Gum-lac, its eledrical pheno¬
mena, 52.
Gunpowder fired by the eledric
blafl. from Mr Wilfon’s large
condudor, 83. How to
fire it with the. ordinary ma¬
chines, p. 47.1, n° 20.
Gymnotus eleSricus, account of
its eledric properties, 256.
Some very large ones found
543
in Surinam riVer, 257. Re¬
markable difference of the
metals in conduding its
ffiock, 258.
H.
Hanfen faid by fome to have
introduced the ufe of glafs
globes into the eledrical
fcience, n° 8.
Haukfbee, curious experiment
of his to render pitch and
fealing-wax tranfparent, 4.
Henley's experiments on glafs ;
plates, 49. Gives a remark¬
able account’ of the conti¬
nuance of the eledric virtue :
in a fmall bottle, 52.
Heat changes eledric into con¬
duding fubftances, 129. .
Jack, eledrical, p.473. n°30.
Jars: diredions how to coat
them, n° 25. Remarkably
loud report of a jar belong¬
ing to Mr Rackftrow, 92.
To difcharge a jar filently,
p. 472, n 24. Polfibility
of touching both fides of a
jar fo quickly that it has not .:
time to difcharge itfelf en¬
tirely, n° 127. Mr Brookes’s
method of preventing jars
from being broken by a dif¬
charge, p. 499, n° 158. .
They are eafily broken when s
covered with cement, ib.
n° 159., Conftrudion of
jars to ihow the courfe of
the eledric fluid, n° 178.
Ice, effed of fending the ftiock
of a battery over itsTurface,
89 V
Jet, its eledrical properties,
when difcovered, 1.
hflammahle air: how to fire a
piftol or cannon with it,
p. 476,. n° 36.- Inflammable
air-lamp^ p. 477. n°46.
Ingenhoufz, Dr, his machine, .
n° 3°-
IrfeSs deftroyed by eledricity,
247. How to do this in a
great number of trees at
once, 250. Flow prevent¬
ed from generating in plants, ,
252.
Inflation -defined, p. 418.
Inflating fool defcribed, n° 4 jo .
Jonesr Mr William, his im¬
provement on the fpring of
the rubber, 23.
Iron; how to burn it in de-
phlogiilicated air, p. 476, ,
n° 38. Its combuftion al¬
ways >
544
ways produces pofitive elec¬
tricity, n° 203.
Ivory; how rendered lumi¬
nous, p. 477. n° 4!.
K.
Kite, ele&rical, Mr Cavallo’s
direftions concerning its
conftru&ion, n° 74. Great
quantity of electricity
brought down by him with
one, 75. And by Mr
Baldwin in America, 171.
Application of Mr Bennet’s
electrometer to the eleftri- '
cal kite, 214. Obfervations
on' the u/e of them, 231.
Experiments with it fome-
times dangerous, 233.
Kle'ijl, Mr Van, difcovers the
eleCtric ftiock, 9.
L.
Lctmp, inflammable air one,
p.477, n0 46.
Lateral explojion, p. 472, n° 23.
Lead more eaiily deftruftible
by eleftricity than other
metals, n° 160.
I<eyden vacuum, p.470. n° 15.
Leyden phial difcovered, n° 9.
Defcribed, 37. Explained,
46. Dr Franklin’s method
of accounting for the phe¬
nomena, 70. Another ex¬
planation, 108. To charge
and difcharge it, p. 469,
no 14. Milner’s account of
it, and experiments upon it,
n° 162.
Light proved to be the fame
with the eleCtric fluid, 82.
Its aCtion compared with
that of eleCtricity, 84. Far¬
ther proofs of their identity,
ib. Proved to be a vibration
of the eleCtric fluid, 88.
How to exhibit the eleCtric
light flaflring between two
metallic plates, p. 468, n° 7.
The ftar and pencil of elec¬
tric light, p. 467, n° 5.
Changes of colour in this
light by the admiffion of air
into a vacuum, n° 132. Al¬
ways vifible in the moft per¬
fectly exhaufted receiver,
140. Diminifhes in a great
degree of rarefaCtion, 142.
hightning{\ibp<i£lz& byDrFrank-
lin to be the fame with the e-
leCtric fluid, 12. Their iden¬
tity proved, 13. Danger of
making experiments with
lightning, 14. Conductors
ufed for preferving houfes
N° 114.
E L E C T R
from it, 16. Pafles overfuch
parts of malts as have been
covered with lamp-black and
tar, p. 478, n. Blalting and
mildew fuppofed to be
owing to it, 246.
Lyncurium, or tourmalin, its
eleCtricity difcovered, 1. See
Tourmalin.
M.
Machines, eleCtrical, defcribed,
i6,etfeq. Different kinds
of them, 28, et feq.
Magnetifm given to large
needles by the great ma¬
chine at Haarlem, 143. Pro¬
bably caufed by eleCtricity,
274-
Marum, Dr Van, his great e-
leCtrical machine defcribed,
35. Experiments with it,
143. On various kinds of
airs, 179.
Medical-apparatus, 33.
Medical elcBricity, 264, et feq.
Medicated tubes, 11.
Medicine, furpriling powers in
it afctibed to eleCtricity, 11.
Mercurial gages, Mr Brookes’s
method of preparing them,
p. 484. note E.
Metals; how to produce circu¬
lar fpots upon them by-
means of eleCtric explofions,
93. Proofs of the eleCtric
fluid palling over the furface
of them, 97. To Itrike me¬
tals into glafs, p. 471, n° 21.
Experiments on the calcina¬
tion and revivification of
them by the eleCtric Ihock,
123. Comparative efficacy
of them as conductors of e-
letfricity, 148. Remarkable
difference among them in
conducting the Ihock of the
gymnotus eleCtricus, 258.
Mildew, fuppofed to be owing
to lightning, 246.
Milner’s account of the Leyden
phial, and experiments upon
it, 162, et feq.
Morgan’s experiments on the
non-conduCting power of a
vacuum, 131.
N.
Negative eleHricity defined, p.
419. col. x. See Eledri-
city.
Newton, Sir Ifaac, difcovers
that eleCtric attraction and
repulfion penetrates glafs,
n0 3-
Nicholfon’s experiments on ex-
I C I T Y.
citation, &c. 160. SeeEjf-
citation. His machines fu-
perior to thofe of Van Ma¬
rum, 173.
Non-conduQors defined, p.418.
See EleSrics.
Nollet, Abbe, difcovers the falla¬
cy- of what eleCtricians had
faid concerning medicated
tubes, 11. Cautions them
againll making experiments
with lightning, 14. His theo¬
ry of electricity, 60.
P.
Paper ftained by the eleCtric
fhock, p, 472, n° 22. By
the calcination of metals up¬
on it, n° 154.
Pencil. Stroke of a black lead
one conduCts a flrong elec¬
tric fhock, 97. Pencil of
eleCtric light exhibited, p.
467, n° 5.
Phenomena of eleCtricity account¬
ed for by various theories,
p. 440, et feq. See EleQre
city.
Philcfophical purpofes: eleCtri¬
cal machine proper for them,
n° 32.
Phlogijlicated air: effeCts of a
ftrong eleCtric (hock on me¬
tals confined in it, 155.
PiEture, magic, p. 474, n° 32.
Pijlol fired by inflammable air,
p. 476, n° 36.
Planetary motions imitated by
Mr Gray, 7. The eleCtric
fluid fuppofed to be concern¬
ed in producing them, -274.
Various imitations of them,
276.
Plate machine inferior to a cy¬
linder, 163.
Plates, metallic : eleCtric light
flafh n between them, p.
468, n° 7.
Points, difcharge eleCtricity fi-
lently, p. 472, n° 24, 25.
Their aCtion accounted for,
n° 106. By Mr Nicholfon,
I7_7>
Pofitive Elcllricily defined, p.
418. See EleElricity.
Prief ley’s eleCtrical machine de¬
fined, n° 28. His method
of obferving the eleCtricity of
the tourmalin, £4. His ex¬
periments (howing that the
eleCtric fluid throws light
conducting fubftances before
it, in order to facilitate its
paflage through the air, 125.
His method of fhowing that
Index.
it prefers a fhort paflage thro’
the air to a long one through
a good conductor, 127. His
experimentson different kinds
of air, r8i.
Prime conductor firft added t©
eleCtrical machines by Mr
Bofe, 8. Defcriped, 24.
R.
Rachfrow, Mr, remarkably loud
report of a jar belonging to
him, 92.
Rain: Mr Cavallo’s inftrument
for obferving its eleCtricity,
217.
Rawfiejh, experimentson fend¬
ing the eleCtric fhock over j
its furface, 90.
Reid, Mr, his eleCtrical machine,
3 I-
Report, remarkably loud one of 1
ajar, 92. Of a battery, 161.
Repulfon, the only proper me- :
thod of determining the i
power of eleCtricity, 183. !
See AitraBion.
Refnous and vitreous eleCtricity
defined, p. 419, col. 1. Dif- s
covered by M. du Fay, n° 8.
Richman, profeffor, killed by *
lightning, 15.
Ribbons : experiments on them j
by Mr Cigna, 44.
Room : how to eleCtrify the air j
of one, 94.
Rfn, its eleCtric phenomena 1
confidered, 52. Thrown off |
from a chain by an eleCtric J
fhock, 81.
Rubber of the eleCtrical machine |
defcribed, 20. How to in- |
fulate and fupport it, 22. |
Mr Jones’s improvement on 1
the fpring of it, 23. How
excitation takes place with a
Ample rubber without a filk j
flap, 167.
S.
Saujfure, M. his improvement
on MrCava'lo’s electrometer,
with experiments, 185, et
ftp
Sealing-wax rendered tranfpa-
rent by Mr Haukfbee, 4.
Bell rubber for exciting it,
24. Its eleCtric phenomena,
53. Another experiment by
Beccaria, in which it is ren¬
dered tranfparent, 86.
Shock, eleCtrital, difcovered,
9. How to give one to any
part of the body, 266.
Shuttle-cock, eleCtrical, p. 467.
Silky I
ELECTRICITY.
T.
Index.
Silk, ele&ric phenomena of it,
p. 433, col, 1. The filk flap
applied to the cylinder the
principal caufe of excitation,
p. 500, n° 161.
Silurus Eleilricus, defcribed,
262.
Sparks, elettric, drawn from
different fubftances, p. 468,
n° 6. Eleftric fpark made
vifible in water, p. 471, n°
19. Why the eleAric fluid
affumes this appearance, n°
135. Difference between
the appearance of pofitive and
negative fparks, 175.
Spider, feemingly animated by
ele&ricity, p. 473, n° 28.
Spirits fired by eleftricity, p.
468, n° 8.
Spots, circular, made on metals
by the- eleAric explofion,
n“93-
Stockings, filk, llrong attraAion
between them when eleAri-
fied, 43.
Sulphur, the moft proper rub¬
ber for exciting it, 24. Its
eleArical phenomena, 52.
Summer: eleAricity weaker in
that feafon than in winter,
199.
Surface of bodies : paffage of
the eleAric fluid over it con-
fidered, 89.
Surinam river: the gymnotus
eleAricus fometimes found
here of a vaft fize, 257.
Symmer’s experiments on elec¬
trified filk-ttockings, p. 433.
col. 1. On glafs plates, 47.
Syphon, eleArified capillary, p.
476, n° 39.
Terms in eleAricity defined,
p. 418.
Teyler’s mufenm, great machine
there defcribed, p. 35. Its
vail power, p. 465. col. 2.
Of the battery applied to it,
143,144. See Battery. Ex¬
periments on different kinds,
of airs with it, 179.
Thales, the firft who mentions
eleAricity, 1.
Theophrajlus difcovers the elec¬
tricity of the tourmalin, 1.
Theories, various, of eleAricity,
n° 44°- etfeq.
Thermometer, eleArical air one,
n°228.
Tinged glafs readily tranfmits
a fhock of eleAricity over it,
.
Tin-wire, curious phenome¬
non by exploding it, 151.
Explained, 152.
Torpedo, its eleArical proper¬
ties, 259. Artificial One
made by Mr Walfh, 260.
Why no fpark is difcovered
in giving a Ihock with it, 2 6 x.
Tourmalin, its eleAricity. dif¬
covered by Theophraftus, t.
Dr Prieftley’s experiments
upon it, 53.
Tranfparency, furprifing experi¬
ment of Haukfbee Upon it,
4. Of Beccaria and Dr
Prieftley, 86.
Trefan, Count de, his fyftem of
natural philofophy, 275.
Tubes, glafs, a neceffary part
of the eleArical apparatus,
24. Broken by eleArical
explofions, p. 471. n° x8.
How perforated, p. 477.
n° 45. Surprifing eafe with
which an exhaufted tube is
charged with eleAricity,
133. Tubes perforated in
this manner, 134.
V.
Vacuum of an ordinary air-
pump, a good conduAor,
97. The Leyden vacuum,
p. 470. n° 15. To make a
beautiful appearance in va¬
cuo, p. 477. n° 43. Non-
cqnduAing power of a per-
feA vacuum. 130. Mr Mor¬
gan’s experiments on this
fubjeA, 131. Conclufions
from them againft the afcent
of the eleAric fluid above
our atmofphere, 137. Shown
to be infufficient, 277.
Vegetables injured by an elec¬
tric fhock, 245.
Vegetation, effeAs of eleAricity
on it, 233 etfeq. _
Velocity of the eleAric fluid: ex¬
periments on it, 126. Of
the velocity of a cylinder ne¬
ceffary to produce the ut-
moft degree of excitation,
p. 501. n° 164.
Vial. See Leyden Vial.
Vitreous eleAricity defined, p.
4I9*
Volcanoes, vaft; quantity of e-
leAricity emitted by them,
202.
Volta, Signior, difco'vers the e-
leArophorus, 15. His con-
denfer defcribed, 221. Caval-
lo’s eleArometer, improved
by Sauffure, ferves inftead of
this inftrument, 186.
Walfh, Mr, explains the elec¬
trical properties of the tor¬
pedo, 259. Makes an arti¬
ficial one, 260.
Water, experiments by fending
the eleAric flafh over its fur-
face, 91. How illuminated,
p. 477. nc 42. Becomes
eleAric by cold, 128. Phe¬
nomena of the calcination of
metals in it, 157. Eva¬
porates more flowly on a
red-hot metal than on one
heated to a leffer degree,
204. How to eleArify it in
rcfervoirs, 244.
Watfon, Dr, difcovers the elec¬
tric fluid to come from the
earth, 57. His theory of
afflux and efflux, 58. His
experiments on the eleAric
light in vacuo, 98. On the
velocity of the eleAric fluid,
126.
Well, eleAric, p. 467. n° 9.
Wheel, felf-moving, p. 473. n^
31-
WUcle’s experiments on ful-
phur, gum-lac, &c. 52.
Wilfon\ theory of eleAricity,
62.
Winter, eleAricity ftronger in
it than in fummer, 199.
Wires, how melted by an e-
leAric battery, 81. Lengths
of wires of different kinds
melted by the great battery
of the Haarlem machine,
146. Shortened by the dif-
charge, 149. , Very fmall
wires cannot difcharge this
battery entirely, 150.
E L E
Ele<3rides ELECTRIDES, anciently iflands in the Adriatic
I* fea, which received their name from the quantity of am-
f uary~ ber (eleElrum) which they produced. They were at the
mouth of the Po, according to Apollonius of Rhodes,
but fome hiftorians doubt of their exiftence.
ELECTROMETER. See Ei ectricity, n°27.
ELECTROPHORUS. Ibid. n° 16.
ELECTRUM, in natural hiftory. See Amber.
ELECTUARY, in pharmacy, a form of medicine
! , compofed of powders and other ingredients, incorpo¬
rated with fome conferve, honey, or fyrup ; to be di¬
vided into dofes, like bolufes, when taken.
Voffius obferves, that all the remedies prefcribed for
the fick, as well as the confeAions taken by way of
regale, were called by the Greeks and ocxeixt*,
of the verb “ I lick whence, fays he, was form-
Vol. VI. Part II.
E L E
ed the Latin eleBarium, and afterwards eleSuarium. This Eleemofy-
conjeAure he fupports from the laws of Sicily, where na>
it is ordained, that eleBuaries, fyrups, and other reme- £!eelTlofV'
dies, be prepared after the legal manner. The Bol- ^ ' 7
landifts, who relate this etymology, feem to confirm it.
For the compofition and different forts of eleAuaries,
fee Pharmacy.
ELEEMOSYNA Carucarum, or pro Aratris, or A-
ratri, in our ancient cuftoms, a penny which king E-
thelred ordered to be paid for every plough in Eng¬
land towards the fupport of the poor. Sometimes it
is alfo called eleemofyna regis, becaufe firft appointed by
the king.
ELEEMOSYNA RIUS, in our our old writers, i*
ufed for the almoner or peculiar officer who received
the eleemofynary rents and gifts, and diftributed them
3 Z to
E L E [ 54« ] E L E
to pious and charitable .ufes. There was fuch an offi- appears to be the fame: and the more we are acquainted Elements,
cer in all religious houfes. The biihops alfo ufed to with them, the more reafon we have to believe that the
have their almoners, as now the king has. variety in their origin is very fmall.
ELEGANCE, (from eligo “ 1 choofe,”) denotes Notwithftanding the^infinite variety of natural pro-
a manner of doing or faying things politely, agree- du&ions, therefore, it appears, that the materials em-
ably, and with choice. With choice, fo as to rife ployed in their production are but few; that thefe
above the common manners; politely, fo as to ftrike are uniformly and certainly the fame, totally exempted
people of delicate tatle ; and agreeably, fo as to diffufe from any change or decay ; and that the conftant and
a reliih which gratifies every body. gradual change of one body into another is produced
Elegance, in oratory and compofition, an or- by the various feparations and combinations of the
nament of politenefs and agreeablenefs ihown in any original and elementary parts, which is plain from the
difcourfe, with fueh a choice of rich and happy ex*- regularity and uniformity of nature at all times. There
preffions, as to rife politely above the common man- is a change of forms and combinations through which
ners, fo as to ftrike people of a delicate tafte. it paffes, and this has been the cafe from the earlieft
It is obferved, that elegance, though irregular, is accounts oi time ; the produftions of nature have al-
preferable to regularity without elegance: that is, by ways been of the fame kind, and fucceeded one an-
being fo fcrupulous of grammatical conftruftion, we other in the fame order. If we examine an oak, for
lofe certain licences wherein the elegance of language inftance, we find it compofed of the fame matter with
confifts. that of any other that has exifted font the earli-
ELLGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belong- eft ages. This regularity and uniformity in the courfe
ing to elegy. See Elegy. of nature fhows that the elementary parts of bodies
ELEGIT, in law, a writ of execution, which lies are permanent and unchangeable ; for if thefe elemen-
for a perfon who has recovered debt or damages ; or tary particles which conftituted an oak fome thou-
upon a recognizance in any court, againft a defendant fai d years ago, had been undergoing any gradual de-
that is not able to fatisfy the fame in his ^oofts. cay, the oaks of the prefent times would have been
ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem, found confiderably different from thofe that exifted
See the article Poetry- long, ago; but as no difference has been obferved, it
ELEMENTS, in phyfics, the firft principles of would feem that the ultimate elements of bodies have
which all bodies in the fyftem of nature are com- always continued the fame.
pofed. Reflexions of this kind have fuggefted an idea of
Thefe are fuppofed to be few in number, unchange- feveral principal elements of which all other bodies
able, and by their combinations to produce that ex- are compofed, which by their various combinations
tenfive variety of objeXs to be met with in the works furnifhed all the variety of natural bodies. Democri-
of nature. tus, and other great philofophers of antiquity, fixed
That there is inreality fomefoundationfor thisdoXrine the number to four, which have retained the name of
of elementary bodies is plain ; for there are fome prin- elements ever fince. Thefe are, fire, air, earth, and
ciples evidently exempted from every change or decay, water ; each of which they imagined was naturally
and which can be mixed or changed into different forms difpofed to hold its own place in the univerfe. Thus,
of matter. A perfon who furveys the works of na- the earth, as heavieft, naturally tended towards the
ture in an inattentive manner, may perhaps form a centre, and occupied the lower parts; the water, as
contrary opinion, when he confiders the numerous approaching next to it in gravity, was fpread chiefly
tribes of foffils, plants, and animals, with the wonder- on the outfide of the earth ; the air, being more fubtle
ful variety that appears among them in almoft every and rare, occupied the middle place; while the fire, be-
inftance. He may from thence be induced to con- ing ftill more fubtile and aXive, receded to the great-
clude, that nature employs a vail variety of materials eft diftance of all, and was fuppofed to compofe the
in producing fuch prodigious diverfity. But let him planets and ftars. This fyfiem was extended to all the
inquire into the origin of this apparent diverfity, and produXions of nature. Meteors were produced from
he will find that thefe bodies which feem the moft a combination of fire and air ; animals were confidered
different from each other are atbottom nearly the fame, as compofed of earth and water; and thofe that were
Thus the blood, chyle, milk, urine, &c. as well as warm had likewife a proportion of the element of
the various folid parts of animals, are all compofed of fire. Thus they went on, explaining fome of the moil
one particular fubftance; grafs, for inftance, by the ftriking qualities of the feveral produXions of nature
affiftance of air and water, and even fometimes of very from the different proportions of the four elements
infipid kinds of grafs. The fame fimplicity prefents they contained.
itfelf in the original compofition of the nouriftrment But though this fyftem appears not at all deftitute of
of vegetables, notwithftanding the variety among them beauty and propriety, and on this account has been ir>
with refpeX to hardnefs, foftnefs, elafticity, tafte, fome meafure received even to the prefent time, we
odour, and medical qualities. They chiefly depend, find reafon to doubt whether thefe four fabftances be
for thefe, upon water and the light of the fun ; and really elementary bodies; nor do they anfwer our pur-
the fame fimplicity muft take place in animals that pofe in forming a fy ftem, as v/e know too little of the
are fed on vegetables. The analyfis of animal fub- intimate ftruXure and texture of them to enable us to
•ftances confirm this bypothefis ; for they can all be re- explain other bodies by them.
.duced into a few principles, which are the lame in all, Any other attempts that have been made to aflign
.and only differ with regard to ,the proportions in which the number of elementary bodies have been much lefs
they are combined. With regard to animals, the cafe fortunate. The chemiils, with Paracelfus at their head,
pretend
E L E [ 547 1 E L E
Elements, pretend to fpeak of four elementary bodies, fait, ful-
1 v phur, eavth, and mercury: but when we attempt to
form an idea of what they mean, we find it very per¬
plexed ; and that the exprefiions concerning them are
enveloped in fo much obfcurity, that they cannot be
comprehended ; and the theory is built entirely upon
experiments made on metallic fubftances.
Under the article Chemistry, n° 26. we have ihown,
that the elements, whatever they are, muil neceifarily
be invifible or imperceptible by any of our fenfes. An
inquiry into their number or properties therefore muft
be attended with very little fuccefs; and all the know¬
ledge we can have upon the fubjedt muft be drawn from
a view of their combinations, and reafoning analogically
from the tranfmu ations we obferve to take place in
nature. The modern difcoveries in aerology have ena¬
bled us to proceed farther in this way than what it was
poflible for the ancient philofijphers to do. We now
find that all the different kinds of air are compofed of
that invifible and fubtile fluid named heat, united in a
certain way with fome other fubftance: by which union
the compound acquires the properties of gravitation,
expanfion, rarefadtion, &c. for pure heat, unlefs when
united with fome terreftrial fubftance, neither gravi¬
tates nor expands. This is evident from the pheno¬
mena of the burning-rlafs, where the light concentrated
in the focus will neither heat the air nor water, unlefs
it meets with fomething with which it can form a per¬
manent union. Heat therefore is juftly to be confi-
dered as one of the original elements ;■ being always ca¬
pable of uniting with bodies, and of being extricated
from them unchanged ; while the fame bodies are by
their union with it changed into various forms; water,
for inftance, into ice or vapour, both of which return in¬
to their original ftate by the abftradtion or addition of
heat in a certain degree. Hence it becomes almoft na-
tural to conclude, that there are only two elements in
the univerfe : and this opinion we find adopted by fe-
veral philofophers, particularly the Count de Treffan in
his Efl'ay on the Eledlric Fluid. According to this
dodlrine, two primitive material fubftances feem to exift
in nature; one that incefl'antly adts, and to which it
is effential to be in motion ; the other abfolutely paf-
five, and whofe nature it is to be inert, and move en¬
tirely as dire&ed by the former, bhould this do&rine
be adopted, little difficulty would occur in determining
the adtive matter to be that univerfal fluid which in its
various modifications of light, heat, and eledfricity,
has fuch a lhare in the operations of nature. But in
fixing on the paffive element we are greatly embar-
raned; nor are the difcoveries in aerology or any other
fcience as yet able to remove the difficulty entirely.
In our experiments on this and fome other parts of
chemiftry, we find three things that feem to be un¬
changeable, viz. earth; phlogifton; and that invifible,
though terreftrial and gravitating principle called by the
antiphlogiflians the oxygenous or acidifying principle, and
by the phlogiftians the bafis of dephlogifticated air. In
our experiments on the firft, we find that earth, though
vitrified by the moft intente fire, may be recovered in
its proper form ; and fome very pure earths, particu¬
larly magnefia alba, cannot be changed even in the fo¬
cus of the moft powerful mirror. In like manner we
may diffipate charcoal in vacuo by the folar rays, and
the compound is inflammable air : we may decompofe
this compound by a metallic calx, and we 'have our Element*,
charcoal again unchanged, for all metals contain char- ^
coal in fubftance. Let us try to deftroy it by common
fire, and we have it then in the fixed air produced,
from which it may be recovered unchanged by means
of the eleftric fpark. With the balis of dephlogiftica¬
ted air the cafe is ftill more difficult; for we cannot
by any means procure a fight of it by itfelf. We may
combine it with heat, and we have dephlogifticated air;
to the compound we may add charcoal, and we have
fixed air ; by decompofing the former by burning iron
in it, we have the metal greatly increafed in weight by
fome unknown fubftance ; and if we attempt to fepa-
rat| the latter, we have water, or fome kind of vapour,
which ftill conceals it from our view.
In fome experiments made by Mr Watt, and of
which an account is given under the article Acid,
n° iz. we find that nitrous acid might be phlogiftica-
ted by the pureft earth or metallic calx ; whence
it is not unreafonable to fuppofe that phlogifton may Be
only a certain modification of earth, and not an
element diftindt* from it : but with regard to the
bafis of dephlogifticated air, no experiment has ever
ffiown that it can either be procured by itfelf, or chan¬
ged into any other fubftance; fo that it appears to
have the nature of an element as much as light or heat.
Though we fliould therefore be inclined to divide the
whole matter of the univerfe into two claffes, die one
adlive and the other a&ed upon, we muft allow that
the paffive matter even on this earth is not precifely
of the fame kind : much lefs are we to extend our
fpeculations in this refpeft to the celeftial regions;
for who can determine whether the fubftance of the
moon is the fame with that of our earth, or that the
elements of Jupiter are the fame with thofe of Saturn ?
There is even a difficulty with regard to the divifion
which feems fo well eftablifhed, viz. of matter in ge¬
neral into a&ive and paffive ; for no perfon can prove,
that the matter which is adlive in one cafe may not
be paffive in another, and occafionally refume its ac¬
tivity. Something like this certainly happens in the
cafe of the dearie fluid, which is modified into heat
or light, according to different circumftances; and we
cannot know but it is the very fame fubftance that
conftitutes the moft folid bodies. This opinion at
leaft did not feem abfurd to Sir Ifaac Newton, who
propofed it as a query. Whether grofs bodies and
light were not convertible into one another ? The end
of our inquiries on this fubjedt therefore muft be, That
the univerfe may be compofed of many elements, or of
one element; and of the nature of thefe elements, or of
the Angle one, we know nothing.
Element, in a figurative fenfe, is ufed for the prin¬
ciples and foundations of any art or fcience; as Euclid’s
Elements, &c.
Elements, in aftronomy, are thofe principles de¬
duced from aftronomical obfervations and calculations,
and thofe fundamental numbers which are employed
in the conftrudfion of tables of the planetary motions.
Thus, the elements of the theory of the fun, or ra¬
ther of the earth, are his mean motion and eccentri¬
city, and the motion of the aphelia. The elements
of the theory of the moon are its mean motion ; that
of its node and apogee, its eccentricity, the inclina"
tion of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, &c.
3 Z 2 ELEMI,
J.lemi
ii
Elephanta.
E L E [ 54S ] E L E
ELEMI, or Elemy, in the materia medica. See
Amyris.
ELENCHU?, in antiquity, a kind of ear-rings
fet with large pearls.
Elenchus, in logic, by the Latins caMcA argumen-
turn and inquifttio, is a vicious or fallacious argument,
which deceives under the appearance of a truth ; the
fame with what is otherwife calledfophifm.
ELEPHANT, in zoology. See Elephas.
American Elephant : An animal only known in a
foffile ftate, and that but partially, from the teeth, fome
of the jaw-bones, the thigh-bones, and vertebras, found
with many others five or fix feet beneath the furface on
the banks of the Ohio. But thefe bones differ in fe-
veral refpe&s from thofe of the elephant; for which,
fee Foffil Bones- As yet the living animal has eva¬
ded our fearch Mr Pennant thinks it “ more than
probable, that it ftill exifls in fome of thofe remote
parts of the vaft new continent unpenetrated yet by Eu¬
ropeans. Providence maintains and continues every
Created fpecies ; and we have as much affurance that no
race of animals will any more ceafe while the earth re¬
mains, than feed-time and harvejl, cold and beat, fum-
tner and winter, day or night. See Mammoth,
Elephant-Beetle. See Scarabs os.
Knights of the Elephant, an order of knighthood in
Denmark, conferred upon none but perfons of the firft
quality and merit. It is alfo called the order of St Mary.
Its inflitution is faid to have been owing to a gentle¬
man among the Danifh croifes having killed an ele¬
phant, in an expedition againft the Saracens, in 1184;
in memory of which, king Canutus inllituted this or¬
der, the badge of which is a towered elephant, with
an image of the holy virgin encircled with rays, and
hung on a watered fky-coloured ribbon, like the George
in England.
ELEPHANT A, a fmall, but very remarkable
ifland about five miles from the caflle of Bombay in
the Eaft Indies. Of this we have the following de-
fcription in Mr Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies.
“ It can at moft be but about three miles in compafs,
and confifts of almoft all hill: at the foot of which, as
you land, you fee, juft above the fhore, on your right,
an elephant, coarfely cut out in ftone, of the natural
bignefs, and at fome little diftance not impoffible to be
taken for a real elephant, from the ftone being natu¬
rally of the colour ol that beaft. It Hands on a plat¬
form of {tones of the fame colour. On the back of
this elephant was placed, {landing, another young one,
appearing to have been all of the fame ftone, but has
been long broken down. Of the meaning, or hiftory,
of this image, there is no tradition old enough to. give
any account. Returning then to the foot of the hill,
you afcend an eafy flant, which about half way up the
hill brings you to the opening or portal of a large ca¬
vern hewn out of a folid rock, into a magnificent
temple : for fuch furely it may be termed, confidering
the immenfe workmanfliip of fuch an excavation ; and
feems to me a far more bold attempt than that of the
pyramids of Egypt. There is a fair entrance into this
fubterraneous temple, which is an oblong fquare, in
length about 80 or 90 feet, by 40 broad. The roof
is nothing but the rock cut flat at top, and in which
I could not difcern any thing that did not fliOw it to
be all of one piece. It is about id feet high, and fup-
pcrted towards the middle, at equidiftance from the
fides and from o?!e another, with two regular rows of Elephants ’
pillars of a Angular order. They are very maifive, (
fhort in proportion to their thicknefs, and their capi- ,E1t^gan'
tal bears fome refemblance to a round cuftiion prefled .
by the fuperincumbent mountain, with which they are
alfo of one piece. At the further end of this temple
are three gigantic figures ; the face of one of them is
at lead five feet in length, and of a proportionable
breadth. . But thefe reprefentations have no reference
or connexion, either to any known hiftory or the
mythology of the Gentoos. They had continued in
a tolerable ftate of prefervation and wholenefs, confi¬
dering the remotenefs of their antiquity, until the ar¬
rival of the Portuguefe, who made themfelves mafters
of the place; and in the blind fury of their bigotry,
not fuffering any idols but their own, they mult have
even been at fome pains to maim and deface them, as
they now remain, confidering the hardncfs of the ftone.
It is faid they even brought field-pieces to the demoli¬
tion of images, which fo greatly deferved to be fpared
for the unequalled curiofity of them. Of this" Queen
Catherine of Portugal was, it feems, fo fenfible, that
{he could not conceive that any traveller would return ■
from that fide of India without vifiting the wonders
of this cavern ; of which too the fight appeared to me
to exceed all the deferiptions I had heard of them.
About two-thirds of the way up this temple, on each
fide, and fronting each other, are two doors or out¬
lets into fmaller grots or excavations, and freely open
to the air. Ne-" and about the door-way, on . the
right-hand, art? feveral mutilated images, fingle and in
groupes. In. one of the laft, I remarked a kind of re¬
femblance to the ftory of Solomon dividing the child,
there {landing a figure with a dra-vn fword, holding in
one hand an infant with the head downwards, which
it appears in ad to cleave through the middle. The
outlet of the other on the left hand is into an area of ,
about 20 feet in length and 12 in breadth; at the
upper end of which, as you turn to the right, prefents
itfelf a colonade covered at top, of 1 o or 12 feet deep,
and in length anfwering to the-breadth of the area:
this joins to an apartment of the .moil regular archi-
tedure, an oblong fquare, with a door in perfed fym-
metry; and the whole executed in quite a contrary
taile and manner from any of the oldeft or beft Gen-
too buildings any where extant. I took particular no¬
tice of fome paintings round the cornices, not for any
thing curious in the defign, but for the beauty and
frefhnefs of the colouring, which muft have lafted fome
thoufands of years, on fuppofing it, as there is all rea-
fon to fuppofe it, cotemporary with the building itfelf.
The floor of the apartment is generally full of water,
its pavement or ground-work not permitting it to be
drawn off or to be foaked up. For it is to be obfer-
ved, that even the cavern itfelf is not vilitable after the
rains until the ground of it has had time to dry into
a competent hardnefs.”
ELEPHANTIASIS, called alfo the lepra of the
Arabians, in medicine, a chronical difeafe, one of the
two fpecies of leprofy which affe&s the whole body,
where even the bones as well as the lkin are covered
with fpots and tumors, which being red at laft turn
black. See Med-icinE'/Wi?*.
ELEPHANTINE, or Elephantis (anc. geog.),
an ifland in the Nile to the fouth of Syene; with a cog¬
nomina! town, where the navigation on the Nile ends,.
becaufe
E L E L 549 3 E L E
Elephan- becaufe juft below the lefs catarafl:. And here to the
tme weft of the Nile ftood the lait Roman garrifon (Notitia
Elephas. ImPerii)-
Elephantine, in Roman antiquity, an appella¬
tion given to the book^ wherein were regiftered the
tranfaftions of the fenate and magiftrates of Rome, of
the emperors or generals of armies, and even of the
provincial magiftrates; the births and claffes of the
people, and other things relating to the cenfus.
They are fuppofed to have been fo called, as being
made of leaves of ivory or elephants tuflcs.
ELEPHANTOMACHI. See Ethiopia.
ELEPHANTOPUS, in botany : A genus of the
polygamia fegregatae order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofttm The calyculus is
quadriflorus, with hermaphrodite florets ligulated or
plane ; the receptacle is naked ; the pappus briitly.
ELEPHAS, the Elephant, in zoology, a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta. The
charafters are thefe : The elephant has no foreteeth in
either jaw, and the dog-teeth are very long : the pro-
bofeis or trunk is long, and capable of laying bold of
any thing ; and the body is fomewhat naked.
The elephant is the largeft of all land-animals. From
the front to the origin of the tail, he is generally about
16 feet long, from the end of the trunk 25 feet, and
about 14 feet high. The circumference of the neck is
17 feet, and the circumference of the body at the grof-
feft part 25 feet 10 inches; the tail is about 6 feet
long, and 2x in circumference. The circumference of
the legs is about 6 feet. Thefe are the largeft di-
menfions. But the animal differs in fize in different
countries; in fome not exceeding 7 feet in height.
The eyes are fmall in proportion, to the fize of the
animal. The muzzle is very different from that of
any other quadruped ; it is nothing but the origin of
a long trunk which hangs between the two large tulles;
the mouth appears behind the trunk, which ferves in
place of an upper lip, and the under lip terminates in
a point. The feet are Ihort* round, clumfy, and only
diftinguilhable by the toes. The trunk is, properly
fpeaking, the nofe extended, and terminated by a
couple of noftrils. But, befides ferving as an organ of
fmell, the trunk performs all the funAions of a ftrong
and dexterous arm. The trunk of an elephant is about
8 feet long, 5^ feet in circumference near the mouth,
and one foot and a half near the extremity: it is a pipe
of an irregular conical figure,, and widened at the end,:
the fuperior fide of the trunk is convex, and furrowed
tranfverfely ; and the inferior fide is flat, and has two
longitudinal rows of fmall protuberances refembling
the tentacula of the filk-worm and moft other cater¬
pillars. The upper part of the trunk correfponds with
the extremity of the nofe in other quadrupeds, and an,-
fwers the fame intention the inferior part ferves as
an upper lip, including the noftrils at the fame time.
For the trunk is a continued canal,, divided into two
cavities by a longitudinal partition : thefe cavities
afeend along the forepart of the upper jaw,, where
they make a turn inward, and defeend into the palate*
and then terminate in two feparate orifices;, they have
likewife each a feparate orifice at the end of the trunk.
At the place where thefe cavities make a turn, and
before they enter into the bones of the head, there is a
moveable cartilaginous plate fituated in fuch a manner
as enables the animal to fhut the canal, and to prevent
the water with which it occafionally fills the trunk
from entering into the paffage of the nofe where the
organs ferving for the fenfation of fmell are placed.
The elephant can move the trunk in all diredtions; he
can extend or ftiorten it at pleafure, without altering
the diameters of the two canals within. By this means
refpiration is pot interrupted, whatever be the fitua-
tion of the trunk ; and the water is allowed to remain-
till the animal choofes to, throw it out by an exfp-ira¬
tion. Each canal is lined with a fmooth ftrong.
membrane, and the furface of the trunk is covered
with another ftrong membrane or ficin. The fub-
ftance contained between the exterior and interior
membranes, is a compofition of longitudinal and tranf-
verfe mufcles, which ferve to extend and contradt the
length of the trunk. At the extremity of the trunk
there is a concave protuberance, in the bottom of which,
are the two paffages of the noftrils. The inferior part
of the protuberance is thicker than the Tides, and the
fuperior part is ftretched out like a finger about five
inches long; w'hieh, together with the edges of the
whole extremity of the trunk, takes on different figures
according to the neceffities of the animal. It is by this
organ that the animal lays hold of food or other fub-
ftances ; which he manages with as much dexterity' as-
a man does his hand,, taking up grains of corn, or the
fmalleft, piles of grafs, afid conveying them to his
mouth. When he drinks,, he thrufts his trunk into
the water, and fills it by drawing in his breath and.
exhaufting the air: when the trunk is thus filled with
water, he can either throw it out to a great diftance,
or drink it by putting the end of the trunk in his
mouth.
The two large tuflcs, which fome call the horns of
the elephant, aix of a yellowifh colour, and extremely
hard. The bony fubltance of which, they are com-
pofed is known byr the name of Ivory, and much ufed
in different branches of manufafture.
The ears are very large, and referable thofe of an
ape. The flein of the elephant has but few hairs on it,
and placed at great diftances from each other. It is-
full of wrinkles, like thofe. on, the palm of a man’s
hand, befides many chapped and greafyr ridges. The
female has two dugs, one on. each fide of the breaft.
M. Buffon fuppofed the ancients to have been “ de¬
ceived, when they tell us,, that the elephants copulate
like other quadrupeds, the female only lowering her
crupper for the more eafy reception of the male. The
fituation of the parts feems to render this mode of
jun&ion impolfible. The female elephant has not
like other quadrupeds the orifice of the vagina adjacent
to the anus ; for it is fituated nearly in the middle of
the belly, about two and a half or three feet diftant
from the anus. On the other hand, the male organ
is by no means proportioned, to the magnitude of his
body, nor to fo long an interval,, which in the fituation
fuppofed. would preclude the practicability of his ap-
proach., Naturalifts as well as travellers agree in af¬
firming, that the male organ of the elephant exceeds
not either in length or diameter that of a horfe. It is,*
therefore,.impoffihle that he fhould attain his end in the
ordinary pofition of quadrupeds. The female muftne-
ceffarily lie on her back. De Feynes and Tavernier-
pofitively affert, and the fituation of the parts confirms-,
their evidence, that thefe animals, cannot, intermix, ia?
6 any.
E L E [ Jj° ] . E E E
ar.y otLer manner. They require, therefore, more
time and conveniency for this operation than other
quadrupeds ; and it is perhaps for this reafon that
they never copulate but when they enjoy full liberty,
and have every neceffary article at their command.
The female muft not only confent, but folicit the male,
by a pofition which fhe never aiTumes' unlefs when Hie
thinks herfelf in perfect retirement.” The faft, how¬
ever, has been controverted by others. Dr Sparrman
informs us, that in order if polhble to determine the
queftion, he let flip no opportunity of interrogating on
the fubjedl every elephant-hunter he met with at the
Cape ; who all agreed in replying that they were moft
inclined to the common opinion, if they had not been
differently informed by two of their companions, Jacob
Kok and Marcus Potgieter, who had a&ually feen
elephants copulate. “ I met (fays our author) only
with the former of thefe hunters, who told me he had
likewife himfelf been of opinion that the female was
obliged to lie on her back on this occafion ; till at
length, being out along with Potgieter hunting of ele¬
phants, he had occafion to think otherwife. On a
certain fpot th?y came to, they could reckon about
eight elephants, which, on account of the fmall fize of
their tulks, they took for females, excepting two large
ones ; which making feveral circles round one of thefe
that they took for females (the only one perhaps in
rut) frequently, in all probability by way of carefiing
her, ftruck her with their trunks, till at length fire
threw herfelf down upon her knees, and keeping the
fpine of her back in a ftifif and extended pofition,
brought her hind-feet quite clofe to her fore-feet, or
fomewhat beyond them ; fo that fhe almofl as it were
flood upon her head. In this forced poflure they faw
her wait a long while together for the carefles of the
males, who, in fail, likewife endeavoured to perform
the matrimonial rites, but from jealoufy hindered each
other whenever either of them began to mount. Af¬
ter two hours had thus elapfed, the patience of our
hunters began to tire ; and the rather, becaufe on ac¬
count of the uneven and ftoney nature of the ground,
which, however, had no wood upon it, and of a river
being between them, they could not dare to advance
and fire at thefe animals. I will not diffemble, that
though I have not the lead; occafion to doubt the ve¬
racity of my informer, and though what he told me is
by no means impoflible, I yet find great difficulty in
this matter. But on the other hand, the fame may
be faid of M. Buffon’s or the common opinion ; firlt,
as they have not been able to confirm it by the tefti-
mony of any eye-witnefs, nor even by any inftance of
this kind in other quadrupeds properly fo called ; that
is, in fuch animals as have fome degree of affinity with
elephants ; fecondly, as the female’s lying on her back
can hardly be more convenient for the male, efpecially
as the vagina, according to what I am told, goes from
the fore-part backwards; thirdly, it is befides well
known, that the older elephants, on account of the
unwieldinefs of their bodies, chiefly ftand when they
fleep, in order to avoid the trouble and difficulty of ly¬
ing down and getting up again. Tavernier, indeed,
in his third volume, informs us, that the tame females
when in rut make themfelves a kind of bed, and lay
themfelves in it on their backs, at the fame time in¬
viting the male elephant by a peculiar cry, &c. but as
the author did not fee this himfelf, and that befides it
4
is entirely contrary to the modefly and diflike to copu- Elepha*.
lation for which the female elephants have always
been remarked, I cannot do other vvife than leave
M. Tavernier’s relation and different , opinions touch¬
ing the fubjeft to the teft of future experience.”
Mr J. C. Wolf, however, in his Voyage to Ceylon
lately publifhed, confirms the common opinion, and
gives an account of the operation in queftion as if he
had more than once feen it performed. “ The male
(he informs us) makes a pit or hollow in the ground,
and aflifts his confort to lay he-felf on her back ; and
in cafe he finds her perfedlly compliant and agreeable,
very complaifantly helps her up again after the bufinefs
is finiftied (for fhe cannot poffibly rife of herfelf), by
throwing his trunk round her neck : but if fhe at firft
flood fliilly-fhally, and gave herfelf prudifh airs, he
then even lets her lie, and goes about his bufinefs.”
But concerning the credit due to this author, the pub¬
lic feem not to be agreed. Oqthe other hand, M. Buf-
forv, in his Supplement, has retraced his former opi¬
nion, upon the authority of M. Bles (fecretary during
12 years to the Dutch government in Ceylon); who
deferibes the copulation of thefe animals in the fame
manner as Farmer Kok docs in the extradl above given
from Dr Sparrman. “ Having perceived (fays M.
Bles) that the Count de Buffon, in his excellent work,
is deceived with regard to the copulation of the ele¬
phants, I know, that in feveral parts of Afia and Africa
thefe animals, efpecially during the feafon of love, re¬
main almoft in the moft inacceffible places of the forefts;
but in the ifland of Ceylon, where I lived i 2 years, the
land being every where inhabited, they cannot fo eafily
conceal themfelves; and having often examined them,
I peiceived that the female organ is fituated nearly
under the middle of the belly, which would lead us to
think, with M. Buffon, that the males cannot cover
the females in the manner of other quadrupeds. How¬
ever, there is only a flight difference of fituation.
When they inclined to copulate, I perceived that the
female bowed down her head and neck, and leaned her
two fore-legs, which were alfo bended, upon the root
of a tree, as if flic meant to proftrate herfelf on the
ground ; and the two hind-legs remained erett, which
gave the male an opportunity of embracing her as
other quadrupeds do. I can likewife affirm, that the
females go with young about nine months. Moreover,
the elephants never copulate unlefs when in a ftate of
freedom. In the feafon of love, the males are ftrongly
chained for four or five weeks, during which time
they difeharge vaft quantities of femen, and are fo fu¬
rious, that their cornacks or governors cannot come
near them without danger. The approach of the
rutting feafon is eafily known; for fome days before it
happens, an oily liquor flows from a fmall hole on each
fide of the head. The domeftic female on thefe occa-
fions fometimes makes her efcape, and joins the wild
males in the woods. Some days afterward, her cor-
nack goes in queft of her, and calls her by her name
till (he comes. She fubmits to him with complacence,
and allows herfelf to be conduced home, and ftnit up
' in the liable. It was from cafes of this kind that it
was difeovered that the females bring'forth about the
end of nine months.”--The firft remark, with regard
to the mode of copulating, M. Buffon thinks unquef-
tionable, fince M. Marcel Bles aflures us that he has
feen the elephants perform the operation. But as to the
time
E L E
EVphas. time of geftation, which he limits to nine months, we
  ought to fupend our judgment, becaufe all travellers
affirm that the female elephant is believed to go with
young no lefs than two years.
Elephants, even in a favage ftate, are peaceable and
[ 551 1
E L E
are always flrifting their pafture; when they meet with
cultivated grounds, they make a prodigious defolation, '
and deftroy more plants by their feet than they ufe for
nouriffiment: which laft is very confiderable, amounting
to 150 pounds of herbage every day: by this means, a
•gentle creatures. They never ufe their weapons but they conltantly graze in large troops, they lay wafte
in defence of themfelves or companions. Their focial whole fields in an hour. The Indians and negroes em-
difpoiitions are fo ftrong, that they are feldom found ploy every art to prevent them from vifiting their culti-
alone, but march al.vays in large troops : the oldeft vated lands, making great noifes, and burning large fires
and moft'experienced lead the van ; the younger, or round their fields. However, thefe precautions are
lame ones, keep in the middle ; and thofe of a fecond not always fufficient to prevent the elephants from vi-
rate, as to age, walk in the rear. The females carry fiting them. They chafe away the domeltic animals,
their young on their tulks, embracing them at the fame put the men to flight, and fometimes even throw down
•time with their trunk. They feldom march in this their limber huts. Elephants are hardly fufceptible of
regular order but when they reckon the journey dan- fear: the only things which can furprife them or flop
gerousj/uch as an expedition to cultivated lands, where their courfe are artificial fires, fuch as fquibs, crack-
they expeft to meet with refiftance. On other occa- ers, See. the effe&s of which are fo fudden and fo
£ons they are lefs cautious; fome of them falling be- quickly repeated, that the elephants frequently turn .
bind or feparating from the reft, but feldom fo far as back ; and when one runs, all the reft inftantly follow
to be without the reach of affiftance by alarming and his example.
affembling their companions. It is dangerous to offer Although the focial difpofition in the elephant be
them the leaft injury ; for they run ftraight upon the exceeding ftrong ; yet whenever the females come in
offender; and although the weight of their body be feafon, it immediately gives place to the ftronger and
great, their fteps are fo large, that they eafily outrun more interefting paffion of love. They obferve the
.the fwifteft man, whom they either pierce with their greateft delicacy in their amours, abhorring nothing
.tulks, or feize with their trunk, dart him in the air fo much as to be feen-by their companions. The troop
like a ftone, and then trample him under their feet, dividfe themfelves into couples, fteal off into the moft
But they never attack any perfon unlefs when pro- fecret places of the foreft, and then give way to all the
voked. However, as they are extremely fenfible and impulfes of nature, which are lively and lafting in pro-
•delicate with regard to injuries, it is always prudent to portion to the long period of abftinence ; for, accord-
keep out of their way. Travellers who frequent thefe ing to all accounts, except that of M. Blcs already
.countries kindle large fires, and beat drums during the
night, in order to prevent their approach. After be¬
ing once attacked by men, or falling info^any ambuffi,
.they are faid never to forget the injury, but fearch for
every opportunity of getting revenge. As they are
endowed perhaps with a more exquifite'fenfation of
fmell than any otlier animal, owing to the great extent
•of their nofe, they can feent a man at a very great di-
ftance, and trace him by his footfteps.
Elephants are peculiarly fond of the banks of rivers,
deep valleys, and marftiy grounds, efpecially when well
fhaded with trees. They delight in drawing up water
into their trunks, even when they do not drink it, and.
amufe themfelves in dalhing the water around, ■ They
cannot endure cold, and are equally averfe to an ex-
noticed(A), the female goes with young two years,
and it is only once in three years that the feafon of
love returns. They bring forth but one at a time;
which, as foon as it comes into the world, is as large
as a wild boar, and is furniftied witli teeth : however,
the large tulks do not make their appearance till fome
time after, and at the age of fix months they are feveral
inches long. Elephants of this age are as large as an
ox when in a natural ftate.
The manner of taking and taming elephants, there¬
fore, merits our attention. In forefts and fuch places
as are frequented by elephants, the Indians choofe a
fpot and inclofe it with ftrong pallifades; they ufe the
largett trees as the principal flakes, to which are fixed
fmaller ones in a tranfverfe direction. Thefe crofs trees
.cefs of heat : in order to avoid the fc ore lung heat of are fixed fo as to allow a man to pafs eafily through,
the fun, they retire to-the thickeil and molt Ihady partr^ There is likewife a large port left for the elephant,
of the foreft. The bulk-of their bodies is fo enormous,' over which is fufpended a ftrong barrier, which is let
that they do not choofe to go into deep waters fo fre- down as foon as he enters. In order to decoy him in-
quently as fome other quadrupeds; although the length to the inclofure, the hunters take along with them a
of their trunk, which they raife ftraight up, and by tame female in feafon, and travel about till they come
which they refpirc, is a great advantage in fwimming.
The ordinary food of elephants is roots, herbs,
leaves, the tender branches of trees, fruits, and grains:,
but they abhor flelb or filh. When any of them dif-
covers a fine pafture, he immediately calls and invites
his companions to come and eat with him. As they
devour a large quantity of food in a Ihort time, they
fo near as that the cry of the female Can reach a male,
whom they previoully obferve in the foreft; then the
guide of the female makes her give the cry peculiar to
the feafon of love : the male inftantly replies, and fets
out in quell of her. The guide then makes the female
proceed towards the artificial inclofure, repeating-her
cries from time to time as Ihe goes along. She enters
(a) Mr Bles’s information is adopted by Mr Pennant: That they go only nine months with young, he fays,
is gueffed by the cafual efcape of the tame females, when in rut, into the woods; where they couple with
the wild; are foon difeovered and brought back, and obferved to bring forth in about, nine months from
the time.
E L E t 552 ] E L E
Elephas. into the inclofure, the male follows her, and the In-
v dians immediately (hut the port behind him. He no
fooner difcovers the hunters, and that he is inclofed,
than his pafiion for the fex is converted into rage and-
fury. The hunters entangle him with ftrong ropes ;
they fetter his legs and trunk; they bring two or three
tame elephants in order to pacify and reconcile him to
his condition. In a word, they reduce him to obedi¬
ence in a few days, by a proper application of torture
and carefles. • There are many other methods of catch¬
ing elephants. Inftead of making large-inclofures with
pallifades, like the kings of Siam, and other monarchs,
the poor Indians content themfelves with a very fimple
apparatus: they dig deep pits in the roads frequented
by elephants, covering them over with branches of
trees, turf, &c. When an elephant falls into one of
thefe pits, he is unable to get out again.
The elephant, when tamed, is the mod friendly and
obedient of all animals : he is entirely attached to the
perfon who feeds and takes care of him. In a fhort
time he underftands figns, and the found of his mafter’s
voice. He diftinguifhes the language of pafiion, of
command, of fatisfaflion ; and adts accordingly. He
receives his orders with attention, and executes them
with prudence and alacrity, but without precipitation.
He eafdy learns to bow his knees and lower his body,
for the convenience of thofe who mount him. He ca-
reffes his friends with his trunk. He lifts burdens with
his trunk, and afiills thofe who are loading him in lay¬
ing them on his back. He delights in fhining harnefs
and trappings. When yoked in a cart or waggon, he
pulls equally and cheerfully, unlefs he be abufed by
injudicious chaftifements. His guide is generally
mounted on his neck, with a fmall rod of iron (harp at
the point in his hand ; he diredls his motion by prick¬
ing him on the ears and head ; but, for the moll part,
a word is fufficient.
A tame elephant wall do more labour than fix horfes;
but then he requires a proportional quantity of food.
They are the principal beads of burden in many parts
of Africa and the Eaft Indies. They carry facks and
bundles of all kinds on their neck, back, and tufles.
They never lofe or damage any thing committed to
their care : they will (land on the edge of a river, take
bundles off their necks and tulles, lay them carefully
iu a boat wherever they are defired, and try with their
trunk whether they are properly fituated; if they be
loaded with calks, they go in quell of Hones to prop
them and prevent them from rolling.
The elephant is not only the mod traflable, but the
moll intelligent,' of animals; fenfible of benefits, re-
fentful of injuries, and endowed even with a fenfe of
Ludolph. glory-—In India, they were once employed in the
com in hijl. launching of (hips : one was dire&ed to force a very
JEthiop. large veffel into the water ; the work proved fuperior
P'l47' to his llrength : his mailer, with a farcaftic tone, bid
the keeper take away this lazy beall and bring ano¬
ther : the poor animal inllantly repeated his eflbrts,
fradlured his flcull, and died on the fpot. In Delli, an
elephant palling along the llreets, put his trunk into a
taylor’s (hop, where feveral people were at work : one
of them pricked the end with his needle: the bead
palled on; but in the next dirty puddle filled his trunk
with water, returned to the (hop, and fpurting every
N° 114.
drop among the people who had offended him, fpoilt Elephas.
their work. ——',u’
An. elephant in Adfmeer, which often paffed thro’ Ibu,‘
the bazar or market, as he went by a certain herb-
wotpan, always received from her a mouthful of greens:
at^iength be was feized with one of his periodical fits
of rage, broke his fetters, and, running through the
market, put the crowd to flight; among others, this
woman, who in hade forgot a little child (he had
brought with her. The animal recollefting the fpot
where his benefadlrefs was wont to fit, lookup the in¬
fant gently in his trunk, and placed it in fafety on a
Hall before a neighbouring houfe. Another, in his
madnefs, killed his comae or governor: the wife feeing
the. misfortune, took her two children and flung them
before the elephant, faying, “ Now you have dellroyed
their father, you. may as well put an end to their lives
and mine.” It infiantly Hopped, relented, took the
greatell of the children, placed him on its neck, adop¬
ted him for his cornac, and never afterwards would per¬
mit any body elfe to mount it.
A foldier at Pondicherry, who was accuftomed,
whenever he received the portion that came to his (hare, P1 7s*
to. carry a certain quantity of it to one ofijtjiefe ani¬
mals, having one day drank rather too freely, and find¬
ing himfelf purfued by the guards, who were going to
take him to prifon, took refuge under the elephant’s
body and fell alleep. In vain did the guard try to
force him from this afylum, as the elephant protected ,
him wdth his trunk. The next morning the foldier, re¬
covering from his drunken fit, Ihuddered with horror
to find himfelf Hretched under the belly of ’this huge
animal. The elephant, which without doubt percei¬
ved the man’s embarraffment, careffrd him with his
trunk, in order to infpire him with courage and make
him: underffand that he might now depart in fafety.
A painter was defirous of drawing the elephant which Mem.pour
was kept in the menagerie at Verfailles in an uncommon ^
attitude, which was that of holding his trunk raifed up nimaux
in the air with -his mouth open. The painter’s boy, inpar Mef-
order to keep the animal in this pollure, threw fruit \n-f'ws *
to his mouth ; but as the lad frequently deceived him,^?^- d"
and made an offer only of throwing him the fruit, hepart
grew angry; and, as if he had known that the painter’s
. intention of drawing him was the caufe of the affront
that was offered him, inltead of revenging himfelf on
the lad, he turned his refentment on the mailer, and
taking up a quantity of water in his trunk, threw it
on the paper on which the painter was drawing, and
fpoiled it.
At the Cape of G.ood Hope, it is cullomary to kill Foyage dt
thofe animals, for the fake of their teeth, by the chafe./a
Three horfemen, w'ell mounted and armed with lances,p'
attack the elephant alternately, each relieving the other
as they fee their companion preffed, till the beall is
fubdued. Three Dutchmen (brothers), who had made
large fortunes by this bufinefs, determined to retire to
Europe, and enjoy the fruits of their labours; but re-
fplved, before they went, to have a laft chafe by way
of amufement : they met with their game, and began
the attack in the ufual manner; but unfortunately one
of their horfes fell down and flung its rider: the enra¬
ged animal inllantly feized the unhappy man with its
trunk, flung him up to a vail height in the air, and re¬
ceived
E L E [ <53 ] E L E
ceived him on one of its tufks ; then turning towards
the two other brethren, as if it were with an afpeft of
revenge and infult, held out to them the impaled
wretch writhing on the bloody tooth.
From the earlieft accounts in hiftory, the eaftern na¬
tions have employed elephants in war ; Alexander the
Great was the firft European who ever mounted an
■elephant. He carried a number of them into Greece,
which Pyrrhus employed fome years after again!! the
Pwomans at the battle of Tarentum. Both the Greeks
and Romans foon learnt to get the better of thofe mon-
ilrous animals : they opened their ranks and allowed
them to pafs through ; neither did they attempt to
hurt them, but threw darts, &c. at their guides. Now
that fire-arms are the principal inilruments of war, ele¬
phants, who are terrified at the noife and flame, inftead
of being ufeful, would only tend -to embarrafs and con-
fufe an army. However, in Cochin and other parts
of Malabar, as alfo in Tonquin, Siam, and Pegu,
where fire-arms are little underftood, they are ftiil ufed
in battle. 1 he guide fits aftride upon the neck, and
the combatants fit or (land upon the other parts of the
body. They are alfo extremely ferviceable in fording
of rivers, and carrying over the baggage on their backs.*
After the keepers have loaded them with feveral hun¬
dred weight, they fallen ropes to them ; of which the
foldiers taking hold, either fwim or are drawn acrofs
the river. In time of a&ion, they now and then fix an
heavy iron chain to the end of their trunks, which they
whirl round with fuch agility, as to make it impofiible
for an enemy to approach them at that time. Another
ufe they Hill have for this creature in war, is to force
open the gates of a city or garrifon which is clofely
befieged. This he does by fetting his backfide againll
them, riggling backwards and forwards with his whole
weight, till he has burft the bars, and forced an en¬
trance : to prevent which, mod of the garrifons in this
country have large fpikes ftuckin their gates, thatpro-
je£t to a confiderable diftance. However, after all,
thofe prodigious animals are kept more for fhow and
grandeur than for ufe, and their keeping is attended
with a very great expence, for they devour vaft quan¬
tities of provifion ; and you mull fometimes regale them
with a plentiful repalt of cinnamon, of which they are
exceffively fond. It is faid to be no uncommon thing
with a Nabob, if he has a mind to ruin a private gen¬
tleman, to make him a prefent of an elephant, which
he is ever afterwards obliged to maintain at a greater
cxpence than he can afford : by parting with it, he
•would certainly fall under the difpleafure of the gran¬
dee, befides forfeiting all the honour which his coun¬
trymen think is conferred upon him by fo refpe&able a
prefent.
When the elephant is properly managed, he lives ve¬
ry long even in a fixate of flavery and labour. That fome
have lived in this date 130 years, is pretty well authen¬
ticated. In a natural flate, they often exceed -200
years, and propagate their fpecies till they are 120: It
is 30 years before they come to their full growth.
The elephant inhabits India, and fome of its greater
illands, Cochin China, and fome of the provinces of
China. It abounds in the fouthern parts of Africa,
from the river Senegal to the Cape ; and from thence
as high as Ethiopia on the other fide. They are found
in the greatetl numbers in the interior parts, where
Vol.VI. PaitH.
there are vad forells, near the fides of rivers. The
wild elephants of Ceylon live in troops or families di-
ftindf and feparate from all others, and feem to avoid
the llrange herds with particular care. When a fami¬
ly removes from place to place, the largefl-tulked males
put themfelves at the head; and if they meet with a
large river, are the firit to pafs it. On arriving on the
oppofite bank, they try whether the landing-place is
fafe : in cafe it is, they give a fignal of a note from the
trunk, as if it were the found of a trumpet, on which
the remaining part of the old elephants fwim over ; the
little elephants follow, holding one another by locking
their trunks together; and the reft of the old ones
bring up the rear. In the woods are often feen a fo-
litary male elephant, wandering like an outlaw banilhed
from the herd and all the race. Thefe are as if in a
ftate of defperation, and very dangerous. A Angle
man will put to flight whole herds of focial elephants:
this alone fears not his prefence, but will Hand firm,
putting his power to defiance. Elephants are not at
prefent domefticated in Africa, but only in the more
civilized parts of Alia. They are much more nume¬
rous in Africa. In fome parts they fvvarm fo, that
the negroes are obliged to make their habitations un¬
der ground for fear of them. They are killed and
eaten by the natives, and the trunk is faid to be a de¬
licious morfel. All the teeth are brought from Afri¬
ca : they are frequently picked up in the woods ; fo
that it is uncertain whether they are Ihed teeth, or thofe
of dead animals. The African teeth which come from
Mofambique are ten feet long ; thofe of Malabar only
three or four; the largeft in Alia are thofe of Cochin
China, which even exceed the fize of the elephants of
Mofambique. The Ikin is thick, and, when drefled,
proof againft a mufket ball. The flelh, the gall, the
ikin, and the bones, are faid to be ufed medicinally by
the Chinefe. See Plate CLXXX.
ELEVATION, thefamewithALTiruDE or height.
Elefation of the Hof, in the church of Rome, that
part of the mafis where the prieft raifes the holt above
his head for the people to adore.
ELEVATOR, in anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles, fo called from their ferving to raife the parts
of the body to v/hich they belong.
ELEVATORY, in furgery, an inftrument for
railing depreffed or fraftured parts of the ikull, to be
applied after the integuments and periofteum are remo¬
ved. See Surgery.
ELEVE, a term purely French, though of late
ufed alfo in our language. Literally it fignifies a dif-
ciple or fcholar bred up under any one, being formed
from the Italian allievo, an “ apprentice” or “ novice.”
It was firft ufed by the French writers in fpeaking
of painters ; fuch a painter was an eleve of Da Vinci,
of Raphael, &c. From painting it came to be applied
to fuch as ftudied or learned any other art under a ma¬
iler. In the Royal Academy of Sciences, there were
20 eleves : and in that of infcriptions, 10 eleves. The
eleves are to aft in concert with the penfionaries. See
Academy.
The denomination eleve, however, has been fince
fupprefled, and that of adjoint fubftituted in its room ;
becaufe every body did not know the fenfe affixed to
it by the academy : and now the penfionary acad'emills
have not, as formerly, each of them an eleve; but the
4 A eleve®
felcphas
I!
F.leve.
E L E [ 554 ] E L E
Eleventh, eleves are become adjoints, or affociates of the academy.
'Bleufuna. ELEVEN TH, or chord of the eleventh. See In-
" V TERVAL.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival
kept in honour of Ceres, every fourth year by fome
Hates, but by others every fifth. The Athenians cele¬
brated it at Eleufis, a town of Attica; whence the
name.
Ceres, fays an Athenian orator (Ifocrates), wan¬
dering in quell of her daughter Proferpine, came into
Attica, where fome good offices were done her, which
it is unlawful for thofe who are not initiated to hear.
In return Ihe conferred two unparalleled benefits; to
wit, the knowledge of agriculture, by which the hu¬
man race is railed above the brute creation; and the
mylteries, from which the partakers derive fweeter
hopes than other men enjoy, both as to the prefent life
and to eternity. It was the popular opinion, that
the Eleufinian goddefies fuggelled prudent counfel to
their votaries, and influenced their conduft; that
thefe were refpedled in the infernal regions, and had
precedence in the alfemblies of the bleffed; while the
unhallowed were in utter darknefs, wallowing in mire,
or labouring to fill a leaky veffel. The Athenians
were folicitous to fecure thefe advantages to their
children, by having them initiated as foon as was al¬
lowed.
Ceres was fuppofed to be particularly partial to Eleufis
and its vicinity. There were the memorials of her
prefence and of her bounty ; the well-named Callicho-
rus, by which Ihe had refted, in the reign of Erec-
theus; the Hone on which Ihe fat, named the forrow-
ful; the Rharian plain, where barley was firit fown ;
and the threlhing-floor and altar of Triptolemus, a
herdfman whom ihe inftrudled in the culture of that
grain, the ufe of which fucceeded to acorns. Her
myfteries continued to pofTcfs a pre-eminence in holi-
nefs, and to be accounted as much fuperior to all
other religious fellivals as the gods were to the heroes.
Even the garments worn at the folemnity were fup¬
pofed to partake of their efficacy, and to be endued
with fignal virtues. It was ufual to retain them until
they were perilhing ; and then to dedicate them in the
temple, or to referve them for the purpofe of enwrap¬
ping new-born children.
The myllic temple, as it was called, provided by
Pericles for the folemnity, created fuch awe by its
fan&ity as could be equalled only by the effedt of its
beauty and magnitude, which excited aftonilhment in
every beholder. The profane or uninitiated were for¬
bidden to enter it on any pretence. •• Two young
Acarnanians. happened inadvertently to mix with the
croud at the feafon of the myfleries, and to go in ; but
the queftion fuggeiled by their ignorance prefently be¬
trayed them, and. their intrufion was punifhed with
death. The chief prielt, hierophant, or myltagogue,
was taken from the Eumolpidae, a holy family flourilh-
ing at Athens, and defeended frdm Eumolpus, a Ihep-
herd and favourite of Ceres, He was enjoined celi¬
bacy, and wore a Hole or long garment, his hair, and a
wreath of myrtle. The grand requifites in his cha-
radter were ftrength and melody of voice, folemnity of
deportment, magnificence, and great decorum. Un¬
der him, befides many of inferior ftation, was the
daduchus or torch-bearer, who had likewife his hair,
with a fillet; the prieft, who officiated at the altar; and Eleufmia.
the hiero-ceryx or facred herald; all very important —~r—i
perfonages. The latter was of a family which claiiped
the god Mercury and Aglauros the daughter of Ce-
crops for its anceftors.
The fecrecy in which the myfteries were enveloped,
ferved to enhance the idea of their confequence, and
to increafe the defire of participation. It was fo par¬
ticular, that no perfon was allowed even to name the,
hierophant by whom he had been initiated. Public ab¬
horrence and deteftation awaited the babbler, and the
law direfted he Ihould die.
The Athenians fuffered none to be initiated into
thefe myfteries but fuch as were members of their ci¬
ty. This regulation, which compelled Hercules,Caftor,
and Pollux, to become citizens of Athens, was ftridlly
obferved in the firit ages of the inllitution, but after¬
wards all perfons, barbarians excepted, were freely
initiated.
The feilivals were divided into great and lefs my¬
fteries. The lefs were inftituted from the following
circumftance. Hercules paffed near Eleufis while the
Athenians were celebrating the myfteries, and deiired
to be initiated. As this could not be done, becaufe he
was a ftranger, and as Eumolpus was unwilling to dif-
pleafe him on account of his great power, and the fer-
vices which he had done to the Athenians, another
feftival was inftituted without violating the laws. It
was called and Hercules was folemnly admitted
to the celebration and initiated. Thefe lefs myfteries
were obferved at Agrse near the Iliffus. The greater
were celebrated at Eleufis, from which place Ceres
has been called Eleufinia. In later times the fmaller
feftivals were preparatory to the greater, and no per¬
fon could be initiated at Eleufis without a previous pu¬
rification at Agree. This purification they performed
by keeping themfelves pure, chafte, and unpolluted, du¬
ring nine days ; after which they came and offered fa-
crifices and prayers, wearing garlands of flowers, called
lar/u.tpoc OP ifinpccy and having under their feet a«<t xuJiov,
'Jupiter’eJhin, which was the Ik in of a viftim offered to
that god. The perfon who affifted was called vtpxvoe
from vfap water, which was ufed at the purification,
and they themfelves were called ^uo-rai, the initiated.
A year after the initiation at the lefs myfteries they
facrificed a fow to Ceres, and were admitted in the
greater, and the fecrets of the feftivals were folemn¬
ly revealed to them, from which they were called
ifopoi and iroyrrai, ITlfpeBatoru
This feftival was obferved in the month Boedro-
mion or September, and continued nine days from the
15th till the 23d. During that time it was unlawful
to arrell any man or prefent any petition, on pain of
forfeiting a thoufand drachmas, or according to others
on pain of death. It was alfo unlawful for thofe who
were initiated to fit upon the cover of a well, to eat
beans, mullets, or weazels. If any woman rode to
Eleufis in a chariot, (he was obliged by an edidl of
Lycurgus to pay 6,000 drachmas. The defign of this
law was to deftroy all diftin&ion between the richer
and poorer fort of citizens. When the feafon ap¬
proached, the myftae or perfons who had been initiated
only in the leffer myfteries, repaired to Eleufis to be
inftrudled in the ceremonial. The fervice for the open¬
ing of the temple, with morning facrifice, was per¬
formed..
E L E t 555 ] E L E
Ei ufinia. formed. The ritual was then produced from the fanc-
tuary. It was enveloped in fymbolical figures of ani¬
mals, which fuggefted words compendioufly, in letters
with ligatures, implicated, the tops huddled together,
or difpofed circularly like a wheel; the whole utterly
inexplicable to the profane. The cafe, which was
called Petroma, confifted of two ftones exactly fitted.
The mylferious record was replaced after the reading,
and clofed up until a futpre ftftival. The principal
rite was nocturnal, and confined to the temple and its
environs. The myftse waited without, with impati¬
ence and apprehenfion. Lamentations and ftrange
noifes were heard. It thundered. Flafiies of light
and of fire rendered the deep fucceeding darknefs more
terrible. They were beaten, and perceived not the
hand. They beheld frightful apparitions, monfters,
and phantoms of a canine form. They were filled
with terror, became perplexed and unable to ftir.
The fcene then fuddenly changed to brilliant and
agreeable. The propylsea or veftibules of the temple
were opened, the curtains withdrawn, the hidden
things difplayed. They were introduced by the hiero¬
phant and daduchus, and the former fiiowed them the
myfteries. The fplendor of illumination, the glory
of the temple and of the images, the finging and dan¬
cing which accompanied the exhibition, all contributed
to footh the mind after its late agitation, and to render
the wondering devotee tranquil and felf-fatisfied. Af¬
ter this infpedtion, or, as it was called, the autopjla,
they retired, and others advanced. The fucceeding
days were employed in purification, in facrifice, in
pompous proceffions, and fpe&acles, at which they
afiifted, wearing myrtle-crowns. The fecond day was
called ak-jii fiurni, to the fea, you that are initiated', becaufe
they were commanded to purify themfelves by bathing
in the fea. On the third day facrifices, and chiefly a
mullet, were offered; as alfo barley from a field of
Eleufis. Thefe oblations were called and held fo
facred that the priefts themfelves were not, as in other
facrifices, permitted to partake of them. On the
fourth day they made a folemn proceflion, in which
the xax«3-iov, holy lajhet of Ceres was carried about in a
confecrated cart, while on every fide the people fhouted
Xa,pl A-itftvTtp, Hail, Ceres! After thefe followed women,
called y.tropopoi, who carried hafkets, in which was fefa-
min, carded wool, grains of fait, a ferpent, pomegra¬
nates, reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth
was called 'h xa^yS^ tpipx, the torch day ; becaufe
on the following night the people ran about with
torches in their hands. It was ufual to dedicate
torches to Ceres, and contend which fhould offer the
biggeft, in commemoration of the travels of the god-
defs, and of her lighting a torch in the flames of mount
iEtna. The fixth day was called from lacchus,
the fon of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied his
mother in her fearch after Proferpine with a torch in
his hand. From that circumftance his ftatue had a
torch in his hand, and was carried in folemn proceffion
from the Geramicus to Eleufis. The ftatue with
thofe that accompanied it, called was
crowned with myrtle. In the way nothing was heard
but finging and the noife of brazen kettles as the vo¬
taries danced along. The way through which they
iflued from the city was called upa. o«raf the facred way,
the refting place rmn, from a fg-tree which grew in
the neigbourhood. They alfo flopped on a bridge Ele-finia,
over the Cephifus,. where they derided thofe that paffed v—J
by. After they had pafied this bridge, they entered
Eleufis by a place called ^ the myflicalentrance.
On the feventh day were fports, in which the viftors
were rewarded with a meafure of barley, as that grain
had been fiiil fown in Eleufis. The eighth day was
called ExwJaupiBv vxfpx, becaufe once iEfculaplus at his
return from Epidaurus to Athens was initiated by the
repetition of the lefs myfteries. It became cuftomary,
therefore, to celebrate them a fecond time upon this,
that fuch as had not hitherto been initiated might be
lawfully admitted. The ninth and laft day of the
feftival was called earthen veffels, becaufe it
was ufual to fill two fuch veflels with w-ine ; one of
which being placed towards the eaft, and the other to¬
wards the weft ; which, after the repetition of fome
myftical words, were both thrown down, and the
wine being fpilt on the ground was offered as a li¬
bation.
The ftory of Ceres and Proferpine, the foundation of
the Eleufinian myfteries, was partly local. It was both
verbally delivered, and reprefented in allegorical ihow.
Proferpine was gathering flowers when (he was ftolen by
Pluto. Hence the proceffion of the holy balket, which
was placed on a car dragged along by oxen, and follow¬
ed by a train of females, fome carrying the myftic chefts,
fhouting, Hail, Ceres! At night a proceflion was made
with lighted torches, to commemorate the goddefs
fearching for her daughter. A meafure of barley, the
grain which, it was believed, fhe had given, was the re¬
ward of the vi&ors in the gymnic exercifes ; and the
tranfa&ion at the temple had a reference to the le¬
gend. A knowledge of thefe things and places, from
which the profane were excluded, was the amount of
initiation ; and the mode of it, which had been devifed
by craft, was fkilfully adapted to the reigning fuper-
ftitions. The operation was forcible, and the effedl
in proportion. The priefthood flouriftied as piety in-
creafed. The difpenfation was corrupt, but its ten¬
dency not malignant. It produced fanftity of man¬
ners and an attention to the focial duties; defire to
be as diftinguifhed by what was deemed virtue as by
filence.
Some have fuppofed the principal rites at this fefti¬
val to have been obfcene and abominable, and that
from thence proceeded all themyfterious fecrecy. They
were carried from Eleufis to Rome in the reign of
Adrian, where they were obferved with the fame ce¬
remonies as before, though perhaps with more free¬
dom and licentioufnefs. They lafted about 1800
years, and were at laft aboliihed by Theodofius the
Great.
ELEUSIS, (anc. geog.) a town in Attica between
Megara and the Piraeus, celebrated for the feftivals of
Ceres. See tfte preceding article.—Thofe rites were fi¬
nally extinguifhed in Greece upon the invafion of Alaric
the Goth. Eleufis, on the overthrow of its goddefs
and the ceflation of its gainful traffic, probably became
foon an obfcure place, without charadter or riches.
For fome ages, however, it was not entirely forfaken,
as is evident from the vaft confumption of the ancient
materials, and from the prefent remains, of which
the following account is given by Dr Chandler f. ‘Travels in
“ The port was fmall and of a circular form. The Gre‘f'
4 A 2 lW-18*
E L E [ 556 1 E L E
$lenfima. ftoncs of one pier are feen above water, and the cor-
refponding fide may be traced. About half a mile
from the (bore is a long hill, which divides the plain.
Jn the fide next the fea are traces of a theatre, and
on the top are cifterns cut in the rock. In the way
to it, fome maffes of wall and rubbilh, partly ancient,
are Handing; with ruined churches; and beyond, a
long broken aqueduft croffes to the mountains. The
Chriftian pirates had infelted the place fo much, that
in 1676 it was abandoned. It is now a fmall village
at the eaftern extremity of the rocky brow, on which
w’as once a caftle ; and is inhabited by a few Albanian
families, employed in the culture of the plain, and
fuperintended by a Turk, who refides in an old fquare
tower. The proprietor was Achmet Aga, the primate
or principal perfon of Athens.
“ The myltic temple at Eleufis was planned by
I&inus, the architedl of the Parthenon. Pericles was
overfeer of the building. It was of the Doric order;
the cell fo large as to admit the company of a theatre.
The columns on the pavement within, and their capi¬
tals, were railed by Coraebus. Metagenes of Xypete
added the architraves and the pillars above them,
which fuftained the roof. Another completed the edi¬
fice. This was a temple in antis, or without exterior
columns, which would have occupied the room re¬
quired for the vidtims. The afpedl was changed to
Projlylos under Demetrius the Phalerean ; Philo a fa¬
mous architeft ere&ing a portico, which gave dignity
to the fabric, and rendered the entrance more com¬
modious. The fite was beneath the brow, at the eaft
end, and encompaffed by the fortrefs. Some marbles,
which are uncommonly maffive, and fome pieces of the
columns, remain on the fpot. The breadth of the cell
is about 150 feet; the length, including the pronaos
and portico, is 21 (x feet; the diameter of the columns,
which are fluted 6 inches from the bottom of the
fhafts, is 6 feet and more than 6 inches. The tem¬
ple was a decaftyle or had 10 columns in the front,
which was to the eaft. The peribolus or inclofure,
which furrounded it on the north-eaft and on the
fouth fide, meafures 387 feet in length from north to
fouth, and 328 feet in breadth from eaft to weft. On
the weft fide it joined the angles of the weft end of the
temple in a ftraight line. Between the weft wall of
the inclofure and temple and the wall of the citadel was
a paffage of 42 feet 6 inches wide, which led to the
fummit of a high rock at the north-weft angle of the
inclofure, on which are vifible the traces of a temple
in antis, in length 74 feet 6 inches from north to
fouth, and in breadth from the eaft to the wall of the
citadel, to which it joined on the weft, 54 feet. It
was perhaps that facred to Triptolemus. This fpot
commands a very extenfive view of the plain and bay.
About three-fourths of the cottages are within the
precindls of the myftic temple, and the fquare tower
ftands on the ruined wall of the inclofure.
“ At a fmall diftance from the north end of the in¬
clofure is a heap of marble, confifting of fragments of
the Doric and Ionic orders; remains, it is likely, of
the temples of Diana Propylea and ©f Neptune, and
of the Propyleum or gateway. Wheler faw fome large
ftones carved with wheat-ears and bundles of poppy.
Near it is the bull of a coloflal ftatue of excellent
workmanlhip, maimed, and the face disfigured; the
breadth at the (boulders, as meafured by Pococke, 5 ETenttans,
feet and an half; and the bafket on the head above 2 £lf-
feet deep. It probably reprefented Proferpine. In
the heap are two or three inferibed pedeftals; and on
one are a couple of torches, croffed. We. faw an¬
other fixed in the ftone flairs, which lead up the/quare
tower on the outfide. It belonged to the ftatue of a
lady, who was hierophant or prieftefs of Proferpine,
and had covered the altar of the goddefs with filver.
A well in the village was perhaps that called Calli-
chorus, where the women of Eleufis were accuftomed
to dance in honour of Certs. A tradition prevails,
that if the broken ftatue be removed, the fertility of
the land will ceafe. Achmet Aga was fully polfeffed
with this fuperftition, and declined permitting us to
dig or meafure there, until I had overcome his fcruples
by a prefent of a handfome fnuff-box containing feve-
ral zechins or pieces of gold.”
ELEUTHERIA, a feftival celebrated atPlataea in
honour of Jupiter Ekutherius, or “ the aflertor of li¬
berty,” by delegates from almoft all the cities of
Greece. Its inftitution originated in this: After the
victory obtained by the Grecians under Paufanias over
Mardonius the Perfian general in the country of Pla-
trea, an altar and flatue were credited to Jupiter Eleu-
therius, who had freed the Greeks from the tyranny
of the barbarians. It was further agreed upon in a
general affembly, by the advice of Ariftides the Athe¬
nian, that deputies Ihould be fent every fifth year,
from the different cities of Greece, to celebrate Eleu-
theria, feftivals of liberty. The Platacans celebrated,
alfo an anniverfary feftival in memory of thofe who had
loft their lives in that famous battle. The celebration
was thus: At break of day a proceffion was made with
a trumpeter at the head, founding a fignal for battle.
After him followed chariots loaded with myrrh, gar¬
lands, and a black bull, and certain free young men,
as no figns of fervility were to appear during the fo-
lemnity, becaufe they in whofe honour the feftival was
inftituted had died in the defence of their country.
They carried libations of wine and milk in large-eared
veffels, with jars of oil, and precious ointments. Laft
of all appeared the chief magiftrate, who, though not
permitted at other times to touch iron, or wear gar¬
ments of any colour but white, yet appeared clad in
purple, and taking a water-pot out of the city cham¬
ber, proceeded through the middle of the town, with
a fword in his hand, towards the fepulchres. There
he drew water from a neighbouring fpring, and wafhed
and anointed the monuments, after which hefacrificed
a bull upon a pile of wood, invoking Jupiter and in¬
fernal Mercury, and inviting to the entertainment the
foul$ of thofe happy heroes who had perifhed in the
defence of their country. After this he filled a bowl
with wine, faying, I drink to thofe who loft their lives
in the-defence of the liberties of Greece. There was
alfo a feftival of the fame name obferved by the Samians
in honour of the god of love. Slaves alfo, when they
obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which they call¬
ed Ehutheria.
ELF, a term now almoft obfolete, formerly ufed to
denote a fairy or hobgoblin ; an imaginary being,
the creature of ignorance, fuperftition, and craft. See
Fairy.
Eu-Arrows, in natural hiftory, a name given to the
flints
ELI f 557 1 ELI
Bjgin flints anciently fafhioned into arrow-heads, and ftill mortality of the foul. Pyrrho alfo was of this city, at
|| found foible in Scotland, America, and feveral other the head of the ft’ft called after him Pyrrhonifls.
fch*. parts of the world : they are believed by the vulgar to The city of Elis owed its origin to an union of fmall
—be (hot by fairies, and that cattle are fometimes killed towns after the Perfian war. It was not encompaffed
by them. immediately with a wall; for it had the care of the
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Moray in temple at Olympia, and its territory was folemnly con-
Scotland, and formerly a bifhop’s fee, is fituated on fecrated to Jupiter. To invade or not protect it was
the river Lofey about fix miles north from the Spey, deemed impiety ; and armies, if marching through,
jn W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 57. 40. Mr Pennant delivered up their weapons, which, on their quitting it,
fays, it is a good town, and has many of the houfes were reftored. Amid warring Hates the city enjoyed
built over piazzas; but, excepting its great cattle- repofe, was reforted to by ftrangers, and flourifhed.
fairs,-has little trade. It is principally remarkable The region round about it was called r«/e or/W/ceo, from
for its ecclefiaftfcal antiquities. The cathedral, now the inequalities. The country was reckoned fertile,
in ruins, has been formerly a very magnificent pile, and particularly fit for the raifing of flax. This, which
The weft door is very elegant and richly ornamented, grew no where elfe in Greece, equalled the produce of
The choir is very beautiful, and has a fine and light Judaea in finenefs, but was not fo yellow. Elis was a
gallery running round it ; and at the eaft end are fchool, as it were, for Olympia, which was diftant 37
two rows of narrow windows in an excellent Go- miles. The athletic exercifes were performed there,
thic tafte. The chapter-hnufe is an oftagon ; the before the more folemn trial, in a gymnafium, by which
roof fupported by a fine Angle column with neat car- the Peneus ran. The hellanodics or prasfe&s of the
vings of coats of arms round the capital. There is games paired the rival combatants by lot, in an area
ftill a great tower on each fide of this cathedral; but called Plethrium or The Acre. Within the wall grew
that in the centre, with the fpire and whole roof, are lofty plane-trees; and in the court, which was called
fallen in ; and form moll awful fragments, mixed the Xyjlus, were feparate courfes marked for the foot-
with the battered monuments of knights and prelates, races. A fmaller court was called the Quadrangle. The
Boethius fays, that Duncan, who was killed by Mac- prsefedts, when chofen, refided for 10 months in a
beth at Invernefs, lies buried here. The place is alfo building eredted for their ufe, to be inftrudted in the
crowded with a number of modern tomb-ftones.— duties of their office. They attended before fun-rife
The cathedral was founded by Andrew de Moray, in to prelideat the races; and again at noon, the timeap-
1224, on a piece of land granted by Alexander II.; pointed for the pentathlum or five fports. The horfes
and his remains were depofited in the choir, under a were trained in the agora or market-place, which was
tomb of blue marble, in 1244% The great tower was called the Hippodrome. In the gymnafium were altars
built principally by John Innes bilhop of this fee, as and a cenotaph of Achilles. The women,, befides other
appears by the infcription cut on one of the great pil- rites, beat their bofoms in honour of this hero, on a
lars : “ Hie Jacet in Xto, pater et dominus, Dominus fixed day toward funfet. There alfo was the town-
J'ohannes de Innes hujus ecclefise Epifcopus ;—qui hoc hall, in which extemporary harangues were fpoken and"
notabile opus incepit et per feptennium aedificavit.” compofitions recited. It was hung round with buck-
Elgin is a royal borough ; and gives title of earl to the lers for ornaments. A way led from it to the baths
family of Bruce. through the Street of Silence ; and another to the mar-
ELIAS, the prophet, memorable for having efcaped ket-place, which was planned with ftreets between por-
the common cataftrophe of mankind; being taken up ticoesof the Doric order adorned wfith altars and images,
alive into heaven, in a fiery chariot, about 895 B. C. Among the temples one had a circular periltyle or co-
See the Bible. lonnade; but the image had been removed and the roof
ELICHMAN (John), a native of Silefia in the was fallen in the time of Paufanias. The theatre was
17th century, who pra£lifed phyfic at Leyden, and was ancient, as was alfo a temple of Bacchus, one of the
remarkable for-underitanding 16 languages. He fup- deities principally adored at Elis. Minerva had a temple
ported an opinion, that the German and Perfian lan- in the citadel, with an image of ivory and gold made
guages were derived from the fame origin. His La- (it was faid) by Phidias. At the gate leading to Olym-
tin tranflation of the Tablet of Cebes, with the Arabic pia was the monument of a perfon, who was buried, as
verfion and the Greek, was printed at Leyden in 1640, an oracle had commanded, neither within nor without
under the care of Salmafius, who prefixed thereto a the city. The ftrudlures of Elis, Dr Chandler ob-
very ample preface. ferves, feem to have been raifed with materials far lefs
EL1QUATION, in chemiftry, an operation ky elegant and durable than the produce of the Ionian and
which a more fufible fubftance is feparated from one Attic quarries. The ruins are of brick, and not con-
that is lefs fo, by means of a heat fufficiently intenfe to fiderable, confifting of pieces of ordinary wall, and an
melt the former, but not the latter. Thus an allay of o&agon building with niches, which, it is fuppofed, was
copper and lead maybe feparated by a heat capable of the temple with a circular periftyle. Thefe (land de¬
melting the latter, but not the former. tached from each other, ranging in a vale fouthward
ELIS. See Elea. from the wide bed of the river Peneus; which, by the
ELIS, (anc. geog.), the capital of the diftrift of margin, has feveral large (tones, perhaps reliques of the
that name in Peloponnefus, fituated on the Peneus, gymnafmm. The citadel was on a hill, which has on .
which ran through it. It was the country of Phsedo the the top fome remnants of wall.
philofopher, fcholar of Socrates, and friend of Plato ; ELISHA the prophet, famous for the miracles he
who inferibes with his name the dialogue on the im- performed, died about 830.B. C. See the Bible.
a ELISION,.
E L I
C 558 1
ELI
Elizabeth.
ELISION, in grammar, the cutting off or fup-
prefling a vowel at the end of a word, for the fake
when Hie was near fixty ; alfo from her fpirited anf.ver Elizabeth,
to the Poliih ambaffador in the year 1598. And that Ihe
of found or meafure, the next word beginning with was alfo (killed in the art of poetty appears, not only
a vowel.
Elilions are pretty frequently met with in Englifh
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French,
&c. They chiefly confift in fuppreffions of the a, e,
and i, though an elifion fuppreffes any of the other
vowels.
ELIXATION, in pharmacy, the extra&ing the
virtues of ingredients by boiling or dewing.
ELIXIR, in medicine, a compound tin&ure ex¬
tracted from many efficacious ingredients. Hence the
difference between a tinCture and an elixir feems to be
this, that a tinCture is drawn from one ingredient,
fometimes with an addition of another to open it and
to difpofe it to yield to the menffruum; whereas an
elixir is a tindture extracted from feveral ingredients at
the fame time.
ELIZABETH, queen of England, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Anna Boleyn, was born at Green¬
wich, September 7th, 1533. According to the hu¬
mour of the times, (he was early indruCted in the
learned languages, fird by Grindal, who died when (he
was about 17, and afterwards by the celebrated Roger
Afcham She acquired likewife confiderable know¬
ledge of the Italian, Spaniih, and French languages.
Hr Grindal was alfo her preceptor in divinity, which
(he is faid to have dudied with uncommon application
and indudry. That Elizabeth became a Protedant,
and her fider Mary a Papid, was the effeCt of that
caufe which determines the religion of all mankind ;
namely, the opinion of thofeby whom they were edu¬
cated : and this difference of opinion, in their tutors,
is not at all furprifing, when we recoiled, that their
father Harry was of both religions, or of neither.
But the dudies of Elizabeth were not confined
merely to languages and theology: (he was alfo in-
ilruded in the political hidory of the ancients ; and
was fo well (killed in mufic, as to fing and play “ art¬
fully and fweetly.”
After the (hort reign of her brother Edward, our
heroine being then about 20 years of age, her Jlre-
irawr/fider acceding to the crown, Elizabeth experien¬
ced a confiderable degree of perfecution, fo as to be
not a little apprehenfive of a violent death. She was
accufed of nobody knows what; imprifoned ; and, we
are told, inhumanly treated. At lad, by the intercef-
fion of king Philip of Spain, (he was fet at liberty ;
which (he continued to enjoy till, on the death of her
pious fider, (he, on the 17th of November 1558, af-
cended the throne of England. Her political hidory
* See (Hi- as a >s univerfally known and admired * : but
ftory of) her Attention to the government of her kingdom did
England, not totally fufpend her purfuit of learning. Afcham,
in his Schoolmajler, tells us, that, about the year 1563,
five years after her acceffion, (he being then at Wind-
for, befides her perfeft readinefs in Latin, Italian,
French, and Spaniffi, (he read more Greek in one day
than fome prebendaries of that church did read Latin
from the feveral fcraps which have been preferved, but
likewife from the tedimony of a cotemporary writer,
Puttenham, in his Art of Engl. Poetry (a very fcarce
book). Thefe are his words:—«“ But, lad in recital,
“ and firff in degree, is the queen, whofe learned, de-
“ licate, noble mufe, eafily furmounteth all the red,
“ for fenfe, fweetnefs, or fubtilty, be it in ode, ele-
“ gy, epigram, or any other kind of poem,” &c. In
this author are to be found only a fpecimen of i6ver-
fes of her Englidi poetry. “ But,” fays Mr Walpole,
“ a greater indance of her genius, and that too in
“ Latin, was her extempore reply to an infolent pro-
“ hibition delivered to her from Philip II. by his am-
“ baflador, in this tetradic.
Tc veto ne pergas bel'.o defenrfere Be'gas :
Quae Dracus eripuit, nunc reftiruantur oportet:
Quas pater evei tit, jubeo te condere celias:
Rel gio papie fac reftituatur ad unguem.
“ She indantly anfwered him, with as much Qiirit
“ as (he ufed to return his invafions,”
Ad Graecas, bone rex, Sent mandata kalendas.
Being earnedly preffed by a Romilh pried, during
his perfecution, to declare her opinion concerning the
real prefence of Chrid’s body in the wafer, (he an¬
fwered,
Chrift was the word that fpake it;
He took the bread, and brake it;
And what that word did make it,
That I believe, and take it.
Fuller's Holy State.
She gave the characters of four knights of Nottting-
hamffiire in the following didich :
Gervafe the gentle, Stanhope the flout,
Markham the lion, and Sutton the lout.
JValp. Cat.
Coming into a grammar-fchool, (he charadterifed
three claffic authors in this hexameter :
Perfius a crab-ft?.ff; bawdy Martial; Ovid a fine wag.
Full. Worth. ofWarw. iz6.
Sir Walter Raleigh having wrote on a window,
Fain would 1 climb, yet fear I to fall;
She immediately wrote under it,
If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all.
Worth, of Dcvonjh. a6l.
Doubtlefs, (he was a woman of Angular capacity
and extraordinary acquirements: and, if we could for¬
get the dory of the Scottifli Mary, and of her favour¬
ite Effex, together with the burning of a few Anabap-
tids ; in (hort, could we forbear to contemplate her
character through the medium of religion and morali¬
ty, we might pronounce her the mod illudrious of il-
ludrious women. See further, the articles England,
Mary, and Scotland. She died in her palace at
Richmond, the 24th of March 1602, aged 70, having
in a whole week, (p. 21.)—She employed Sir John reigned 44 years; and was interred in the chapel of
Fortefcue to read to her, Thucydides, Xenophon, Po¬
lybius, Euripides, iEfchines, and Sophocles. {Ballard,
p. 219.)—That the Latin language was familiar to her,
is evident from her fpeech to the univerfity of Oxford,
3
Henry VII. in Wedminder Abbey. Her fucceffor
James erefted a magnificent monument to her memory.
—She wrote, 1. The Min our, or Glafs of the Sinful
Soul. This was tranllated out of French verfe into
Englilh
ELL [ J59 ] ELL
Elizabeth Englifh profe, when Ihe was eleven years old. It was
II dedicated to queen Catherine Parr. Probably it was
. Elll0t- never printed ; but the dedication and preface are pre-
ferved in the Sylloge ep'ijiolarum, in Hearne’s edition of
Liv'd Foro-Julienfu, p. 161. 2. Prayers and Medi¬
tations, &c. Dedicated to her father, dated at Hat¬
field, 1545. Manufcript, in the royal library. 3. A
Dialogue out of Xenophon, in Greek, between Hicro
a King, yet fome time a private perfon, and Simonides
a Poet, as touching the life of the Prince and Private
Man. Firft printed, from a manufcript in her maje-
fty’s own hand-writing, in the Gentleman’s Magazine
for 1743. 4. Two Orations of Ifocrates, tranflated
into Latin. 5. Latin Oration at Cambridge. Pre-
ferved in the king’s library : alfo in Hollinfhed’s
Chron. p. 1206; and in Fuller’s Hift. of Cambr.
p.138. 6. Latin Oration at Oxford. See Wood’s
Hilt, and Antiq. of Oxf. lib. i. p. 289. alfo in Dr
Jebb’s Append, to his Life of Mary Queen of Scots.
7. A Comment on Plato. 8. Boethius de covfolatione
phiiofophiee, tranflated into Englifli anno 1593. 9. Sal-
lujl de hello Jugurthino, tranflated into Englifli anno
1590. 10. A play of Euripides, tranflated into La¬
tin, Cat. of Royal Auth. 11. A Prayer for the ufe
of her fleet in the great expedition in 1596. 12. Part of
Horace’s art of Poetry, tranflated into Englifli, anno
1598. 13. Plutarch de curiofitate, tranflated into Eng-
lifti. 15. Letters on various occafions to different
perfons; feveral fpeeches to her pailiament; and a
number of other pieces.
Elizabeth Petrowna, (daughter of Peter the
Great), the laft emprefs of Ruffia, diftinguifhed her-
ftlf by her fignal clemency. She made a vow, that
no perfon fliould be put to death in her reign, and fhe
Aridily obferved it. The example has been followed,
and confirmed by law, under the prefent auguft fove-
reign of Ruflia, Catharine II. Elizabeth died in 1762,
in the 21ft year of her reign and y2d of her age.
It^ntclope, | in Z00l°^ SeC CeR™S’
ELL, a meafure of length, different in different
countries: but thofe moflly ufed are the Englifh and
Flemifh ells ; whereof the former is three feet nine
inches, or one yard and a quarter; and the latter only
27 inches, or three quarters of,a yard. In Scotland,
the ell contains 37-rV Englifh inches.
ELLIOT, (the Right Honourable George Au-
guftus, Lord Heathfield), was the youngeft fon of
the late Sir Gilbert Elliot, Baronet of Stobbs (a) in
Roxburghfliire, and was born about the year 1718.
He received the firft rudiments of his education under
a private tutor; and at an early time of life was fent
to the univerfity of Leyden, where he made confider-
able progrefs in claflical learning-, and fpoke with flu¬
ency and elegance the German and French languages. Elliot.
Being defigned for a military l(fe, he was fent from
thence to the celebrated Ecole Royale du Genie Mill-
taire, conduced by the great Vauban, at La Fere in
Picardy ; where he laid the foundation of what he fo
confpicuoufly exhibited at the defence of Gibraltar.
He completed his military courfe on the continent by a
tour, for the -purpofe of feeing in pra&ice what he
had ftudied in theory. Pruflia was the model for dif*
cipline, and he continued fome time as a volunteer in
that fervice.
Mr Elliot returned in the 17th year of his age to
his native country, Scotland ; and was the fame year,
1735, introduced by his father Sir Gilbert, to Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel Peers of the 23d regiment of foot, then
lying at Edinburgh, as a youth anxious to bear arms
for his king and country. He was accordingly entered
as a volunteer in that regiment, where he continued for
a year or more. From the 23d regiment he went into
the engineer corps at Woolwich, and made great pro¬
grefs in that ftudy, until his uncle Colonel Elliot
brought him in his adjutant of the fecond troop of
horfe grenadiers. With thefe troops he went upon
fervice to Germany, and was with them in a variety of
aftions. At the battle of Dettingen he was wounded.
In this regiment he bought the rank of captain and
major, and afterwards purchafed the lieutenant-colonel¬
cy from Colonel Brewerton, who fucceeded to his
uncle. On arriving at this rank, he refigned his com-
mifiion as an engineer, which he had enjoyed along
with his other rank, and in which fervice he had been
aftively employed very much to the advantage of his
country. lie received the in ft ructions of the famous
engineer Bellidor, and made himfelf completely matter
of the fcience of gunnery. Had he not fo difintereft-
edly refigned his rank in the engineer department, he
would long before his death, by regular progreflion,
have been at the head of that corps. Soon after this
he was appointed aid-de-camp to George II. and was
diftinguiftied for his military {kill and difcip'ine. In
the year 1 759, he quitted the fecond troop of hprfe
grenadier guards, being feledled to raife, form, and
difcipline, the firft regiment of light horfe, called af¬
ter him Elliot’s. As foon as they were railed and
formed, he was appointed to the command of the ca¬
valry in the expedition on the coafts of France, .\yith.,
the rank of brigadier general. After this he' patted
into Germany, where he was employed on the ftafL
and greatly diftinguiftied himfelf in a variety of move¬
ments ; where his regiment difplayed a ftrictnefs of dif-
cipline, an activity and enterprife, which gained them
fignal honour : and indeed they have been the pattern
regiment, both in regard to difcipline . and appoint¬
ment, to the many light dragoon, troops that have been
fince
(a) The ancient and honourable family of Elliot of Stobbs, as well as the collateral branch of Elliot of
Minto in the fame county, and of Elliot of Port-Elliot, in Cornwall, who are originally from Normandy.
Their anceftor, Mr Aliott, came over with William the Conqueror, and held a diftinguifhed rank in his ar¬
my. There is a traditionary anecdote in the family relating to an honourable diftin&ion in their coat, which,
as it correfponds with hiftory^ bears the probability of truth. When William fet foot on Englifli land, he
flipped and fell on the earth. He fprung up and exclaimed that it was a happy omen —he had embraced
the country of which he was to become the lord. Upon this Aliott drew his fword, and fwore by the ho¬
nour of a foldier, that he would maintain, at the hazard of his blood, the right of his lord to the fovereignty
of the earth which he had embraced. On the event of conqueft, King William added to the arms of A.-
liott, which was a baton or) on a field azure, an arm and fword as a creft, with the mctto, Per faxa per ignec.,
Jertiter el refte.
ELL L 560 1 ELL
Tince railed in our fervice. From Germany he was
recalled for the purpofe of being employed as fecond
in command in the memorable expedition againlt the
Havannah ; the circumftances of which conqueft are
well known.
On the peace his gallant regiment was reviewed by
the king, when they prefented to his majefty the ftand-
ards which they had taken from the enemy. Grati¬
fied with their fine difeipline and high -cb^rafter, the
king aficed General Elliot what mark of his favour he
could beftow on his regiment equal to their merit ? He
anfwered, that his regiment would be proud if his
majt fty jhould think, that, by their fervices, they were
intitled to the diftin&ion of Royals. It was accord¬
ingly made a royal regiment, with this flattering title,
“ The 15th, or King’s Royal Regiment of Light
Dragoons.” At the fame time the king exprefled a
defire to confer feme honour on the general himftlf;
but the latter declared, that the honour and fatisfac-
tion of his Majefty’s approbation of his fervices was his
bell reward.
During the peace he was not idle. His great ta¬
lents in the various branches of the military art gave
him ample employment. In the year 1775, he was
appointed -to fucceed General A’Court as comman¬
der in chief of the forces in Ireland ; but did not con¬
tinue long in this flation, not even long enough to un¬
pack all his trunks: for finding that interferences were
made by petty authority derogatory of his own, he re¬
filled the practice with ‘becoming fpirit; and not choo-
■fing to dillurb the government of. the filler kingdom
on a matter perfonal to himfelf, he folicited to be re¬
called. He accordingly was fo, and appointed to the
command of Gibraltar in a fortunate hour for the fafety
of that important fortrefs. The fyltem of his life, as
well as his education, peculiarly qualified him for this
trull. He was perhaps the moll abllemious man of the
age; neither indulging himfelf in animal food por wine.
He never flept more than four hours at a time; fo that
lie was up later and earlier than moll other men. He fo
inured himfelf to habits of hardinefs, that the things
which are difficult and painful to other men, were to him
his daily pra&ice, and 1 endered pleafant by ufe. It could
not be eafy to llarve fuch a man into a furrender, nor
eafy to furpvife him. The example of the comman¬
der in chief in a befieged garrifon had a moll perfua-
five efficacy in forming the manners of the foldiery.
Like him his. brave followers came to regulate their
lives by the moll ftridl rules of difeipline before there
arofe a neceffity for fo doing; and fevere exercife, with
ihort diet, became habitual to them by their own
choice. The military fyflem of difeipline which he
introduced, and the preparations which he made for
his defence, were contrived with fo much judgment,
and executed with fo much addrefs, that he was able
with a handful of men to preferve his poll againll an
attack, the conilancy of which, even without the vi¬
gour, had been fufficient to exhaull any common fet
of men. Gollefted within himfelf, he in no inflance
dellroycd, by premature attacks, the labours which
would coll the enemy time, patience, and expence to
complete; he deliberately obferved their approaches,
and feized on the proper moment, with the keenell
perfpedlion, in which to make his attack with fuc-
cefs. He never fpent his ammunition in ufelefs pa¬
rade or in unimportant attacks. He never relaxed
N° 114.
from his difetpline by the appearance of fecurity, nor
hazarded the lives of his garrifon by wild expeiiments.
Ry a cool and temperate demeanour, he maintained
his llation for three years of confiant invellment, in
which all the powers of Spain were employed. All
the eyes of Europe were on this garrifon ; and his
condudl has jullly exalted him to the moll elevated rank
in the military annals of the day. On his return to
England, the gratitude of the Britilh fenate was as
forward as the public voice in giving him that diltin-
guiflied mark his merit deferved. Both houfes of
parliament voted an unanimous addrefs of thanks to
the general. The king conferred on him the honour
of Knight of the Bath, with a penfion during his own
and a fecond life of his own appointment ; and on
June 14. 1787, his majelly advanced him to the peer¬
age by the title of Lord Heathfield Baron Gibraltar,
permitting him to take in addition to his family arms,
the arms of the fortrefs he had fo bravely defended, to
perpetuate to futurity his noble condudl.
His lordlhip died on the 6th of July 1790, at his
chateau at Aix-la-Chapelle, of a fecond llroke of the
palfey, after having for fome weeks preceding enjoy¬
ed tolerable good health and an unulual flow of fpi-
rits. Elis death happened two days before he was to
have fet out for Leghorn in his way to Gibraltar; of
which place he was once more appointed to the de¬
fence in the view of an approaching war.—He mar¬
ried Anne, daughter of Sir Francis Drake of Devon-
ffiire; and had by her (who died in 1769) Francis-Au-
gullus, now Lord Heathfield, lieutenant-colonel of the
6th regiment of horfe.—It is not quite certain whe¬
ther the late lord has left a dowager lady. We are
told, in a public newfpaper, “ that he clofed a life
of military renown at the moll critical feafon for his
memory. He had acquired the brighteft. honours of
a foldier, the love and reverence of his country ; and
he fell in an exertion beyond his ftrength, from an an¬
xiety to clofe his life on the rock where he had acquired
his greateft fame. Even the laft efforts of his age and
decay were in him proofs of a noble mind ; for after he
had wafted his ftrength in the fervice of his country, he
devoted his lafl a£t to private gratitude. The day of
his death was actually fixed for the day of his mar¬
riage, from an endearing wifh that the objedl of his
youthful love might be the relidt of his honoured age,
and that he might exalt to the rank of a Britifh peer-
efs the tender and affe&ionate female, who, in a fo¬
reign ifland, had foothed him on the bed of ficknefs.”
—Another account fays, “ He has left his penfion of
20001. per annum (which he was impowered by the
crowm to difpofe of to any fecond life he thought pro¬
per) to his long-beloved Iriftr miftrefs, to whom it is
faid he was married at Aix-la-Chapelle a fhort time
before his deceafe.”—A third fays, alfo, that “ he
“ w'as married, and that he has fettled a jointure of
400 1. on his lady, and bequeathed the remainder of
his fortune to his fon.”—But by a fourth we are in¬
formed, that he “ has left by his will to J. Trayton
Fuller, Efq; who married his daughter, 20,0001.; to a
Lieutenant Kockler of the artillery, 6001. ; and to
Mr Mackay his fecretary, 4001. The reft and refidue
to his fon, now Lord Keathfield. In the will there
is no bequeft to, nor any mention made of, a young
lady to whom it had been ftated his lordlhip was a-
bout to be married and had left an ample fortune to.”
ELLIPSIS,
E L O C 5^r ] ELS
‘Ellipfis ELLIPSIS, in geometry, a curve line returning
II into itfelf, and produced from the fe&ion of a cone
E1°gy‘ by a plane cutting both its fides, but not parallel to
“ * the bafe. See Conic Sefiions.
Ellipsis, in grammar, a figure of fyntax, where¬
in one or more words are not exprefied; and from this
deficiency it has got the name ellipfu.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, fomething belong¬
ing to an ellipfis.
ELLIPOMACHROSTYLA, in natural hiftory,
a genus of imperfeft cryftals, with Angle pyramids ;
one end of their column being affixed to fome folid
body. They are dodecahedral, with hexangular co¬
lumns and hexangular pyramids.
Of thefe cryftals authors enumerate a great many
fpecies ; among which are the whitifti pellucid fprig
cryftal, a bright brown kind, a dull brown kind, and
a bright yellow kind; all which are farther diftin-
guilhed according to the different lengths of their py¬
ramids.
ELLIPOPACRYSTYLA, in natural hiftory a
genus of imperfeft cryftals, compofed of 12 planes, in
an hexangular column, terminated by an hexangular
pyramid at one end, and irregularly affixed to fome o-
ther body at the other, with fhorter columns.
There are two fpecies of thefe cryftals ; one ffiort,
bright, and colourlefs, found in great plenty in New
Spain and other parts of America ; the other, a fhort,
dull, and dufky brown one, found in Germany, and
fometimes in England.
ELLISIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 28th order,
Lurida. The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-
fhaped; the berry carnous and bilocular; there are
two feeds muricated or fet with fmall raifed points,
the one higher than the other.
ELM, in botany. See Ulmus.
ELMACINUS (George), author of a Hiflory of
the Saracens, was born in Egypt towards the middle of
the 13th century. His hiftory comes down from Ma¬
homet to the year of the Hegira 512, anfwering to
the year of our Lord 1134; in which he fets down
year by year, in a very concife manner, whatever re¬
gards the Saracen empire, intermixed with fome paf-
fages relating to the eaftern Chriftians. His abilities
muft have been confiderable ; fince, though he profef-
fed Chriftianity, he held an office of trutt near the per-
fons of the Mahometan princes. He wasfon to Yafer
A1 Amid, fecretary to the council of war under the
fultans of Egypt for 45 years ; and in 1238, when his
father died, fucceeded him in his place. His hiftory
of the Saracens was tranflated from Arabic into Latin
by Erpinius; and printed in thefe two languages in
folio, at Leyden, in 1625. ' Erpinius died before the
publication ; but Golius took care of it, and added a
preface. It was dedicated by Erpinius’s widow to
Dr Andrews, biftiop of Winchefter.
ELOCUTION. See Oratory, Part III.
ELOGY, a praife or panegyric beftowed on any
perfon or thing, in confideration of its merit. The
beauty of elogy confifts in an expreffive brevity. Eu-
logiums fhould not have fo much as one epithet, pro¬
perly fo called, nor two words fynonymous : they
Vol.VI. Part ll.
fliould ftri&ly adhere to truth ; fdr extravagant and Elohi
improbable elogies rather leffen the character of the II
perfon or thing they would extol. EIGmburg.
ELOHI, Eloi, or Elohim,\n fcripture, one of the '
names of God. But it is to be obferved, that angels,
princes, great men, judges, and even falfe gods, aie
fometimes called by this name. The fequel of the
difcourfe is what affifts us in judging rightly concern¬
ing the true meaning of this word. It is the fame as
Eloha. One is the Angular, the other the plural. Ne-
verthelefs Elohim is often conftrudled in the Angular
number, particularly when the true God is fpoken of;
but when falfe gods are fpoke of, it is conftrued ra¬
ther in the plural.
ELOINED, in law, fignifies reftrained or hindered
from doing fomething: thus it is faid, that if thofe
within age be eloined, fo that they cannot fue perfon-
ally, their next friend fhall fue for them.
ELONGATION, in aftronomy, the digreffion or
recefs of a planet from the fun, with refpect to an
eye placed on our earth. The term is chiefly ufed
in fpeaking of Venus and Mercury, the arch of a great
circle intercepted bctwren either of thefe planets and
the fun being called the elongation of that planet from
the fun.
Elongation, in furgery, is an imperfed luxation,
occafioned by the ftretching or lengthening of the li¬
gaments of any part.
ELOPEMENT, in law, is where a married woman
departs from her hufband, and cohabits with an adul¬
terer ; in which cafe the hufband is not obliged to al¬
low her any alimony out of his eftate, nor is he charge¬
able for neceffaries for her of any kind. However, the
bare advertifmg a wife in the gazette, or other public
paper, is not a legal notice to perfons in general not
to truft her; though a perfonal notice given by the
hufband to particular perfons is faid to be good.—An
adtion lies, and large damages may be recovered, a-
gainft a perfon for carrying away and detaining ano¬
ther man’s wife.
ELOQUENCE, the art of fpeaking well, fo as to
affedt and perfuade. See Oratory.
ELSHEIMER (Adam), a celebrated painter, born
at Francfort on the Maine, 1574. He was firft a
difciple of Philip Uffenbach a German ; but his defire
of improvement carrying him to Rome, he foon became
a moft excellent artift in landfcapes, hiftory, and night-
pieces, with fmall figures. His works are but few;
and the great pains he beftowed in finifhing them rai¬
fed their prices fo high, that they are hardly any where
to be found but in the cabinets of princes. He was
of a melancholy turn, and funk under the embarrafs-
ments of his cipcumftances in 1610. James Erneft
Thomas of Landau was his difciple ; and imitated his
ftyle fo nicely, that their performances are not eafily
diftinguifhed.
ELSIMBURG, a port-town of Sweden, in the
province of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated
on the fide of the Sound, over againft Elfinore It was
formerly a fortrefs belonging to the Danes; but all
the fortifications were demolifhedin 1679, and there is
only one tower of a caftle which remains undemolifhed.
It now belongs to Sweden. E. Long. 13. 20. N.
Lat. 56. 2.
4B
ELol-
E L U [ 5G2 ] ELY
ELSINORE, or Elsinoor, a port-town of Den¬
mark, feated on the Sound, in the Me of Zealand. E.
Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 56. o.—It was a fmall village,
containing a few fifliermens huts, until 1445, when it
was made a ftaple town by Eric of Pomerania ; who
conferred' upon the new fettlers confiderable immuni¬
ties, and built a caftle for their defence. From that
period it gradually increafed in fize and wealth, and
is now the moft commercial place in Denmark next to
Copenhagen. It contains about 5000 inhabitants, a-
mongft whom are a confiderable number of foreign
merchants, and the confuls of the principal nations
trading to the Baltic. The paffage of the Sound is
guarded by the fortrefs of Cronborg, which is fituated
upon the edge of a peninfular promontory, the neareft
point of land from the oppofite coaft of Sweden. It
is ftrongly fortified towards the fiiore by ditches, ba-
flions, and regular entrenchments; and towards the
fea by feveral batteries, mounted with 60 cannon, the
largeft whereof are 48 pounders. Every veffel, as it
paffes, lowers her top-fails, and pays a toll at Elfinore.
It is generally afferted, that this fortrefs guards the
Sound ; and that ail the fhips muft, on account of the
fhoal waters and currents, fteer fo nearthe batteries as
to be expofed to their fire in cafe of refufal. This,
however, is a miftaken notion.' On account indeed of
the numerous and oppofite currents in the Sound, the
fafeft paffage lies near the fortrefs; but the water in
any part is of fufficient depth for veffels to keep at a
diftance from the batteries, and the largeft fhips can
even fail clofe to the coaft of Sweden. The conftant
difeharge, however, of the toll, is not fo much owing
to the ftrength of the fortrefs as to a compliance with
the public law of Europe. Many difputes have arifon
concerning the right by which the crown of Denmark
impofes fucha duty. The kings of Sweden, in parti¬
cular, claiming an equal title to the free paffage of
the Strait, were for fome time exempted by treaty
from paying it; but in 1720, Fredericl. agreed that
all Swedifh vefiels fhould for the future be fubjeft to
the ufual impofts. All veffels, befide a fmall duty, are
rated at i j per cent, of their cargoes, except the Eng-
lifh, French, Dutch, and Swedifh, which pay only
one per cent, and in return, the crown takes the charge
of conftrlifting light-houfes, and erefting fignals to
mark the flioals and rocks, from the Categate to the
entrance into the Baltic. The tolls of the Sound, and
-of the two Belts, fupply an annual revenue of above
L. 100,000.
ELYAS, a large town, and one of the. heft and
moft important in Portugal, feated in the province of
Aleetejo, a few miles from the*frontiers of Eftrama-
dura in Spain. It is built on a mountain, and is
ftrongly fortified with works of free-ftone. The ftreets
of the town are handfome, and the houfes neat; and
there is a ciftern fo large, that it will hold water e-
nough to fupply the whole town fix months. The
water is conveyed to it by a magnificent aqueduft,
three miles in length, fuftained in fome places by four
or five high arches, one upon another. It was bom¬
barded by the French and Spaniards in 1706, but
■without effeft. It has generally a garrifon of 1000
men. The king founded an academy here, in 1733,
for young gentlemen. W. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat.
S8- 39
ELUDING, the aft of evading or rendering a
thing vain and of no effeft; a dexterous getting clear,
or efcaping out of an affair, difficulty, embarraffment,
osnthe like. We fay, to elude a propofition, &c. The
defign of chicanery is, fo elude the force of the laws :
this doftor has not refolved the difficulty, but eluded
it. Alexander, fays the hiftorian, in cutting the Gor¬
dian knot, either eluded the oracle or fulfilled it : Ilk
neqalcquam luclatus cum latentlbus no ills, Nihil, inquit, in~
terejl, quontodo folvatur ; gladioque ruptis omnibus laris, 0-
raculi fortem vel eludit, •oel implevit.
El. VELA, in botany: Agenus of the natural order
of fungi, belonging to the eryptogamia clafs of plants.
The fungus is turbinated, or like an inverted cone.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the 12th month of
the Jewifti civil year, and the fixth of the eccleiiafti-
cal: it confifted of only 29 days, and anfwered pretty
nearly to our Auguft.
ELUTRIATION, in chemiftry, an operation per¬
formed by wafhing folid ftibftances with water, ftirring
them well together, and haftily pouring off the liquid,,
while the lighter part remains fufpended in it, that
it may thereby be feparated from the heavier part.
By this operation metallic ores are feparated from
earth, ftones, and other unmetallic particles adhering
to them.
ELY, a city and bifhop’s fee of Cambridgdhire, fi¬
tuated about 12 miles north of Cambridge. E. Long.
15. o. N. Lat. 52. 24. It is a county of itfelf, in¬
cluding the territory around; and has a judge who de¬
termines all caufes civil and criminal within its limits.
The church hath undergone various alterations fince it
was firft eftablifhed by Etheldra, the wife of Egfridty,
king of Northumberland, who founded a religious
houfe here, and planted it with virgins, and became
the firft abbefs of it herfelf. The Danes entirely
ruined this eftabliftrment; then Ethelwald, the 27th
bilhop of Winchefter, rebuilt the monaftery, and fill¬
ed it with monks; to whom king Edgar, and many
fucceeding monarchs, beftowed many privileges, and
great grants of land; fo that this abhey became in
procefs of time the beft of any in England. Richard,
the nth abbot, wifhing to free himfelf of the bifhop
of Lincoln, within whofe diocefe his monaftery was fi¬
tuated, and not liking fo powerful a fuperior, he made
great intereft with king Henry I. to get Ely erefted
into a bifhoprick; and fpared neither purfe nor prayers
to bring this about. He e*ven brought the bifhop of
Lincoln to confent to it, by giving him and his fuccef-
fors the manors of Bugdan, Bigglefwade, and Spald¬
ing, which belonged to the abbey, in lieu of his jurif-
diftion ; but he lived not to tafte the fweets of his in-
duftry and ambition, he dying before his abbey was e-
refted into a fee. His fucceffor was the firft bifhop
of Ely: but the great privileges the bifhop enjoyed
were almoft wholly taken away, or much reftrifted, by
the aft of parliament,. 27th Henry VITI. regarding
the reftoring to the crown the ancient royalties: So,
inftead of being palatine of the Me of Ely, the biilrop
and his temporal fteward were by that aft declared to
be from thenceforth juftices of the peace in the faid
ifland. This diocefe contains all Cambridgefhire, and
the Me of Ely, excepting Ifelham, which belongs to
the fee of Rochefter, and 15 other parifhes, that are
in the diocefe of Norwich ; but it has a parifh in Nor- -
Elulingj-
•Elyfium.
Hie locus ejl, partes ubi fe via Jindit in ambas
Dexter,i, qua Ditis magni fuit mania tendit :
Hue iter Bl; fiuril nobis : at Leva malort/m
Exercet posnas, 55* ad impia Tartara mittit.
ELY [ 56j ] E M A
Elymais folk^ v;z# Emnetli. The number of parlfhes in this
diocefe are 141, whereof 75 are impropriate. It hath
but one archdeacon, viz. of Ely. It is valued in
the king’s books at L.21.34: 18 : 5. The clergy’s
tenth, amounting to the fum of L.384 : 14 : 9^. 1 he He afiigns Elyfium to thofe who died for their country,
bifhopric is computed to be worth annually L^opo. to thofe of pure lives, to truly infpired poets, to the
The church is dedicated to St Ethelred. The build- inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to
ing, as it now appears, has been the work of feveral mankind.
of its bilhops. The weft parts were rebuilt by bifhop Some authors take the fable of Elyfium to have been
Ridal; the choir and lanthern were begun by bilhop borrowed from the Phoenicians; as imagining the name
Norwold, and finifiied by bifhop Frodfham. This fee El^fium formed from the Phoenician alaz, or a-
hath given two faints and two cardinals to the church lats, ox alas, “ to rejoice,” or “ to be in joy;” the let*
of Rome ; and to the Englifh nation nine lord chan- ter a being only changed into r, as we find done in many
cellors, feven lord treafurers, one lord privy-feal, one other names ; as in Enakim for Anakim, See. On
chancellor of the exchequer, one chancellor to the uni- which footing, Elyfian fields fhould fignify the fame
verfity of Oxford, two mailers of the rolls, and three thing as a place of pleafure ; or,
almoners. To this cathedral belong a bifhop, a dean,
an archdeacon, eight prebendaries, with vicars, lay-  Locos Utos, & amana vireta
clerks, chorifters, a fchoolmafter, ufher, and 28 king’s Fortunatorum nemorum, fcdefque beatas. Virg.
fcholars. Others derive the word from the Greek folvo, “ I
ELYMAIS, the capital city of the land of Elam, deliver, I let loofe or difengage ;” becaufe here mens
©r the ancient Perfia. We are told (1 Mac. vi. 1.) fouls are freed or difincumbered from the fetters of
that Antiochus Epiphanes, having underftood that the body. Beroaldus, and Hornius (Hill. Philofoph.
there were very great treafures lodged in a temple at lib. iii. cap. 2.) take the place to have derived its name
Elymais, determined to go and plunder it: but the ci- from Eliza, one of the firft perfons who came into
tizens getting intelligence of his defign, made an in- Greece after the deluge, and the author and father of
furredlion, forced him out of the city, and obliged him the Aitolians.
to fly. The author of the fecond book of Maccabees The Elyfian fields were, according to fome, in the
(ix. 2.) calls this city Perfepolis, in all probability be- Fortunate Iflands on the coaft of Africa; in the Atlan-
caufe formerly it was the capital of Perfia : for it is tic. Others place them in the illand of Leuce; and ac-
known from other accounts, that Perfepolis and E- cording to the authority of Virgil, they were fituated
lymais were two very different cities, the latter fi- in Italy. According to Lucian, they were near the
tuated upon the EuIecus, the former upon the Araxis. moon ; or in the centre of the earth, if we believe Plu-
ELYMUS, in botany : A genus of the digynia or- tarch. Olaus Wormius contends that it was in Swe-
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and in den the Elyfian fields were placed,
the natural method ranking under the fourth order, ELZEVIRS, celebrated printers at Amfterdam
Gramina. The calyx is lateral, bivalved, aggregate, and Leyden, who greatly adorned the republic of let-
and multiflorous. ters by many beautiful editions of the belt authors of
ELYOT (Sir Thomas), a gentleman of eminent antiquity. They fell fomewhat below the Stephenfes
learning in the 16th century, was educated at Oxford, in point of learning, as well as in their editions of
travelled into foreign countries, and upon Ris return Greek and Hebrew authors; but as to the choice of
was introduced to court. His learning recommended good books, they feem to have equalled, and in the
him to Henry VIII. who conferred the honour of neatnefs and elegance of their fmall chara&ers, greatly
knighthood on him, and employed him in feveral em- rrv,a;_ \t.—:i rP  1
baffles ; particularly in 1532, to Rome, about the di¬
vorce of queen Catharine, and afterwards to Charles V.
about 1536. He wrote, The Cajlle of Health, "The Go¬
vernor, Banquet of Sapience, Of the Education of ChiU
ElyGum
II .
Emanation,
to have exceeded them. Their Virgil, Terence, and
Greek Teftament, have been reckoned their .mafter-
pieces ; and are indeed fo very fine, that they juftly
gained them the reputation of being the beft printers
in Europe. There were five of thefe Elzevirs, namely.
dren, De rebus memorabilibus Anglia, and other books; Lewis, Bonaventure, Abraham, Lewis, and Daniel,
and was highly efteemed by all his learned cotempo- Lewis began to be famous at Leyden in 1595, and
raries. was remarkable for being the firft who obierved the
ELYSIUM, (Ewo-iof,) in the ancient theology, or diftin&ion between the <v confonant and u vowel,
rather mythology, a place in the inferi or lower world, which had been recommended by Ramus and other
furnifhed with fields, meads, agreeable woods, groves, writers long before, but never regarded. Daniel died
{hades, rivers, &c. whither the fouls of good people in 1680 or 1681; and though he left children who
were fuppofed to go after.this life. carried on the buixnefs, paffes neverthelefs for the laft
Orpheus, Hercules, and iEneas, are fuppofed to of his family who excelled in it. The Elzevirs have
have defeended into Elyfium in their life-time, and to printed feveral catalogues of their editions; but the
have returned again; (Virg. lib. vi. ver. 638, &c.) Ti- laft, publilhed by Daniel, is confiderably enlarged,
'bullus (lib. i. cleg. 3.) gives us fine deferiptions of the and abounds with new books. It was printed at Am-
Elyfian fields. fterdam, 1674, in X2mo, and divided into feven vo-
Virgil oppofes Elyfium to Tartarus; which was the lumes.
place where the wicked underwent their punifti- EMANATION, the adl of flowing or proceeding
ment. from fome fource or origin. Such is the emanation of
4 B 2
light
E M B [ 564 3 E M B
Emanation light from the fun ; or that of effluvia from odorous,
. &c. bodies ; of wifdom from God, &c.—-The word is
Embalming forme(j 0f Latin e “ out of,” and manure “ to
flow or ftream.”
Emanation is alfo ufed for the thing that pro¬
ceeds, as well as the aft of proceeding. The power
given a judge is an emanation from the regal power;
the reafonable foul is an emanation from the Divinity.
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, the fet-
ting free a fon from the fubje&ion of his father ; fo
that whatever moveables he acquires belong in pro¬
perty to him, and not to his father, as before eman¬
cipation.
Emancipation puts the fon in a capacity of mana¬
ging his own affairs, and of marrying without his fa¬
ther’s confent, though a minor. Emancipation differs
from manumiffion, as the latter was the aft of a mafter
in favour of a flave, whereas the former was that of a
father in favour of his fon.
There were two kinds of emancipation : the one
tacit, which was by the fon’s being promoted to fome
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying, in
all which cafes he became his own mafter of courfe.
The other, exprefs; where the father declared before
a judge, that he emancipated his fon. In performing
this, the father was firft to fell his fon imaginarily to
another, whom they called pater fiduciarius, father in
truft; of whom being bought back again by the natu¬
ral father, he manumitted him before the judge by a
verbal declaration.
Emancipation ftill obtains in France with regard to
minors or pupils, who are hereby fet at liberty to ma¬
nage their own effefts, without the advice or direftion
of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, among botanifts. See Bo¬
tany, p. 444, n? 181.
EMASCULATION, the aft of caftrating or de¬
priving a male of thofe parts which charafterife his fex.
See Cast-ration, and Eunuch.
EMAUS, Emmaus, or Ammausy (auc. geog.), a
village, 60 ftadia to the north-weft of Jerufalem, or
about feven miles : it afterwards became a town, and
a Roman colony, Nicopolh, (Jerome). Reland has
another Emmaus towards Lydda, 22 miles from Jeru¬
falem, (Itinerary . ; a third, near Tiberias.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, ta¬
king out the inteftines, and filling the place with o-
doriferous and deficcative drugs and fpices, to prevent
its putrifying. The Egyptians excelled all other na¬
tions in the art of preferving bodies from corruption ;
for fome that they have’ embalmed upwards of 2000
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other countries as great cnriofities.
Their manner of embalming was thus: they fcooped
the brains with an iion fcoop out at the noftrils, and
thiew in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they alfo
took out the entrails, and having filled the body with
myrrh, caflia, and other fpices, except frankincenfe,
proper to dry up the humours, they pickled it in nitre,
where it lay foaking for 70 days. The body was
then wrapped up in bandages of fine linen and gums,
to make it ftick h'ke glue ; and fo was delivered to the
kindred of the deceafed, entire in all its features, the
very hairs of the eye-lids being preferred.. They ufcd
to keep the bodies of their anceftors, thus embalmed, Embarca^
in little houfes magnificently adorned, and took great dero»
pleafure in beholding them, alive as it were, without [Embarhri>-,
any change in their fize, features, or complexion.- y
The Egyptians alfo embalmed birds, &c. The prices
for embalming were different; the higheft was a talent,
the next 29 minse, and fo decreafing to a very fmall
matter : but they who had not wherewithal to anfwer
this expence, contented themfelves with infufing, by
means of a fyringe, through the fundament, a certain
liquor extrafted from the cedar ; and, leaving it there,
wrapped up the body in fait of nitre : the oil thus
preyed upon the inteftines, fo that when they took it
out, the inteftines came away with it, dried, and not
in the leaft putrified: the body being enclofed in nitre,
grew dry, and nothing remained befides the Ikin glued
upon the bones.
The method of embalming ufed by the modern E-
gyptians, according to Maillet, is to wafh the body fe-
veral times with rofe-water, which, he elfewhere ob-
ferves, is more fragrant in that country than with us ;
they afterwards perfume it with incenfe, aloes, and a.
quantity of other odeurs, of which they are by no-
means fparing; and then they bury the body in a
winding flieet, made partly of filk and partly of cot¬
ton, and moiftened, as is fuppofed, with fome fweet-
fcented water or liquid perfume, though Maillet ufe&
only the term motjlened; this they cover with another
cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add one of the
riche ft fuits of clothes of the deceafed. The expence,
he fays, on thefe occafions, is very great, though no¬
thing like what the genuine embalming coft in former
times.
EMBARCADERO, in commerce, a Spanifhterm,
much ufed along the coafts of America, particularly
thofe on the fide of the South Sea. It fignifies a place
which ferves fome other confiderable city farther with¬
in land, for a port or place ©f fliipping, u e. of em¬
barking and difembarking commodities. Thus Calao
is the embarcadero of Lima, the capital of Peru ; and-
Arica the embarcadero of Potofi. There are fome em-
barcaderbs 40, 50, and even 60 leagues off the city,
which they ferve in that capacity.
EMBARGO, in commerce, an arreft on fhips or
merchandife, by public authority ; or a prohibition of.
ftate, commonly on foreign ftiips, in time of war, to.
prevent’their going out of port, fometimes to prevent-
their coming in, and fometimes both, for a limited,
time.
The king may lay embargoes on ftiips, or employ;
thofe of his fubjefts, in time of danger, for the fervice.
and defence of the nation : but they muft not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader or com¬
pany ; and therefore a warrant to Hay a Angle fliip is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made frora
embargoes which are only in war-time; and are a pro-v
hibition by advice of council, and not at profecution of
parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an em¬
bargo or reftraint from the prince or ftate comes forth,
and then the ma-ftef of the ftiip breaks ground, or. en¬
deavours to fail, if any damage accrues, he muft be
refponfible for the fame ; the reafon is, becaufe his
freight is due, and muft be paid, even tho’ the goods
be feized as contraband.
EMBARRASS*
E M B [ c6c ] E M B
Imbarrafs EMBARRASS, (Emharrajfment), a French term,
It though now naturalized ; denoting a difficulty or
Embe iz:u which perplexes or confounds a perfon, &c.
' v EMBASSADOR. See Ambassador.
EMBASSY, the office or fundion of an Ambas¬
sador.
EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, now in poffeffion
of the king of Pruffia; it is fituated at the mouth of
the river Ens. E. Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 53. 50.
EMBER-weeks, are thoie wherein the ember or
embring days fall.
In the laws of king Alfred, and thofe of Canute,
thofe days are called ymbren, that is, circular days,
from whence the word was probably corrupted into
ember-days : by the canonifts they are called quatuor
ami tempora, the four cardinal feafons, on which the
circle of the year turns: and hence Hen/haw takes the
word to have been formed, viz. by corruption from.
temper of tempora.
The ember-days are, the Wednefday, Friday, and
Saturday, after Quadragefima Sunday, after Whit-
funday, after Holy-rood day in September, and after
St Lucia’s day in December: which four times an-
fwer well enough to the four quarters of the year.
Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
Mr Somner thinks they were originally fails, infti-
tuted to beg God’s bleffing on the fruits of the earth.
Agreeably to which, Skinner fuppofes the word ember
taken from the affies, embers, then ilrewed on the head.
Thefe ember-weeks are now chiefly taken notice of,
op account of the ordination of priefts and deacons;
becaufe the canon appoints the Sundays next fucceed-
ing the ember-weeks, for the folemn times of ordina¬
tion : Though the biihops, if they pleafe, may ordain
on any Sunday or holiday.
EMBERIZA, in ornithology, a genus of birds
belonging to the order of pafleres. The bill is coni¬
cal, and the mandibles recede from each other towards
the bafe ; the inferior mandible has the fides narrowed
inwards, but the upper one is ftill narrower. The
moll remarkable fpecies are,
1, The nivalis, or great pyed mountain-finch of Ray,
and the fnow-bird of Edwards, has white wings, but
the outer edge of the prime-feathers are black; the tail
is black, with three white feathers on each fide. Theie
birds are called in Scotland fnow-Jlakes, from their ap¬
pearance in hard weather and in deep fnows. They
arrive in that feafon among the Cheviot-hills and in the
Highlands in amazing flocks. A few breed in the
Highlands, on the fummit of the highefl: hills, in the
fame places with the ptarmigans; but the greateft num¬
bers migrate from the extreme north. They appear
in the Shetland iflands; then in the Orkneys; and mul¬
titudes of them often fall, wearied with their flight, on
veflels in the Pentland Frith. Their appearance is a
certain fore-runner of hard weather, and ftorms of
fnow, being driven by the cold from their common re¬
treats. Their progrefs fouthward is probably thus;
Spitzbergen and Greenland, Hudfon’s Bay, the Lap-
land Alps, Scandinavia, Iceland, the Ferroe Ifles,
Shetland, Orkneys, Scotland, and the Chivot-hills.
They vifit at that feafon all parts of the northern he.-
mifphere, Pruffia, Auftria, and Siberia. They arrive
lean, and return fat. In Auftria, they are caught and
fed with millet, and, like the ortolan, grow exceffively
fat. In their flights, they keep very clofe to each
other, mingle moft confufedly together, and fling
themfelves colleftively into the form of a ball; at
which inftant the fowler makes great havock among
them.
2. The miliaris, or grey emberiza, is of a greyifh
colour, fpotted with black in the belly, and the orbits
are reddifti. It is the bunting of Englifti authors, and
a bird of Europe.
3. The hortulana, or ortolan, has black wings; the
firft three feathers on the tail are white on the edges,
only the two lateral are black outwardly. The orbits
of the eyes are naked and yellow; the head is greenifti,
and yellow towards the inferior mandible. It feeds
principally upon the panick-grafs; grows very fat; and
is reckoned a delicate morfel by certain epicures, efpe-
cially when fattened artificially. Thefe birds are found
in feveral parts of Europe, but are not met with in
Britain; are common in France and Italy, and fome
parts of Germany and Sweden, migrating from one to
the other in fpring and autumn ; and in their paf-
fage are caught in numbers, in order to fatten for the
table. This fpecies will fometimes fing very prettily,
and has been kept for that purpofe. The fong is not
unlike that of the yellow-hammer, but finer and fweet-
er. In fome parts it makes the neft in a low hedge ;
in others, on the ground. It is carelefsly conftrufted,
not unlike that of the lark. The female lays four or
five greyiffi eggs, and in general has two broods in a
year.
The manner of fattening thefe birds for the table is
as follows. They are taken and placed in a chamber
lightened by lanthorns; fo that, not knowing the vi-
ciffitudes of day and night, they are not agitated by the
change. Are fed with oats and millet; and grow fo
fat, that they would certainly die if not killed in a
critical minute. They are a mere lump of fat; of a
moil exquifite tafte, but apt foon to fatiate. Thefe
birds receive both their Greek and Latin name from
their food, the millet. Ariftotle calls them cynchromi;
and the Latins, miliaria. The latter kept and fattened
them in their ornithones, or fowl-yards, as the Italians
do at prefent; which the ancients conftru&ed with the
utmoft magnificence, as well as conveniency.
4. The citrinella, or yellow-hammer, has a blackiftr.
tail, only the two outward fide-feathers are marked on
the inner edge with a ftrarp white fpot. It is a bird of *
Europe, and comes about houfes in winter: it builds
its neft on the ground on meadows.
5. The fchceniclas, or reed-fparrow, has a black¬
head, a blackifh-grey body, and a white fpot on the
quill-feathers. It inhabits marftiy places, mpft com¬
monly among reeds, from which it takes its name. Its
neft is worthy of notice for the artful contrivance of it,
being faftened to four reeds, and fufpended by them
like a hammock, about three feet above the water; the
cavity of the neft is deep, but narrow; and the mate¬
rials are bufhes, fine bents, and hairs. It lays four or-
five eggs of a bluifti white, marked v/ith irregular pur-
plifti veins, efpecially on the larger end. It is a bird"
much admired for its fong; and, like the nightingale,
it fings in the night.
6. .The oryzivora, or rice-bunting, with the head
and whole under fide of the body black; hind part of the
1 neck*.
E M B [ 566 ] E M B
EmVieriza, neck in fame pale yellow, and in others white; coverts
, f-mb!ein.^ 0y tjie w;ng8> arHj primaries, black, the laft edged with
'' white; part of the fcapulars, Idler coverts of the wings,
and rump, white; back black, edged with dull yel¬
low 5 tail of the fame colours, and each feather fharp-
ly pointed; the legs are red. The head, upper part
of the neck, and back, of the female, is yellowifh
brown, fpotted with black; the under part, of a dull yel¬
low ; the Tides thinly ftreaked' with black.
Thefe birds inhabit in vail numbers the illand of Cu¬
ba, where they commit great ravages among the early
■crops of rice, which precede thofe of Carolina. As
foon as the crops of that province are to their palate,
they quit Cuba, and pafs over the fea, in numerous
flights, dire&ly north; and are very often heard in
their paflage by Tailors frequenting that courfe. Their
appearance is in September, while the rice is yet
milky; and commit fuch devaftations, that 40 acres
of that grain have been totally ruined by them in a
fmall time. They arrive very lean : but foon grow To
fat, as to fly with difficulty; and, when (hot, often
burft with the fall. They continue in Carolina not
much above three weeks, and retire by the time the
rice begins to harden ; going on to other parts, and
flaying in each only fo long as the rice continues green.
They come into Rhode Ifland and New York at the
end of April, or the fecond week in May, frequenting
the borders of fields, and live on infefts, &c. till the
maize is fit for their palate ; when they begin by peck¬
ing holes in the Tides of the hufks, and after fatiating
themfelves go on to another; which leaves room for
the rain to get in, and effe&ually fpoils the plants.
They continue there during the fummer, and breed;
returning, as autumn approaches, to the fouthward.
The males and females do not arrive together; the fe¬
males come firft.—They are efteemed to be the moft
delicate birds of thofe parts; and the male is faid to
have a fine note. This fpecies is known in the coun¬
try by the names of bob llncoln and conquedle •, likewife
called byfome the white-backed maize-thief.
There are above 50 other fpecies; two of which,
viz. the black-throated bunting a native of America,
and the cinereous bunting an inhabitant of Canada,
are figured on Plate CLXXXII. as fpecimens of the
genus.
EMBLEM, a kind of painfed senigma, which, re-
prefenting fome obvious hiftory, with reflexions under¬
neath, inftruXs us in fome moral truth or other mat¬
ter of knowledge. See Devise, ^Enigma, Sec.
Such is that very fignificant image of Scajvola hold¬
ing his hand in the fire ; with the words, Agere et pati
farther Romanum ejl, “ To do and fuffer courageoufly
is Roman.”
The word is pure Greek, formed of the verb
“ to caft in, to infert.” Suetonius relates, that Tibe¬
rius made the word be erafed out of the decree of the
Roman fenate, becaufe borrowed from another lan-
guage.
The emblem is fomewhat plainer and more obvious
than the aenigma.—Gale defines emblem an ingenious
pifture, reprefenting one thing to the eye, and another
to the underftanding.
The Greeks alfogave the name Emblems,
to inlayed or Mofaic works, and even to all kinds of
ornaments of vafes, moveables, garments, &c. And
the Latins ufed emblema in the fame fenfe. Accordingly, EmbolJf-
Cicero reproaching Verres with the ftatues and fine ' nhllJ
wrought works he had plundered from the Sicilians, Emi)ro;.
calls the ornaments fixed thereto (and which on occa- dery.
fion might be feparated from them) embkmata. Add, v—
that Latin authors frequently compare the figures and
ornaments of difeourfe to thefe emblemata. Thus, an
ancient Latin poet praifing an orator, fays, that all hia
words were ranged like the pieces in Mofaic :
Sguam Upirtc Xtgwf compofite, ut tefferula omnes.
Arte pavimenti, atque emblemate vermiculato.
With us, emblem ordinarily fignifies no more than a
painting, bafib-relievo, or other reprefentation, intend¬
ed to hold forth fome moral or political indruXion.
What dillinguifhes an emblem from a devife is, that
the words of an emblem have a full complete fenfe of
themfelves ; nay, all the fenfe and iignification which
they have together with the figure. But there is a yet
further difference between emblem and devife: for a de¬
vife is a fymbol appropriated to fome perfon, or that
expreffes fomething which concerns him particularly ;
whereas an emblem is a fymbol that regards all the
world alike.
1’hefe differences will be more apparent, from com¬
paring the emblem above quoted, with the devife of a
candle lighted, and the words Juvando confumor, “ I
wafte myfelf in doing good.” See Devise.
EMBOLISMUS, E^&ono-^of, in chronology, figni¬
fies “ intercalation.” The word is formed of
“ to infert.”
As the Greeks made ufe of the lunar year, which is
only 354 days, in order to bring it to the folar, which
is 365 days, they had every two or three years an em-
bolifm, i. e. they added a 13th lunar month every two
or three years, which additional month they called embo-
lim/eus, becaufe inferted, or intercalated.
EMBOSSING, or Imbossing, in architeXure and
fculpture, the forming or fafhioning works in relievo,
whether cut with a chifel orotherwife.
Emboffing is a kind of fculpturc, wherein the figures
flick out from the plane whereon it is cut : and ac¬
cording as the figures are more or lefs prominent, they
are faid to be in alto, mezzo, or baffo, relievo; or high,
mean, or low, relief. See Enchasing.
EMBOTHRIUM, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There is no calyx; the corolla confifts of four
linear oblique petals; the flamina are four very fhort
filaments; the antherae are pretty large, oblong, and
feated within the cavity of the petal. The pericar-
pium is a round unilocular follicle, fharpened at both
ends; the feeds are four or five in number, egg-fhaped,
and comprefled.
EMBRASURE, in architeXure, the enlargement
made of the aperture of a door or window, on the in-
fide of the wall; its ufe being to give the greater play
for the opening of the door or cafement, or to admit
the more light.
EMBROCxYTION, in furgery and pharmacy, an
external kind of remedy, which confifts in an irrigation
of the part affeXed, with fome proper liquor, as oils,
fpirits, &c. by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or a
fpunge, dipped in the fame.
EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, or filver, or filk
thread, wrought by the needle upon doth, fluffs, or
5 muflin,
Embroi¬
dery
E M E [ 567 ] E M E
jnuflin, into various figures. In embroidering ftuffs,
the work is performed in a kind of loom; becaufe the
more die piece is ftretched*, the eafier it is worked.
As to muflin, they fpread it upon a pattern ready de-
figned; and fometimes, before it is dretched upon the
pattern, it is ftarched, to make it more eafy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is lefs tedious than the other,
in which, while they work flowers, all the threads of
the muflin, both lengthwife and breadthwife, mult be
continually counted ; but, on the other hand, this laft
is much richer in points, and fufceptible of greater va¬
riety. Cloths too much milled are fcarce fufceptible
pf this ornament, and in effedt we feldom fee them em¬
broidered. The thinned muflins are left for this pur-
pofe; and they are embroidered to the greate!t per-
fedtion in Saxony : in other parts of Europe, how¬
ever, they embroider very prettily, and efpecially in
France.
There are feveral kinds of embroidery: as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the damp; where the figures are raifed and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
to fupport them. 2. Low embroidery; where the gold
andfilverlie low upon the Iketch, and are ditched with
filk of the fame colour. 3. Guimped embroidery: this
is performed either in gold or filver; they fird make a
fketch upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards fow on the gold and filver with filk thread :
in this kind of embroidery they often put gold and filVer
cord, tinfel, and fpangles. 4. Embroidery on both
fides; that which appears on both fides of the duff.
5. Plain embroidery; where the figures are flat and
even, without cords, fpangles, or other ornaments.
By flat. 22. Geo. II. c. 36. no foreign embroidery,
or gold and filver brocade, fhall be imported, upon
pain of being forfeited and burnt, and penalty of tool,
for each piece, tyo perfon fhall fell, or expofe to fale,
any foreign embroidery, gold or filver thread, lace,
fringe, brocade, or make up the fame into any gar¬
ment, on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and
penalty of tool. All fuch embroidery, &c. may be
feized and burnt; and the mercer, &c. in whofe cuftody
it was found, fhall forfeit tool.
EMBRUN, or Am brum, a city of Dauphiny, in
France, near the confines of Piedmont. E. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat.44. 35._
EMBRYO, in phyfiology, the firft rudiments of an
animal in the womb, before the feveral members are
diftindUy formed; after which period it is denominated
a fetus. See Generation, and Fetus.
EMERALD, a genus of precious ftones belonging
to the order of filiceous earths. The word is derived,
according to fome, from the French efmaraude, and that
from the Latin fmaragdus, fignifying the fame thing;
by others it is faid to be derived from the Italian fme-
raldo, or the Arabian •zomorrad. According to Cron-
ftedt the emerald is the fofteftof all the precious ftones,
though other naturalifts place it the next after the dia¬
mond in this refpedl. It is perhaps the moft beautiful
of all the gems, and, according to Wallerius, when
heated in the fire, changes its colour to a deep blue,
and becomes phofphoreicent ; but recovers its green
colour when cold. When pulverifed it has a white ap¬
pearance, and, with borax, melts to a very thin and
colourlefs glafs. It becomes ete&ric by being rubbed,
and fome have the property of the tourmalin, viz. of
being ele&rified by heat, and in that flate attra&ing Emerald,
afhes or other light fubftances; though the emeralds —v—^
are lefs powerful than the tourmalin, and after having
attracted the afhes, they retain them without any figns
of repulfion.
Pliny mentions twelve different kinds of thefe pre¬
cious flones ; though it appears, from the vaft fize of
fome of them, that they muft have been only certain
kinds of green fpar, or other green ftone, which at that
time went under the name of emerald among the an¬
cients. The true emerald is found only in very fmall
cryftals, from the fize -r'yth 0f an inch in diameter to
that of a walnut. Theophraftus, however, mentions
one four cubits long and three broad ; likewife an obe-
lifk compofed of only four emeralds, the whole length
being 40 cubits, and the breadth from four to two.
Engeftroom informs us, that the emeralds, in their
rough or native flate, confift of hexagonal columns
moftly truncated at both ends ; and that he had fome
in his poffeflion, which in a gentle heat became
colourlefs; but in a ftrong heat white and opaque,
without any mark of fufion. Brunick diftinguifbes
them into two claffes. u The pale green emerald,
which comes from the eaft and from Peru, the figure
being that of an hexagonal truncated prifm, and the
balls a vein of white quartz. 2. The dark green eme¬
rald, which is alfo columnar, but very dark-coloured,
ftriped longitudinally, and has little tranfparency. The
points are generally broken off longitudinally, though
Davila mentions one refembling a blunt triangular pyra¬
mid; and in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna, there is one
with a five-fided pyramid. Thefe are the emeralds which
become ele&rical by heat; though all of them do not; and
thofe which do fo cannot be known but by aftual experi¬
ment. The fineft fpecimen of the former kind of e-
meralds is to be feen in the treafure of the holy cha¬
pel of Loretto, containing upwards of too of thefe
precious ftones great and fmall. A fellow to this was
made by art, and both were prefents to the king of
Sicily, defigned to reprefent two mount Calvaries.
Emeralds are diftinguiflied by the jewellers into two
kinds, the oriental and occidental. The true oriental
emerald is very fcarce, and at prefent only found in the
kingdom of Cambay. So great indeed is the fcarcity
of them, that an opinion prevailed that there are no
oriental emeralds. This opinion is adopted, among
others', by Mr Bruce; who informs us, that he made an
excurfion to the ifland of emeralds in the Red Sea,
and endeavours to Ihow that there never were any eme¬
ralds but what came from America, and that thofe
faid to have been found in the Eaft Indies were im¬
ported from that continent. It is probable indeed,
that in former times any kind of cryllal tinged of a
green colour might be called an emerald, and hence the
green cochle fpar brought from Egypt may have ob¬
tained the name of mother of emeralds ; but of late fome
emeralds have been brought from Cambay into Italy
which greatly excelled thofe of America. The belt
emeralds of the weftern continent come from Peru,
and are called oriental by the jewellers: fome^are found in
Europe, principally in the duchy of Silefia in Germany.
Rough Emeralds.—Thofe of the firft and coarfeit
fort, calledplafmes, for grinding, are worth 27 fl»filings
flerling the marc, or 8 ounces. The demi-morillons, 81.
fterl. per marc. Good morillons, which are only little
pieces*..
E ME [ 568 ] E M E
Emerald pieces, but of fine colour, from 13!. to I5I. per marc.
II Emeralds, larger than morillons, and called of the third
.Emerfon. coiour or fort, are valued at from 501. to 60 1. the marc.
Emeralds, called of the fecond fort, which are in larger
and finer pieces than the preceding, are worth from
651.1075!. per marc. Laftly, thofe of the fir ft co¬
lour, otherwife called negres cartes, are worth from uol.
to 115I.
Emeralds ready cut, or polifhed and not cut, leing of
goodfione, and a fne colour, are worth.
Thofe weighing one carafl, or four grains o 1 o
Thofe of two carafts     1 7
Thofe of three caradls     2 5
Thofe of four car aft s —    3 10
Thofe of five carafts     410
Thofe of fix carafts     7 10
Thofe of feven cara&s     15 o
Thofe of eight cara&s —— —— 19 o
Thofe of nine cara&s    — 23 o
Thofe of ten carafts     33 o
To counterfeit Emeralds : Take of natural cryftal,
-four ounces; of red-lead, four ounces; verdegrfs,
forty-eight grains; crocus martis, prepared with vine¬
gar, eight grains: let the whole be finely pulverized
and fifted; put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it ftand there as long as they do their pots.
When cold, break the crucible ; and you will find a
matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cut
and fet in gold, will furpafs in beauty an oriental eme¬
rald.
EMERSION, in phyfics, the rifing of any folid
above the furface of a fluid fpecifically heavier thsn
itfelf, into which it had been violently immerged or
thruft.
It is one of the known laws of hydroftatics, that a
lighter folid being forced down into a heavier fluid,
immediately endeavours to emerge; and that with a
force or moment equal to the excefs of weight of a
quantity of the fluid above that of an equal bulk of the
folid. Thus, if a folid be immerged in a fluid of
double its fpecific gravity, it will emerge again till half
its bulk or body be above the furface of the fluid.
Emersion, in aftronomy, is when the fun, moon,
or other planet, begins to re-appear, after its having
been eclipfed, or hid by the interpofition of the moon,
earth, or other body.
The difference of longitude is fometimes found by
obferving the immerfions and emerfions of the firft of
Jupiter’s fatellites. The immerfions are obferved from
the time of Jupiter’s being in conjun&ion with the
fun to his oppofitioB ; and the emerfion, from the op-
pofition to the conjunction; which two intervals are
ufually fix months a-piece, and divide the year between
them. But when Jupiter is in conjunction with the
fun, and 15 days before and afterwards, there is nothing
to be obferved ; the planet, with his fatellites, being
then loft in the light of the fun.
Emersion is alfo ufed when a ftar, before hid by
the fun, as being too near him, begins to re-appear,
and to get out of his rays.
EMERSON (William), a late eminent mathema¬
tician, was born in June 1 701, at Hurworth, a village
N® 115.
about three miles fouth of Darlington ; at leaft it is Emerfon.
certain that he refided here from his childhood. His —-*—****
father Dudley Emerfon was a tolerable proficient in
mathematics ; and without his books and inftru&ions,
perhaps his own genius (moft eminently fitted for ma¬
thematical difquifitions) would have never been un¬
folded. He was inftruCted in the learned languages
by a young clergyman, then curate of Hurworth, who
was boarded at his father’s houfe. In the earlier part
of his life he attempted to teach a few fcholars : but
whether from his concife method (for he was not hap¬
py in explaining his ideas), or the warmth of his na¬
tural temper, he made no progrefs in his fchool: he
therefore foon left it off; and fatisfied with a moderate
competence left him by his parents, he devoted himfelf
to a ftudious retirement. Towards the clofe of the year
1781 (being fenfible of his approaching diffolution), he
difpofed of the whole of his mathematical library to a
bookfeller at York; and on May zoth 1782, he died
of a lingering and painful diforder at his native village,
aged near 81 years.
Mr Emerfon in his perfon was rather (hort, but
ftrong and well-made, with an open countenance and
ruddy complexion. He was exceedingly Angular in
his drefs. He had but one coat, which he always
wore open before, except the lovyer button ; no waift-
coat; his ihirt quite the reverfe of one in common ufe,
no opeping before, but buttoned clofe at the collar be¬
hind ; a kind of flaxen wig which had not a crooked
hair in it, and probably had never been tortured with
a comb from the time of its being made. He always
walked up to London when he had any thing to pub-
lifti, revifing fheet by ftieet himfelf:—Trufting no eyes
but his own, was always a favourite maxim with him.
He never advanced any mathematical propofition that
he had not firft tried in praftice, conftantly making all
the different parts himfelf on a fmall fcale, fo that his
houfe was filled with all kinds of mechanical inftru-
ments together or disjointed. He wduld frequently
ftand up to his middle in water while fiftiing, a diver-
fion he was remarkably fond of. He ufed to ftudy
inceffantly for fome time, and then for relaxation take
a ramble to any pot-alehoufe whete he could get any
body to drink with andtalkto. The dukeof Manchefter
was highly pleafed,with his company, and ufed often
to come to him in the fields and accompany him home,
bift could never perfuade him to get into a carriage.
On thefe occafions he would fometimes exclaim,
“ Damn your whim-wham! I had rather walk.” He
was a married man ; and his wife ufed to fpin on an
old-fafliioned wheel, whereof a very accurate drawing
is given in his mechanics. He was deeply {killed in
the fcience of mufic, the theory of founds, and the va¬
rious fcales both ancient and modern, but was a very
poor performer.
The following is a lift of Mr Emerfon’s works.
_l. The Doftrine of Fluxions. 2. The Projection of
the Sphere, orthographic,, ftereographic, and gnomo-
nical. 3. The Elements of Trigonometry. 4. The
Principles of Mechanics, 5. A Treatife of Naviga¬
tion on the Sea. 6. A Treatife of Algebra, in two
books. 7. The Arithmetic of Infinites, and the dif¬
ferential Method, illuftrated by Examples. 8. Mecha¬
nics ; or the Dodrine of Motion. 9. The Elements of
Optics, in four books. 10. A Syltem of Aftronomy,
tu The
E M E [ 569 ] EMI
! Emery, u. -The Laws of Centripetal and Centrifugal Force.
! "■"'v—-J 12. The Mathematical Principles of Geography.
13. Trafts, 8vo. 14. Cyclomathefis ; or an eafy In-
troduftion to the feveral Branches of the Mathema¬
tics. 15. A fhort Comment on Sir Ifaac Newton’s
Principia ; to which is added, A Defence of Sir Ilaac
againft the Objedlions that have been made to feveial
Parts of his Works. 16., A Mifcelianeous Treatife,
containing feveral Mathematical Subje&s, 8vo. 1776.
EMERY, in natural hiftory, a rich iron-ore found in
large maffesof no determinate fliape or fize, extremely
hard, and very heavy. It is ufually of a duiky brown-
ifli red on the furface ; but when broken, is of a fine
bright iron-grey, but not without feme tinge of red-
nefs ; and is fpangled all oyer with filming fpecks,
which are fmall flakes of a foliaceous talk, highly im¬
pregnated with iron. It is alfo fometimes very red,
and then ufually contains veins of gold. It makes no
(effervefcence with any of the acid menftruums ; and is
found in the ifland of Guernfey, in Tufcany, and many
parts of Germany.
Ul. Com. Lewis is of opinion, that fome kinds of emery
607. may contain the metal called platina, and on this fub-
jeft has the following curious obfervatious. ‘ Alonfo
Barba mentions a fubftance called chumpi; which is a
hard ftone of the emery kind, participating of iron, of
a grey colour ftiining a little, very hard to work, be-
canfe it refills the fire much, found in Potofi, Chocaya,
and other places, along with blackifh and reddilh pres
that yield gold. If platina is really found in large
mafles, either generally or only now and then, one
might reafonably expeft thofe mafles to be fuch as are
here defer ibed.
“ Of the fame kind perhaps alfo is the mineral men¬
tioned by feveral authors under the name of Spanifir
emery, fmiris Hifpanica, which firould feem, from the
accounts given of it, to be no other than platina or its
matrix. The fmiris is faid to be found in the gold
mines, and its exportation prohibited; to contain films
or veins of native gold ; to be in great requeft among
I the alchemifts ; to have been fometimes ufed for the
adulteration of gold ; to Hand, equally with the noble
metal, cupellatiori, quartation, antimony, and the regal
cement; and to be feparable from it by amalgamation
with mercury, which throws out the fmiris and retains
the gold ; properties llrongly charadteriftic of platina,
and which do not belong to any known fubftance be-
fides. This debafement of gold per extraclum fmiri
dis Hifpanici is mentioned by Becher in his Miner a are-
naria, and feveral times hinted at in hrs Phyfua fubter-
ranea. Both Becher and Stahl indeed call the fub¬
ftance which the gold receives from the emery an
earth, whereas platina is undoubtedly a metal; but this
does not at all invalidate our fuppofition, for they give
the name of earth alfo to the fubftance which copper
receives from calamine in being made into brafs, which
is now known to be metallic.
“ From thefe obfervations I have been led to fuf-
pe&, that the European emeries likewife might pof-
fibly participate of platina. If this was certain, it
would account fatisfa&orily for the ufe which fome of
the alchemifts are faid to have made of emeries and
other ferrugineous ores ; and we Ihoul i no longer
doubt, or wonder, that by treating gold with thefe
iinds of minerals, they obtained a permanent augmen-
Vol.VI. Part II.
tation; that this augmentation, though it refifted lead, Emery
antimony, aquafortis, and the regal cement, was fepa- 11
rable, as Becher owns it was, by quickfilver ; and that,E:n n&n''e
when it exceeded certain limits, it rendered the gold v
pale and brittle.
“ If emery contains platina, I imagined itT.'ght
be difcoverable by boiling the powdered mineral in
melted lead, and afterwards working off the lead upon
a teft or cupel. The experiment was made with eight
ounces of the fineft powder of common emery, and the
fame quantity of lead; which were covered with black
flux to prevent the fcorification of the lead, and urged
with a itrong fire for two or three hours. The lead
became hard, rigid, of a dark colour, and a granulated
texture, as if it had really imbibed fome platina from
the emery ; but in cupellation it worked almoft entirely
off, leaving only a bead about the fize of a fmall pin’s
head, which was probably ho other than filver contain¬
ed in the lead.
“ I repeated the experiment with fome variation,
thinking to obtain a more perfecl refolution of the
emery by vitrifying it with the lead. Two ounces of
fine emery and fix ounces of minium were well mixed
together, and urged with a ftrong fire, in a clofe cru¬
cible, for an hour : they melted into an uniform dark
browniih glafs. The glafs was powdered, mixed with
four ounces of fixt alkaline fait and fome powdered
charcoal, and put into a frelh crucible, with fome com¬
mon fait on the furface: The fire was pretty ftrongly
excited; but the fufion was not fo perfect as could be
wiftied, and only about two ounces of lead were found
revived. This lead had fuffered nearly the fame change
as that in the foregoing experiment; and,like it, gave
no appearance of platina on being cupelled.
“ It feems to follow from thefe experiments, that
the emery employed in them contained no platina; but
as it is not to be fuppofed that all emeries are of one
compofition, other forts may deferve to be fubmitted
to the fame trials. As gold is contained in fome par¬
cels of common minerals, and by no means in all the
individuals of any one fpecies; platina may pofiibly in
like manner be found in fome European ores, though
there is not the leaft footftep of it in other parcels of
the fame kind of ore.”
EMETICS, medicines that induce vomiting.
EMIMS, ancient inhabitants of the land of Ca¬
naan beyond Jordan, who were defeated by Chedor-
laomer and his allies, Gen. xiv. 5. Mofes tells us,
that they were beaten in Shaveh Kirjathaim, which
was in the country of Sihon conquered from the Moa¬
bites, Jolh. xiii. 19—21. The Emims were a warlike
people, of a gigantic ftature, great and many, and tall
as the Anakims.
EMINENCE, in geography, a little hillock or af-
cent above the level of the adjoining champaign.
Eminence is alfo a title, of honour given to cardi¬
nals. The decree of the pope, whereby it was ap¬
pointed that the cardinals fliould be addreffed under
the quality of eminence, bears date the 1 oth of January
1630. They then laid afide the titles of illujlrifmi,
and reverendijfmi, which they had borne before.
The grand mafter of Malta is likewife addreffed un¬
der the quality of eminence. The popes J.,hn VIII.
and Gregory VII. gave the fame title to the kings of
France. The emperors have likewife borne it.
4 C Eminen*
EMM [ 57° 1 E M O
Emif Eminentijfmus, the fuperlative of eminent, has of late
g II. been attributed to the cardinals.
, EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, figni-
fying a prince.
This title was firft given to the caliphs; but when
they affumed the title of Sultans, that of emir remain¬
ed to their children ; as that of Caefar among the Ro¬
mans. At length the title came to be attributed to
all who were judged to defcend from Mahomet by his
daughter Fatimah, and who wear the green turban in-
ftead of the white. The Turks make an obfervation,
that the emirs, before their fortieth year, are men of
the greateft gravity, learning, and wifdom ; but after
this, if they are not great fools, they difcover feme
figns of levity and ftupidity. This is interpreted by
the Turks as a fort of divine impulfe in token of their
birth and fanftity. The Turks alfo call the vizirs,
bafhaws, or governors of provinces, by this name.
EMISSARY, in a political fenfe, a perfon employ¬
ed by another to found the opinions of people, fpread
certain reports, or aft as a fpy over other people’s ac¬
tions.
Emissary- Vejfels, in anatomy, the fame with thofe
more commonly called Excretory.
EMISSION, in medicine, a term ufed chiefly to
denote the ejaculation of the femen or feed in the aft
of coition. See Coition, and Generation.
EMMANUEL, or Immanuel, a Hebrew word
which fignifies, ‘ God with us.’ Ifaiah (viii. 14.), in
that celebrated prophecy, wherein he declares to Ahaz
the birth of the Mefliah, who was to be born of a vir¬
gin, fays, This child fhall be called, and really be, Em¬
manuel, that is, God with us. The fame prophet (viii.
8.) repeats the fame thing, while he is fpeaking of the
enemy’s army, which, like a torrent, was to overflow
Judea. ‘ The ftretching out of his wings (hall fill the
breadth of thy land, O Emmanuel.’ The evangelift
Matthew (i. 23.) informs us, that this prophecy was
accomplifhed in the birth of Chrift, born of the virgin
Mary, in whom the two natures divine and human
were united, and fo in this fenfe he was really Em-
jhanuel, or ‘ God with us.’
EMMERICK, a rich fortified town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It
carries on a good trade with the Dutch, and both
Proteftaiits and Catholics have the free exercife of their
religion. The ftreets are neat and regular, and the
hbufes tolerably built. It was taken by the French in
1672, and delivered to the eleftor of Brandenburgh in
1673, under whofe jurifdiftion it now is. It is feated
near the Rhine. E. Long. 5. 29. N. Lat. 52. 5.
EMMIUS (Ubbo), born at Gretha in Eaft Frief-
land in 1547, was-a very learned profeffor, and chofen
reftor of the college of Norden in 1579. This femi*
nary flourilhed exceedingly under his care ; and de¬
clined as vifibly after he was ejefted, in 1587, for re-
fufing to fubfcribe the Confeifion of Augfburg. The
year after, he was made reftor of the college of Leer;
and when the city of Groningen confederated with the
United Provinces, the magiftrates appointed him recT
tor of that college: which employment he filled with the
higheft repute near 20 years ; until, the college being
erefted into an univerfity, he was the firft reftor, and
one of the chief ornaments of it by his leftures, till
his infirmities prevented his public appearance. His
Emruy.
wifdom was equal to his learnings fo that the gover- Emmenaw
nor of Friefland and Groningen often confulted him, g°gue* \
and feldom failed to follow his advice. He wrote 11 '
Vetus Gracia ilhjlrato, 3 vols ; Decades Rerum Freji-
carum ; and many other valuable works. He died in
1625.
EMMENAGOGUES, ^■.u-ftmayoya, in medicine*
fuch remedies as promote jthe menftrnal difeharge.
They are thus called from “ in,” ^ “ month,”
duco, “ I lead,” becaufe their natural periods of flowing
are once a-month.
EMOLLIENTS, in medicine and pharmacy, are
fuch remedies as (heath and foften the afperity of the
humours, and relax and fupple the folids at the fame
time.
EMOLUMENT, is properly applied to the profit*
arifing daily from an office or employ. The word is
formed of the Latin emolumentum, which according to
fome, primarily fignifies the profits redounding to the
miller from his mill; of molo, molere, “ to grind.”—The
patent, or other inftrument, whereby a perfon is pre¬
ferred to an office, gives him a right to enjoy all the
dues, honours, profits, and emoluments belonging
thereto.—Emolument is alfo ufed, in a fomewhat greater;
latitude, for profit or advantage in the general.
EMOTION and Passion, in the human mind, are
thus diftinguifhed by a celebrated writer*. An inter-ȣjem ^-v
nal motion or agitation of the mind, when it paffeth Critidfm,
away without defire, is denominated an emotion : when v°f- *• p- 4*»
defire follows, the motion or agitation is denominated
a paffion. A fine face, for example, raifeth in me a
pleafant feeling : if that feeling vanifh without produ¬
cing any effeft, it is in proper language an emotion-;
but if the feeling, by reiterated views of the objeft, be¬
comes fufficicntly ftrong. to occafion defire, it lofes it*
name of emotion, and acquires that oi pajffion. The
fame holds in all the other paffions. The painful feel¬
ing raifed in a fpeftator by a flight injury done to a
ftranger, being accompanied with no defire of revenge,
is teimed an emotion ; but that injury raifeth in the
ftranger a ftronger emotion, which being accompanied
with defire of revenge, is a paffion. External expref-
fions of diftrefs produce in the fpeftator a painful feel¬
ing, which being fometimes fo flight as to pafs away
without any effeft, is an emotion ; but if the feeling
be fo ftrong as to prompt defire of affording relief, it
is a paffion, and is termed pity. Envy is emulation in .
excefs : if the exaltation of a competitor be barely
difagreeable, the painful feeling is an emotion ; if it
produce defire to deprefs him, it is a paffion. See
Passion.
EMOUY, or Hi a-men, an ifland and port of China,
under the jurifdiftion of the province of Fo-kien.
The port is properly but an anchoring-place for
ftiips, inclofed on one fide by the ifland from which it
takes its name, and on the other by the main-land ; ;
but it is fo extenfive, that it can contain feveral thou-
fandsof veffels ; and the depth of its water is fo great,
that the largeft (hips may lie clofe to the (bore with¬
out danger.
In the beginning of the prefent century it was
much frequented by European veffels ; but few vifit
it at prefent, as all the trade is carried on at Canton. .
The emperor keeps here a garrifon of 6 or 7000 men,
commanded by a Chinefe general. In enuring this
road.
E M O r 571 1 E M P
Emmiy, road, a large rock muft be doubled which {lands at the
“-'V''"-' mouth of it, and divides it almoft as the Mingant di¬
vides the harbour of Breft. This rock is vilible, and
rifes feveral feet above the furface of the water.
The ifland of Emouy is particularly celebrated on
account of the magnilicence of its principal pagod,
confecrated to the deity Fo. This temple is fituated
in a plain, terminated on one fide by the fea, and on.
the other by a lofty mbuntain. Before it the fea,
flowing through different channels, forms a large fheet
ef water which is bordered with turf of the moft beau¬
tiful verdure. The front of this edifice is 180 feet in
length, and its gate is adorned with figures in relief,
which are the ufual ornaments of the Chinefe archi¬
tecture. On entering, you find a vail portico, with
an altar in the middle, on which is placed a gigantic
ftatue of gilt brafs, reprefenting the god Fo, fitting
crofs-Iegged. Four other flatues are placed at the
corners of this portico, which are 18 feet high, al¬
though they reprefent people fitting. Each of thefe
ftatues is formed from a fingle block of ftone. They
bear in their hands different fymbols which mark their
attributes, as formerly in Athens and Rome the trident
and caduceus diftinguifhed Neptune and Mercury.
One holds a ferpent in its arms, which is twifled round
its body in feveral folds ; the fecond has a bent bow
and a quiver; the two others prefhnt, one a kind of
battle-axe, and the other a g/uitar, or fome inftrument
of the fame kind.
After crofiing this portico, you enter a fquare
outer court, paved with large gray ftones, the leail
of which is ten feet in length and four in breadth.
At the four fides of this court arife four pavilions,
which terminate in domes, and have a communi¬
cation with one another by means of a gallery
which runs quite round it. One of thefe contains a
bell ten feet in diameter ; the wooden-work which
fupports this heavy mafs cannot be fufficiently admired.
In the other is kept a drum of an enormous fize,
which the bonzes ufe to proclaim the days of new and
full moon. It muft be obferved, that the clappers of
the Chinefe bells are on the outfide, and made of wood
in the form of a mallet. The two other pavilions con¬
tain the ornaments of the temple, and often ferve to
lodge travellers, whom the bonzes are obliged to receive.
In the middle of this court is a large tower, which
{lands by itfelf, and terminates alfo in a dome, to which
you afeend by a beautiful ftone ftair-cafe chat winds
round it. This dome contains a temple remarkably
neat ; the Ceiling is ornamented with mofaic work,
and the walls are covered with Hone figures in relief,
reprefenting animals and montlers. The pillars which
fupport the roof of this edifice are of wood varnifhed ;
and on feftivals are ornamented with fmall flags of
different colours. The pavement of the temple is form¬
ed of little fhells, and its different compartments pre-
fent birds, butterflies, flowers, &c.
The bonzes continually burn incenfe upon the altar,
and keep the lamps lighted, which hang from the
ceiling of the temple. At one extremity of the altar
{lands a brazen urn, which when ftruck fends forth a
mournful found: on the oppofite fide is a hollow ma¬
chine of wood, of an oval form, ufed for the fame pur-
pofe, which is to accompany with its found their voices
when they ling in praifeof the tutelary idol of the pagod.
The god Poufia is placed on the middle of this altar, Emouy,
on a flower of gilt brafs, which ferves as a-bafe, and ale-
holds a young child in his arms ; feveral idols, which tnt'l!t' j
are no doubt iubaltern deities, are ranged around him, '
and {how by their attitudes their refpeft and venera¬
tion.
The bonzes have traced out on the walls of this
temple feveral hierogliphical chara&ers in praife of
Pouffa ; there is alfo to be feen an hiftorical or allego¬
rical painting in frefco, which reprefents a burning
lake, in which feveral men appear to be fwimming,
fome carried by monfters, others furrounded by dra¬
gons and winged ferpents. In the middle of the gulph
rifes a fteep rock, on the top of which the god is
feated, holding in his arms a child, who feems to call
out to thofe who are in the flames of the lake; but
an old man, with hanging ears and horns.on his head,
prevents them from climbing to the fummit of the
rock, and threatens to drive them back with a large
club. The bonzes are at a lofs what anfwer to give,
when any queflions are afleed them concerning this
painting. Behind the altar is a kind of library, con¬
taining books which treat of the worfhip of idols.
On defeending from this dome you crofs the court,
and enter a kind of gallery, the walls of which are
lined with boards; it contains 24 ftatues of gilt brafs,
reprefenting the fame number of philofopheis, ancient
difciples of Confucius. At the end of this gallery
you find a large hall, which is the refedlory of the
bonzes ; and after having traverfed a fpacious apart¬
ment, you at length enter the temple of Fo, to which
there is an afeent by a large ftone ftair-cafe. It is or¬
namented with vafes full of artificial flowers (a work
in which the Chinefe excel) ; and here alfo are found
the fame kind of mufical inftruments as thofe mention¬
ed before. The ftatue of the god is not to be feen
but through a piece of black gauze, which forms a
kind of veil or curtain before the altar. The reft of
the pagod confifts of feveral large chambers, exceeding¬
ly neat, but badly difpofed ; the gardens and pleafure
grounds are on the declivity of the mountain ; and a
number of delightful grottos are cut out in the rock,
which afford an agreeable {belter from the exceffive
heat of the fun.
There are feveral other pagods in the ifle of Emouy ;
among which is one called The Pagod of the Ten Thou-
fand Stones, becaufe it is built on the brow of a moun¬
tain where there is a like number of little rocks, under
which the bonzes have formed grottos and very plea-
fant covered feats. A certain rural fimplicity reign*
here, which captivates and delights.
Strangers are received by thefe bonzes with great
politeneis, and may freely enter their temples; but
they muft not attempt to gratify their curiofity fully,
nor to enter thofe apartments into which they are not
introduced, efpecially if they are accompanied by fuf-
.picious perfons ; for the bonzes, who are forbid under
pain of fevere puniftiment to have any intercourfe with
women, and who often keep them in private, might,
from fear of being difeovered, revenge themfelves for
too impertinent a curiofity.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of puniftiment,
which confifted in thrufting a ftake up the fundament.
The word comes from the French em/>a/er, or the Ita¬
lian imfalare; or rather, they are all alike derived
4 C 2 from
E M P [ 572 ] E M P
Empanel- from the Latin pahs “ a flake,” and the prepofltion
in, “ in or into.” We find mention of empaling in
Emperor, Juvenal. It was frequently praftifed in the time of
t—Y—— Nero, and continues to be fo ini Turkey.
Empjlement of a Flower, the fame with Calyx.
EMPANELLING. See Impanelling.
EMPARLANCE. See Imparlance.
EMPEDOCLES,acelebrated philofopher and poet,
was born at Agrigentum, a city in Sicily, He followed
the Pythagorean philofophy, and admitted the metemfy-
chofis. He conftantly appeared with a crown of gold
on his head ; to maintain, by this outward pomp, the
reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordi¬
nary man. Yet Ariftotle fays,that he was a great lover
of liberty, extremely averfe to date and command,
and that he even refufed a kingdom that was offered
him. His principal work was a Treatife in verfe on
the Nature and Principles of Things. Ariftotle, Lu¬
cretius, and all the ancients, make the moft magnifi¬
cent elogiums on his poetry and eloquence.
He taught rhetoric ; and often alleviated the an¬
xieties of liis mind, as well as the pains of his body,
with mufic, It is reported, that his curiofity to vifit
the flames of the crater of iEtna proved fatal to him.
Some maintain that he-wiftied it to be believed that
he was a god ; and that his death might be unknown,
he threw himfelf into the crater and perifhed in the
flames. His expectations, however, were fruftrated ;
and the volcano by throwing up one of his fandals dif-
covered to the world that Empedocles had perifhed by
fire. Others report that he lived to an extreme old
age ; and that he was drowned in the fea about 440
years before the Chriftian era.
EMPEROR (imperator), among the ancient Ro¬
mans, fignified a general of an army, who, for fome ex¬
traordinary fuccefs, had been complimented with this
appellation. Thus Auguftus, having obtained no lefs
than twenty famous victories, was as often fainted with
the title emperor ; and Titus was denominated emperor
by his army after the reduction of Jerufalem.
Afterwards, it came to denominate an abfolute mo¬
narch or fupreme commander of an empire. In this
fenfe Julius Csefar was called emperor: the fame title
defcended with the dignity to OCtavius, Auguftus,
Tiberius, and Caligula; and afterwards it became
elective.
In ftriCfnefs, the title emperor does not, and cannot,
add any thing to the rights of fovereignty : its effeCt
is only to give precedence and pre-eminence above
other fovereigns ; and as fuch, it raifes thofe invefted
■jj’ith it to the fummit of all human greatnefs.
It is difputed, whether or not emperors have the
power of difpofing of the regal title. It is true, they
have fometimes taken upon them to ereft kingdoms ;
and thus it is that Bohemia and Poland are faid to
have been raifed to the dignity : thus alfo, the empe¬
ror Charles the Bald, in the year 877, gave Provence
to Bofon, putting the diadem on his head, and decree¬
ing him to be called “king,” ut moreprifcorum imperato-
rum regibus vitleretur dominari. Add, that the emperor
Leopold ere&ed the ducal Pruflia into a kingdom in
favour of the eleCIor of Brandenburg; and though, fe-
yeral of the kings of Europe refufed for fome time to
acknowledge him in that capacity, yet by the treaty
«f Utrecht in 1712 they all came in*
In the Eaft, the title and quality of emperor are Emperor,
more frequent than they are among us ; thus, the fo- y-—<
vereign princes of China, Japan, Mogul, Perfia, &c.
are all emperors of China, Japan, &c. In the year
1723, the czar of Mufcovy aflumed the title of empe¬
ror of all Rufia, and procured himfelf to be recognized
as fuch by moft of the princes and ftates of Europe.
In the Weft, the title has been a long time reftrain-
ed to the emperors of Germany. The firft who bore
it was Charlemagne, who had the title of emperor con¬
ferred on him by Pope Leo III. though he had all the
power before. The imperial prerogatives were for¬
merly much more extenfive than they are at prefent.
At the clofe of the Saxon race, A. D. 1024, they ex-
ercifed the right of conferring all the eccleiiaftical be¬
nefices in Germany ; of receiving the revenues of them
during a vacancy ; of fucceeding to the effefts of in-
teftate ecclefiaftics; of confirming or annulling the
eleftions of the popes ; of affembling councils, and of
appointing them to decide concerning the affairs of
the church; of conferring the title of king on their
vafials; of granting vacant fiefs; of receiving the re¬
venues of the empire ; of governing Italy as its pro¬
per fovereigns ; of ere&ing free cities, and eftablifhing
fairs in them; of aflembling the diets of the empire,
and fixing the time of their duration ; of coining mo¬
ney, and conferring the fame privilege on the ftates
of the empire ; and of adminiftering both high and low
juftice within the territories of the differem ftates:
but in the year 1437, they were reduced to the right
of conferring all dignities and titles, except the privi¬
lege of being a ftate of the empire ; of preces primarhe,
or of appointing once during their reign a dignitary
in each chapter or religious houfe; of granting dif-
penfations with refpedl to the age of majority ; of
eredling cities, and conferring the privilege of coining
money ; of calling the meetings of the diet, and pre-
fiding in them.
To which fome have added, t. That all the princes
and ftates of Germany are obliged to do them homage,
and fwear fidelity to them. 2. That they, or their
generals, have a right to command the forces of all
the princes of the empire, when united together. 3.
That they receive a kind of tribute from all the prin¬
ces and ftates of the empire, for carrying on a war
which concerns the whole empire, which is called the
Roman month. For the reft, there is not a foot of
land or territory annexed to his title : but ever fince
the reign of Charles IV. the emperors have depended
entirely on their hereditary dominions as the only
fource of their power, and even of their fubfiftence.
See Diet and Electors.
The kings of France were anciently alfo called em¬
perors, at the time when they reigned with their fons,.
whom they afibciated to the crown. Thus Hugh Ca¬
pet, having alfociated his fon Robert, took the title
of emperor, and Robert that of king; under which
titles they are mentioned in the Hiftory of the Coun¬
cil of Rheims, by Gerbert, &c. King Robert is alfo
called emperor of the French by Helgau of Fleury.
Louis le Gros, upon aflbeiating his fon, did the fame.
In the Firft Regifter of the King’s Charters, fol. 166,
are found letters of Louis le Gros, dated in n 16, in
favour of Raymond biihop of Maguelonne, wherein he
ftyles himfdf, Ludovicus, Dei ordinante providential
Fran,..
E M F L 573 1 E M P
Eini'etruin Frsnccrum imperator auguflus. The kings of England
II. had Kkewife anciently the title of emperors* as ap-
■ pears from a charter of king Edgar : Ego Edgarus An-
glorum baftleus, emniumque regum infularum oceani qua: Bri-
tanniam circumjacent, &c. imperator & dominus.
EMPETRUM, berry-bearing Heath : A ge¬
nus of the triandria order, belonging to the monoecia
clafs of plants. In the natural method this genus is
ranked by Linnse-us under the 54th order, Mifcellanea ;
and likewife among thofe of which the order is doubt¬
ful. The male calyx is tripartite; the corolla tripeta-
lous ; the ftamina long; the female calyx is tripartite;
the corolla tripetalous; the ttyles nine ; the beny nine-
feeded. There are two fpecies; one of which, viz. the
nigrum, which bears the crow-crake berries, is a na¬
tive of Britain. It grows wild on boggy heaths and
mountains. Children fometimes eat the berries ; but,
when taken in too great quantity, they are apt to oc-
cafion a headach. Groufe feed upon them. When
boiled with alum, they afford a dark purple dye.
Goats are not fond of it. Cows, Iheep, and horfes
refufe it.
EMPHASIS, in rhetoric, a particular ftrefs of
the voice and a£tion, laid on fuch parts or words of the
oration as the orator wants to inforce upon his au¬
dience. See Declamation ; Oratory, Part IV. T
and Read-ing.
EMPHYSEMA, in furgery, a windy tumor, ge¬
nerally occafioned by a frafture of the ribs, and form¬
ed by the air infinuating itfelf, by a fmall wound, be¬
tween the Ikin and mufcles, into the fubllance of the
cellular or adipofe membrane, fpreading itfelf after¬
wards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts,
much after the manner in which butchers blow up their
veal.
EMPIRE (imperium), in political geography, a
large extent of land, under the jurifdi&ion or govern¬
ment of an emperor. See Emperor.
In ancient hiftory we read of four great monarchies
©r empires, viz. that of the Babylonians, Chaldeans,
and Affyrians; that of the Medes and Perfians ; that
of the Greeks; and that of the Romans. The firft
fubiifted from the time of Nimrod, who founded it in
the year of the world 1800, according to the compu¬
tation of Ufher, to Sardanapalus their lalt king in 3257,
and confequentlylafted above i45oyears. Theempireof
the Medes commenced under Arbace, in the year of
the world 3257, and was united to that of the Baby¬
lonians and Perfians under Cyrus, in the 3468, and it
clofed with the death of Darius Codomannus in 3674.
The Grecian empire lafted only during the reign of
Alexander the Great, beginning in the year of the world
3674, and terminating with the death of this conque¬
ror in 3681, his conquefts being divided among his
captains. The Roman empire commenced with Julius
Cssfar, when he was made perpetual diftator, in the
year of the city 708, and of the world 3956, 48 years
after Chrift. The feat of the empire was removed to
Byzantium by Conftantine, in the year of our Lord
3 34; the eaft and welt were then united under the title
of the Roman empire, till the Romans proclaimed Char¬
lemagne emperor, A. D. 800. From this epocha the
eaft and weft formed two feparate empires; that of the
eaft, governed by Greek emperors, commenced A. D.
802,: and being gradually weakened, terminated under
Conftantine Palseologus in 1453. The weftern empire Empire,
was afterwards known by the appellation of the empire EmP\ric-
or German empire. ' """* ~
Antiquaries diftinguifh between the medals of the
upper, and lower or las, empire.—The curious only
value thofe of the upper empire, which commences
with Csefar or Auguftus, and ends in the year of
Chrift 260. The lower empire comprehends near
1200 years, reckoning down to the deftruftion of Con-
ftantinople in 1453.—They ufually diftinguilh two
ages, or periods, of the hwer empire : the firft begin¬
ning where the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, and
ending with Anaftalius, including zoo years ; the fe-
cond beginning with Anaftafius, and ending with the
Palseologi, which includes 1000 years.
Empire, or The empire, ufed abfolutely and with¬
out any addition, fignifies the empire of Germany ;
called alfo, in juridical afts and laws, The holy Roman,
empire. It had its beginning, with the ninth cen¬
tury ; Charlemagne being created firft emperor by
Pope Leo III. who put the crown on his head in St
Peter’s church on Chriftmas-day in the year 800.
Authors are at a lofs under what form of govern¬
ment to range the empire. Some of them maintain it
to be a monarchical ftate, becaufe all the members
thereof are obliged to alk the inveftiture of their Hates
of the emperor, and to take an oath of fidelity to him..
Others confider it as a republic, or ariftocratic ftate, be¬
caufe the emperor cannot refolve or determine any thing
without the concurring fuffrages of the princes. It is
added, that if they require inveftiture from, and fwear
fealty to him, it is only as head of the republic, and in
the name of the republic, and not in his own; juft as at
Venice every thing is tranfatled in name of the doge..
Others will have the empire to be a monarcho-aritto-
cratic ftate, i. e. a mixture of monarchy and ariftocra-
cy ; becaufe, though the emperor in many cafes feems
to aft fovereignly, yet his decrees and refolves have no
force, in cafe the ftate refufe to confirm them. Laftly,
it has been called an arifto-democratic ftate, becaufe the
diet, wherein the fovereignty is lodged, is compofed of
princes and the deputies of the cities ; and is divided
into three orders or bodies, called colleges, viz. the col¬
lege of eleftors, the college of princes, and the college
of cities.
We fay, diet of the empire, circles of the empire,
fiefs of the empire, princes of the empire, eftates of the.
empire, members of the empire, capitulations of the
empire. See Diet, Circle, Prince, Capitula¬
tion, &c.
The ftates or eftates of the empire are of two kinds,,
mediate and immediate. The immediate ftates are thofe
who hold immediately of the empire : Whereof, again,
there are two kinds; the firft, fuch as have feats and
voices in the imperial diet; the fecond, fuch as have
none. The mediate ftates are thofe who hold of the
immediate.
The ftates which now compofe the empire are, The
princes of the empire, the counts of the empire, the
free barons of the empire, the prelates of the empire,
the princeffes or abbeffes of the empire, the nobles of
the empire, and the imperial cities.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to thofe phyfi-
cians who conduft themfelves wholly by their own ex*
perience, without ftudying phyfic in a regular way-
Some
EMU [ 574 1 ENA
EtnpU Some even ufe the term, in a ftill worfe fenfe, for a
ji quack who prefcribes at random, without being at all
/ mu gent.' acquainted with the principles of the art.
iiMPIS, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging to
the order Diptera; of which the charafters are thefe :
The probofcis is of an horny fubltance, bivalve, reflexed
under the head and bread, and longer than the thorax.
See a fpecimen on Plate CLXXXII.
EMPLASTER. See Plaster.
EMPORIjE, a double city of the Hither Spain,
near the Pyrenees ; feparated by a wall ; one part oc¬
cupied by the Greeks of Phocxa, whence originally
are the Maflilienfesj the other, by native Spaniards, to
whom was added by Augullus a Roman colony. Now
Ampurias, in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 42.
15.
EMPORIUM, in medicine, is often ufed for the
common fenfory in the brain. ‘See Brain.
Emporium, (anc. ^geog.), two cities near Pla¬
centia ; one well fortified, and guarded by a ftrong
garrifon, at which Hannibal met a repulfe : the other,
Hannibal took and plundered. Now thought to be
Ponte Nura, in the duchy of Placentia.
EMPRESS, the fpoufe of an emperor, or a woman
who governs an empire. See Emperor.
EMPROSTHOTONOS, a fpecies of convulfion,
wherein the head bends forward.
EMPY2EMA, in medicine, a> diforder wherein pu¬
rulent matter is contained in the thorax or bread, after
an inflammation and fuppuration of the lungs and pleu¬
ra. See MEDiciNE-/«r/ex.
EMPYREAL air. So Dr Higgens denominates
that which Dr Prieflley calls dephlogijlkattd air, and
other philofophers vital or pure air.
EMPYREUM, a term ufed by divines for the
highed heaven, where the blefled enjoy the beatific vi-
fion. The word is formed of f" and *v?Jire, becaufe of
itsfplendor.
EMPYREUMA, in chemidry, fignifies a very dif-
agreeable fmell produced from burnt oils. It is of-
*ten perceived in didillations of animal as well as vege¬
table fubflances when they are expofed to a quick fire.
EMRODS. See Hemorrhoids.
EMULATION, a generous ardor kindled by the
praife-worthy examples of others, which impels us to
imitate, to rival, and, if poffible, to excel them. This
paffion involves in it edeem of the perfon whofe attain¬
ments or condudt we emulate, of the qualities and ac¬
tions in which we emulate him, and a defire of refem-
blance, together with a joy fpringing from the hope of
fuccefs. The word comes originally from the Greek
Ktt/Axa, difpute, contejl; whence the Latin, amulus, and
thence our emulation.
Plato obferves of emulation, that it is the daughter
of envy ; if fo, there is a great difference between the
mother and the offspring ; the one is a virtue and the
other a vice. Emulation admires great ait ions, and
ftrives to imitate them ; envy refufes them the praifes
that are their due; emulation is generous, and only
thinks of furpaffing a rival; envy is low, and only feeks
to leffen him. Perhaps, therefore, it would be more
jud to fuppofe emulation the daughter of admiration;
admiration, however, is a principal ingredient in the
compofition of it.
EMULGENT, or renax., Arteries, thofe which
fupply the kidneys with blood ; being fometimei fingle, Etmdfion
fometimesdouble, on each fide. SccAnatomy, n° 23. ^
EMULSION, a foft liquid remedy, of a colour and . 'ria”ie ' f
confidence refembling milk. See Pharmacy.
EMUNCTORY, in anatomy, a general term for
all thofe parts which ferve to carry off the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the bo¬
dy. Such more efpecially are the kidneys, bladder,
and mod of the glands.
EN ALL AGE, in grammar, is when one word is
fubllituted for another of the fame part of fpeech ; A
fubdantive for an adjective ; as exercitus victor, for vie-
toriofus ; fcelus, far fcelejlus : A primitive for a deriva¬
tive; as Dardana arma, for Dardania : An adtive for a
paflive; as twx humida ccelo pracipitat, forprecipitatur, &c.
ENAMEL, in general, is a vitrified matter betwixt
the parts of which is difperfed fome unvitrified matter :
hence enamel ought to have all the properties of glalji
except tranfparency.
Enamels have for their bafis a pure crydal glafs or
frit, ground up with a fine calx of lead and tin pre¬
pared for the purpofe, with the addition ufually of
white fait of tartar. Thefe ingredients baked toge¬
ther are the matter of all enamels, which are made by
adding colours of this or that kind in powder to this
matter, and melting or incorporating them together in
a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (De Arte Vitriar.) di-
re£s only manganefe to be added to the matter which
conditutes the bafis. For azure, zaffer mixed with
calx of brafs. For green, calx of brafs with feales of
iron, or -with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with
manganefe or with crocus martis; or manganefe with
tartar. For red, manganefe, or calx of copper and
red tartar. For purple, manganefe with calx of
brafs. For yellow, tartar and manganefe. And for
violet-coloured enamel, manganefe with thrice-calcined
brafs.
In making thefe enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are neceffary to be obferved. 1. That the pots
mud be glazed with white glafs, and mud be fuch as
will bear the fire. 2. That the matter of enamels mud
be very nicely mixed with the colours. 3. When the
enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated, it
mud be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4. The
general way of making the coloured enamel is this;
Powder, fift, and grind, all the colours very nicely,
and fird mix them with one another, and then with the
common matter of enamels : then fet them in pots in a
furnace ; and when they are well mixed and incorpo¬
rated, cad them into water; and when dry, fet them
in a furnace again to melt; and when melted, take a
proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more of the
common matter of enamels ; and if too pale, add more
of the colours.
Enamels are ufed either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious ftones, in painting in enamel; or by en-
amellers, jewellers, and goldfmiths, in gold, filver,
and other metals. The two fird kinds are ufually pre¬
pared by the workmen themfelves, who are employed
in thefe arts. That ufed by jewellers, &c. is brought
to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little cakes of
different fizes, commonly about four inches diameter,
having the mark of the maker duck upon it with a
puncheon. It pays I s. the pound on impor¬
tation.
ENA f 575 ] E N C
Enamel- tation, and draws back I s. at the rate of 4 s.
, per'-pound.
k‘,J' v " ' ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon
metals, as gold, filver, copper, See. and of melting it
at the fjre, or of making divers curious works in it at
a lamp. It fignifies alfo to paint in enamel.
The method of painting in Enamel. This is per¬
formed on plates of gold Or filver, and molt common¬
ly of copper, enamelled with the white enamel; where¬
on they paint with colours which are melted in the fire,
where they take a brightnefs and luftre like that of
glafs. This painting is the moft prized of all for its
peculiar brightnefs and vivacity, which is very perma¬
nent, the force of its colours not being effaced or ful-
lied with time as in other painting, and continuing al¬
ways as frefh as when it came out of the workmens
hands. It is ufual in miniature ; it being the more
difficult the larger it is, by reafon of certain accidents
it is liable to in the operation. Enamelling fhould only
be pradtifed on plates of gold, the other metals being
lefs pure: copper, for inltance, fcales with the appli¬
cation, and yields fumes ; and filver turns the yellow
white. Nor muft the plate be made flat; for in fuch
eafe, the enamel cracks ; to avoid which, they ufually
forge them a little round or oval, and not too thick.
The plate being well and evenly forged, they ufually
begin the operation by laying on a couch of white en¬
amel (as we obferved above) on both fides, which pre¬
vents the metal from fwelling and bliftering ; and this
lirft layer ferves for the ground of all the other colours.
The plate being thus prepared, they begin at firft by
drawing out exadtly the fubjedt to be painted with red
vitriol, mixed with oil of fpike, marking all parts of
the defign very lightly with a fmall pencil. After this,,
the colours (which are to be before ground with water
in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and mixed with
oil of fpike fomewhat thick) are to be laid on, obfer-
ving the mixtures and colours that agree to the diffe¬
rent parts of the fubjedt ; for which it is neceffary to
underftand painting in miniature. But here the work¬
man muft be very cautious of the good or bad qualities
®f the oil of fpike he employs to mix his colours with,
for it is very fubjedt to adulterations.
Great care muft likewife be taken, that the leaft duft:
imaginable come not to your colours while you are ei¬
ther painting or grinding them ; for the leaft fpeck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the work comes
to be put into the reverberatory to be red hot, will
leave a hole, and fo deface the work.
When the colours are all laid, the painting muft be
gently dried over a flow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate-them with
the enamel, making the plate red hot in afire like what
the enamellers ufe. Afterwards that part of the paint¬
ing muft be paffed over again which the fire hath any
thing effaced, ftrengthening the fhades and colours,
and committing it again to the fire, obferving the fame
method as before, which is to be repeated till the work,
be finifhed.
Method of Enamelling by the Lamp. Moft enamel¬
led works are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in which,
inftead of oil, they put melted horfe-greafe, which -
they call calalline oil. The damp, which is of copper,,
or white iron, confifts of two pieces; in one of which
is a kind of oval plate, fa inches long, and two high,
in which they put the oil and the cotton. The other Enamelling
part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclofed, II
ferves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where feveral artifts " v" J
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about the
middle of its height, is a double pair of organ-bellows,
which one of the workmen moves up and down with
his foot to quicken the flame of the lamps, which are
by this means excited to an incredible degree of vehe- •
mence. Grooves made with a gauge in the upper part of
the table, and covered with parchment, convey the wind
of the bellows to a pipe of glafs before each lamp ; and
that the enamellers may not be incommoded with the
heat of the lamp, every pipe is covered at fix inches di-
ftance with a little tin plate, fixed into the table by a
wooden handle. When the works do not require a
long blaft, they only ufe a glafs-pipe, into which they
blow with their mouth.
It is incredible to what a degree of finenefs and de¬
licacy the threads of enamel may be drawn at the
lamp. Thofe which are ufed in making falfe tufts ot
feathers are fo fine, that they may be wound on the
reel like filk or thread. The fi&itious jets of all co¬
lours, ufed in embroideries, are alfo made of enamel;
and that with fo much art, that every fmall piece hath
its hole to pafs the thread through wherewith it is
fewed. Thefe hole§ are made by blowing them into
long pieces ; which they afterwards cut with a proper
tool.
It is feldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
ufed alone : they commonly melt them in an iron-ladle,
with an equal part of glafs or cryftal; and when the two
matters are in perfect fufion, they draw it out into
threads of different fizes, according to the nature of
the work. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco-pipes, which they
extend from each other at arm’s length. If the thread
is required ftill longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the firft
holds the enamel to the flame. Thofe threads, when
cold, are cut into what lengths the workman* thinks
fit, but commonly from 10 to 12 inches; and as they
are all round, if they are required to be flat, they muft
be drawn through a pair of pinchers while yet hot.
They have alfo another iron inftrument in form of
pinchers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp when it .
is to be worked and difpofed in figures. Laltly, they
have glafs-tubes of various fizes, ferving to blow the
enamel into various figures, and preferve the neceffary
vacancies therein ; as alfo to fpare the fluff, and form
the contours. When the enameller is at v/ork, he fits
before the lamp with his foot on the ftep that moves on
the bellows ; and holding in his left hand the work to
be enamelled, or the brafs or iron-wires the figures are.
to be formed on, he direCts with his right the enamel
thread, whichdie holds to the flame with a management
and patience equally furprifing. There are few things
they cannot make or reprefent with enamel; and fome
figures are as well finifhed, as if done by the moft fkil-
ful. carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a fpecies of Dr ar¬
throsis.
ENCfENIA, the name of three feveral feafts cele-
brated by the Jews in memory of the dedication, or
a rather.,
E N C [ 57^> 1 E N C
E-ncaaip- ratlier purification, of the temple, by Judas Maccabae-
me,lt us, Solomon, and Zorobabel. This term is likewife
Encauftic u^e^- 'n church-btfewy for the dedication of Chriftian
U—; churches. -
ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a Camp.
ENC ANTHIS, in furgery, a tubercle arifing either
from the caruncula lachrymalis, of from the adjacent
red (kin ; fometimes fo large, as to obftruft not only
the pun&a lachrymalia, but alfo part of the fight or pu¬
pil itfelf. See Surgery.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the fame with
enamelling and enamel. See Enamelling and E-
NAMEL.
Encaustic Painting, a method of painting made ufe
of by the ancients, in which wax was employed to give
a glofs to their colours, and to preferve them from the
injuries of the air.
This ancient art, after having been long loft, was
reftored by Count Caylus, a member of the Academy
of Infcriptions in France ; and the method of painting
in wax was announced to the Academy of Painting
and Belles Lettres in the year 1753; though M.
Bachelier, the author of a treatife De VHijluire & du
Secret de la Peinture en Cire, had actually painted a
pifture in wax in 1749; and he was the firft who
communicated to the public the method of performing
the operation of inuftion, which is the principal cha-
radleriftic of the encauftic painting. The Count kept
his method a fecret for fome time, contenting himfelf
with exhibiting a pifture at the Louvre in I754> re-
prefenting the head of Minerva, painted in the manner
of the ancients, which excited the curiofity of the pub¬
lic, and was very much admired. In the interval of fuf-
pence, feveral attempts were made to recover the an¬
cient method of painting. The firft fcheme adopted
was that of melting wax and oil of turpentine toge¬
ther, and ufing this compofition as a vehicle for mixing
and laying on the colours. But this method did not
explain Pliny’s meaning, as the wax is not burnt in
this way of managing it. In another attempt, which
was much more agreeable to the hiftorian’s defeription
of encauftic painting, the wax was melted with ftrong
lixivium of fait of tartar, and with this the colours
were ground. When the pi&ure was finifhed, it was
gradually prefented to the fire, fo as to melt the wax;
which was thus diffufed through all the particles of
the colours, fo that they were fixed to the ground,
and fecured from the accefs of air or moifture. But
the method of count Caylus is much more fimple : the
cloth or wood, which he defigned for the bafis of his
pifture, is waxed over, by only rubbing it fimply with
a piece of bees-wax ; the wood or cloth, ftretched on
a frame, being held horizontally over, or perpendicu¬
larly before a fire, at fuch a diftance, that the wax
might gradually melt, whilft it is rubbed on, diffufe
itfelf, penetrate the body, and fill the interftices of the
texture of the cloth, which, when cool, is fit to
paint upon ; but as water colours, or thofe that are
mixed up with common water, will not adhere to the
wax, the whole pifture is to be firft rubbed over
with Spanifh chalk or white, and then the colours
are applied to it; when the pifture is dry, it is put
near the fire, whereby the wax melts, and abforbs all
the colours.
Mr J. H. Muntz, in a treatife on this fubjedl, has
N° 115.
propofed feveral improvements in the art of encauftic Encauftic.
painting. When the painting is on cloth, he diredls —y—
it to be prepared by ftretching it on a frame, and rub¬
bing one fide feveral times over with a piece of bees¬
wax, or virgin wax, till it is covered'with a coat of
wax of coniiderable thicknefs. In fine linen, this is
the only operation neceffary previous to painting;
but Coarfe cloth muft be rubbed gently on the unwax¬
ed fide with a pumice ftone, to take of all thofe knots
which would prevent the free and accurate working of
the pencil. Then the fubjedt is to be painted on the
un waxed fide with colours prepared and tempered
with water; and when the pidlure is finilhed, it muft
be brought near the fire, that the wax may melt and
fix the colours. This method, however, can only be
applied to cloth or paper, through the fubftance of
which the wax may pafs; but in wood, ftone, metals,
or plafter, the former method of Count Caylus muft;
be obferved.
Mr Muntz has alfo difeovered a method of forming
grounds for painting with crayons, and fixing thefe, as
well as water-colours, employed with the pencil. On
the unwaxed fide of a linen cloth,, ftretched and waxed
as before, lay an even and thick coat of the colour pro¬
per for the ground; having prepared this colour by
mixing fome proper pigment with an equal quantity
of chalk, and tempering them with water. When the
colour is dry, bring the pi&ure to the fire that the
wax may melt, pafs through the cloth, and fix the
ground. An additional quantity of wax may be ap¬
plied to the back of the pidure, if that which was
firft rubbed on ftiould not be fufficient for the body of
colour; but as this muft be laid on without heat, the
wax fhould be diflblved in oil of turpentine, and ap¬
plied with a brufti, and the canvas be again expofed to
the fire, that the frefh fupply of wax may pafs through
the cloth, and be abforbed by the colour; and thus a
firm and good body will be formed for working on
with the crayons. If cloth and paper are joined to¬
gether, the cloth muft be firft fixed to the ftraining
frame, and then the paper muft be palled to it with
a compofition of pafte made with wheaten flour, or
ftarch and water, and about a twelfth part of its weight
of common turpentine. The turpentine muft be add¬
ed to the pafte when it is almoft fufficiently boiled,
and the compofition well ftirred, and left to fimmer
over the fire for five or fix minutes; let wax be dif-
folved in oil of turpentine to the confidence of a thin
pafte ; and when the cloth and paper are dry, let them
be held near a fire ; and with a brufli lay a coat of the
wax and turpentine on both fides the joined cloth and
paper, in fuch a degree of thicknefs, that both furfaces
may iliine throughout without any appearance of dull
fpots. Then expofe the cloth to the fire or to the
fun; by which means the oil will evaporate, and the
wax become folid, and be fit to receive any com¬
pofition of colour for a ground, which is to be laid
on as above dire&ed in the cafe of cloth without
paper.
Almoft all the colours that are ufed in oil-painting
may be alfo applied in the encauftic method. Mr
Muntz obje&s, indeed, to brown, light pink, and un¬
burnt terra di Sienna; becaufe thefe, on account of
their gummy or ftony testure, will not admit fuch a
cohefion with the wax as will properly fix them ; but
3 other
ENG [ 577 ] E N C
Encauftlc other colours which cannot be admitted in oil-painting,
~ as red lead, red orpiment, cryftals of verdegris, and
red precipitate of mercury, may be ufed here. The
crayons ufed in encauftic painting are the fame with
thofe ufed in the common way of crayon painting, ex¬
cepting thofe that in their compoficion are too tena¬
cious ; and the method of ufmg them is the fame in
both cafes.
The encauflic painting has many peculiar advan¬
tages : though the colours have not the natural varnifh
or (hining which they acquire with oil, they have all
the ftrength of paintings in oil, and all the airinefs of
water-colours, without, partaking of the apparent
charafter or defe&s of either ; they may be looked at
in any light and in any fituation, without any falfe
glare : the colours are firm, and will bear walking ; and
a pifture, after having been fmoaked, and then ex-
pofed to the dew, becomes as clean as if it had been
but juft painted. It may alfo be retouched at pleafure
without any detriment to the colours; for the new
colours will unite with the old ones, without fpots,
as is the cafe in common fize painting ; nor is it ne-
ceflary to rub the places to be retouched with oil as
in oil pictures ; it is not liable to crack, and eafily re¬
paired, if it Ihould chance to fuffer any injury. The
duration of this painting is alfo a very material ad¬
vantage ; the colours are not liable to fade and change;
no damp can affeft them, nor any corrofive fubftance
injure them ; nor can the colour fall off in Ihivers from
the canvas. However, notwithftanding all thefe and
other advantages enumerated by the abbe Mazeas and
Mr Muntz, this art has not yet been much pra&ifed.
Many of thefe properties belong to a much higher
fpecies of encauftic painting afterwards difeovered in
England, the colours of which are fixed by a very in-
tenfe heat; nor are the colours or grounds on w'hich
they are laid liable to be diffolved or corroded by any
chemical menftruum, nor, like the glaffy colours of
enamel, to run out of the drawing on the fire. What
this method confifts in will appear from the follow¬
ing account communicated in a letter from Mr Jofiah
Colebrooke to the earl of Macclesfield prefident of the
Royal Society in 1759.
“ The art of painting with burnt wax (fays he)
has long been loft to the world. The ufe of it to paint¬
ers in the infancy of the art of painting, was of the
utmoft conference. Drying oil being unknown, they
had nothing to preferve their colours entire from the
injury of damps and the heat of the fun: a varnilh of
fome fort was therefore neceffary ; but they being un¬
acquainted with diftilled fpirits, could not, as we now
do, diffolve gums to make a tranfparent coat for their
pi&ures: this invention therefore of burnt wax fupplied
that deleft to them; and with this manner of painting,
the chambers and other rooms in their houfes were
fnrniftied: this Pliny calls encaujlum, and we encaujiic
painting.
“ The following experiments which I have the ho-
Vol. VI. Part II.
nour to lay before your Lordlhip and the Society, Encauftic.
were occafioned by the extraft of a letter from the —
abbe Mazeas, tranflated by Dr Parfons, and publifhed
in the fecond part of the XLIXth volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions, n° 100. concerning the ancient
method of painting with burnt wax, revived by count
Caylus.
“ The count’s method was, I-. To rub the cloth or
board defigned for the picture Amply over with bees¬
wax. 2. To lay on the colours mixed with common
water; but as the colours will not adhere to the wax,
the whole pi&ure was firft rubbed over with (a) Spa-
nilh chalk, and then the colours are ufed. 3. When
the pifture is dry, it is put near the fire, whereby the
wax melts, and abforbs all the colours.
“ Exp. I. A piece of oak-board was rubbed over
with bees-wax, firft againft the grain of the wood, and-
then with the grain, to fill up all the pores that re¬
mained after it had been planed, and afterwards was
rubbed over with as much dry Spanilh white as could
be made to ftick on it. This, on being painted (the co¬
lours mixed with water only), fo clogged the pencil,
and mixed fo unequally with the ground, that it was
impoflible to make even an outline, but what was fo
. much thicker in one part than another, that it would
not bear fo much as the name of painting; neither
had it any appearance of a pi&ure. However, to pur-
fue the experiment, this was put at a diftance from the
fire, on the hearth, and the wax melted by flow de¬
grees : but the Spanilh white (though laid as fmooth
as fo foft a body would admit, before the colour was
laid on), on melting the wax into it, was not fuf-
ficient to hide the grain of the wood, nor (how the co¬
lours by a proper whitenefs of the ground; the wax,
in rubbing on the board, was unavoidably thicker in
fome parts than in others, and the Spaniflr white the
fame: on this I fufpe&ed there muft be fome miftake
in the Spanifti white, and made the inquiry mentioned
(in the note a).
“To obviate the inequality of the ground in the
firft experiment;
“ Exp. 2. A piece of old wainfeot (oak board) ^th
of an inch thick; which, having been part of an old-
drawer, was not likely to ftirink on being brought near
the fire: this was fmoothed with a fifti-lkin, made quite
warm before the fire ; and then, with a brufh dipped
in white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, fmeared all
over, and applied to the fire again, that the wax might
be equally thick on all parts of the board, a ground
was laid (on the waxed board), with levigated chalk
mixed with gum-water, (viz. gum Arabic diffolved in
water): when it was dry, I painted it with a kind of
landfcape; and purfuing the method laid down by count
Caylus, brought it gradually to the fire. I fixed the
pifture on a fire-fereen, which would preferve the heat,
and communicate it to the back part of the board. This
was placed firft at the diftance of three feet from the
fire, and brought forwards by flow degrees, till it came
4 D within
( a) “ Spanifti chalk is called by Dr Parfons, in a note, Spanifb white- This is a better kind of whitening than
the common, and was the only white that had the name of Spanijh annexed to it that I could procure, though
I. inquired for it at mod if not all the colour-ftiops in town.
“ My friend M. da Cofta ftrowed me a piece of Spanifh chalk in his colle&ion, which feemed more like a
cimolia (tobacco-pipe clay), and was the reafon of my ufing that in one of the experiments.
ENG
JSscauftic. vvlthln one foot of the fire, which made the wax fwell
** and bloat up the piifture ; but as the chalk did not ab-
forb the wax, the picture fell from the board and left
it quite bare.
“ Exp. 3. I mixed three parts white wax, and one
part white refin, hoping the tenacity of the refin might
preferve the pi&ure. This was laid on a board heated
with a brufli, as in the former.; and the ground was
chalk, prepared as before. This was placed horizon¬
tally on an iron box, charged with an hot heater, (hift-
ing it from time to time, that the wax and refin might
penetrate the chalk ; and hoping from this poiition,
that the ground, bloated by melting the wax, would
fubfide into its proper place ; but this, like the other,
came from the board, and would not at all adhere.
“ Exp. 4. Prepared chalk four drams, white wax,
white refin, of each a dram, burnt alabatler half a
dram, were all powdered together and fifted, mixed
with fpirit of molalfes in dead of water, and put for a
ground on a board fmeared with wax and refin, as in
Exp. 3. This was alfo placed horizontally on a box-
> the former : the pidture blidered, and was
[ 578 ]
ENG
poured off, leaving the coarfe heavy parts behind. At- Encauftk.
ter this was dried and powdered, 1 mixed it with a
fmall quantity of the yolk of an egg and cow’s milk,
and made a ground with this on the waxed board: this
I was induced to try, by knowing that the yolk of an
egg will diffolve almoft. all undtuous fubftances, and
make them incorporate with water; and I apprehended,
that a ground, thus prepared, would adhere fo much
the more firmly to the board than the former had done,
as to prevent its flaking off. The milk, I thought,
might anfwcr two purpoies; firft, by uniting the ground
with the wax ; and fecondly, by anfwering the end of
fize or gum-water, and prevent the colours from link¬
ing too deep into the ground, or running one into an¬
other. When the ground was near dry, I fmoothed
it with a pallet knife, and walked with milk and egg
where I had occafion to make it fmooth and even :
when dry I painted it, mixing the colours with common
water; this, on being placed horizontally in an oven only
warm enough to melt the wax, flaked from the board;
but held fo much better together than any of the for¬
mer, that I palled part of it on paper.
“ Exp. 7. Flake-white (or the pureft fort of white-
lead) mixed with egg and milk, crumbled to pieces in
the laft experi-
iron
cracked all over; and though removed from the box-
iron to an oven moderately heated (in the fame hori¬
zontal pofition), it would not fubfide, nor become the oven, put on the waxed board, as
fmooth. When it was cold, I took an iron fpatula ment.
made warm, and moved it gently over the furface of
the pifture, as if I were to fpread a plafter. (This
thought occurred, from the board being prepared with
wax and refin, and the ground having the fame mate¬
rials in its eompofition, the force of the fpatula might
make them unite). This fucceeded fo well, as to re¬
duce the furface to at tolerable degree of fmoothnefs;
The bad fuccefs which had attended ail the former
experiments, led me to confider of what ufe the wax was
in this kind of painting : and it occurred to me, that
it was only as a varnilh to preferve the colours from
fading.
“ In order to try this :
Exp. 8. I took what the brick layers call fine
but as the ground was broke off in many places, I re- fiuff, or putty (b): to this I added a fmall quantity of
paired it with flake white, mixed up with the yolk of burnt alabailer, to make it dry: this it foon did in the
an egg and milk, and repainted it with molaffes fpirit
(indead of water), and then put it into an oven with
a moderate degree of heat. In this I found the colours
fixed, but darker than when it was at firft painted: and
it would bear being walked with water, not rubbed
with a wet cloth.
“ Exp. 5. A board (that had been ufed in a former
experiment) was fmeared with wax and refin, of each
equal parts ; was wetted with molaffes fpirit, to make
whitening (or Spanilh white) mixed with gum-water
adhere. This, when dry, was fcraped with a knife,
to make it equally thick in all places. It was put into
a warm oven, to make the varnilh incorporate partly
with the whitening before it was painted; and it had
only a fmall degree of heat: water only was ufed to
mix the colours. This was again put into an oven
with a greater degree of heat; but it flaked off from
the board : whether it might be owing to the board’s
having had a fecond coat of varnifh (the firff- having
been fcraped and melted off), and that the un&uous
parts of the wax had fo entered its pores, that it would
not retain a fecond varnilh, I cannot tell.
“ Exp. 6. Having mifcarried in thefe trials, I took
a new board, planed fmooth, but not polilhed either
with a filh-fkin or rulhes : I warmed it, and fmeared it
with wax only; then took aW/ia (tobacco-pipeclay)
dtvefted of its fand, by being diffolved '' — J
open air; but before I put on any colours, I dried it
gently by-the fire, left the colours Ihould run. When
it was painted, I warmed it gradually by the fire (to
prevent the ground from cracking) till it was very hot.
I then took white wax three parts, white refin one
part, melted them in an earthen pipkin, and with a
brulh fpread them all over the painted board, and kept
it clofe to the fire in a perpendicular fituation, that
what wax and refin the plafter would not abforb might
drop off. When it was cold, I found the colours were
not altered, either from the heat of the fire, or palling
the brulh over them. I then rubbed it witli a foft li¬
nen cloth, and thereby procured a kind of glofs, which
I afterwards increafed by rubbing it with an hard
brulh; which was fo far from fcratching or leaving any
marks on the picture, that it became more fmooth and
polilhed by it.
“ After I had made all the foregoing experiments, in
converfation with my honoured and learned friend Dr
Kidby, a fellow of this fociety, I faid i had been try¬
ing to find out what the encauftic painting of the an¬
cients was. Upon which he told me, that there was a
paffage in Vitruvius de drchitettura, relative to that
kind of painting; and was fo good as to tranfcribe it
for me from the 7th book, chap. 9. De minii tempe-
ralura. Vitruvius’s words are : sit fi quts fultilior
water and fuerit, & vo/uerit expo/itionan mniaceam faum colorem
retiuerey
(b) Putty is lime flaked, and, while warm, diffolved in water, and ftrained through a fieve.
E N C
Encauftic. rtltnere, cum paries expolitus iff aridus fuerit, tunc ceram
w-v  Punicam liquefadam igni, pauto cleo temperatam, feta in¬
ducat, deinde poftea carbonibus in ferreo <vafe compofitis,
cam ceram apprime cum pariete, calefaciendo fudore cogat,
fiatque ut peraquetur, deinde cum candela linteifque puris
fubigat, uti ftgna marmorea nuda curantur. H<ec autem
xat/rif Grace dicitur. Ita objlans ceree Punicce lorica non
patitur, nee luna fplendorem, nec falls radios lambendo eri-
pere ex his politionibus colorem.
“ Which I thus tranflate : ‘ But if any one r more
wary, and would have the polifhing [painting] with
vermilion hold its colour, when the wall is painted and
dry, let him take Carthaginian [Barbary] wax, melt¬
ed with a little oil, and rub it oa the wall with an hair-
pencil ; and afterwards let him put live coals into an
iron vefiel [chaffing-diih], and hold it clbfe to the wax,
when the wall, by being heated, begins to fweat; then
let it be made fmooth : afterwards let him rub it with
a (c) candle and (d) clean linen rags, in the fame
manner as they do the naked marble ftatues. This the
Greeks call The coat of Carthaginian wax
(thus put on) is fo ftrong, that it neither fuffers the
moon by night, nor the fun-beams by day, to deftroy
the colour.’
“ Being fatisfied, from this palfage in Vitruvius, that
the manner of ufing wax in Exp. 8. was right, I wras
now to find if the w'ax-varnifh, thus burnt into the pic¬
ture, would bear wafliing. But here I w^as a little dif-
appointed; for rubbing one corner with a wet linen
cloth, fome of the colour came off; but walking it
with a foft hair-pencil dipped in water, and letting it
dry without wiping, the colour flood very well.
“ A board painted, as in Exp. 8. was hung in the
moll fmoky part of a chimney for a day, and expofed
to the open air in a very foggy night. In the morning
the board was feemingly wet through, and the water
ran oft" the pidlure. This was fuffered to dry without
wiping ; ancfthe picture had not fuffered at all from
the fmoke or £he dew, either in the ground or the co¬
lours ; but when dry, by rubbing it, firft with a foft
cloth, and afterwards with a brufti, it recovered its for¬
mer glofs.
“ Sufpe&ing that fome tallow might have been mix¬
ed with the white wrax I had ufed, which might caufe
the colours to come off on being rubbed with a wet
cloth, 1 took yellow wax which had been melted from
the honeycomb in a private family, and confequently
not at all adulterated: to three parts of this 1 added
one part refin, and melted them together.
“ Exp. 9. Spanilh-vyhite, mixed with filh-glue, was
put for a ground on a board, and painted with water¬
colours only. The board was made warm ; and then
the wax and refin were put on with a brufh, and kept
clofe to the fire till the picture had imbibed all the
vatniih, and looked <by- When it was cold, I rub-
E N C
bed it firll with a linen cloth, and then polifhed it with Enciuftle.
an hard brulh.  y-—
In thefe experiments I found great difficulties with
regard to colours. Many water-colours being made
from the juices of plants, have fome degree of an acid
in them; and thefe, when painted on an alkaline
ground, as chalk, whitening, cimolia, and plafter, are
totally changed in their colours, and from green be¬
come brown ; which contributes much to make the
experiments tedious. 1 would therefore advife the ufe
of mineral or metallic colours for this fort of painting,
as moll likely to preferve their colour: for although I
neutralized Spaniih white, by fermenting it with vine¬
gar, and afterwards wafhed it very well with water, it
did not fucceed to my wifh.
“ Thefe experiments, and this paffage from Vitru¬
vius, will in fome meafure explain the obfcurity of part
of that paffage in Pliny which Dr Parfons, in his learn¬
ed comment on the encauftic painting with wax, feems
to defpair of.
“ Ceris pingere, was one fpecies of encauftic paint¬
ing. Evxat/rov, inujlum, may be tranflated, “ forced in
by the means of fire, burnt in:” for whatever is forced
in by the help of fire can be rendered into Latin by no
other fignificant word that I know of but iifujum. If
this is allowed me, and I think I have the authority of
Vitruvius (a writer in the Auguftine age) for it, who
feems to have wrote from his own knowledge, and not
like Pliny, who copied from others much more than
he knew himfelf, the difficulty with regard to this
kind of painting is folved, and the encauftic with burnt
wax recovered to the public.
“ What he means by the next kind he mentions,
in chore cejlro id ejl viriculo, I will not attempt to explain
at prefent.
“ The ftlip-painting is more eafily accounted for:
the pradlice being in part continued to this time ;
and is what is corruptly called breaming, for brenning
or burning.
“ This is done by reeds fet on fire, and held under
the fide of a fhip till it is quite hot; then refin, tallow,
tar, and brimftone, melted together, and put on with
an hair brufh while the planks remain hot, make fuch
a kind of paint as Pliny defcribes.: which, he fays, nec
foie, nec fale, ventifque corrumpitur. As they were ig¬
norant of the ufe of oil-painting, they mixed that co¬
lour with the wax, &c. which they intended for each
particular part of the fhip, and put it on in the manner
above defcribed.
“ In the pictures painted for thefe experiments, and
now laid before your lordfhip and the fociety, I hope
neither the defign of the landfcape, nor the execution
of it, will be fo much taken into confideration as the
varniih (which was the thing wanted in this inquiry):
and I think that will evince, that the encauftic paint-
4 D 2 ing
[ 579 3
'(c) The account of the method of polifhing [painting] walls coloured with vermilion, gave me great fatis-
fa&ion, as it proved the method I had taken in experiment 8. (which I had tried before I faw or knew of this
paffage in Vitruvius) was right. The ufe of the candle, as I apprehend, was to melt the wax on the walls
where by accident the brufti had put on too much, or afford wax where the brufh had not put on enough, or
had left any part bare.
(d) The rubbing the wall with a linen cloth, while warm, will do very well, where there is only one colour
to be preferved ; but where there are many, as in a landfcape, it will be apt to take off fome, or render the
colouring rather faint; which I found by wiping the wax off from a painting while it was hot.
E N C
Jng with burnt wax is fully reflored by thefe experi¬
ments; and though not a new invention, yet having
been loft for fo many ages; and now applied farther,
and to other purpofes, than it was by Vitruvius (who
confined it tovermilion only), may alfo amount to a new
difeovery, the ufe of which may be a means of pre-
ferving many curious drawings to pofterity: for this
kind of painting may be on paper, cloth, or any other
fubftance that will admit a ground to be laid omit. The
procefs is very Ample, and is not attended with the dif-
agreeable fmell unavoidable in oil-painting, nor “With
fome inconveniences infeparable from that art; and as
there is no fubftance we know more durable than wax,
it hath the greateft probability of being lafting.”
Still, however, there fe?m to have been fome defefts
Of inconveniences attending thefe and other fubfequent
attempts: for we find the ancient or fome fimilar me¬
thod of painting in wax remaining a defideratum up¬
wards of 25 years after the publication of the preceding
experiments ; when in 1787 a method was communi¬
cated to the Society of Arts by Mifs Greenland, for
which {he was rewarded with a prize. The ground
of her information {he received at Florence, through
the acquaintance of an amateur of painting, who pro¬
cured her the fatisfadftion of feeing fome paintings in
the ancient Grecian ftyle, executed by Signora Pa¬
rent!, a profeflbr at that place, who had been inftru&ed
by a Jefuit at Pavia, the perfon who made the fartheft
difeoveries in that art. Mifs Greenland's friend know¬
ing {he was fond of painting, informed her what were
the materials the paintrefs ufed, but could not tell her
the proportions of the compofition; however, from her
anxiety to fucceed in fuch an acquifition, (he made va¬
rious experiments, and at laft obtained fuch a fufficient
knowledge of the quantities of the different ingredients
as to begin and finifti a pitfture, which (he afterw'ards
prefented to the Society for their infpedtion.
Her method is as follows: “ Take an ounce of white
wax, and the fame weight of gum maftich powdered.
Put the wax in a glazed earthen veffel over a very flow
fire; and when it is quite diffolved, ftrew in the maftich,
a little at a time, flirring the wax continually until the
whole quantity of gum is perfectly melted and incor¬
porated : then throw the pafte into cold water; and
when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry,
and beat it in one of Mr Wedgwood’s mortars, obfer-
ving to pound it at firft in a linen cloth to abforb fome
drops of water that will remain in the pafte, and would
prevent the poffibility of reducing it to a powder, which
muft be fo fine as to pafs through a thick gauze. It
{hould be pounded in a cold place and but a little while
at a time, as after long beating the fridtion will in a
degree foften the wax and gum, and inftead of their
becoming a powder they will return to a pafte.
“ Make fome ftrong gum-arabic water; and when
you paint, take a little of the powder, fome colour, and
mix them together with the gum-water. Light co¬
lours require but a fmall quantity of the powder, but
more of it muft be put in proportion to the body and
darknefs of the colours; and to black there {hould be
almoft as much of the powder as colour.
“ Having mixed the colours, and no more than can
be ufed before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as
is praftifed in painting with water-colours, a ground on
£ N C
the wood being firft painted of fome proper colour pre¬
pared in the fame manner as is deferibed for the pic¬
ture ; walnut-tree and oak are the forts of wood com¬
monly made ufe of in Italy for this purpofe. The
painting {hould be very highly finiftred ; othervviie,
when varnilhed, the tints will not appear united.
“ When the painting is quite dry, with rather a
hard brufti, palling it one way, varniih it with white
wax, which is put into an earthen veffel, and kept melt¬
ed over a very flow fire till the pidlure is varniflted, ta¬
king great care the wax does, not boil. Afterwards hold
the pifture before a fire, near enough to melt the wax,
but not make it run ; and when the varnifh is entirely
cold and hard, rub it gently with a linen cloth. Should
the varnifh blifter, warm the picture again very fhowly,
and the bubbles will fubfide. When the pi&ure is dir¬
ty, it need only be waftred with cold water.”.
The opinion given by the Society upon the above is:
The method made ufe of by Mifs Greenland provides
againft all inconveniences; and the brilliancy of the
colours in the picture painted by her, and exhibited to
the Society, fully juftifies the opinion, that the art of
painting in wax, as above deferibed, highly merited
the reward of a gold pallet voted to her on this occa-
fion.
ENCEINTE, in fortification, is the wall or ram¬
part which furrounds a place, fometimes compofed of
baftions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
ftone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is fome-
times only flanked by round or fquare towers, which
is called a Roman ’wall.
ENCEPHALI, in medicine, worms generated in
the head, where they canfe fo great a pain as fome¬
times to occafion diftraftion.
The encephali are very rare; but there are fome dif-
eafes wherein they fwarm; from whence we are told
peftilential fevers have wholly arifen. Upon the dif-
fe&ion of one who died of this fever, <a little, flrort,
red worm was found in the head, which malmfey wine,
wherein horfe-radifh had been boiled, could alone de-
ftroy. This medicine was afterwards tried on the fick.
moft of whom it cured.
The like worms have alfo been taken out by tre¬
panning, and the patient cured. Thofe worms that
generate in the nofe, ears, and teeth, are alfo called en-
cephali.
ENCHANTER, a perfon fuppofed to pradlife en¬
chantment or fafeination. See Fascination, Witch¬
craft, &c.
Enchanter's Nightjhade, m botany. See Circle A.
ENCHASING, Inchasing, or Chafing, the art
of enriching and beautifying gold, filver, and other
metal-work, by fome defign or figures reprefented
thereon in low relievo,
Enchafing is pradtifed only on. hollow thin works,
as watch-cafes, cane-heads, tweezer-cafes, or the like.
It is performed by punching or driving out the metal,
to form a figure, from withinfide, fo as to ftand out
prominent from the plane or furface of the metal. In
order to this, they provide a number of fine fteel blocks
or puncheons of divers fizes; and the defign being
drawn on the furface of the metal, they apply the in-
fide upon the heads or tops of thefe blocks, diredlly
under the lines or parts of the figures; then, with a
i 580 \
Enchafing.
END [ 5^ 1 E N F
Enclitica fine hammer, linking on the metal, fuftained by the
j* block, the metal yields, and the block makes an in-
mtnr" <lenture or cavity on the infide, correfponding to which
—... there is a prominence on the butiide, which is to Hand
for that part of the figure.
Thus the workman proceeds to chafe and finiih all
the parts by the fuccdiive application of the block and
hammer to the feveral parts of the defign. And it is
wonderful to confider with what beauty and juilnefs,
by this fimple piece of mechanifm, the artifts in this
kind will reprefent foliages, grotefques, animals, hi-
ftories, &c.
ENCLITICA, in grammar, particles which are fo
clofely united with other words as to feem part of them,
as in virumque, &c.—There are three enclitic particles
in Latin, viz. que, ne, ve.
ENCRAT1TES, in church-hidory, heretics who
appeared towards the end of the fecond century: they
were called Encratltes, or Continentes, becaufe they glo¬
ried in abftaining from marriage and the ufe of wine and
animal-food.
ENCURECK, in natural hiflory, a venomous in-
feft found in Perfia, and faid to be a kind of tarantu¬
la. According to Olearius as quoted by Mr Boyle, it
neither flings nor bites ; but lets fall its venom like a
drop of water, which caufes infufferable pain in the
part for a time, and afterwards fo profound a deep,
that nothing can awake the patient except crufhing
one of the creatures on the part afFedted. It is never-
thelefs faid, that the fheep eat thefe infedts without
damage.
ENCYCLOPEDIA, a term nearly fynonymous
with Cyclopedia ; but adopted in preference to it in
denominating the prefeht work, as being more definite
and of better authority. According to an obfervation
of the late learned printer Mr Bower, the prepofition
en makes the meaning of the word more precife:
For Cyclopadia may denote “ the inftrudtion of a
circle,” as Cyropmdia is “the inftrudlion of Cyrus,”
whereas in ENcyclopadia the prepofition determines the
word to be from the dative of cyclus, “ inflrudlion in
a circle.” And Voffius in his book De vitiis fermonis,
has obferved, “ That Cyclopedia is ufed by fome au¬
thors, but Encyclopedia by the bell.”
ENDEMIC, or endemical, Diseases, thofe to
which the inhabitants of particular countries are fub-
jedt more than others, on account of the air, water,
iituation, and manner of living.
ENDIVE, in botany. See Cichorium,
ENDLESS, fomething without an end : thus au¬
thors mention endlefs rolls, the endlefs fcrew, &c.
ENDOR, (anc. geog.), a town of Galilee, four
miles to the fouth of mount Tabor; in the tribe of
Manaffeh, where the Pythonefs was confulted by Saul:
at this day, fays Jerome, a large village.
ENDORSE, in heraldry, an ordinary, containing
the eighth part of a pale, which Leigh fays is only
ufed when a pale is between twm of them.
ENDORSED, in heraldry, is faid of things borne
back to back, more ufually called adosse.
ENDORSEMENT, in law and commerce. See
Indorsement.
ENDOWMENT, in law, denotes the fettling a
dower on a woman : though fometimes it is ufed figu¬
ratively, for fettling a provifion upon a parfon, on the
building of a church ; or the fevering a fufEcient por- Endymion
tion of tithes for' a vicar, when the benefice is appro- II
priated. Enfine.
ENDYMION, (fab. hift.), a Ihcpherd, fon of' ^ 
jEthlius and Calyce. It is faid that he required of
Jupiter to grant to him to be always young, and to
deep as much as he would ; whence came the proverb
of Endymionis fomnum dormire, to exprefs a long deep.
Diana law him naked as he flept on mount Latmos;
and was fo ftruck with his beauty, that fhe came dowm
from heaven every night to enjoy his company. En¬
dymion married Chromia daughter of Itoous; by whom
he had three fons Paeon, Epeus, and iEolus, and a
daughter called Eurydice. The fable of Endymion’s
amours with Diana, or the moon, arofe from his know¬
ledge of aftronomy; and as he paffed the night on fome
high mountain to obferve the heavenly bodies, it came
to be reported that he was courted by the moon. Some
fuppofe that there were two of that name; the fon
of a king of Elis, and the fhepherd or aftronomer
of Caria. The people of Heraclea maintained that
Endymion died on mount Latmos, and the Eleans
pretended to Ihow his tomb at Olympia in Pelopon-
nefus.
ENEMY, in law, an alien or foreigner, who pub¬
licly invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in church-hiftory, perfons fup-
pofed to be poffcffed by the devil, concerning whom
there were many regulations among the primitive Chri-
ftians. They were denied baptifm and the eucharift ;
at leaft, this was the praflice of fome churches: and
though they were under the care of exorcifts, yet it was
thought a becoming aft of charity, to let them have
the public prayers of the church, at which they were
permitted to be prefent. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, fignifying the
power, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is alfo ufed,
figuratively, to denote cmphafis of fpeech.
ENERVATING, the aft of deftroying the force,
ufe, or office, of the nerves, either by cutting them,
by weakenhig them with debauchery, or by fome other
violence.
Excefs of wine, and other ftrong, hot, fpirituous li¬
quors, enervate or weaken the nerves. When they
would render a horfe ufclefs, they enervate him, or cut
his nerves.
ENFANS perdus, the fame with forlorn hope;
See Forlorn.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is ufed in fpeak-
ing of trenches, or other places, which may be fcour-
ed by the enemy’s fiiot along their whole length. In
condufting the approaches at a fiege, care mull be ta¬
ken that the trendies be not enfiladed from any work
of the place.
ENFINE', formerly Antinoe ; a city of Egypt,
built by Adrian in honour of his favourite Antinous.
It is fituated towards the middle of the Said, or Up¬
per Egypt, and ftill contains feveral {lately monuments
of antiquity. In ancient times this city was very mag¬
nificent. It was about half a league in circumference, ha¬
ving two principal flreetsqy feet wide,interfcfting each
other at right angles, and running thro’its whole length.
The others were more narrow,- but equally ftraight;
the two largeft having gates at each end, part of which
Hill remain. According to the Nubian geographer, it
4 tv as
ENG [ 582 ] ENG
Enfine was called the city of the Magi, becaufe Pharaoh is
. !L faid to have caufed the magicians come from thence to
;ng his court. Near it were the ruins of Abydus, where
—-Y— there was an oracle of the god Befa, one of the mod
ancient in Egypt, and which was ftill famous in the
time of Conftantius ; and hence feme have derived the
appellation juft mentioned, the neighbouring people
coming in crowds to confult the oracle.
The ruins of the gates are the moft beautiful pieces
of architefture to be met with in this place. The
handfomeft has three vaulted entries ; the middle one
being 40 feet in height, 22 wide, and 20 thick; the
other fwo fmaller. Each of the facades of this edifice
is ornamented with four pilafters in bas relief, with
Corinthian capitals, the acanthus leaves of which have
a confiderable proje&ion. It was furrounded by eight
Corinthian columns, of which only one now remains,
but the pedeftals of the reft are ftill entire. Befides
thefe, there are heaps of rubbiih in different parts of
the town, apparently the remains of ancient temples
or palaces. All thefe feem to have been bordered by
a colonnade, forming a portico on each fide, where the
inhabitants might walk fecure from the heat of the
fun. One of the fquares was ornamented 'with four
large Corinthian pillars, three of which are deftroyed
all but the bafes. The fourth is quite entire, about
50 feet high, and the firaft compofed of feveral ftones.
The pedeilal has a Greek infeription, pretty much de¬
faced, dedicating it to the emperor Alexander Severus,
to whom the fenate of Alexandria had already dedi¬
cated ihe famous column mentioned under that article.
Thefe four other columns were therefore probably rai¬
led in honour of that emperor after his victories over
the Perfians; for the foliage of the oak, with which
the firft ftone of the fiiaft is decorated, was a fign of
vi&ory among the Romans. Towards the end of the
fourth century the city was peopled by Chriftians; and
Palladius affures us, that there were at that place 12
convents of virgins, and feveral others inhabited by
monks. In the environs there are ftill feveral Coptic
monafteries poffeffed by monks equally miserable and,
ignorant. The Nubian Geographer informs us, that
the city was furrounded by a we!' cultivated country,
abounding in fruits and harvefts; but thefe have now
given place to fands a-.d barren defarts. The ruins of
Abydus above mentioned are ftill to be feen near this
place.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in law, the incorpora¬
ting a perfon into any fociety or. body politic.
ENGASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the Py-
thians, or priefteffes, of Apollo, who delivered oracles
from within, without any action of the mouth of lips.
The ancient philofophers, &c. are divided upon the
fubjeft of the engaftrimythi. Plippocrates mentions
it is a difeafe. Others will have it a kind of divina¬
tion. Others attribute it to the operation or poffef-
iion of an evil fpirit. And others to art and mecha-
nifm. M. Scottus maintains that the engaftrimythi of
the ancients were poets, who, when the priefts could
not fpeak, fupplied the defeft by explaining in verfe
what Apollo di&ated in the cavity of the bafon on the
facred tripod.
ENGENDERING, a term fometimes ufed for the
aft of producing or forming any thing: thus meteors
are faid to be engendered in the middle region of the Engine
atmofphere, and worms in the belly. t!
ENGINE, in mechanics, is a compound machine, Eng an ,
made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, ’ ' -
pullies, ferews, &c. in order to raife, caft, or fuftain
any weight, or produce any effeft which could not be
eafily effefted otherwife. The word is formed of the
French engin, front! the Latin ingentum “ witby
reafon of the ingenuity required in the contrivance of
engines to augment the effeft of moving powers.
Engine for extingwjhing Fires. See Hydrosta¬
tics, n° 33.
Pile Engine, one contrived for driving piles. See
PiLF.-Engine.
Steam-ENGtNE, a machine to raife water by fire, or
rather by the force of water turned into fteam. See
STEAM-Engine.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expeit
man, who, by a perfeft knowledge in mathematics,
delineates upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all
forts of forts, and other works proper for offence and
defence. He (hould underftand the art of fortifica¬
tion, fo as to be able, not only to difeover the defefts
of a place, but to find a remedy proper for them ; as
alfo how to make an attack upon, as well as to defend,
the place. Engineers are extremely neceff.ry for thefe
purpofes : wherefore it is requifite, that befides being
ingenious, they ihould be brave in proportion. When
at a fiege the engineers have narrowly furveyed the
place, they are to make their report to the general, by
acquainting him which part they judge the weakeft,
and where approaches may be made with moft fuc-
cefs. Their bufinefs is alfo to delineate the lines of
circumvallation and contravallation, taking all the ad¬
vantages of the ground ; to mark out the trenches,
places of arms, batteries, and lodgments, taking care
that none of their work* be flanked or difeovered from
the place. After making a faithful report to the gene¬
ral of what is a-doing, the engineers are to demand a
fufficient number of workmen and uteniils, and what¬
ever elfe is neceffary.
ENGLAND, the fouthern divifion of the ifland of
Great Britain. Including Wales, it is of a triangular
form, and lies between the 50th and 55th degrees of
north latitude, extending about 400 miles in length
from fouth to north, and in fome places it is 300
miles in breadth. It is bounded by Scotland on the
north; by the Englilh Channel on the fouth, di¬
viding it from France; by the German Sea on the
eaft; and on the weft by St George’s, or the Irifli,
Channel. t
At what time the ifland of Britain was peopled is Whence
uncertain; nor do we know whether the fouthern orP'0!16-1*
northern parts were firft inhabited. We have no ac¬
counts that can be depended upon before the arrival of
Julius Cefar, and it is certain he found the fouthern
parts full of people of a very warlike difpofition.
Thefe people, according to Ciefar, were a colony of
the Gauls ; and this opinion is embraced by moil of
the ancient as well as modern writers. It is chiefly
founded on the agreement obferved by the Romans
between the two nations in their cuftoms, manners,
language, religion, government, way of fighting, &c.
The more northern inhabitants, according to Taci¬
tus,
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■: i- ’ 1'; : .
ENG [583] ENG
England, tus, came from Germany. This he infers from the be a confiderable advantage to view the ifland, and England.
' make of their limbs ; but Csefar Amply calls them A- learn fomething of the manners and cuftoms of the na-
borigenes. tives; after which he could more eafily take fuch mea-
Ir.habitated England, including the principality of Wales, when fures as would enfure a permanent conqueft
by 17 ciif- invaded by the Romans, was divided into 17 petty *"rT' -.11 t,:.. f—»v
tion"1 na" ^:ates• *• The Danmonii, called alfo Dunmonii and
Donmonii, inhabiting the counties of Cornwal and De-
vonfhire. 2. The Durotriges, who inhabited the track
now called Dorfetjhlre. .3. The Belga; poffeffed Sorner-
fetfhire, Wiltfhiie, and Hampfhire. 4. The Attre-
batii, or inhabitants of Berkshire. 5. The Regni, whofe
country bordered on that of the Attrebatii, and
his re¬
turn. Having marched all his forces into the country
of the Morini, now the province of Picardy, from
whence was the (horteft paffage into Britain ; he or¬
dered at the fame time all the veffels that lay in the
neighbouring ports, and a fleet which he had built the
year before for an expedition againft the Morini, to
attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations,
fent ambafladors with offers of fubmiflion ; but Csefar,
prehended Surrey, Suflex, and part of the fea-coaft of though he received them with great kindnefs, did not
tt n‘- ^ rn'-- .c-  abandon his intended fcheme of an invaflon. He
waited till the arrival of C. Volufenus, whom he had
fent out with a Angle galley to make difcoveries on,
the coaft. Volufenus did not think proper to land;
but, having made what obfervations he could, returned
after flve days abfence, and Csefar immediately fet fail
for Britain. His force confided of two legions em-
Hampfhire. 6, The Cantii, inhabiting the county
now called Kent. 7. The Dobuni are placed by Pto¬
lemy on the north flde of the Thames, near its head,
in the counties of Gloucefterfhire and Oxfordfhire.
8. The. Cattieuchlani, Calyeuchlani, Cattidudam, or Ca-
thicludani, inhabited Buckinghamfhire, Bedfordfhire,
and Hertfordfhire. 9. The Trinobantes, who poffef
fed the counties of Eflex and Middlefex. 10. The barked on board 80 tranfports; and he appointed r8
Iceni, whofe country comprehended Suffolk, Norfolk, more which lay wind-bound about eight miles off, to
Cambridge, and Huntingdonfhire. Thefe are by convey over the cavalry ; but thefe laft orders were
Ptolemy called Simeni, and by others Tigenu Cambden too flowly executed, which occafioned fome difficulty
is of opinion, that they were the fame whom Caefar in his landing.
calls Cenomagni, XT. The Coritani, whofe country
comprehended Northamptonfhire, Liecefterfhire, Rut-
landfhire, Lincolnfhire, Nottinghamfhire, and Derby-
fhire. 12. The Cornavii poffeffed Warwickfhire,
Worcefterflrire, Staffordfhire, Shropfhire, and Chefhire.
13. The Silures inhabited the counties of Radnorfhire,
Brecknockfhire, Glamorganfhire, with Herefordfhire
and Monmouthfhire. 14. The Demetse inhabited
part of Carmardinfhire, Pembrokeflrire, and Cardigan-
fhire. 15. The country of the Ordovices comprehend¬
ed Montgomerylhire, Merionethfhire, Caernarvonfhire,
Denbighfhire, and Flintfhire. 16. The Brigantes pof¬
feffed the countries of Yorkfhire, the bifhopric of Dur¬
ham, Lancafhire, Weftmoreland, and Cumberland.
17. The county of Northumberland was held by the
Ottadini, Ottadeni, or Ottalini, Their country,
The Britons at this time, according to Csefar and Manners*
other Roman hiftorians, were very numerous, and had cuftnms,
their country well flocked with cattle. Their houfes
refembled thofe of the Gauls; and they ufed copper
or iron plates weighed by a certain ftandard inftead of
money. Their towns were a confufed parcel of huts
placed at a fmall diftance from one another, generally
in the middle of a wood, to which all the avenues were
flightly guarded with ramparts of earth, or with trees.
All the nations were in a ftate of the moll wretched
barbarifm, even when compared with the barbarous
Gauls on the continent. The ufe of clothes was fcarce
known in the ifland. Only the inhabitants of the
fouthern coaft covered their nakednefs with the fkins
of wild beafts ; and this rather to avoid giving offence
to the ftrangers who came to trade with them, than
cording to fome, reached from the Tine to the river out of any principle of decency. It
Forth ; though the moft Common opinion is, that it
reached only to the Tweed.
The above-mentioned names of thefe nations
plainly Roman, but the etymology of them is not ea-
fily afcertajned. Some attempt to derive them from
words in the Old Britilh language ; but as this fubjeft
a general
at beft muft be very obfcure and uncertain, we ihall ther nations.
cuftom among the Britons to paint their bodies with
the juice of woad ; but whether this was defigned as
ornament, or for any other purpofe, is not known.
They fhaved their beards, all except their upper lip,
and wore long hair. They alfo had their wives in com¬
mon, a cuftom which made them deteftable to all o-
not enter into it.
TulinsCs- Before the time of Julius Caefar, the Romans had
far under- fcarcely any knowledge of Britain ; but that conque-
takes an ex- ror having fubdued moft of the Gallic nations on the
pedicion in-0pp0gte fide of the channel, began to think of ex-
^ Britain. —-"v..*.. n; 1.r it^.-i...
The arms of the Britons were a fword, a fliort
lance, and a Ihield. Breaft-plates and helmets they
looked upon rather to be incumbrances, and therefore
made no ufe of them. They ufually fought in chariots,
fome of which were armed with fcythes at the wheels;
tending his conquefts by the redu&ion of Britain, they were fierce and cruel, and exceedingly biood-
The motive for this expedition, afcribed to him by thirfty. When driven to diftrefs, they could fubfift
Suetonius, was a defire of enriching himfelf by the themfelves even on the bark and roots of trees ; and
Britilh pearls, which were then very much efteemed. Dio Caflius tells us, that they had ready, on all occa-
The pretence, however, which he made ufe of in or- fions, a certain kind of food, of which, if they took:
der to juftify his invafion was, that the Britons had fent but the quantity of a bean, they were not troubled with
affiftance to the Gauls during his wars with them. hunger or thirft for a confiderable time after. The
Cxfar undertook his firft expedition againft Britain fouthern nations, however, were fomewhat more civi-
when the fummer was already fat fpent, and therefore lized ; and the Cantii, or inhabitants of Kent, more flo
he did not expedt to finiflt the conqueft of the country than any of the reft.
that campaign. He thought, however, that it would All the Britiflx nations at this time were very brave
6 and
ENG [ 586 ] ENG
England, and refolute, owing to the continual drflenfions among
v-—- themfelves. They proved therefore very formidable
enemies to the Romans ; but the fame diffenfions which
5 had taught them the tpt of war, alfo prevented them
They op- from uniting in the defence of their country.' As foon
-pofo.C»- as they perceived Csefar’s fleet approaching, a number
far s land- cavairy an(j chariots were difpatched to oppofe his
ltl^' landing, while a confiderable body of infantry haften-
ed after. What chiefly embarrafled the Romans in
their attempt to land, was the largenefs of their flups,
which required a confiderable depth of water. The
Toldiers therefore were obliged to leap into the fea
while loaded with their armour ; and at the fame time
to encounter the enemy, who were quite difengaged,
as. they either flood on dry ground, or waded but
a little way into the water. Casfar perceiving this
difadvantage, ordered his galleys to advance, with their
broad fides towards the Ihore, in order to drive the
Britons from the water-fide with their flings and ar¬
rows. On this the Britons, furprifed at the galleys, a
fort of (hipping they had never before feen, began to
give ground. The fight, however, continued for fome
time, greatly to the difadvantage of the Romans ; till
at laft Csefar, obferving the diftrefs of his men, caufed
feveral boats to be manned, and fent them to the af-
fiftance of thofe who were moft expofed to the enemy’s
afiault. The Romans then foon got the better of the
undifciplined barbarians, however brave, and made
good their landing ; but they were unable to purfue
the enemy for want of cavalry, which had not yet ar-
g rived.
They are The Britons were fo diflieartened with this bad fuc-
defeated cefs, that they immediately fent ambafladors to fue for
and fue for pe-.ce ; which was granted, on condition of their deli-
Peace' vering a certain number of hoftages for their fidelity.
Part of thefe they brought immediately ; and promifed
to return in a few days with the reft, who, they faid,
lived at fome diftance. But, in the mean time, the
18 traafports which carried Caefar’s cavalry, being
driven back by a violent ftorm, and the fleet which
lay in the road being greatly damaged by the fame,
the Britons thought proper to break their engage-
7 ments. Having therefore privately aflembled their
Their forces, they fell unexpeftedly on the feventh legion
treachery, yvhile at a diftance from the reft and bufied in fora¬
ging. Casfar being apprifed of their danger, haften-
ed fo their afliftance with two cohorts, and at laft re-
pulfed the enemy.—This, however, proved only a
temporary deliverance ; for the Britons, thinking it
would be poffible for them to cut off all the Romans
• at once, difpatched meffengers to inform feveral of the
neighbouring nations of the weaknefs of the enemy’s
forces, and the happy opportunity that offered itfelf
of deftroying all thefe invaders at one blow.—On this,
they drew together a great body of horfe and foot,
which boldly advanced to the Roman intrenchments.
But Casfar came out to meet them ; and the undifci¬
plined Britons being by no means able to cope with
the Romans, were put to flight with great flaughter.
Having burnt feveral towns and villages, the viftors
returned to their camp, where they were foon follow¬
ed by new deputies from the Britons. Casfar being
in want of horfe, and afraid left another ftorm fhould
deftroy the remainder of his fleet, granted them peace,
on condition of their fending him double the number
N°115.
of hoftages into Gaul which they had before promifed. England.
The fame night he fet fail, and ft;on arrived fafe in ; ^
Gaul.
The Britons no fooner perceived the Romans gone,
than, as before, they broke through their engage¬
ments. Of all the ftates who had promifed to fend
hoftages, only two performed their promifes ; and this
negledft fo provoked Casfar, that he determined to re- 8
turn the year following with a far greater force. Ha- C:ef-ir re-
ving, therefore, caufed his. old veffels to be refitted,turns'
and a great many new ones to be built, he arrived oft
the coaft of Britain with a fleet of 600 (hips and 28
galleys. The Britons made no oppofition to his land¬
ing ; but Casfar, getting intelligence that an army was
affembled at no great diftance, marched in queft of
them. He found them encamped on the banks of a
river, fuppofed to be the Stour, about 12 miles diftant
from the place where he had landed. They attempted
to oppofe his paffage ; but being brifldy attacked by
the Roman cavalry, they were obliged to retire into a
wood, all the avenues of which were blocked up by
trees cut down for that purpofe. This fortification, Defe^ts the
however, proved infufllcient to proteft them. The Britons,
feventh legion having xaft themfelves into a teftudo,
and thrown up a mount againft their works, drove
them from their afylum ; but as the day was far fpent,
a purfuit was not thought advifable.
Next morning Casfar, with the greateft part of his
army, which he divided into three bodies, marched
-out in queft of the enemy. But when he was already
come in fight of their rear, he was overtaken by mef¬
fengers, who informed him, that his fleet was greatly
damaged by a violent ftorm which had happened the
preceding night. This put an end to the purfuit for
that time ; but Casfar having employed all the carpen¬
ters he had with him, and fent for others from Gaul,
in order to repair the damage, refolved to prevent mif-
fortunes of this kind for the future. He therefore drew
all his (hips alhore, and inclofed them within the forti¬
fications of his camp. This arduous undertaking em¬
ployed his whole army for xo days ; after which he a-
gain fet out in queft of the enemy.
The Britons had made the beft ufe they could of
the refpite afforded them by the ftorm. They were
beaded by Cafiibelaunus king of the Trinohantes. He
had formerly made war upon his neighbours; and ha¬
ving rendered himfelf terrible to them, was looked up¬
on to be the moft proper perfon for leading them on
againft the common enemy ; and as feveral ftates had
now joined their forces, the Britifti army was very nu¬
merous. Their cavalry and chariots attacked the Ro¬
man army while on their march; but were repulfed
with lofs, and driven, into the woods. The Romans
purfued them too eagerly, and thus loft fome of their
own men; which encouraged the Britons to make an¬
other fierce attack ; but in this alfo they were finally
unfuccefsful, and obliged to retire, though their lofs
feems not to have been great.
Next day the Britons fuddenly attacked the Roman
legions as they were foraging; but meeting with a vi¬
gorous refiftance, they foon betook themfelves to flight..
The Romans purfued them fo clofely, that having nei¬
ther time to rally nor get down from their chariots ac¬
cording to cuftom, . great numbers of them, were cut in
pieces: and this overthrow had fuch an effect upon the.
auxiliaries
ENG [ 585 j ENG
England, auxiliaries of Caflibelaunus, that all of them abandon-
t—y— ed him ; nor did the Britons ever afterwards engage
Caefar with united forces. Caefar, purfuing his vi&ory,
Csefar crof- marched towards the Thames, with a defign to crofs
fe? he that river, and enter the territories of the Trinobantes.
Thames. The river was fordable only at one place, and that not
without great difficulty ; but when he came to it, he
found the enemy’s forces drawn up in a confiderable
body on the oppofite bank, which was fortified with
fiiarp (lakes. They had likewife driven many (lakes
of the iame kind into the bottom of the river, the
tops of which were covered with water. Thefe (takes
are vifible to this day at a place called Walton in Sur¬
ry. They are made of oak; and though they have been
fo long in the water, are as hard as Brazil, and as black
as jet; and have fometimes been pulled out in order to
11 make knife-handles of them.
Gives the Csefar was not at all difmayed at thefe difficulties,
Bruons fre- which lie had intelligence of by prifoners and defert-
quent over ers. He ordered the cavalry to enter firft, and the
throws. foot to follow. His orders were obeyed, and the fol-
diers advanced with fuch refolution, that though the
infantry were up to the chin in water, the enemy, un¬
able to fuftain their ad'ault, abandoned the bank and
fled. After this defeai, Caffibelaunus himfelf defpair-
ed of fuccefs, and therefore difmiffed all his forces ex¬
cept about 4000 chariots, with which he obferved the
motions of the Romans, harafling them by cutting
off draggling parties, &c. This, however, was not
fufficient to keep up the fpirits of his countrymen. On
the contrary, they depofed him from the kingdom, and
chofe Mandubratius, whofe father had been murdered
by Caffibelaunus, who thereupon ufurped the kingdom.
The young prince had fled to Csefar, who gave him
protection ; and the Trinobantes now offered to fuhmit
to the conqueror, provided he would give them Man¬
dubratius for their king.
Csefar readily complied with the requeft. of the Tri¬
nobantes upon their fending him 40 hoftages: and the
fubiniffion of the Trinobantes was foon followed by
that of other dates and tribes ; for each of the 17 na¬
tions already mentioned were compofed of feveral diffe¬
rent tribes, of wljich no particular account can be gi¬
ven.—Csefar next marched to Verulamium, or Canter¬
bury, which was Caffibelaunus’s capital, and which he
ftill kept poffefiion of; but tho’ the place was ftrong-
ly fortified both by nature and art, the Britons were
unable to bear the affault of the Romans, and there¬
fore foon fled out at one of the avenues Many were
taken as they attempted to make their efcape, and ma¬
ny more cut in pieces.
After this lofs, Caffibelaunus, as his lad refource,
found means to draw into confederacy with him four
kings of the Cantii. But though Cafar gives them
the title of kings, it is probable that they were only
petty princes, tributary to the king of that nation.
Their names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagu-
lus, and Segonax. Thefe, having railed what forces
they could, attacked the camp where the (hips were
laid up: but the Romans having made a fally, repul-
fed them with great (laughter, and then returtie ! to
their trenches without any lofsafter which, Cafiibe-
Jaunus thought proper to fubmit to the conqueror. As
the dimmer was already far fpent, Caefar hearkened to
his propofals. A peace was concluded on the follow-
Vol.VI. Part II..
ing terms, viz. that the Britons (hould pay an annual England,
tribute to the Romans, that Caffibelaunus (hould leave v '
Mandubratius in peaceable poffeffion of his dominions,
that he (hould not moled the Trinobantes, and that he 12
(hould deliver a certain number of hodages. Thefe '.®ave?
terms being agreed to, Caefar fet fail with his whole altogether
fleet from Britain, to which he never returned.
Such is the account given by Caefar himfelf of his
two expeditions into Britain ; but other authors have
fpoken very doubtfully of his victories in this ifland.
Dio Caflius tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated
the Roman infantry, but were at lad put in diforder by
their cavalry, Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of
their works, fpeak of the Britons as a people not yet
conquered. Tacitus fays, that Caefar rather (bowed
the Romans the way to Britain, than put them in pof¬
feffion of it; and Lucan telh us plainly, that Caefar
turned his back to the Britons and ded. This lad,
however, confidering the confummate military genius
of Caefar, is by no means probable. That he left
Britain during the winter, was, in all probability, to
prevent infurre&ions among the Gauls, which might
very readily have happened; and that he did not re¬
turn to finilh his conquell can be no wonder, feeing his
ambition would certainly be more gratified by being
called emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain.
The departure of Julius Caefar, which happened a-
bout 53 years before Chriit, left the Britons without
any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, therefore, to
imagine, that they would regard their promifes of pay¬
ing tribute ; nor was it probably demanded for good
number of years afterwards. Augudus, however, when
he had got himfelf fully edabliflied on the throne, had
twice a defign of invading Britain and forcing the in¬
habitants to pay the tribute promifed to Julius Caefar.
Both times, however, he was prevented by- revolts in
different provinces in the empire, fo that the Britons
dill continued to enjoy their liberty. They thought
proper, however, to court the favour of the Romans as
much as they could by pretended fubmiffions ; but, in
the reign of Claudius, the Romans fet about reducing 13
them to fubje&ion in good earned. 1 he occalion of Why the
this war is related by Dio Caffius as follows. “ Cu- war with
nobtlinus,. the third in fucceffion from Caffibelaunus, ^s'reiriw-
being dead, bis two fons, Togodumnus • and Carac-ed.
tacus, fucceeded to the throne ; but whether they
reigned jointly or feparately, is not known. In their
reign one Bericus, of whom we alfo know very little,
being driven out of the ifland.for attempting to raife a
fedition, fled with fome of his partifans to Rome, and
perfuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen.
The Britons, on the other hand, refented the behavi¬
our of Claudius in receiving thefe vagabonds, and
therefore prohibited all intercourfe with the Romans.
A much fmallcr offence than this would have been fuf¬
ficient at any time to provoke that haughty nation to
declare war. An army was thetefore immediately or¬
dered into Britain, under the command of Plautius prte-
tor in Gaul. The foLiers at firft refufed to embark,
from a fuperftitious notion, that they were going to be •
fent without the compafs of the world ; and this mu¬
tiny being related to the Britons, they did not make
the neceflary preparations for their own defence. The
Roman foldiers were foon brought to a fenfe of their
duty ; and fet out from three different ports, in order
4 D to
ENG [ j86 ] ENG
. to land in three different places of Britain at once, was afterwards emperor, is faid to have fought 30 England.
' Being driven back by contrary winds, their fears began battles with them ; and the exploits of Titus his fon
to return ; but they refumed their courage on the ap¬
pearance of a meteor (hooting from the eaft, which
they imagined was fent from heaven to direct their
courfe. They landed without oppofition ; and the
Britons, not having drawn together a fufficient army,
kept in fmall bodies behind their marfhes, and in woods,
Claudius
arrives in
Britain.
are alfo much celebrated by the Roman hiftorians.
In the ninth year of Claudius, P. Oftorius Scapula
was fent into Britain. By far the greater part of the
17 nations formerly mentioned were at this time un¬
conquered. Some of thefe had broken into the Ro¬
man territories; but Oftorius falling unexpeftedly upon
in order to fpin out the war till winter; which they them, put great numbers to the fword, and difperfei
imagined Plautius would, like Caefar, fpend in Gaul. the reft. To prevent them for the future from making
The Roman general marched firft in quell of the inroads into the territories of the Romans or their al-
two kings Togodumnus and Caraftacus; both of whom lies, he built feveral forts on the Severn, the Avon,
he found out, and defeated one after another. He then and the Nen, reducing the country fouth of thefe ri-
reduced part of the Dobuni, at thattime fubjeft tothe vers to a Roman province. This fo highly offended
Cattieuchlani ; and leaving a garrifon to keep them the Iceni, that, being joined by the neighbouring na •
in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay tions, they raifed a conliderable army, and encamped
carelefsly encamped, fuppofing that the Romans could in an advantageous fituation, in order to prevent the
not pafs it without a bridge. But the Germans in the Romans from penetrating farther into the iftand. O-
Roman army had been accuftomed to fwim acrofs the ftorius, however, foon advanced againft them. The
ftrongeft currents in their heavy armour. They there- Romans, as ufual, got the vi&ory, and the enemy were
fore paffed the river firft ; and having, according to purfued with great flaughter. The Roman general
their orders, fallen only upon the enemy’s horfes whicii then, having quelled an infurredlion among the Bri-
drew their chariots, thefe formidable machines were gantes, led his army againft the Silures. They were 16
rendered entirely ufelefs ; and the Britons were put to headed by their king Caraftacus, a mod renowned C i,a<ii;afUS
flight as foon as another part of the forces could pafs warrior. He (bowed his military talents by choofing a taken
the river. very advantageous place for engaging the enemy. Ta- pr;i0aer.
The Britons were not diftieartened with this defeat, citus tells us, “ it was on the ridge of an exceeding fteep
but engaged the Romans next day with great bravery, mountain ; and where the (ides of it were inclining
Vi&ory continued long doubtful; but at length the and accefiible, he reared walls of (lone for a rampart.
Romans prevailed, and the Britons were forced to be- At the foot of the mountain flowed a river dangerous
take themfelves to flight. This battle is thought to to be forded, and an army of men guarded his en-
have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From trenchments.” This hill is thought to be one called
thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames. Caer-Caradoc in Shropfhire, fituated near the conflux
They were clofely purfued by the Romans ; but die of the rivers Colun and Teme, and where the remains
latter being unacquainted with the flats and (hallows of ancient entrenchments are ftill vifible.—On the ap-
of the river, were often in great danger. The Ger- proach of the enemy, Cara&acus drew up his troops in
mans, however, croffed by fwimming as before, and order of battle, animating them with the following
the reft on a bridge fomewhat farther up the river 5 lb fpcech, according to Tacitus. “ That from this day,
that the Britons were in a fhort time furrounded on all and'this battle, they muft date their HVerty refcued.
Tides, and great numbers of them cut in pieces. Many or their flavery for ever eftablifhed. Fie then invoked
of the Romans, alfo, purfuing the fugitives with too the (hades of thofe heroes who had expelled Casfar the
great eagernefs, were loft in the marflres. —In one of dictator; thofe brave men by whofe valour'they ftill
thefe battles Togodumnus was killed ; but the Britons enjoyed freedom from Roman tribute and taxes, and
were fo far from being diftieartened, that they (bowed by which their wives and children w^ere as yet pre-
more eagernefs than ever to oppofe the Romans, in ferved from proftitution.” The whole army then took
order to revenge his death. Plautius, therefore, did a folemn oath either to conquer or die, and prepared
not think proper to penetrate farther into the coun- for the charge with the moll terrible (bouts. Oftorius
try, but contented himfelf with putting garrifons in was fomewhat difmayed wdien he confldered the un-
the places he had already conquered. He then wrote common -fiercenefs of the enemy, and the other diffi-
to the emperor himfelf; who no fooner received an ac- cullies which he had to encounter. He led on his
count of his fucctfs, than hefet out for Britain; where, men, however, to the charge ; and the Romans were
having landed after a (hort voyage, he joined Plautius attended with their ufual good fortune. The Britons
on the banks of the Thames. were put to flight. Vaft numbers fell on the field of
Soon after the arrival of Claudius, the Romans battle and in the purfuit, and many more were taken
paffed the Thames, attacked the Britifh army, and to- prifoners. Among the latter were the wife, the daugh-
tally defeated it. The confequence of this was the ter, and the brothers, of Caradlaeus. The unfortunate
taking of Cunobelinus’s capital, and the fubmiflion of prince himfelf fled to Cartifmundua queen of the Bri-
feveral of the neighbouring dates. The emperor, gantes, by whom he was delivered up to the Roman
however, did not make a long flay in the ifland, but left general, who fent him in chains to Rome. Caradlacus
Plautius to purfue his conquefts. This he did with bore his misfortunes with magnanimity; and when he
fuch fuccefs, that, on his return to Pvome, he was met came before the emperor, addreffed him in the follow- ,7
■without the gates by the emperor himfelf, who, at his ing terms. “ If my moderation in profperi'ty, O His fpecch
fclemn entry, gave him the right hand.— The Bri- Claudius! had been as confpicuous as my birth andt0 ^
tens feem to have made a very obftinate refiftance fortune, I (hould now have entered this city as a friend,maR
io the Roman arms about this time. Vefpalkm, who and not as a prifoner; nor would you have difdained
5 the
ENG L 58; 3 ENG
England, the friemlfhip of a prince defcended from fuch illuftri-
ous anceftors, and governing fo many nations. My
prefent condition, I own, is to you honourable, to me
humiliating. I was lately polTefTed of fubjedls, horfes,
arms, and riches. Can you be furprifed that I endea*
\oured to preferve them ? If you Romans have a de*
fire to arrive at univerfal monarchy, muft all nations,
to gratify you, tamely fubmit to fervitude ? If I had
fubmitted without a ftruggle, how much would it have
diminifhed the luftre of my fall, and of your vi&ory ?
And now, if you refolve to put me to death, my ftory
will foon be buried in oblivion ; but if you think pro¬
per to preferve my life, I fhall remain a lading monu¬
ment of your clemency.”—This fpeech had fuch an
tffedl upon Claudius, that he immediately pardoned
Caraftacus and his whole family, and commanded them
to be let at liberty.
The Silures, notwithdanding this terrible blow, con¬
tinued the war with great vigour, and gained confi-
derable advantages over the Romans 5 which fo much
affe&ed Odorius, that he died of grief. He was fuc-
ceeded by A. Didius, who reftrained the incurfions of
the Silures, but was not able to redore Cartifmundua
queen1 of the Brigantes, who had been depofed by her
fubje&s. Didius was fucceeded by Veranius, and he by
Suetonius Paulinus, who reduced the ifiand of Angle-
Ceneral re SEY’ as re^ate<^ un^er that article. But while Paulinus
volt of the wa8 employed in the conqueft of this ifiand, he was
Britons. alarmed by the news of an altnod univerfal revolt a-
mong thofe nations which had fubmitted to the Ro¬
mans. The Britons, tho< conquered, had dill a de¬
lire of returning to their former date of independence;
and the Roman yoke became every day more unfup-
portable to them through the infolence and opprefiions
of the Roman foldiers. The Britons- had been long
, difcontented, and were already in a very proper difpo*
fition for a revolt, when an event happened which
kindled thefe difcontents into an open flame. Prafuta-
gus, king of the Iceni, a. prince renowned for opu¬
lence and grandeur, had, by his lad will, left the Ro¬
man emperor joint-heir with his two daughters, in
hopes of obtaining his favour and protedlion by fo
* great an obligation. But the event turned out very
different. No fooner was he dead, than his houfes and
poffeffions were ail plundered by the Roman-foldiers.
The queen Boadicea remondrated againd this injudice;
but, indead of obtaining any redrefs, die herfelf was
publicly whipped, Her daughters ravifhed, and all the
relations of the late king reduced to flavery. The whole
country alfo was plundered, and all the chiefs of the
Iceni deprived of their pofTeffions.
Boadicea was a woman of too haughty a fpirit tame¬
ly to bear fuch indignities. She therefore perfuaded
the Iceni to take tip arms, which they very readily
did. Then, being joined by the Trinobantes, and fome*
other nations, they poured like a torrent on. the Ro¬
man colonies. Every thing was deflroyed with fire and
fword. The ninth legion, which had been left for the
defence of the country under Petilius Cerealis, was de¬
feated, the infantry totally cut in pieces, and the
commander himfelf with the cavalry efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty. Suetonius, alarmed at this news,,
immediately left Anglefey, and marched with the great-
ert expedition to London. The inhabitants were o-
verjoyed at his arrival, and ufed. their utmoft endea¬
vours to detain him for their defence. But he refufed England,
to flay, and in a fhort time left the place, notwithftand- v—
ing the intreaties of the inhabitants. The whole city rp
lamented his departure ; and they had reafon. Sueto- They de-
nius was fcarce gone, when Boadicea with her Britons ftroy7°pOo
entered, and put all they found in it to the fword. Ronuns•
None were taken prifoners, nor was any fex or age
fpared, and many were tortured in the moft cruel man¬
ner. Seventy thoufand perfous are Lid to have perifhed
on this occaiion at London and other Roman colonies.
The Britons, now elated with fuecefs, aflembled
from all quarters in great numbers, fo that Boadicea’s ao
army foon amounted to 230,000 men. They defpifed They are
the Romans; and became fo confident of viftory, that utterly de»
they brought their wives and children along with them fsated-
in waggons to be fpe&ators of the deftrudtion of their
enemies. The event was what might naturally have
been expefted from fuch ill-judged confidence. The
Britons were overthrown with moft terrible flaugh-
ter, no fewer than 80,000 being killed in the battle
and purfuit; while the Romans had not above 400
killed, and not many more wounded. Boadicea, not
able to furvive fo great a calamity, put an end to her
life by poifon.
By this overthrow the Britons who had once been
fubdued were thoroughly prevented from raifing any
more irtfurreftions, and even thofe who had not yet
fubmitted to the Roman yoke feemed to be intimida¬
ted from making incurfions into their dominions. No¬
thing remarkable therefore happened for fome time.
In the time of Vefpafian, Petilius Cerealis being ap¬
pointed governor of Britain, attacked the Brigantes,
defeated them in feveral battles, and reduced great part
of their country. He was fucceeded by Julius Fron-
tinus; who not only maintained the conquefts of his pi e-
deceflbr, but reduced entirely the warlike nation of
the Silures. Frontinus was fucceeded by the celebra¬
ted Cneius Julius Agricola, who completed the con¬
queft of all the fouthern Britons. 2T
Juft before the arrival of Agricola, the Ordovices Britain coni
had cut in pieces a band of horfe ftationed on their quered by-
confines, after which the whole nation had taken arms. Agricok.
The fummer was pretty far fpent, and the Roman ar¬
my was quite feparated and difperfed, the foldiers ha¬
ving affured themfelves of reft for the remaining part of
the year. Agricola, however, was no fooner landed,
than, having drawn together his legions, he marched
againft the enemy without delay. The Britons kept
upon the ridges of the mountains; but Agricola led
them in perfon up the afeents. The Romans were
vi&orious; and fueh a terrible flaughter was made of
the Britons that almoft the whole nation of Ordo-
vices was cut off. Without giving the enemy time to
recover from the terror which this overthrow had oc-
cafioned, Agricola refolved upon the immediate reduc¬
tion of Anglefey, which had been loft by the revolt of
Boadicea. Being deftitute of ftiips, he detached a
chofen body of auxiliaries who knew the fords, and
were accuftomed to manage their arms and horfes in
the water. The Britons, who had expefted a fleet and
tranfports, were fo terrified by the appearance of the
Roman forces on their ifiand, that they immediately
fubmitted, and Anglefy was once more reftored to the.
Romans.
With the conqueft of Anglefey ended the firft cam-
4 E 2 pmgn
ENG [ 583 1 ENG
England, paign of Agricola; and he employed the winter in re-
* conciling the Britons to the Roman yoke. In this he
met with fuch fuccefs, through his wife and equitable
conduft, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, be^
gan to prefer a life of fecurity and peace, to that inde¬
pendency which they had formerly enjoyed, and which
continually expofed them to the tumults and calamities
of war. The fucceeding campaigns of Agricola were
attended with equal fuccefs; he not only fubdued the
17 nations inhabiting England, but carried the Roman
arms almoft to the extremity of Scotland. He alfo
caufed his fleet to fail round the ifland, and difcovered
the Orcadesi or Orkney iflands, which had before been
unknown to the relt of the world. His expedition took
him up about fix years, and was completed in the year
of Chrift 84.
Had this commander been continued in Britain, it is
probable that both Scotland and England would have
been permanently fubdued; but he was recalled by
Domitian in the year 85, and we are then almoft to¬
tally in the dark about the Britifh affairs till the reign
of the emperor Adrian. During this interval the Ca¬
ledonians had taken arms, and not only refufed fubjec-
tion to the Roman power themfelves, but ravaged the
territories of the Britons who continued faithful to
them. Adrian, for what reafon is not well known,
abandoned to them the whole track lying between
the 1'yne and the Forth. At the fame time, in or¬
der to reftrain them from making incurfions into the
Roman territories, he built a wall 80 miles in length
from the river Eden in Cumberland to the Tyne in
* See A~ Northumberland *. He was fucceeded by Antoninus
drian. Pius, in whole reign the Brigantes revolted ; and the
Caledonians, having in feveral places broken down
the wall built by Adrian, began anew to ravage the
Roman territories. Agaiaft them the emperor fent
Lollius Urbicus, who reduced the Brigantes; and
having defeated the northern nations, confined them
ifSee A/t- vvithin narrower bounds by a new wall f, extend-
■wailT^S Probably between tbe friths of Forth and
‘ Clyde. From the time of Antoninus to that of Se-
verus, the Roman dominions in Britain continued
to be much infefted by the inroads of the nor¬
thern nations. That emperor divided Britain into
two governments, the fouthern and northern; but the
governor of the northern divifion was fo haraffed
by continual incurfions of the Caledonians, that he
was at length obliged to purchafe a peace with money.
The Caledonians kept the treaty for 15 years; after
•which, breaking into the Roman territories anew, they
committed terrible ravages. Virius Lupus the gover¬
nor, not being in a condition to withftand them, ac-
quainted the emperor with his diftrefs, intreating him
ofXa'evet!un t0 ^enC^ Powerfu^ an<^ fpeedy fupplies. Upon this Se-
intcflki-* verus refolved to put an end to the perpetual incurfions
tain. of the enemy by making a complete conqueft of their
country; for which purpofe he fet out for Britain, to¬
gether with his two fons Caracalla and Geta, at the
head of a numerous army. The Caledonians no fooner
heard of his arrival, than they fent ambaffadors offer¬
ing to conclude a peace upon honourable terms. But
thefe the emperor detained till he was ready to take
the field, and then difmiffed them without granting
their requeft.
A.s foon as the feafon was fit for aftion, Severus
marched into the territories of the Caledonians, where England.
he put all to fire and fword. He advanced even to the  J
molt northerly parts of the ifland; and though no
battle was fought in this expedition, yet through the
continual ambufcades of the enemy, and the inhofpi-
table nature of the country, he is laid to have loft
50,000 men. At laft the Caledonians were obliged to
fue for peace ; which wras granted them on condition
of their yielding part of their country, and delivering
up their arms. After this the emperor returned to
York, leaving his fon Caracalla to command the army,
and finilh the new wall which had been begun between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. But the emperor be¬
ing taken ill at York, the Caledonians no fooner heard
of his indilpofition, than they again took up arms.
This provoked Severus to fuch a degree, that he com¬
manded his fon Caracalla to enter their country anew
with the whole army, and to put all he met to the
fword without diltindion of fex or age. Before thefe
orders, however, could be put in execution, his two
fons, having concluded a ftiameful peace with the Ca¬
ledonians, returned to Rome.
A long chafm now takes place in the hiftory of the
Roman dominions in Britain. In the beginning of
Dioclefian’s reign, Caraufius a native of Gaul, palling
over into Britain, took upon him the title of emperor,
and was acknowledged by all the troops quartered
here. He was, however, killed in a battle with one
of Conftantius’s officers, after he had enjoyed the fove-
reignty for fix or feven years. Conftantine the Great
began his reign in this ifland ; and returned foon after
he had left it, probably with a defign to put a Hop to
the daily incurfions of the Caledonians. He altered the
divifion of that part of Britain fubjeft to the Romans.
Severus had divided it only into two provinces ; but
Conftantine increafed the number to three : viz. Bri¬
tannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, and Maxima Caffa-
rienfis; and this laft was afterwards divided into two,
viz. Maxima Casfarienfis and Flavia Caefarienfis. The
removal of the imperial feat from Rome to Conftan-
tinople, which happened in the reign of Conftantine,
gave the northern nations an opportunity of making
frequent incurfions into the Roman provinces; the
emperor having carried with him, firft into Gaul, and
then into the Eaft, not only moil of the Roman troops,
but likewife the flower of the Britifti youth.
About the latter end of the reign of Conftantius fon
to Conftantine the Great, the government of the pro¬
vince of Britain and other weftern parts of the em¬
pire, was committed to Julian, afterwards called the
apojlate. While he was in his winter-quarters at Paris,
he was informed that the Scots and Piets, about this
time firft diftinguiflied by thefe names, had broken in¬
to the Roman territories and committed every where
dreadful ravages. Againft them Julian difpatched a
body of troops under the command of Lupicinius. He
embarked from Bologne in the depth of winter, but
was no fooner arrived at London than he was recalled ;
the enemy having probably found means to appeafe Ju¬
lian by their fubmiffions. Till the reign of Valen-
tinian I. thefe nations ftill continued to infeft the Ro¬
man territories in Britain, and had now reduced the
country to a moil deplorable condition by their conti¬
nual ravages. Valentinian fent againft them Theodo-
iius, father to the emperor of that name. That gene¬
ral
ENG [ 589 3 ENG
England, ral having divided his forces into feveral bodies, advan-
u,,, v"“~ ced againft the enemy, who were roving up and down
the country. The Scots and Pifts were obliged to
yield to the fuperior valour and difcipline of the Ro¬
mans. Great numbers were cut in pieces ; they were
forced to abandon all the booty and prifoners they had
taken, and to retire beyond the friths of Forth and
Clyde. Theodofius then entered London in triumph,
and reftored that city to its fofmer fplendor, which
had fuffcred greatly by the former incurfions of the
northern Britons. To reftrain them from breaking
anew into the provinces, Theodolius built feveral forts
or caftles between the two friths ; and having thus re¬
covered all the country between Adrian’s'wall and the
friths of Forth and Clyde, he formed of it a fifth pro¬
vince which he called Valentia.
Though Britain was now reduced to a ftate of tem¬
porary tranquillity, yet as the Roman empire was daily
declining, it is not to be fuppofed that fufficient care
could be taken to fecure fuch a diftant province. In
the reign of the emperor Honorious, the provincial
Britons found themfelves annoyed not only by the
Scots and Pi&s, but alfo by the depredations of the
Saxons, who began to commit ravages on the fea-coafts.
By the care, however, of Stilicho, prime minifter to
Honorius, matters were once more fettled, and a par¬
ticular officer was appointed to guard the coaft againft
the attempts of the Saxons, with the title of Comes li-
mitis Saxonlci. But, not long after, the empire being
over-run by barbarians, moft of the Roman troops
quartered in Britain were recalled, and the country
aj left quite open to the attacks of the Scots and Pi&s.
The Bd. Upon this the provincials expelling no more alfiftance
tons choofe from Honorius, refolved to fet up an emperor of their
of the[r r°r °wn. Accordingly they invefted with the imperial
own, dignity one Mark, an officer of great credit among
them. Him they murdered in a few days, and placed
on the throne one Gratian a native of Britain. After
a reign of four months, Gratian underwent the fate
of his predecefibr ; and was fucceeded by Conjlan-
tme, a common foldier, who was chofen merely for the
fake of his name. He feems, however, to have been
a man of fame knowledge and experience in war. He
drove the Scots and Pi&s beyond the limits of the
Roman territories ; but being elated with this fuccefs,
he would now be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the
conqueft of the whole Roman empire. He therefore
paffed over into Gaul; and took with him not only
the few Roman forces that had been left, but fuch of
the provincial Britons as were moft accuftomed to
arms. That unhappy people, being now left entirely
defencelefs, were harafled in the moft cruel manner by
their enemies; who broke into the- country, and de-
ftroyed all with fire and fword. In this miferable fitu-
ation they continued from the year 407, when the u-
furper Conftantine paffed over into Gaul, till the year
410. Having during the laft three years frequently
implored affiftance from Rome without receiving any,
they now refolved to withdraw their allegiance from
an empire which was no longer able to prote& them.
Honorius himfelf applauded their conduit; and ad-
vifed them by letters to provide for their own fafety,
which was in effeit an implicit refignation of the fo-
vereignty of the ifland.
The provincial Britons now regained their liberty;
but they had loft the martial fpirit which had at firft Eiif»Ianci.
rendered them fo formidable to the Romans. They  /—»<
feem, however, to have met with fome fuccefs in their
firft enterprifes ; for Zofimas tells us, that they deli¬
vered their cities from the infults of an haughty ene-
my. But being at laft overpowered, they were again 'mplorethe
obliged to have recourfe to the Roman emperor, toaffiLnce
whom they promifed a moft perfect fubmiflion, pro-of th.e Rc’
vided they were delivered from the hands of their ‘ ’
mercilefs and implacable enemies. Honorius, touched
with compaffion, fent a legion to their relief. The
Roman fotces landed in Britain unexpectedly ; and ha¬
ving deftroyed great numbers of the Scots and Piets,
they drove them beyond the friths of Forth and Dun-
britton. After this they advifed the natives to build
a wall on the ifthmus from fea to fea, and to reaffume
their courage, and defend themfelves from their ene¬
mies by their own valour. The Romans then quitted
the country; being obliged to return, in order to re-
pulfe thofe barbarians who had broken into the em¬
pire from all quarters.
The Britons immediately fet about building the wall,
as they had been defired, with great alacrity. But as
it was conftru&ed only of turf, the Scots and Pifts
foon broke it down in feveral places; and, pouring in
upon the' defencelefs and effeminate provincials, com-
mitted more cruel ravages than ever. At laft, after Send am-
very many and grievous calamities, the latter fent am- oaffadors a
baffadors once more to Rome. Thefe appeared with ^con<1 tirne
their garments rent and duft on their heads; and at '0 RoIne•
laft prevailed on the emperor, by their earneft intrea¬
ties, to fend another legion to their relief. The troops
arrived in Britain before the enemy had the leaft know¬
ledge-of their having fet fail. They were therefore
quite unprepared for an attack, and roving up and
down the country in the utmoft diforder. The Ro¬
mans made a terrible havock among them, and drove
the semainder into their own country. As Honorius
had fent them not with any ambitious view of retain¬
ing the ifland in fubjeftion, but merely out of com-
paffion to the unhappy provincials, the Romans told
them, they had now no farther affiftance to expeft
from them. They informed them, that the legion
muft immediately return to the continent, to protedl
the empire from the barbarians, who had extended
their ravages almoft to every part of it ; and therefore,
that they muft now take their laft farewel of Britain,
and totally abandon the ifland. After this declaration
Gallio, the commander of the Roman troops, exhort¬
ed the provincials to defend themfelves, by fighting
bravely for their country, wives, and children, and
what ought to be dearer than life itfelf, their liberty ;
telling them, at the fame time, that their enemies were
no ftronger than themfelves, provided they would but
lay alide their fears, and exert their ancient courage
and refolution. That they might the better withftand
the attacks of the enemy, he advifed them to build a
wall, not of turf, but of ftone ; offering to affift them
with his foldiers, and to diredfc them himfelf in the
execution. Upon this the Britons immediately fell to
work ; and with the afliftance of the Romans, finifhed
it in a fhort time, though it was no lefs than eight
feet thick, and twelve feet in height. It is thought
to have been built on the fame place where Severus’s
wall formerly flood. Towers were alfo built at con-
1 venient
ENG [ 59° 1 E N* G
England, vcnient dfftances on the eaft coaft, to prevent the de-
' fcents of the Saxons and other barbarians that came
26 from Germany. Gallio employed the reft of his time
Br tam fi- jn teaching the provincials the art of war. He left
doned;bythem patterns of jhe Roman weapons, which he alfo
the Ko-1 taught them to make ; and after many encouraging
mans. exhortations, he took his laft farewtl of Britain, to
which the Romans never returned. There is a great
difagreement among chronologers as to the year in
which the Romans finally abandoned Britain ; fome
placing it in 422 ; others in 423, or 426 ; and fome
™ 435» or 437*
The final departure of the Romans was no fooner
known to the Scots and Pidls, than they poured in
upon the provincial Britons from all quarters, like hun¬
gry wolves breaking into a fheep-fold. W hen the Scots
approached the new built-wall, they found it complete¬
ly finifhed, and guarded by great numbers of armed
men. But fo little had the provincial Britons profited
by the military inftruftions of the Romans, that in-
ftead of placing proper guards and centinels, and re¬
lieving one another by turns, their whole number had
ftaid feveral days and nights upon the ramparts with¬
out intenhifiion. Being therefore quite benumbed and
27 wearied out, they were able to make but very little
Britons rr.i-reiiftance. Many were pulled down with hooks from
the battlements, and dafhed in pieces. The reft were
the Scots ftriven from their ftations with (bowers of darts and
nnd Piets, arrows. They betook themfelves to flight ; but that
could not fave them. The Septs and Pifts purfued
them cl of'., made a dreadful havock among the fugi¬
tives, and took pefieffion of the frontier towns, which
they found deferted by the inhabitants. As they now
met with no more oppofition, they over-ran the whole
country, putting every tiling to fire and fword. Their
ravages foon occafioned a famine ; and this was follow¬
ed by a kind of civil war. The provincials, unable to
fupport themfelves, were obliged*to plunder each other
of the little the common enemy had left them. The
whole country at laft became fo incapable of fupport-
ing thofe who were left in it, that many fled into the
^8 woods, in order to fubfift themfelves there by hunting.
Jinploiethe In this extremity of diftrefs, they had once more re-
t*h 1R1Ce °f cour^e t0 t^ie R°mans > and wrote in the moil mourn-
maus ^ ^ t^iat can Pofribiy be imagined to Aetius, who
was then conful the third time. Their letter they di-
refted thus : “ The groans of the Britons to the con¬
ful Aetius.” The contents of this letter were anfwer-
able to the direftion. “ The barbarians (fay they)
drive us to the fea ; the fea drives us back to the bar¬
barians ; between which we have only the choice of
two deaths, either to be fvvallowed up by the waves,
or to be cruelly maflacred by the enemy.”
To this letter the Roman general gave no falisfac-
tory anfwer,and the provincials were thereupon reduced
to defpair. Great numbers of them fled over to Ar¬
morica, where they fettled along with others who had
formerly gone over; with an ufurper called Maximus ;
while others fubmitted to the Scots and Pi<fls. Some,
however, more refolute than the reft, had once more
recourfe to arms. They fallied out in parties from the
Thev at laft woods and caves where they had been obliged to hide
rep'.iks themfelves, and, falling unexpeftedly on the enemy,
their ene- cvlt great numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the
riies' reft to retire. Having thus obtained fome refpitc,
they began again to cultivate their lands 5 which, ha- England,
ving lain fallow for a long time, now produced all —v““^
forts of corn in the greateft plenty. This plenty, ac¬
cording to the hiftorian Gildas, occafioned the moil
Confummate wickednefs and corruption of manners
among all ranks of men. The clergy, fays he, who
fhould have reclaimed the laity by their example,
proved the ringleaders in every vice ; being addicted to
drunkennefs, contention, envy,&c.—It is poflible,how¬
ever. that this defeription might be exaggerated by
Gildas, who was himfelf a monk. But however this
was, the Britons had not long enjoyed'peace, when
they were alarmed by a report, that the Scots and
Piets were about to return with a far greater force
than before, utterly to extirpate the name of their
fouthern neighbours, and feize upon the country for Are ajjaia
themfelves. This report threw them into a terrible th.reaten8d
confternation ; and to add to the reft of their misfor-^1^11 m"
tunes, they were now vifited by a dreadful plague,'™1011,
which raged with fuch violence, that the living were
fcarce fufficient to bury the dead. The contagion no
fooner ceafed, than they found their country invaded
by the Scots and Pifts, who deftroyed every thing with
fire and fword ; fo that the provincials were foon re¬
duced to the fame miferable date they had formerly
been in.
At this time the chief, if not the only, king of the
fouthern divifion of Britain, was one Vortigern. He
is faid to have been a cruel, debauched tyrant, regard-
lefs of the public welfare, and totally incapable of pro¬
moting it. Being now roufed from his fenfibility,
however, by a fenfc of his own danger, he fummoned
a council of the chief men of the nation, in order to
deliberate about the proper means for delivering the
country from thofe calamities under which it groaned. 3I
In this council the moft pernicious meafure was adop-They re¬
ted that could pofflbly have been refolved on ; namely, foIvc to calf
to invite to their afliftance the Saxons, a people famous111 theSax*
for their piracies and cruelty, and juftly dreaded by
the Britons themfelves*. This fatal expedient be-*-See Sax-
ing agreed upon, ambaffadors were immediately dif-^r.
patched into Germany. w;ith advantageous propofals to
the Saxons in cafe they would come over to their af-
fiftance.
The Britifh ambafladors foon arrived in Germany,
and, according to Witichind, a Saxon hiftorian of the
ninth century, made' the following fpeech before an af-
fembly of the Saxons.— “ Illuftrious Saxons, the fame
of your vidfories having reached our ears, the diftref-
fed Britons, harafled by the continual inroads of a
neighbouring enemy, fend us to implore your aflift¬
ance. We have a fertile and fpacious country, which
we are commanded to fubmit to you. We have hi¬
therto lived under the protedlion of the Roman em¬
pire ; but our ancient mafters having abandoned us*
we know no nation more powerful than you, and bet¬
ter able to protedt us. We therefore recur to your
valour. Forfake us not in our diftrefs* and we (hall
readily fubmit to what terms you yonrfelves fhall think
fit to preferibe to us.”—If this abjedt and fhameful
fpeech was really made, it muft give us a very itrange
idea of the national fpuit of the provincial Britons at
that time. It is, however, probable that the whole is
a fidlion, defigned only to excufe the perfidious treat¬
ment which thefe Britons afterwards received from the
Saxons.
ENG L 59i J E N
England. Saxons. The moft refpe&able even of the Saxon hi- to fend for a fecond, in order,
ftorians make no mention of fuch a fpeech ; and it is
certain, that when the Saxons themfelvcs wanted to
quarrel with the Britons, they never infilled upon the
promife made by the Britifh ambafladors ; which they
was pretended, to England.
defend the king from the attempts of his rebellious ' "Ll1-
fubje&s, as well as of the Scots and Pi£ls. Thefe em¬
barked in 40 Ihips, under the command of Octa and
Ebufa, the fon and nephew, or, according to fome,
moft certainly would have done, had any fuch promife the brother and nephew of Hengift. They landed at
ever been made.
the Orkney iflands ; and having ravaged them, as well
The Britilh ambaffadors were very favourably recei- as. all the northern coafts of Scotland, they conquered
ved by the Saxons. The latter embraced their propo- feveral places beyond the Frith, and at laft obtained
fal with joy ; and the rather, becaufe their foothfayers leave to fettle in Northumberland.
foretold that they ftiould plunder their Britilh allies for
150 years, and reign over them for twice that time.
Three long Ihips, in the Saxon language called chlules,
were therefore fitted out, under the condudl of Hen-
gift and Horfa. Thefe were two brothers much cele-
The pretence made for this fettlement was, that the
Saxons under O&a and Ebufa might defend the nor¬
thern frontiers of the kingdom, as thofe under Hen-
gilt and Horfa did the fouthern parts. Many more
Saxons were, under various pretences, invited over ;
brated both for their valour and nobility. They were till at laft the countries from which they came were
fons of Witigifil, faid to be great-grandfon to the
Saxon god Woden 5 a circumftance which added much
to their authority. Having embarked about 1600
men on board their three veffels, the two brothers ar-
rived in the ille of Thanet, in the year 449 or 450.
The Saxons They were received by the inhabitants with the great-
arrive in eft; demonftrations of joy : the ille in which they had
defeaMde ^ ^an<-*e<^ was immediately appointed for their habitation;
Scots and an<^ a league was concluded, in virtue of which the
Pitfs. Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons againft
in a manner depopulated. And now their numbers be-
ing greatly increafed, the Saxons began to quarrel with 34
the nati vt s. They demanded larger allowances of corn, They^quar
and other provifions ; threatening to lay walle the ljlc g(...
whole country if their demands were not complied with. tons.
The Britons, infteadof complying with thefe demands,
delired them to return home, fince their numbers ex¬
ceeded what they were able to maintain. Upon this,
the Saxons concluded a peace with the Scots and Pidls;
and, turning their arms againft the unhappy provin-
all foreign enemies ; and the provincials were to allow cials, over-ran the whole country. The Saxons c
the Saxons pay and maintenance, belides the place al- mitted every where the greateft cruelties. All build-
lotted them for they- abode. Soon after their arrival, ings, whether public or private, they levelled with the
king Vortigern led them againft the northern nations ground. The cities were pillaged and burnt ; and the
who had lately broke into the kingdom, and advanced people maflacred without diftindlion of fex or age, and
as far as Stanford in the county of Lincolnlhire.
Here a battle was fought, in which the Scots and
Pidls were utterly defeated, and obliged to relinquifti
their booty.
Vortigern was fo highly pleafed with the behaviour
of his new allies, that he beftowed large poffeflions in
the country they had newly delivered, upon the two
commanders Hengift and Horfa. It is faid, that, even
at this time, Hengift was taken with the wealth and
fertility of the country ; and at the fame time obfer-
ving the inhabitants to be quite enervated with luxury,
began to entertain hopes of conquering part of it.
He therefore, with Vortigern’s confent, invited over
fome more of his countrymen ; giving them notice at
the fame time of the fruitfulnefs of the country, the
effeminacy of the inhabitants, and how eafily a con-
queft might be effedled.
The Saxons readily complied with the invitation ;
and, in 452, as many more arrived in 17 veffels, as,
Saxons ar- wjth thofe already in Britain, made up an army of
rive’ j;ooo men. Along with thefe, according to Nennius,
came over Rowena the daughter of Hengift. Vorti¬
gern fell in love with this lady ; and in order to obtain
her in marriage, divorced his lawful wife. Hengift
pretended to be-averfc to the match ; but Vortigern
obtained his conient by invefting him with the fove-
reignty of Kent. The Saxon hillorians, indeed, make
ino mention of Rowena ; but rather infinuate, that
'their countrymen made themfelves mailers of Kent by
force of arms. It feems moft probable, however, that
Vortigern had as yet continued in friendlhip with
the Saxons, and even put more confidence in them
than in his own fubjefts. For, not long after the ar¬
rival of this firft reinforcement, Hengift. obtained leave
New fup-
that in fuch numbers, that the living fcarce fufficed t
bury the dead. Some of thofe who efcaped the gene¬
ral flaughter, took refuge among inacceffible rocks and
mountains; but there great numbers periftied with
hunger, or were forced to furrender themfelves as
(laves to their enemies. Some croffed the fea and fet¬
tled either in Holland or in Armorica, now the pro¬
vince of Brittany in France.
Vortigern, we are told by Nennius, was fo> far from
being reclaimed by thefe calamities, that he added in-
ceft to his other crimes, and married his own daugh¬
ter. At laft, his own fubjedls, provoked at his enor¬
mous wickednefs, and the partiality he (bowed to the
Saxons, depofed him, and raifed his fon Vortimer to 35
the throne. He was a young man of great valour, They are
and willingly undertook the defence of his diftreffed ^efeate.4
country. He firft fell upon the Saxons with whatj^hyVor.
troops he could affemble, and drove them into the ide timer,
of Thanet. Here they were befieged, till, being rein- x
forced by frefh fupplies from Germany, they opened
themfelves a way through the Britifh troops. Vorti¬
mer, however, was not yet difheartened. He enga¬
ged the Saxons on the banks of the Derwent in Kent,
where he obtained a complete vi&ory, and cut in pie-
cies great numbers of the enemy. Another battle was
fought at Aylesford in Kent. Some aferibe the vic¬
tory at this time to the Saxons, and fome to the Bri¬
tons. It is certain, however, that Horfa the brother
of Hengift was killed in this engagement. He is faid
to have been buried at a place in the neighbourhood,
which from him obtained the name of Horjled.—A
third battle was fought, in which the victory was un¬
certain, as is alio the place where it happened. The
fourth battle, however, according to Nennius, proved
decifive
ENG [ 592 j ENG
England, decifive in favour of the Britons. Vortimer engaged
his enemies, according to fome, at Folkftone ; accord¬
ing to others, at a place called Stonar, in the ifle of
Thanet. The Saxons were defeated with great daugh¬
ter, and driven back to their fhips. So complete is
this vi&ory faid to have been, that the Saxons quitted
the ifland, without making any attempt upon it for
five years afterwards. Thefe battles, however, reft en¬
tirely upon the credit of Nennius, and the hiftorians
who have followed him. They are taken notice of
neither by Gildas nor Bede. The former only ac¬
quaints us, that the Saxons retired. This, by moft
hiftoiians, is underftood of their returning home ; tho’
it is poflible he might mean no more, than that, after
they had laid watte the country, they retired into the
territories allotted them by Vortigern, in Kent and
Northumberland.
V ir-ier is laid to have died after a reign of fix
y* ;; On his death-bed, he defired his fervants to
trim near the place where the Saxons ufed to
lui,'.! ; being perfuaded, that the virtue of his bones
would effedtually prevent them from ever touching the
Britifli ftiore. This command, however, was neglec¬
ted ; and Vortimer was buried at Lincoln, according
to fome, or London, according to others. Hengift
36 was no fooner informed of his death, than he invaded
They re- Britain anew with a numerous body of Saxons. He
•Wealth waS 0PP°k^ b7 Vortigern, who had been reftored to
Britons 6 tbe tbrone after tbe death of his fon Vortimer. Seve-
and ei e<St i al battles were fought on this occafion ; but at laft the
a kingdom provincials being overthrown at a place called Crecan-
m Kent. with the lofs of 4000 men, were obliged to aban¬
don Kent to their enemies, and retire to London. This
happened about the year 458 or 459 ; and from this
time moll hiftorians date the eredlion of the firft Saxon
kingdom in Britain, viz. that of Kent. Hengift af-_
fumed the title of king, and chofe Elk his fon for his
colleague.
The Britons underVortigern Hill continued the war.
Hengift finding himfelf unable to gain a decifive ad-
37 vantage over them in the field, had recourfe to treach-
er7- pretended to be defirous of concluding a
ens* peace with the Britilh monarch, and of renewing.his
ancient friendihip with him ; and therefore required an
interview. To this Vortigern readily confented, and
accepted of an entertainment prepared for him by Hen¬
gift. The king was attended by 300 nobility all un¬
armed, but the Saxons had concealed daggers below
their garments. The Britifh nobility were all treach-
eroufly mafi'acred in the height of their mirth ; Vorti¬
gern himfelf was taken and put in fetters; nor could
his liberty be procured, but by ceding to the Saxons
thofe provinces now called EJfex, Sitftex, and Middlefex.
Thus the Saxons got fuch a footing in Britain that
they could never afterwards be expelled. Vortigern,
after being fet at liberty, is faid to have retired to a
vaft wildevnefs near the fall of the Wye in Radnotlhire,
where he was fome time after confumed by lightning,
together with a city called Kaer Gourtigern which he
had built in that place.
On the retreat of Vortigern, the command of the
Britifh forces devolved upon Aurelius Ambrofius, or,
.as Gildas calls him, Ambrofius Aurelianus. He was a
Roman, and perhaps the laft that remained in the ifland.
He is faid to have gained feveral vi&ories over the
N°X15.
Saxons. Nonwithftanding this, however, they ftill con- England,
tinned to gain ground ; and in the year 491, the foun- w—
dation of a fecond Saxon kingdom was laid in Britain. ^
This at firft comprehended only the county of Suffex,-®6^”
but foon after extended over moft of the countries lying dona,
fouth of the Humber. It was called the kingdom of
the South Saxons,
The German nations being now informed of the
good fuccefs which had attended the Saxons in Bri¬
tain, new adventurers daily flocked over to {hare the
good fortune of the others. They were chiefly com-
pofed of three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes.
All thefe paffed under the common appellation fome-
times of Saxons, fometimes of singles. i’heyfpoke the
fame language, and agreed very much in their cutloms
and inftitUtions, fo that all of them were naturally led
to combine againft the natives. The moft adlive of
thefe adventurers was Cerdic a Saxon, faid to be the
tenth in defeent from Woden, He landed wuh his
fon Cenric, and as many men as he could convey
in five fhips, at Yarmouth in Norfolk. The pro¬
vincials immediately attacked him with great vigour;
but after a fliort engagement, they were totally de¬
feated. Many other battles were fought, the event of
which was always favourable to the Saxons, fo that
the Britons were forced to abandon their fea-coafts to
them.
In 4.97,Porta, another Saxon, with his two fonsBleda
and Magla, arrived at Portfmouth, fo called, as fome
imagine, from this chieftain. The provincials, under
the command of a young prince a native of the coun¬
try, attempted to oppofe the’ landing of the Saxons :
but his army was defeated with great daughter, and
he himfelf killed in the engagement; after which Porta
made himfelf mafter of all the neighbouring country.
The progrefs of Cerdic, however, alarmed the Britons 39
more than that of all the other Saxon princes. About Nizdeod
the year 508, therefore, Nazaleod, ftyled, by Henry ofk“!£.of,
Huntingdon, the greatejl of all the Brilifh^ kings, aflein-
bled almoft the whole ftrength of the provincial Britons killed,
in order to drive him out of the ifland. Cerdic on the
other hand took care to {Lengthen himfelf by procu¬
ring afliftance from all the Saxons already in the ifland.
He then advanced againft the Britons, commanding
the right wing himfelf, and his fon Cenric the left.
As the two armies drew near each other, Nazaleod
perceived the enemy’s right wing to be much llrong-
er than the left. He therefore attacked it with the.
flower of his army; and after an obftinate refiflance,
obliged Cerdic to fave himfelf by flight. Being too
eager in the purfuit, however, Cenric fell upon his
rear, and the battle was renewed with great vigour.
The Britifh army was at laft entirely defeated ; and
5000 men, among whom was Nazaleod himfelf, were
left dead on the fpot.
Who fucceeded Nazaleod in the kingdom of Britain,
is not known. The Welfh annals leave an interreg¬
num of about fix years ; after which they place the be¬
ginning of the reign of Arthur, the moil renowned 4G
Britifh prince mentioned in hillory. The hiftory of Whether
king Arthur is fo much obfeured by fables, and many fuck a per-
abfurd. romantic, and ridiculous ilories, that fome have
fuppofed that no fuch perfon ever exifted. On this fub- ^ exifted.
jeci. Milton gives the following reafons againil tire ex-
iHence of king Arthur: 1. He is not mentioned by
Gildas,
ENG
r 59 V ]
ENG
i allowed on all hands to have been a very cre¬
dulous writer, and to have publiflied a great many
fables. 2. Though William of Malmefbury and Henry
of Huntingdon have both related his exploits, yet the
latter took all he wrote from Nennius ; and the former,
either from the fame fabulous writer, or fome Monkifh
legends in the abbey of Glaftenbury ; for both thefe
writers flourifhed feveral centuries after king Arthur.
3. In the pretended hiftory of GeofFroy of Monmouth,
fuch contradiftions occur concerning this monarch’s
vi&ories in France, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Italy,
&c. as muft caufe us to look upon him as an hero alto¬
gether fabulous and romantic.
England. Gildas, or any Britiflr hiftorian except Nennius, who kings frequent contentions now arofe; by which England.
- » -11 J — -,1 i—t—— “ means the Britons enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquil* '—~y—
lity for at lead 44 years. This interval, however, ac^
cording to Gildas, they employed only in corrupting
their manners more and more, till at laft they were
roufed from their fecurity by the fetting up of a fixth
Saxon kingdom, called the kingdom of the Eajl Angles.
It was.founded in 575, and comprehended the coun¬
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgefhire, and the Ifle
of Ely. The Saxons once more attacked the Britons,
and overthrew them in many battles. The war was
continued for ten years; after which, another Saxon
kingdom called Mercia was fet up. It comprehended
17 counties ; viz. Gloucefter, Hereford, Worcefter,
In anfwer to this it has been faid, 1. That his not Warwick, Leicefter, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln,
being mentioned by Gildas cannot feem ftrange to us, Huntington, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford,
feeing it was not that author's defign to write an exaft Nottingham, Derby, Shroplhire, Chefhire, and part of
hiftory of his country, but only to give a fhort account Hertfordfhire. ^
of the caufes of its ruin by the Scots, Pifts, and Saxons. The provincial Britons were nowconfined within very TheUritons
He had alfo a particular fyftem to fupport, namely, narrow bounds. However, before they entirely gave up (jefc;lt the
That the ruin of the Britons was owing to the judge- the beftpart of their country to their enemies, they once °br ^ed
ments of God upon them for their wickednefs. He more refolved to try the event of a battle. At this to^etire in¬
lies therefore under a great temptation to conceal the time they were affilted by the Angles, who were jea- to Wales,
fucceffes of the Britons, and to relate only their mif- lous of the overgrown power of the Weft Saxons,
fortunes. 2. Though Nennius was a credulous writer, The battle was fought in Wiltfnire, at Woden’s Bearth,
it is unreafonable to think that the whole hiftory of a place near the ditch called IVanfdike or Wodenfdike;
king Arthur was an invention of his. It is more pro- which runs through the middle of the county. The
bable that he copied it from other more ancient au- battle was very obftinate and bloody ; but at laft the
Saxons were entirely defeated, and almoft their whole
army cut off. The victory, however, proved of little
fervice to the Britons : for being greatly inferior in
ifh to conceal the number to the Saxons, and haraffed by them on the
thors, or took it from the common tradition of his
countrymen. That the Saxon annals make no men¬
tion of this king is not to be wondered at, feeing it is
natural to think that they would
many defeats he gave their nation. 3. The moft con- one fide, and by the Scots and Pidtson the other, they
vincing proof of the exiftence of king Arthur is, that
his tomb was difeovered at Glaftenbury in Somerfet-
fhire, and his coffin dug up, in the reign of Henry II.
with the following infeription upon it in Gothic cha-
vadfers : “ Hie jacet fepultus inclytus rex Arturius in
infula Avalonia.” We are told that on his body were
were daily more and more confined ; and at laft obliged
to take refuge among the craggy and mountainous
places in the weft of the ifland, where their ene¬
mies could not purfue them. At firft they pofleffed all
the country beyond the rivers Dee and Severn, which
anciently divided Cambria, or Wales, from England;
plainly to be feen the marks of 10 wounds, only one of the towns which ftand on the eaftern banks of thefe
which feemed to be mortal. rivers having moftly been built in order to reftrain the
This renowned prince is faid to have defeated the incurfions of the Welfh. But the Englifh, having
Saxons under Cerdic in 12 pitched battles. The laft paffed the Severn, by degrees feized on the country
of thefe was fought on Badon-hill, fuppofed to be lying between that river and the Wye. . Nay, in for-
Banfdown near Bath ; in which the Saxons received mer time, fome parts of Flintfhire and Denbighffiire
fuch a terrible overthrow, that for many years they were fubjedf to the kings of Mercia: for Uffa, the
gave the Britons no further moleftation. As new fup- moft powerful king of that country, caufed a deep
plies of Saxons, however, were continually flocking ditch to be drawn, and a high wall built, as a barrier
over, a third and fourth kingdom of them were foon between his dominions and the territories of the Welfli,
formed. The third kingdom comprehended the coun-
ties of Devon, Dorfet, Somerfet, Wiltfliire, Hampfhire,
Five other and Berkfhire ; to which was afterwards added Corn-
Saxo': king-wal. This was called the kingdom of the IVeJl Saxons.
from the mouth of the Dee, a little above Flint-caftle,
to the mouth of the Wye. This ditch is ftill to
be feen in feveral places; and is called by the Welffi
Claudh Ufa, or the Ditch of Uffa. The inhabi-
The other kingdom, which was called the kingdom of tants of the towns on the eaft fide of this ditch are
the Eafl Saxons, comprehended Effex, Middlefex, and called by the fame people Guyr y Mers; that is, the
part of Hertfordfhire.
In the year 542, happened the death of the great
king Arthur, faid to have been killed in battle with a
treacherous kinfman of his own. Five years after¬
wards, was erefted the Saxon kingdom of Northum¬
berland. It extended, however, much farther than the
prefent bounds of that country ; for it comprehended
men of Mercia. ^
Thus, after a violent conteft of near 150 years, the Account of
Saxons entirely fubdued the Britons whom they hadthe hePtar'
come to defend, and had ere&ed feven independentchy’
kingdoms in England, now commonly denominated the
Saxon Heptarchy. By thefe conquerors the country
was now reduced to a degree of barbarity almoft as
all Yorkfhire, Lancaffiire, Durham, Cumberland, Weft- great as it had been in when firft invaded by the Ro-
moreland, amd Northumberland, with part of Scotland, mans. The provincial Brijons, during their fubjeftion
as far as the frith of Forth. Between thefe Saxon, to that people, had made confiderable advances in ci-
Vol. VI. Part II. 4 F vilization.
ENG L 594 1 4 ENG
vlllzation. They had built 28 confiderable citiesj 799. He was the foie defcendant of thofe conquerors England,
befides a number of villages and country-feats; but who firtt invaded Britain, and who derived their pedigree ' "'"i
now thefe were all levelled with the ground, the native from the god Woden. But though'this circumftance
inhabitants who remained in England were reduced to might have given him great advantages in attempting
the moil: abjecl flavety, and every art and feience to- to fubdue the neighbouring kingdoms, Egbert for
tally extinguifhed among them. fome time gave them no diiiurbance ; but turned his
Before thefe fierce conquerors could be civilized in arms againtt the Britons, who had retired into Corn-
any degree, it was necelfary that all the feven king- wall, whom he defeated in feveral battles. He was
doms fliould be reduced under one head ; for as long recalled from his conquefts in that country, by hearing
as they remained independent, their continual wars with that Bernulf king of Mercia had invaded his domi-
each other ftill kept them in the fame ftate of barbari- nions. Egbert quickly led his army againft the inva-
ty and ignorance. ders, whom he totally defeated at Ellendun in Wilt-
The hillory of thefe feven kingdoms affords no event fliire. He then entered their kingdom on the fide of
that can be in the leaft interdling. It confiftsonly of Oxfordfiiire with an army, and at the fame time fent
a detail of their quarrels for the fovereignty. This his eldeft fon Ethelwolf with another into Kent. The
was at laft obtained by Egbert king of the Weft young prince expelled Baldred the tributary king of
Saxons, or Weffex, in 827. Before this time, Chri- Kent, and foon made himfelf mafter of the country,
ftianity had been introduced into almoft all the king- The kingdom of Eftex was conquered with equal eafe;
doms of the heptarchy ; and however much corrupted and the Eaft Angles, who had been reduced under
it might be by coming through the impure channel of fubjedtion by the Mercians, joyfully put themfelves
the church of Rome, and mifunderftood through the under the prote&ion of Egbert. Bernulf himfelf
ignorance of thofe who received it, it had confider- marched againft them, but was defeated and killed;
ably foftened the barbarous manners of the Saxons, and Ludecan his fucceffor met with the fame fate two.
It had alfo opened a communication between Bri- years after.
tain and the more polite parts of Europe, fo that Thefe misfortunes greatly facilitated the reduftion
there was now fome hope of the introdudtion of arts of Mercia. Egbert foon penetrated into the very heart
and fciences into this country. Another effeft was, of the Mercian territories, and gained an eafy viftory
that, by the ridiculous notions of preferving inviolable over a difpirited and divided people ; but in order to
chaftity even between married people, the royal fami- engage them to fubmit with the lefs reluftance, he al¬
lies of moft of the kingdoms were totally extin& ; lowed Wiglef, their countryman, to retain the title of
and the people, being in a ftate of anarchy, were ready king, whilft he himfelf excrcifed the real power of a
to fubmit to the firft who aflumed any authority over fovereign. Northumberland was at prefent in a ftate
them. of anarchy : and this tempted Egbert to carry his vic-
All thefe things contributed to the fuccefs of Eg- torious arms into that kingdom alfo. The inhabi-
bert in uniting the heptarchy under his own dominion, tants, being defirous of living under a fettled form of
He was of the royal family of Weflex; and a nearer government, readily fubmitted, and owned him for
heir than Brithric, who had been raifed to the king- their fovereign. To them, however, he likewife al-
dom in 784. As Egbert was a prince of great ac- lowed the power of ele&ing a king; who paid him a
compliftrments, Brithric, knowing that he had abetter tribute, and was dependent on him.
title to the crown than himfelf, began to look upon Egbert became foie mafter of England about the Egbert the
him with a very jealous eye. Young Egbert, fenfible year 827. A favourite opportunity was now offeredfr‘ft king of
of his danger, privately withdrew to France; where he to the Anglo-Saxons of becoming a civilized people,
was wrell received by Charlemagne, the reigning mo- as they were at peace among themfelves, and feemed
narch. The French were reckoned at this period the free from any danger of a foreign invafion. But this
moft valiant and polite people in Europe; fo that this flattering profpeft was foon overcaft. Five years after
exile proved of great fervice to Egbert. Egbert had eftablilhed his new monarchy, the Danes
He continued at the court of France till he was re- landed in the ifle of Shepey, plundered it, and then ^
ealled by the nobility to take poffeffxon of the king- made their efcape with fafety. Encouraged by thisDanift u*.
dom of Weffex.- This recal was occafioned by the fuccefs, next year they landed from a fleet of 35 ihips.vali°».
following accident. Brithric the king of Weffex had They were encountered by Egbert at Charmouth in.
married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa king of Dorfetfhire. The battle was obftinate and bloody.
Mercia; a woman infamous for cruelty and inconti- Great numbers of the Danes were killed, but the reft
nence. Having great influence over her hulband, flie made good their retreat to their ftiips. They nexten-
often perfuaded him to deftroy fuch of the nobility as tered into an alliance with the Britons of Cornwall; and
were obnoxious to her; and where this expedient failed, landing two years after in that country, they made an
ftie herfelf had not fcrupled to become their execu- irruption into Devonfhire. Egbert met them at Hen-
tioner. She had mixed a cup of poiibn for a young gefdown, and totally defeated them; but before he
nobleman, who had acquired a great fliare of her huf- had time to form any regular plan for the defence of
band’s friendlhip: but, unfortunately, the king drank the kingdom, he died, and left the government to his
of the fatal potion along with, his favourite, and foon fbn Ethelwolf. ^
after expired. By this and other crimes Eadburga The new king was weak and fuperftitious. He be- Ethctwoif,
became io odious to the people, that (he was forced to gan wuth dividing the kingdom, which had fo lately
fly into France, whence Egbert was at the fame time been united, with his fon Athelftan. To the young
recalled, as above mentioned. prince he gave the counties of Effex, Kent, and Suffex.
Egbert afeended the throne of Weffex in the year But though this divifion might have been productive.
of
ENG [ 595 ] ENG
'Bnglsin^. of bad confequcnce? at another time, the fear of the
♦""•"-v—— Danes kept every thing quiet for the prefent. Thtfe
barb.arians had fome how or other conceived fuch hopes
of enriching themfelves by the plunder of England,
that they fcarce ever failed of paying it an annual vifit.
The Englilh hiftorians tell us, that they met with
many'fevere repulfes and defeats; but on the whole it
appears that they had gained ground : for in Sji a
body of them took up their winter-quarters in Eng¬
land. Next year they received a ftrong reinforcement
of their countrymen in 350 veffels; and advancing from
the ide of Thanet, where they had ftationed them¬
felves, they burnt the cities of London and Canter¬
bury. Having next put to flight Brichtric the go¬
vernor of Mercia, they marched into the heart of Sur¬
ry, laying wafte the whole country through which
they pafftd.
Ethelwolf, though naturally little fitted for military
enterprifes, was now obliged to take the field. He
marched againft the Danes at the head of the Weft
Saxons, and gained an indecifive and bloody victory
over his enemies. The Danes ftill maintained their
fettlement in the ifle of Thanet. They were attacked
by Ealher and Huda, governors of Kent arid Surry ;
both of whom they defeated and killed. Afterwards
they removed to the ifle of Shepey, where they took
up their winter-quarters, with a defign to extend their
ravages the next year.
The deplorable ftate of the kingdom did not hinder
Ethelwolf from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whi¬
ther he carried his fourth and favourite fon Alfred,
then only fix years of age. He paffed a twelvemonth
in that city; made prefents to the principal ecclefiaftics
there; and made a grant of 300 mancufes (a filver
coin about the weigjit of our half-crown) annually to
the fee of Rome. One-third of this was to fupport
the lamps of St Peter’s, another thofe of St Paul’s,
and the third was for the Pope himfelf. In his return
to England, Ethelwolfmarried Judith, daughter of the
emperor Charles the Bald; but when he landed, he
found himfelf deprived of his kingdom by his fon E-
thelbald. That prince affumedthe government of A-
thelftan’s dominions, who was lately dead ; and, with
many of Ethelwolf’s nobles, formed a defign of ex¬
cluding him from the throne altogether, on account of
his weakneffes and fuperftitions. Ethelwolf, however,
delivered the people from the calamities of a civil war,
by dividing the kingdom with his fon. He gave to
Ethelbald the gevermerit of the weftern, and referved
to himfelf that of the eaftern part of the kingdom. Im¬
mediately after this, he fummoned the fiates of the
whole kingdom, and conferred on the clergy a per¬
petual donation of tythes, for which they had long
contended, and which had been the fubjeft of their
fermons for feveral centuries.
This concefilon was deemed fo meritorious by the
Engliih, that they now thought themfelves fure of tire
favour of heaven; and therefore neglected to ufe the
natural means for their fafety which they might have
done. They even agreed, that, notwithftanding the
defperate fituation of affairs at prefent, the revenues
of the church ftiould be exempted from all burdens,
though impofed for the immediate fecurity and defence
of the nation. Ethelwolf died two years after he
had made the above mentioned grant, and left the
kingdom to his two eldeft fons Ethelbald and Ethel- England,
bert. Both thefe princes died in a few years, and left — *
the kingdom to Ethered their brother, in the year
866. 4g
The whole courfe of Ethered’s reign was difturbed Ethered.
by the irruptions of the Danes. The king defended
himfelf againft them with great bravery, being fecond-
ed in all his military enterprises by his younger bro¬
ther Alfred, who afterwards afeendedthe throne. In
this reign, the Danes firft landed among the Eaft
Angles. That people treacheroufly entered into an
alliance with the common enemy ; and furniflied them
with horfes, which enabled them to make an irruption
into Northumberland. There they feized fipon the
city of York. Ofbricht and iElla, two Northumbrian
princes who attempted to refeue the city, were defeated
and killed. Encouraged by this fuccefs, the Danes pe¬
netrated into the kingdom of Mercia, took up their
winter-quarters at Nottingham, and thus threatened
the kingdom with a final fubjeftion. From this poft,
however, they were diflodged by Ethered and Alfred,
who forced them to retire into Northumberland. Their
reftlefs and favage difpofition, however, did not fuffer
them to continue long in one place. They broke into
Eaft Anglia; defeated and took prifoner Edmund the
tributary king of that country, whom they afterwards
murdered; and committed every where the moft bar¬
barous ravages. In 871, they advanced to Reading;
from whence they infefted the neighbouring country
by their incurfions. The Mercians, defirous of reco¬
vering their independency, refufed to join Ethered with
their forces ; fo that he was obliged to march againft
the Danes, attended only by the Weft Saxons, who
were his hereditary fubjeits. Several actions enfued,
in which the Danes are faid to have been unfuccefsful;
but being continually reinforced from their own coun¬
try, they became every day more and more formidable
to the Englifli. During the confufion and diftrefs in
which the nation was now neceffarily involved, king
Ethered died of a wound he had received in an aftion
with the Danes ; and left to his brother Alfred the
kingdom almoft totally fubdued by a foreign power. 49
Alfred, who may properly be called the founder of Alfred the
the Englifh monarchy, afeended the throne in the year Great.
871, being then only 22 years of age. His great vir¬
tues and ihining talents faved his country from ruin,
which feemed almoft unavoidable. His exploits againft
th£ Danes, his dangers and diftreffes, are related under
the article Alfred. Having fettled the nation in a
much better manner than could have been expe&ed, he
died in 901, leaving the kingdom to his fecond fon
Edward the Elder.
The beginning of this monarch’s reign was difturbed Edward the
by thofe inteftine commotions from which the wife and elder,
politic Alfred had taken fo much pains to free the na¬
tion. Ethelwald, fon to king Ethelbert, Alfred’s el¬
der brother, claimed a right to the throne. Having
armed his pattifans, he took poffeffion of Winburne,
where he feemed determined to hold out to the laft
extremity. On the approach of Edward, however,
with a powerful army, he firft fled into Normandy, and
afterwards into Northumberland. He hoped to find
the Northumbrians ready to join him, as moft of them
were Danes, lately fubdued by Alfred, and very im¬
patient of peace. The event did not difappoint his ex*
4 F 2 pe&ations.
England.
ENG t 596 ] ENG
pe&ations. The Northumbrians declared for him; and
Ethelwald having thus connefted himfelf with the Da-
nifh tribes, went beyond fea, whence he returned with
a great body of thefe banditti. On his return, he was
joined by the Danes of Eaft Anglia and Mercia. E-
thelwald, at the head of the rebels, made an irruption
into the counties of Gloucefter, Oxford, and Wilts;
and having ravaged the country, retired with his booty
before the king could approach him. Edward, how¬
ever, took care to revenge himfelf, by conducing his
forces into Eaft Anglia, and ravaging it in like man¬
ner. He then gave orders to retire; but the Kent-
i(h men, greedy of more plunder, ftaid behind, and
took up their quarters at Bury. Here they were af-
faulted by the Danes; but the Kentifhmen made fuch
an obftinate defence, that though their enemies gained
the vidlory, it was bought by the lofs of their braveft
men, and, among the reft, of the ufurper Ethelwald
himfelf.
The king, now freed from the attempts of fo dan¬
gerous a rival, concluded an advantageous peace with
the Eaft Angles. He next fet about reducing the
Northumbrians; and for this purpofe equipped a fleet,
hoping that thus they would be induced to remain at
home to defend their own country, without attempting
to invade his territories. He was difappointed in his
expedlations. The Northumbrians were more eager
to plunder their neighbours than to fecure themfelves.
Imagining that the whole of Edward's forces were em¬
barked on board his fleet, they entered his territories
with all the troops they could raife. The king, how¬
ever, was better prepared for them than they had ex-
pe&ed. He attacked them on their return at Tetenhall
in the county of Stafford, put them to flight, recovered
all the booty, and purfued them with great daughter
into their own country.
The reft of Edward’s reign was a fcene of continued
and fuccefsful aftion againft the Northumbrians, Eaft
Angles, the Danes of Mercia, and thofe who came
from their native country in order to invade England.
He put his kingdom in a good pollute of defence, by
fortifying the towns of Chtfter, Eddelbury, Warwick,
Cherbury, Buckingham, Towcefter, Maldon, Hun¬
tingdon, and Colchefter. He vanquilhed Thurketill
a Danilh chieftan, and obliged him to retire with his
followers into France. He fubdued the Eaft Angli-
ans, Northumbrians, and feveral tribes of the Britons ;
and even obliged the Scots to make fubmiflions. He
died in 925, and was fucceeded by Athelftan his na¬
tural fon.
This prince, notwithftanding his illegitimate birth,
afcended the throne without much oppofition, as the
legitimate children of Edward were too young to rule
a nation fo much liable both to foreign invaiions and
domeftic troubles as England at prefent was. One Al¬
fred, however, a nobleman of confifterable power, en¬
tered into a confpiracy againft him. Itisfaid, that this
nobleman was feized upon ftrong fufpicions, but with¬
out any certain proof. He offered to fwear to his
innocence before the pope; and in thofe ages it was
fuppofed that none could take a falfe oath in prefence
of fuch a facred perfon, without being vifited by an
immediate judgment from God. Alfred was accord¬
ingly conducted to Rome, and took the oath required
of him before Pope John. The words were no fooner
3
pronounced, than he fell into convulfions, of which he England,
expired in three days. The king, fully convinced of''■—v'”—'
his guilt, confifcated his eftate, and made a prefent of
it to the monaftery of Malmelbury.
This accident proved the means of eftablilhing the
authority of Athelftan in England. But finding the
Northumbrians bore the Englilh yoke with impatience,
he gave Sithric, a Danifti nobleman, the title of king
of Northumberland; and in order to fecure his friend-
fliip, gave him his own fifter Editha in marriage. This
was produftive of bad confequences. Sithric died the
year after his marriage with Editha; upon which An-
laf and Godfrid, Sithric’s fons by a former marriage,
affumed the fovcreignty without waiting for Athel-
ftan’s confent. They were, however, foon obliged to
yield to the fuperior power of that monarch. The
farmer fled to Ireland; and the latter to Scotland,
where he was prote&ed by Conftantine king of that
country. The Scottilh monarch was continually im¬
portuned by Athelftan to deliver up his gueft, and even
threatened with an invafion in cafe he did not comply.
Conftantine, detefting this treachery, advifed Godfrid
to make his efeape. He did fo, turned pirate, and
died foon after. Athelftan, however, relenting this
conduft of Conftantine, invaded his kingdom, and re¬
duced him, it is faid, fo low, that he was obliged to
make the moft humble fubmiflions. This, however, is
denied by all the Scottilh hiftorians.
Conftantine, after the departure of Athelftan, enter¬
ed into a confederacy with Anlaf, who fubfifted by his
piracies, and with fome of the Welih princes who were ^
alarmed at the increafe of Athelftan’s power. All thefe Defeats his
confederates made an irruption into England at once ; enemies,
but Athelftan meeting them at Brumftmry in Nor¬
thumberland, gave them a total# overthrow. Anlaf
and Conftantine made their efcape with difficulty, lea¬
ving the greateft part of their men dead on the field of
battle. After this period, Athelftan enjoyed his
crown in tranquillity. He died in 941, after a reign
of 16 years. He paffed a remarkable law, for the en¬
couragement of commerce; viz. that a merchant, who
had made three long fea-voyages on his own account,
fhould be admitted to the rank of a thane or gentle-
man. S3
Athelftan was fucceeded by his brother Edmund. Edmund.
On his acceffion, he found the kingdom difturbed by
the reftlefs Northumbrians, who watched for every op¬
portunity of rifing in rebellion. They were, however,
foon reduced; and Edmund took care to enfure the
peace of the kingdbm, by removing the Danes from
the towns of Meveia where they had been allowed to
fettle, becaufe it was found that they took every op¬
portunity to introduce foreign Danes into the kingdom.
He alfo conquered Cumberland from the Britons. This
country, however, he beftowed upon Malcolm king of
Scotland, upon condition that he fhould do homage for
it, and protect the north of England from all future
incurfions of the Danes.
Edmund was unfortunately murdered in Glocefter, Murdered
by one Leolf a notorious robber. This man had been by l.eoif.
formerly fentenced to banilhment; yet had the bold-
nefs to enter the hall where tire king himfelf dined, and
to fit at table with his attendants. Edmund imme-
dirtely ordered him to leave the room. The villain
refufed to obey ; upon which the king leaped upon
him*
ENG [ 597 ] ENG
England, him, and feized him by the hair. Leolf then drew
a dagger, and gave the king a wound, of which he
inftantly died, A. D. 946, being the fixth year of his
55 reign.
Edred. . ^ children of Edmund were too young at the
time of his deceafe, his brother Edred fucceeded to the
throne. The beginning of his reign, as well as thofe
of his predeceflbrs, was difturbed by the rebellions and
incurfions of the Northumbrian Danes, who looked
upon the fucceffion of every new king to be a favour¬
able opportunity for fhakingoft the Englifh yoke. On
the appearance of Edred with an army, however, they
immediately fubmitted ; but before the king withdrew
his forces, he laid wafte their territories as a punilh-
^ ment for their offence. He was no fooner gone, than
Subdues the they rofe in rebellion a fecond time. They were again
M nr chum- fubdued ; and the king took effectual precautions a-
brians. gainfl their future revolts, by placing Englifh garri-
fbns in all their towns, and appointing an Englifh go¬
vernor to watch their motions, and fupprefs their in-
furre&ions on the firft appearance. In the reign of
Edred, celibacy of the clergy began to be preached
Celibacy of up under the patronage of St Dunstan. This man
the clergy had obtained fuch an afcendant over Edred, who was
introduced. naturally fuperftitious, that he not only dire&ed him
in affairs of confcience, but in the mod important mat¬
ters of date. Pie was placed at the head of the trea-
fury ; and being thus poffeffed of great power at court,
he was enabled to accompli(h the mod arduous under¬
takings. He profeffed himftlf a partifan of the rigid
monadic rules; and having introduced celibacy among
the monks of Gladenbury and Abingdon, he endea¬
voured to render it univerfal amongnhe clergy through¬
out the kingdom. The monks in a fhort time, gene¬
rally embraced the pretended reformation; after which
they inveighed bitterly againd the vices and luxury of
the age. When other topi«s of defamation were want¬
ing, the marriages of clergymen became a hire object
of inve&ive. Their wives received the appellation of
concubines or fome other more opprobrious name. The
fecular clergy, on the other hand, who were nume¬
rous and rich, defended themfelves with vigour, and
endeavoured to retaliate upon their adverfaries. The
people were thrown into the mod violent ferments ;
but the monks, being patronifed by king Edred, gain¬
ed ground greatly upon their opponents. Their pro-
gvefs, however, was fomewhat retarded by the king’s
death, which happened in 955, after a reign of nine
years. He left children ; but as they were infants,
Ids nephew Edwy, fon to Edmund, was placed on the
„ throne.
The new king was not above i 6 or 17 years of age
at the time of his acceffon. His reign is only re-
markable for the tragical dory of his queen Elgiva.
She was a princefs of the royal blood, with whom
Edwy was deeply enamoured. She was liis fecond or
third coufin, and therefore within the degrees of affinity
prohibited by the canon law. Edwy, however, heark¬
ening only to the didlates of his palfion, married her,
contrary to the advice of the more dignified ecclefiadics.
The monks on this occafion were particularly violent;
and therefore Edwy determined not to fecond their
ambitious projefts. He foon found reafon to repent
his having provoked fuch dangerous enemies. On his
coronation day, while his nobility were indulging them-
Edway.
fclves in riotous mirth in a great hall where they had E :g’an<t
affembled, Edwy withdrew to another apartment to 
enjoy the company of his beloved queen and her mo¬
ther. Dunftan gueffed the reafon of his abfence. With
unparalleled impudence, he burll into the queen’s apart¬
ment; and upbraiding Edwy with his lafcivioufnefs, as
he termed it, pufiied him back to the hall where the
nobles were affembled. The king determined to re-
fent fuch a daring infult. He required from Dunftan
an account of his adminiftration of the treafury during
the late reign. The monk, probably unable to give
a juft account, refufed to give any; upon which Edwy
accufed him of malverfation in his office, and banifhed
him the kingdom.
This proved the worft fte'p that could polfibly have
been taken. Dunftan was no fooner gone than the
whole nation was in an uproar about his fanclity and
the king’s impiety. Thefe clamours, as they had been
begun by the clergy, fo they were kept up and in-
creafed by them, till at laft they proceeded to the moll
outrageous violence. Archbifhop Odo fent a party of
foldiers co the palace. They feized the queen, and-prascal
burned her face with a red-hot iron, in order to de-deafh of th«-
ftroy her beauty by which fhe had enticed her hufband; queen,
after which they carried her by force into Ireland,
there to remain in perpetual exile. The king, finding
it in vain to refill, was obliged to confent to a divorce
from her, which was pronounced by Archbiftiop Odo.
A cataftrophe Hill more difmal awaited Elgiva. She
had been cured of her wounds, and had even found
means to efface the fears with which her perfecutors
had hoped to dJlroy her beauty. She then came to
England, with a defign to return to the king, whom,
fhe ft ill conlidered as her hufband. Unfortunately,
however, fhe was intercepted by a party of foldiers
fent for that purpofe by the primate. Nothing but
her moll cruel death could now fatisfy that wretch and
his accomplices. She was hamftringed at Glouceiler,.
and expired in a few days.
The minds of the Englifh were at this time fomuch
funk in fuperftition, that the monftrous inhumanity
above mentioned was called a judgment from God
upon Edwy and his fpoufe for their dhTolute life, i. e.
their love to each other. They even proceeded to re¬
bellion againfl their foveieign; and having railed to the
throne Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, at that
time only 13 years of age, they foon put him in pof-
felfion of Mercia, Northumberland, and Eaft Anglia.
Edwy being thus confined to the fouthern counties,
Dunftan returned, and took upon him the government
of Edgar and his party;.but the death of Edwy foon
removed all difficulties, and gave Edgar peaceable pof-
felfion of the government.
• Tlie reign, of Edgar proved one of the moft-fortu-F, ^
nate mentioned in the ancient Englifh hiftory. He
took the mofl effedlual methods both for preventing
tumults at home and invafions from abroad. He
quartered a body of difeiplined troops in the north,
in order to repel the incurfions of the Scots, and to
keep the Northumbrians in awe. He built a power¬
ful navy; and that he might keep the feamen in the
practice of their duty, as well as prtfent a formi¬
dable armament to his enemies, he commanded the
fleet from time to time, to make the circuit of his-
dominions.
The
ENG [ 598 ] ENG
/F.r’g'anit. The grtatnefa of king Edgar, which is very much
celebrated by the Englilh hiftorians, was owing to the
harmony which reigned between him and his fubjefts;
and the reafon of this good agreement was, that the
king iided with Dunilan and the monks, who had ac¬
quired a great afcendant over the people. He enabled
them ,to accomplifli their favourite fcheme of difpoffef-
iing the fecular canons of all the monalderies ; and he
confulted them not only in ecclefiaftical, but alfo in
civil affairs. On thefe accounts, he is celebrated by
the monkilh writers with the higheft praifes; though
it is plain, from fome of his aftions, that he was a
man who could be bound neither by the ties 'of re¬
ligion nor humanity. He broke into a convent, and
carried off by force, and ravifhed, a nun called Edi-
iHislicenti- tha. His fpiritual inftruftor, Dunilan, for this of-
susaniours fence, obliged the king, not to feparate from his mif-
trefs, but to abftain from wearing his crown for feven
years!
Edgar, however, was not to be fatisfied with one
miftrefs. He happened once tododge at the houfe of
a nobleman who had a very beautiful daughter. Ed¬
gar, enflamed with delire at the light of the young la¬
dy, without ceremony alked her mother to allow her
to pafs a night with him. She promifed compliance;
but fecretly ordered a waiting-maid, named Elfleda, to
fteal into the king’s bed when the company were gone,
and to retire before day-break. Edgar, however, de¬
tained her by force, till day-light difcovered the de¬
ceit. His love was now transferred to the waiting-
maid ; who became his favourite ir.Ulrefs, and main¬
tained a great afcendant over him till his marriage with
Eifrida.
His marri- The circumftances of this marriage were Hill more
nge with fmgular and criminal than thofe above mentioned. El-
idfrida. fr;da‘ was daughter and heirefs to Olgar Earl of De-
vonlhire. She was a perfon of fuch exquifite beauty,
that her fame was fpread all over England, though Ihe
had never been at court. Edgar’s curiofity was ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of her, and there¬
fore formed a defign of marrying her. He communi¬
cated his intention to Earl Athelwold his favourite ;
and ordered him, on fome pretence or other, to vifit
the Earl of Devonfhire, and bring him a certain ac¬
count concerning Eifrida. Athelwold went as he was
defired ; but fell fo deeply in love with the lady him-
felf, that he refolved to facrifice his fidelity to his paf-
fion. He returned to Edgar, and told him, that El-
frida’s charms were by no means extraordinary, and
would have been totally overlooked in a woman of in¬
ferior ftation. After fome time, however, turning the
converfation again upon Eifrida, he told the king that
he thought her parentage and fortune made her a very
advantageous match ; and therefore, if the king gave
his confent, he would make propofals to the Earl of
Devonfiiire on his own behalf. Edgar confented, and
AtheUvold was married to Eifrida.—After his mar¬
riage, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to keep his wife
from court, that Edgar might have no opportunity of
obferving her beauty. The king, however, was foon
informed of the truth; and told Athelwold that he in¬
tended to pay him a vifit in his caflle, and be made
acquainted with his new-married wife. The Earl could
make no objections ; only he defired a few hours to
prepare for the vifit. He then confeffed the whole
to Elfrida, and begged of her to appear before the England.
king as much to the difadvantage as poflible. In- v—
Head of this, (he dreffed herfelf to the greateil ad¬
vantage. Edgar immediately conceived a violent paffion
for her; and, in order to gratify it, feduced Athelwold
into a wood under pretence of hunting, where he {tab¬
bed him with his own hand, and afterwards married
his widow.
The reign of Edgar is remarkable among hiftorians
for the encouragement he gave to foreigners to refide
at his court and throughout the kingdom. Thefe fo¬
reigners, it is faid, corrupted the former Ample man¬
ners of the nation. Of this limplicity, however, there
feems to be no great reafon to boaft; feeing it could
not preferve them from treachery and cruelty, the
greateft of all vices : fo that their acquaintance with
foreigners was certainly an advantage to the people, as
it tended to enlarge their views, and cure them of -
thofe illiberal prejudices and ruftic manners to which
iflanders are often fubjeft.—Another remarkable inci- ^
dent, is the extirpation of wolves from England. The Wolves as¬
king took great pleafure in hunting and deftroying tirpated
them animals himfelf. At laft he found that they had £nS'’
all taken (belter in the mountains and forefts of Wales. a
Upon this he changed the tribute impofed upon the
Welfti princes by Athelftan, into an annual tribute of
300 wolves heads; and this produced fuch diligence in
hunting them, that the animal has never fince appeared
in England. .
Edgar died in 957, after a reign of 16 years. He£jwar(]the
left a Ton named Edward, whom he had by his tirft martyr,
wife the daughter of Earl Ordmer ; and another, na¬
med Ethelred, by Eifrida. The mental qualifications of
this lady were by no means anfwerable to the beauty
of her perfon. She was ambitious, haughty, treache¬
rous, and cruel. The principal nobility, therefore,
were greatly, averfe from the fucceftion of her fon E-
thelred, which would unavoidably throw too much
power into the hands of his mother, as he himfelf was
only feven years of age. Edward, afterwards furnamed
the Martyr, was therefore pitched upon ; and was
certainly the moft proper perfon, as he was 15 years of
age, and might foon be able to take the government
into his own hands. Eifrida oppofed his advancement
with all her might: but Dunftan overcame every ob-
ftacle, by anointing and crowning the young prince at
Ringfton ; upon which the whole kingdom fubmitted
without farther oppofition.
The only remarkable occurrence in this reign was
the complete vi&ory gained by the monks over the fe¬
cular clergy, who were now totally expelled from the
convents. Though this had been pretty nearly ac-
complifhed by Edgar, the fecular clergy (till had par-
tifans in England who made confiderable oppofition ;
but thefe were all filenced by the following miracles.
In one fynod, Dunuan, finding the majority of votes Mj^ies cf
againft him, rofe up, and declared that he had that st
inftant received from heaven a revelation in favour of
the monks. The whole affembly was fo much overaw¬
ed by this intelligence, that they proceeded no farther
in their deliberations. In another fynod, a voice iffned
from the crucifix, acquainting the members, that the
eftabliftiment of the monks was founded on the will of
heaven, and could rvot be oppofed without impiety.
But the third miracle was ftill more alarming. In an¬
other
ENG
England, other fynod the floor of the hall funk, and great num-
J bers of the members were killed or bruifed by their
fall. It was remarked that Dunftan had that day pre¬
vented the king from attending the fynod, and that tha
beam on which his own chair Hood was the only one
[ 599 1
ENG
thenceforth, not to his fervices or the affe&ions of his England,
countrymen, but to the influence he had over his vaf-y~~»;
fals, and to the public calamities. Thefe lad he de¬
termined always to promote as far as he could ; be-
caufe in every revolution his afliftance would be necef-
which did not fink. Thefe circumflanees, inftead of fary, and confequently he muft receive a continual ac-
making him fufpected as the author of the miracle,
were regarded as proofs of the interpofition of Provi¬
dence in his favour.
Edward lived four years after he was raifed to the
throne, in perfeft innocence and fimplicity. Being in¬
capable of any treacherous intention himfelf, he fuf-
pefted none in others. Though his flepmother had op-
pofed his fucceffion, he had always behaved towards
her with the greateft refpeft ; and expreffed on all oc*
cafions the mofl tender affedtion for his brother Ethel-
ceffion of power. The Englilh had formed a plan for
furrounding and deftroying the Danifh fleet in the har¬
bour ; but Alfric not only gave the enemy notice of
this defign, but alfo deferted-with his fquadron the
night before the engagement. The Englifli by this
means proved unfuccefsful; and Ethelred, in revenge,
took Alfgar, Alfric’s fon, and ordered his eyes to be
put our. This piece of cruelty could be produftive of
no good effedf. Alfric had become fo powerful, that,
notwithfianding his treachery, it was found impoffible
red. Being one day hunting in the neighbourhood of to deprive him of the government of Mercia.
the caftle where Elfrida refided, he paid her a viiit un¬
attended by any of his retinue. After mounting his
66 horfe with a defign to return, he defired fome liquor
The king to brought him. But while he was holding the cup
*rur ere . ^ ^is head, a fervant of Elfrida ftabbed him behind.
The king, finding himfelf wounded, clapped fpurs to
In 993, the Danes under the command of Sweyn
their king, and the Norwegians conducted by Olave
king of that country, failed up the Humber, and dc-
ftroyed all around them. A powerful army was affem-
bled to oppofe thefe invaders; but through the treach¬
ery of the three leaders, all men of Danifli extraftion.
his horfe ; but foon becoming faint by the lofs of the Englifh were totally defeated. Encouraged by
blood, he fell from the faddle, and his foot being
entangled in the ftirrup, he was dragged along till
he expired. PI is body was Pound and privately inter¬
red at Wereham by his fervants. The Englifli had
fuch compafiion for this amiable prince, that they
beflowed on him the appellation of Martyr, and even
fancied that miracles were wrought at his tomb. El-
. frida built monafteties, and fubmitted to many penan¬
ces, in order to atone for her guilt ; but, even in that
barbarous age, (he could never regain the good opinion
57 of the public.
!red. After the murder of Edward, bis brother Ethelred
fucceeded to the throne without oppofnion. As he
was a minor when he was raifed to the throne, and,
even when he came to man’s eftate, never difeovered
any vigour or capacity of defending the kingdom againfl
invaders, the Danes began.to renew their incurfians.
Before they durfl attempt any thing of importance,
however, they firft made a fmall incurfion by way of
trial. In the year 981, they landed in Southampton
from feven veflels; and having ravaged the country,
68 they retired with impunity, carrying a great booty a-
.long with them. 10987, they made a fin ilar at-
iuined by' temPl on l^e we^ coafl, and were attended with the
ihe Danes, like fuccefs. Finding that matters weie now in a fa¬
vourable lunation for their enterprifes, they landed in
Effex under the command of two chieftains; and, ha¬
ving defeated and killed Brithnot duke of that coun¬
ty, laid wafte all the neighbouring provinces. In this
extremity, Ethelred, furnamed, on account of his
prepofterous conduit, the Unready, bribed the enemy
with L.t 0,000 to depart the kingdom. This advice
was given by Siricius archbifliop of Canterbury, and
fome of the degenerate nobility ; and was attended
with the fuccefs that might have been expedted. The
Danes appeared' next year off the eaftern coaft. But,
in -the mean time, the Englifli had determined to af-
femble at London a fleet capable of repulfing the
this fuccefs, the Danes entered the Thames in 94 vef-
fels, and laid liege to London. The inhabitants,
however, made fuch a brave defence, that the befie-
gers were finally obliged to give over the attempt..
Out of revenge for this difappointment, they laid wafle
Effex, Suffex, and Hamplhire. In thefe counties they
procured horfes; by which means they were enabled
to penetrate into the more inland parts, and threaten¬
ed the kingdom with total fubjediion. Ethelred and
his nobles had now recourfe to their former expedient.
They fent ambaffadors to the two northern kings, to
whom they promifed fubfiftence and tribute, provided
they would, for the prelent, put an end to their ra¬
vages, and foon after depart the kingdom. They a-
greed to the terms, and peaceably took up their quar¬
ters at Southampton. Olave even paid a vifit to E-
thelred, and received the rite of confirmation from the
Englilh bilhops. The king alfo made him many pre-
fents ; and Olave promifed never more to infefl the
Englilh territories ; which promile it is faid he after¬
wards religioufly obferved.
After the departure of Olave with his Norwegians,
Sweyn, though lefs fcrupulous than the king of Nor¬
way, was obliged to leave the kingdom alfo. But this
lhameful compofition procured only a Ihort relief to the
nation. The Danes foon after appeared in the Severn
and having ravaged Wales as well as Cornwall and De¬
von, they failed round, and, entering the mouth of
the Tamar, completed the ruin of thefe two counties.
Then, returning to the Briftol channel, and penetia-
ting into the country by the Avon, they over-ran all;
that country, and carried fire and fword even into
Dorfetlhire. In 098, they changed the feat of war;
and, after ravaging the ille of Wight, they entered the
Thames and Medway, where they laid liege to Rot
chefter, and defeated the K.entilh men in a great battle.
After this victory, the whole province of Kent was
made a feene of llaughter and devaftation. The ex-
my. This failed of fuccefs through the treachery of tremity of thefe miferies forced the Englilh into coun-
Alftic Duke of Mercia. Having been formerly ba- fels for common defence both by fea and lanl: but ike-
njlhed the kingdom, and found great difficulty in get- weaknefs of the king, the divifions among the nobili-
ting himfelf reftored to his former dignity, he trufted ty, the treachery of fome, the cowardice of others,,'
tha.
ENG I 6co 1 ENG
it the want of conceit in all, fruftrated.every endeavour;
. v and their fleets and armies either came too late to at¬
tack the enemy, or were repulfed with dilhonour. 'The
Englifh, therefore, devoid both of prudence and una¬
nimity in council, had recourfe to the expedient which
by experience they had found to be ineffedtual. They
offered the Danes a large fum if they would conclude
a peace and depart the kingdom. Thefe ravagers con¬
tinually rofe in their demands ; and now required the
payment of L.24,COO, which the Englifh fubmitted
to give. The departure of the Danes procured them
a temporary relief; which they enjoyed as if it was to
be perpetual, without making any effe&ual prepara¬
tions for giving them a more vigorous reception upon
their next return.
Befides the receiving this fum, the Danes were at
prefent engaged by another motive to depart from
England. They were invited over by their country¬
men in Normandy, who at this time were hard prefs-
ed by Robert king of France, and who found it dif¬
ficult to defend their fettlements againfl: him. It is
probable alfo, that Ethelred, obferving the clofe con¬
nexion of all the Danes with one another, however
they might be divided in government or fituation, was
69 defirous of. procuring an alliance with that formi-
Marnageofdable people. For this purppfe, being at, prefent a
the King widower, he made his addrefles to Emma, filter to Ri-
^incefTof chard IE Duke of Normandy. He foon fucceeded in
Kormandy.his negociations; the princefs came over to England,
and was married to the king in the year 1001.
Though the Danes had been for a long time efta-
blilhed in England, and though the fimilarity of their
language with the Saxon had invited them to an early
coalition with the natives ; they had as yet found lb
little example of civilized manners among the Engliflr,
that they retained all their ancient ferocity, and valued
themfelves only on their national charaXer of military
bravery. The Englilh princes had been fo well ac¬
quainted with their fuperiority in this refpeX, that A-
thelfton and Edgar had been accuftomed to keep in
pay large bodies of Danifh troops, who were quarter¬
ed about the country, and committed many violences
upon the inhabitants. Thefe mercenaries had attained
to fuch an height in luxury, according to the old Eng¬
lilh writers, that they combed their hair once a-day,
bathed themfelves once a-week, changed their clothes
mquently ; and by all thefe arts of effeminacy, as well
as by their military charaXer, had rendered them¬
felves fo agreeable to the fair fex, that they debauched
the wives and daughters of the Englilh, and had dif-
honoured many families. But what moll provoked
the inhabitants was, that, inllead of defending them
againft invaders, they were always ready to betray
N 115.
them to the foreign Danes, and to affociate themfelves England,
with every ftraggling party which came from that na- —-v—
tion. ' _ _ _ 70
The animofities between the native Englilh and the Danes mat-
Danes who inhabited among them, had from thefe facred.
caufes rifen to a great height; when Ethelred, from a
policy commonly adopted by weak princes, took the
cruel refolution of malfacring the Danes throughout
the kingdom. On the 13th of November i6oz,fecret
orders were difpatched to commence the execution e-
very where on the fame day; and the feftival of St
Brice, which fell on a Sunday, the day on which the
Danes ufually bathed themfelves, was chofen for this
purpofe. Thefe cruel orders were executed with the
utmoll exaXnefs. No diftinXion was made betwixt
the innocent and the guilty; neither fex nor age was
fpared; nor were the cruel executioners fatisfied with¬
out the tortures, as well as death, of the unhappy vic¬
tims. Even Gunilda, filler to the king of Denmark,
who had married Earl Paling, and had embraced Chri-
llianity, was, by the advice of Edric Earl of Wilts,
feized and condemned to death by Ethvlred, after fee¬
ing her hulhand and children butchered before her face.
This unhappy princefs foretold, in the agonies of de-
fpair, that her murder would foon be avenged by the
total ruin of the Englilh nation (a).
The prophecy of Gunilda was exaXly fulfilled. In New mva-
1003, Sweyn and his Danes, who wanted only a pre-fion by
tence to renew their invafions, appeared off the weltern Sweyn*
coalt, and threatened revenge for the flaughter of their
countrymen. The Englilh took meafures for repulfing
the enemy ; but thefe were defeated thro’ the treach¬
ery firll of Alfric ; and then of Edric, a Hill greater
traitor, who had married the king’s daughter, and fuc¬
ceeded Alfric in the command of the Britilh armies.
The Danes therefore ravaged the whole country. • A-
griculture was negleXed, a famine enfued, and the
kingdom was reduced to. the utmoll degree of mifery.
At laft the infamous expedient of buying a peace was
recurred to ; and the departure of the Danes was pur-
chafed, in 1007, at the expence of L.30,000.
The Englilh endeavoured to employ this interval in
making preparations again ft the return of the Danes,
which they had reafon foon to expeX. A law was
made, ordering the proprietors of eight hides of land
to provide themfelves of a horfeman and a complete
fuit of armour ; and thofe of 310 hides to equip a Ihip
for the defence of the kingdom. By this means a
formidable armament was railed. There were 243,600
hides in England ; confequently the Ihips equipped
mult be 785. The cavalry was 30,450 men. All
hopes of fuccefs from this equipment, however, were
difappointed by the faXions, animofities, and diflen-
tions
(a) On the fubjeX of this malfacre, Mr Hume has the following obfervations: “ Almoft all the an¬
cient hiltc rians fpeak of this maflacre of the Danes as if it had been univerfal, and as if every individual
of that nation throughout England had been put to death. But the Danes were almoft the foie inhabitants
ift the kingdom* of Northumberland and Eaft Anglia, and were very numerous in Mercia. This repre-
fentation of the matter was abfolutely impoflible. Great refiftance mull have been made, and violent wars
enfued ; which was not the cafe. This account given by Wallingford, though he Hands fingle, mull be ad¬
mitted as the only true one. We are told that the name of lurdane, lord Dane, for an idle lazy fellow who
lives at other peoples expence, came from the conduX of the Danes who were put to death. But the Eng¬
lifh princes had been entirely mafters for feveral generations; and only fupported a military corps of that
nation. It feems probable* therefore, that thefe Danes only were put to death.”
ENG [ 601 ] ENG
^England, tions of the nobility. Edric had caufed Ins brother than his father had been. He ravaged the eaflern En^iarH.
Brightric to advance an accufation of treafon againft coaft with mercilefs fury; and put afhore all the Eng-  ^
Wolfnoth governor of Sulfex, the father of the fa- lifh holtages at Sandwich, after having cut off their
mous Earl Godwin ; and that nobleman, knowing the hands and nofes. He was at laft obliged, by the ne-
power a,nd malice of his enemy, confulted his own ceflity of his affairs, to return to Denmark. In a
fafety by deferting with 20 {hips to the Danes, fhort time, however, he returned, and continued his
Brisrhtric purfued him with a fleet of 80 fail; but depredations along the fouthern coart. He then broke
his (hips being {battered in a tempeft, and ftranded on into the counties of Dorfet, Wilts, and Somerfet •
the coaft, he was fuddenly attacked by Wolfnoth, and where an army was affembled againft him under the
all his veflels were burnt or otherwife deftroyed. The command of Prince Edmund and Duke Edric. The
treachery of Edric fruflirated every plan of future de- latter {till continued his perfidious machinations; and
fence ; and the whole navy was at laft fcattered into after endeavouring in vain to get the prince into his
the feveral harbours. ' power, found means to difiipate the army, and then
By thefe fatal mifcarriages, the enemy had leifure deferted to Canute with 40 veflels.
to over run the whole kingdom. They had now got Edmund was not dilheartened by this treachery. He
fuch a footing, indeed, that they could hardly have again afiembled his forces, and was in a condition to
been expelled though the nation had been ever fo una- give the enemy battle. Ethelred, however, had now
nimous. But fo far did mutual diffidence and diflen- fuch frequent experience of the treachery of his fub-
tion prevail, that the governors of one province refu- jedts, that he had loft all confidence in them. He re¬
fed to march to the afliftance of another; and were at mained in London, pretending ficknefs, but in reality
laft terrified from affembling their forces for the de- from an apprehenfion that they intended to buy their
fence of their own. At lalt the ufual expedient was peace by delivering him into the hands of his enemies,
tried. A peace was bought with L.48,000; but this The army called aloud for their fovereign to march at
did not procure even the ufual temporary relief. The their head againft the Danes; and on his refufal to
Danes, knowing that they were now mafters of the take the field, they were fo difcouraged, that all the
kingdom, took the money, and continued their deva- preparations which had been made became ineffectual
flations. They levied a new contribution of L.8000 for the defence of the kingdom. Edmund, deprived
on the county of Kent alone ; murdered the archbi- of all regular refources for the maintenance of the fol-
fhop of Canterbury, who had refufed to countenance diers, was obliged to commit limilar ravages to thofe
this exaftion; and the Englifli nobility fubmittedevery praftifed by the Danes; and after making fome fruit-
7a where to the Daniftr monarch, fwearing allegiance to lefs expeditions into the north, which had fubmitted
Ethelred him, and giving hoftages for their good behaviour. At entirely to Canute’s power, he returned to London,
i»audvN°!"laft, Ethelred himfelf, dreading equally the violence of where he found every thing in confufion by the death
the enemy and the treachery of his own fubjedls, fled of the king.
into Normandy, whither he had already fent queen Ethelred died in 1016, after an unhappy reign of Edmund
Emma and her twm fo ns Alfred and Edward. The 35 years; and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Ed-Ironfide dl-
Duke received his unhappy guefts with a generofity mund, furnamed Zrc/j/k/t on account of his great ftrength vides the
which does honour to his memory. and valour. He poffeffed abilities fuflicient to have HLd ,rn
The flight of king Ethelred happened in the end of faved his country from ruin, had he come fooner to janes!16
the year 1013. He had not been above fix weeks in the throne ; but it was now too late. He bravely op-
Normandy, when he heard of the death of Sweyn, pofed the Danes, however, notwithftanding every dif-
which happened at Gainlborough before he had time advantage ; till it laft the nobility of both nations ob-
to eftablirt. himfelf in his new dominions. At the fame Eged their kings to come to a compromife, and divide
time he received an invitation from the prelates and the kingdom between them by treaty. Canute re-
n ability to refume the kingdom ; exprefling alfo their ferved to himfelf Mercia, Eall Anglia, and Northum-
hupes, that, being now better taught by experience, berland, which he had entirely fubdued. The fouth-
he would avoid thofe errors which had been fo fatal to ern parts were left to Edmund. This prince furvi-
Refunis, himfelf and his people. But the mifconduft of Ethel- ved the treaty only about a month; being murdered
fcut behaves red was incurable ; and, on his refuming the govern- at Oxford by two of his chamberlains, accomplices of
as ill as ment, he behaved in the very fame manner that he had Edric.
cver' done before. His fon-in-law Edric, notwithftanding After the death of Edmund, nothing was left for Can ^
his repeated treafons, retained fueh influence at court, the Englilh but fubmiffion to Canute. The leaft fcru- anUte’
that he inftilled into the king jealoufies of Sigefert pulous of mankind, however, dare not at all times
and Morcar, two of the chief nobles of Mercia. Edric openly commit injuftice. Canute, therefore, before he
enticed them into his houfe, where he murdered them; feized the dominions of Edwin and Edward, the two
while Ethelred partook of the infamy of this aftion, f°ns °f Edmund, fuborned fome of the nobility to de-
by confifcdting their eftates, and confining the widow P°fe» that, in the laft treaty with Edmund, it had
of Sigefert in a convent. She was a woman of fingu- been verbally agreed, that, in cafe of Edmund’s death
lar beauty and merit; and in a vifit which was paid her, Canute fhould either be fucceffor to his dominions or
during her confinement, by prince Edmund the king’s tutor to his children ; for hiftorians differ with regard
eldeft fon, {he infpired him vyith fo violent an affe&ion, t0 this particular. This evidence, fupported by the
that he releafed her from the convent, and foon after great power of Canute, was fufficient to get him elec-
married her without his father’, confent. ted king of England. Immediately after his acceffion
In the mean time, Canute, the fon and fucceffor of to the throne, he fent the two fons of Edmund to the
Sweyn, proved an enemy no lefs terrible to the E'-gli/h court of Sweden, oh pretence of being there educated*
’ Vol. VI. Part II. 4 G but
ENG L 602 ] ENG
England, but charged the king to put them to death as foon as
s—y—. they arrived. The Swedilh monarch did not comply
with this requeft ; but fent them to Solomon king of
Hungary, to be educated in his court. The elder,
Edwin, was afterwards married to Solomon’s filler :
but he dying without ifiue, that prince gave his lifter-
in-law, Agatha, daughter of the emperor Henry II.
in marriage to Edward, the younger brother; and
fhe bore him Edgar Atheling ; Margaret, afterwards
queen of Scotland; and Chriftina, who retired into a
convent.
Canute was obliged at firft to make great conceffions
to the nobility : but he afterwards put to death many
of thofe in whom he could not put confidence; and,
among the reft, the traitor Edric himfelf, who was pub¬
licly executed, and his bod}' thrown into the Thames.
7^ In order to prevent any danger from the Normans,
Etheired’s w^° ^ad threatened him with an invafion, he married
widow. Emma the widow of Ethelred, and who now came
over from Normandy ; promifing that he would leave
the children he Ihonld have by that marriage heirs to
the crown after his deceafe. The Englifh were at firft
difpleafed with Emma for marrying the mortal enemy
of her former hulband; but at the fame time were glad
to find at court a fovereign to whom they were acCuf-
tomed, and who had already formed connections with
them : and thus Canute, befides fecuring by his mar¬
riage the alliance with Normandy, gradually acqui¬
red by the fame means the confidence of his own
people.
The moft remarkable tranfaftion in this prince’s
reign, befides thofe mentioned under the article Ca¬
nute, is his expedition to Scotland againft Malcolm
king of that country, whom he forced to do homage
for the county of Cumberland, which the Scots at that
time poffelTed. After this enterprife, Canute palled
four years in peace, and died at Shaftlhury; leaving
three fons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn,
whom he had by his firft marriage with Alfwen,
daughter of the earl of Hamplhire, was erowned in
Norway ; Hardicanute, whom Emma had born, was
in pofleffion of Denmark; and Harold, who was of
the fame marriage with Sweyn, was at that time in
England.
77 Harold fucceeded to the crown of England; though
"Tarold. jt jiacj keen ftipulated that Emma’s fon, Hardicanute,
Ihould be heir to that kingdom. This advantage Ha¬
rold obtained by being on the fpot, and getting pof-
feffion of his father’s treafures, while Hardicanute was
at a diftance. As Hardicanute, however, was fup-
ported by earl Godwin, a civil war was likely to en-
fue, when a compromife was made; by which it was
agreed, that Harold Ihould enjoy London, and all the
provinces north of the Thames, while the pofleffion of
the fouth Ihould remain to Hardicanute: and till that
prince fhould appearand take poffelfion of his domi¬
nions, Emma fixed her refidence at Wirnchefter, and
ruled her fon’s part. Harold reigned four years ; du¬
ring which time, the only memorable a&ion he per-
78 formed was a moft infamous piece of treachery.—Al-
wy and 'fieci and Edward, the two fons of Emma by Ethelred,
crucify. paid a 'vifit to their mother in England. But, in the
mean time, earl Godwin being gained over by Harold,
a plan was laid for the deftru&ion of the two princes.
Alfred was accordingly invited to London by Harold,
with many profeffions of friendfhip ; but when he had England,
reached Guildford, he was fet upon by Godwin’s vaf- —-y—
fals: about 600 of his train were murdered in the moft
cruel manner; he himfelf was taken prifoner, his eyes
were put out, and he was conducted to the monaftery
of Ely, where he died foon after. Edward and Em¬
ma, apprifed of the fate which awaited them, fled be¬
yond fea, the former into Normandy, the latter into
Flanders ; while Harold took pofleffiou of all his bro¬
ther’s dominions without oppofition.— He died in A-
pril iq39.
Hardicanute fuccceded his brother Harold without
oppofition His government was extremely violent
and tyrannical. However, it was but of ftiort dura¬
tion. He died, in 1041, of a debauch at the mar¬
riage of a Danifh lord. After his death, a favourable
opportunity was offered to the Englifh for {baking off
the Danifh yoke. Sweyn, king of Norway, the el-
deft fon of Canute, was abfent ; and as the two laft
kings had died without iffue, there appeared none of
that race whom the Danes could fupport as fucceflbr
to the throne. For this reafon, the eyes of the nation
were naturally drawn towards prince Edward, who
happened to be at court when the king died. There
were fome reafons, however, to fear, that Edward’s fuc-
ceflion would be oppofed by earl Godwin, who was by
far the moft powerful nobleman in the kingdom. A
declared animofity fubfifted between Edward and God¬
win, on account of the hand which the latter had in
the murder of his brother Alfred; and this was thought
to be an offence of fo grievous a nature, that Edward
could never forgive it. ,But here their common friends
interpofed; and reprefenting the neceffity of their good
correfpondence, obliged them to lay afidc their animo-
fities, and to concur in reftoring liberty to their native
country. Godwin only ftipulated that Edward, as a
pledge of his fincere reconciliation, - ihould promife to
marry his daughter Editha. This propofal was agreed Edward rhe
to; Edward was crowned king of England, and married ConfdTor.
Editha as he had promifed. The marriage, however,
proved rather a fource of difeord than otherwife be¬
tween the king and Godwin. Editha, though a. very
amiable woman, could never obtain the confidence and
affe&ion of her hufband. It is even faiil, that, during
the whole courfe of her life, he abftained from, all ma¬
trimonial converfe with her; and this ridiculous beha¬
viour was highly celebrated by the mor.kifh writers of
the age, and contributed to the king’s acquiring the
title of Saint and Confeffor.
Though the negledft of his daughter could not fail
to awaken Godwin’s former enmity againft king Ed¬
ward, it was neoeffary to choofe a more popular ground
before he could vent his complaints againft the king ^
in a public manner. He therefore chofe for his theme Vana,^ 0j
the influence which the Normans had on. the afiairs of the king
government; and a declared oppofition took place be-an'' eaA
tween him and thefe favourites. In a fhort tiro^, thisGo,iwm'
animofity openly broke out with great violence. Eu-
ftace count of Bologne having paid a vifit to the king,
j?afled by Dover on his return. One of his train be¬
ing refufed accefs to a lodging which had been ap*
pointed for him, attempted to make his way by force,
and wounded the mailer of the houfe in the conteft.
The townfmen revenged this infult by the death of
the ftranger j the count and his train took arms, and
mur»_
ENG l 603 ] ENG
England, murdered the townfman in his own houfe. A tumult
  v  enfued ; near 20 perfons were killed on each fide ; and
Euftace being overpowered with numbers, was at lalt
obliged to fly. He complained to the king; who gave
orders to earl Godwin, in whofe government Dover
lay, to punifli the inhabitants. But this nobleman re-
fufed to obey the command, and endeavoured to throw
the whole blame on count Euftace^and his followers.
The king was difplcafed ; and threatened to make him
feel the utmofl. effects of his refentment, in cafe he
finally refufed to comply. Upon this, Godwin af-
fembled a powerful army, on pretence of repreffing
fome diforders on the frontiers of Wales ; but, inftead
of this, marched direddly to Glocefter, where the king
at that time was without any military force, as fuf-
pe&ing no danger.
Edward perceiving his danger, applied to Siward
duke of Northumberland, and Leofric duke of Mercia,
two very powerful noblemen. They haftened to him
with fuch followers as they could affemble, iffuing or¬
ders at the fame time for all the forces under their re-
fpeftive governments to march without delay to the
defence of the king. Godwin, in the mean time, fuf-
fered himfelf to be deceived by negociations, till the
gt king’s army became fo powerful, that he was not able
Godwin to cope with it. He was therefore obliged to fly with
j fliejioFlan-his family to Flanders. Here he was protected by
’‘k18, Baldwin earl of that country, together with his three
fons Gurth, Sweyn, and Tofti; the laft of whom had
married Baldwin’s daughter. Harold and Leofwin*
two other fons of Godwin, took (heller in Ireland.
After the flight of earl Godwin, he was proceeded
againft as a traitor by king Edward. His eftates,
and thofe of his fons, were confifcated ; his govern¬
ments given to others ; queen Editha was confined in
a monaftery; and the great power of this family,
which had become formidable to the crown itfelf, feem-
ed to be totally overthrown. Godwin, however, foon
found means to retrieve his affairs. Having hired
fome (hips, and manned them with his followers, he
attempted to make a cefcent at Sandwich. The king,
informed of his preparations, equipped a fleet which
Godwin could not refill, and he therefore retreated into
the Flemifh harbours. On his departure, the Englifh
difmified their armament. This Godwin had expefted,
and therefore kept himfelf in readinefs for the favour¬
able opportunity. He immediately put to fea, and
failed to the ifle of Wight, where he was joined by
Harold with a fquadron which he had colle&ed in Ire-
gz land. Being thus mailer of the fea, Godwin entered
Return?, the harbours on the fouthem coall; feiv.ed all the (hips;
ail<1 '1 a6" and being joined by great numbers of his former vaf-
withthe he failed up the Thames, and appeared before
king. London.
The approach of fuch a formidable enemy threw
every thing into confufiort. The king alone feemed re-
folute to defend himfelf to the lall extremity ; but the
interpofition of many of the nobility, together with the
fubmiflions of Godwin himfelf, at laft produced an ac¬
commodation. It was ftipulated, that Godwin fhould
give hoftages for his good behaviour, and that all the
foreigners (hould be banilhed the kingdom; after
which, Edward, fenfible that he had not power fuf-
ficient to detain the earl’s hoftages in England, fent
them over to his kinfman the young duke of Nor- England,
mandy. *
Soon after this reconciliation, Godwin died as ^ie ^isfon Ha
was fitting at table with the king. He was fucceed-roijafp;re3'
ed in the government of Weffex, Suflex, Kent, and to the
Effex, and in the office of fteward of the houfehold, a crown,
place of great power, by his fon Harold. The fort
was no lefs ambitious than his father had been; and as
he was a man of much greater abilities, he became a
more dangerous enemy to Edward than even Godwin
had been. Edward knew no better expedient to pre¬
vent the increafe of Harold’s power, than by giving
him a rival. This was Algar fon of Leofiic duke of
Mercia, whom he invdled with the government of Eaft
Anglia, which had formerly belonged to Harold. The
latter, however, after fome broils, finally got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and baniftied him the kingdom. Al¬
gar returned foon after with an army of Norwegians,
with whom he invaded Eaft Anglia; but his death in a
(hort time freed Harold from all further apprehenfions
from that quarter. His power was dill further increafed
in a (hort time after by the acceffion of his brother Tofti
to the government of Northumberland ; and Edward
now declining in years, and apprehenfive that Harold
would attempt to ufurp the crown after his death, re-
folved to appoint a fucceflbr. He therefore fent a de¬
putation into Hungary, to invite over his nephew’,
Edward, fon to his elder brother, who was the only
remaining heir of the Saxon line. That prince ac¬
cordingly came over with his children, Edgar Athe*
ling, Margaret, and Chriftina ; but died a few days
after his arrival. His death threw the king into great¬
er perplexity than ever. Being refolved to exclude
Harold if poffible, he fecretly caft his eye on his kinf¬
man William duke of Normandy; a perfon of whofe
power, charadler, and capacity, he had juftly a very
high opinion. This advice had formerly been given
him by Robert archbiftiop of Canterbury, who was him¬
felf a Norman, and had been baniftied along with the
reft upon the return of earl Godwin. But Edward
finding that the Englilh would more eafily acquieice in
the reftoration of the Saxon line, had in the mean
time invited his brother’s defeendants from Hungary
as already mentioned. The death of his nephew,
and the inexperience and unpromifing qualities of
young Edgar, made him refume his former inten¬
tions in favour of the duke of Normandy, though
his averfion to hazardous enterprifes engaged him to
poftpone the execution, and even to keep his purpofe
concealed from all his minifters.
Harold in the mean time increafed his popularity
by all poffible means, in order to prepare his way for
being advanced to the throne after the death of Ed¬
ward, which now feemed to be faft approaching. He
had no fufpicion of the duke of Normandy as a rival;
but as he knew that a fon and grandfon of the earl
Godwin were in the hands of that prince as hoftages,
he feared that they might be made ufe of as checks
upon his ambition, in cafe he attempted afterwards
to afeend the throne. He therefore prevailed upon
Edward to releafe thefe hoftages unconditionally ; and
having obtained his confent, he fet out for Norman¬
dy himfelf, attended by a numerous retinue. He was
driven by a tempeft on the territory of Guy count of
4 G 2 Port-
ENG- [604.1 ENG
England. Ponthtcn, v/ho detained him prifoner, and demanded
""""" v 1 an ekdrbitant fum for his ranforn'. Harold found means
to acquaint William with his (ituation.. The duke of
Normandy,, deiirous of gaining Harold over to his
party, commanded Guy to reftore his prifoner to his
liberty. Upon this Harold was immediately put into
the hands of the Norman ambafiador, who conduced
him to Rouen. William received him with great de-
monftrations of refpeft and friendfhip; but food took
an opportunity oPacquainting him with his pretenfions
to the crown of England, and afked his afliftance in
the execution of his fcheme. Harold was furprifed with
this declaration of the duke ; but being entirely in his
power, he feigned a compliance with his defires, and
promifed to fecond to the utmofi. of his ability the will
of king Edward. William, to fecure him as much as
poflible to his interell, promifed him his daughter in
marriage, and required him to take an oath that he
would fulfil his promifes. Harold readily complied;
but to make the oath more binding, William privately
conveyed under the altar where the oath was taken,
reliquesdf fome of the moft revered martyrs; and when
Harold had taken the oath, he Ihowed him the relics,
and admonifhed him to obferve religioufly fuch a fo-
lemn engagement.
Harold was no fooner at liberty, than he found
himfelf mafter bf cafuidry fufficient to excufe the
breaking of his oath, which had been extorted from
him, and which, if kept, might be attended with
the fubjeftion of his country to a foreign power.
He continued to pra&ife every art to increafe his po¬
pularity ; and about this time, two accidents enabled
him to add much to that character which he had al¬
ready fo well ellablifhed. The Weifh had for fome
time made incurfions into the Englifh territories, and
had lately become fo troublefome, that Harold thought
he could not do a more acceptable piece of fervice to
the public, than undertake an expedition againft thefe
invaders. Having therefore prepared fome light-armed
foot to purfue the natives into their fortreffes, fome ca¬
valry to fecure the open country, and a fquadron of
(hips to attack the fea-coafts, he employed all thefe
forces againft the enemy at once; and thus reduced.
them to fuch diftrefs, that they were obliged to pur-
chafe peace by fending their prince’s head to Harold,
and fubmitting to the government of two Weifh noble¬
men appointed by Edward.
The other incident was no lefs honourable to Ha¬
rold. Tofti his brother had been created duke of
Northumberland ; but being of a violent tyrannical
temper, had treated the inh. .ants with fuch cruel¬
ty, that they rofe in rebellion againft him, and drove
him from his government. Morcar and Edwin, two
brbthers, grandfons of the great duke Leofric, join¬
ed in the infurreftion; and the former being elec¬
ted duke, advanced with an army to oppofe Harold,
who had been commiffioned by the king to reduce and
punifh the Northumbrians. Before the armies enga¬
ged, Morcat endeavoured to juftify his conduft, and
reprefented to Harold, that Tofti had behaved in fuch
a manner, that no-one, not even a brother, could de¬
fend him without participating of the infamy of his
conduit: that the Northumbrians were willing tofub-
niit to the king, but required a governor that would
pay fome attention to their privileges ; and they truft-
4
ed that Harold would not defend in another th.-t vio- England?
lent conduit from which his own government had al- v *
ways- kept at fo great a diftance. This fpeech was
accompanied by fuch a detail of vvell-fupported faits,
that Harold abandoned his brother’s caufe ; and return¬
ing to Edward, perfuaded him to pardon the Nor¬
thumbrians, and confirm Morcar in his government.
He even married the fifter of that nobleman ; and by
his intereft procured Edwin the younger brother to he
chofen governor of Mercia. Tofti, in a rage, depart¬
ed the kingdom, and took fhelter in Flanders with
Baldwin his father-in-law ; while William of Nor¬
mandy faw that now he had nothing to expedt from
Harold, who plainly intended to fecure the crown for
himfelf.
Edward died in 1067, and was fucceeded by Ha-^aro|j
rold with as little oppofition as though he had been ceeds Ed-
the lawful heir. The very day after Edward’s death, ward the
he was anointed and crowned by the archbifhop ofe°n^e®[)r*
York. The whole nation feemed joyfully to fwear alle¬
giance to him. ' But he did not long enjoy the crown,
to obtain which he had taken fo much pains, and
which he feemed to have fuch capacity for wearing.
His brother Tofti, provoked at his fuccefs, ftirred up
againft him every enemy he could have any influence
with. The duke of Normandy alfo was enraged to
the laft degree at the perfidy of Harold ; but before he
commenced hoftilities, he fent an embaffy to England,
upbraiding the king with his breach of faith, and fum-
moning him to reftgn the kingdom immediately. Ha¬
rold replied, that the oath, with which he was re¬
proached, had been extorted by the well-grounded
fear of violence, and for that reafon could never be re¬
garded as obligatory : that he never-had any commiffion
either from the late king or the ftates of. England, who
alone could difpofe of the crown, to make any tender
of the fucceffion to the duke of Normandy ; and if he,
a private perfon, had affumed fo much authority, and
had even voluntarily fworn to fupport the Duke’s pre¬
tenfions, the oath was unlawful, and it was his duty to
take the firft opportunity of breaking it: that he had
obtained the crown by the unanimous fuffrages of the
people ; and fliould (how himfelf totally unworthy of
their favour, did he not ftrenuoufly maintain thofe li¬
berties with which they had entrufted him ; and that
the Duke, if he made any attempt by force of arms,
ftiould experience the power of an united nation, con-
ducfted by a prince, who, fenfible of the obligations im-
pofed on him by his royal dignity, was determined,
that the fame moment Ihould put a period to his life
and to his government.
This anfwer was according to William’s expecta¬
tions; and therefore he had already made preparations
for invading England. He was encouraged and afiift-
ed in this enterprife by Howel count of-Brittany, Bald¬
win earl of Flanders, the emperer Henry IV. and pope
Alexander II. The latter declared Harold a perjured
ufurper; denounced excommunication againft him and
his adherents ; and the more to encourage William in
his enterprifes, fent him a confecrated banner, and a
ring with one of St Peter’s hairs in it. Thus he was
enabled to affemble a fleet of 300Q veflfels, on board of
which were embarked 60,000 men, chofen from among
thofe numerous fupplies which were feat him from all
quarters. Many eminent perfoiiages were enlifted un-
ENG [
Erglam].; der his banners. The moll celebrated were Eauace,
* r~ count of Boulogne, Aitneri de Thouars, Hugh d’E-
llaples, William d’Evreux, GemTroy de.Rotrou, Ro¬
ger de Beaumont, William de Warenne, Roger de
Montgomtri, Hugh de Grantmefnil, Charles Martel,
and Geoffrey Gillord.
In order to embarrafs the affairs 0;f Harold the more
effectually, Vv^illiam alio excited Tolti, in concert with
HaltagerRing of Norway,,to iaftft the Epglilh coafts.
Thefe two having collected a deer of 350 (hips, failed up
the Humber, and difembarked their troops, who began
to commit great depredations. They were oppofed by
Morcar earl or duke (b) of Northumberland, and Ed-
Defeats the win earl of Mercia, who were defeated. Harold, on
Danes. the news of this invafion, affembled a confiderable ar¬
my, engaged the enemy at Standford, and after a
bloody battle,entirely defeated them. Tofti and Hal-
fager were killed in the adtion, and all the fleet fell into
the hands of the victors; but H arold generoufly allowed
Ola ye. the fon of Halfager to depart with 20 veffels.
The king of England had fcarce time to rejoice on
account of hir viClory, when news were brought him
that the Normans were landed in Suffex. Harold’s
viRory had coofiderably weakened his army. He loll
many of his braved officers and foldiers in the aClion ;
and he difgufted the reft, by refuting to diftribute the
Danith fpoils among them. Fie haftened, however,
by quick marches, to repel this new invader; but
though he was reinforced at London and other places
with frtih troops, he found himfelf weakened by the
dcfeition of his old foldiers, who, from fatigue and dif-
content, fecretly withdrew from their colours. Gurth,
. the brother of Harold, a man of great conduCt as well
as bravery, became apprehenfive of the event; and en¬
treated the king to avoid a general engagement for
fome time, or at lead not to hazard his perfon. But
though this advice was in itfelf evidently proper, and
enforced by all the arguments which Gurth could fug¬
ged, Harold continued deaf to every thing that could
86 be faid. Accordingly, on the 14th. ©f OCtober 1066,
Ts defeated the two armies engaged near Haftings, a town of Suf-
After.a mod obftinate and bloody battle*, the
of Normar.-Emgliff1 were entirely defeated, Harold and his two
<jy brothers killed, and William- left mailer of the king-
* See J7a. dom of England.
Nothing could exceed the terror of the Engjith up¬
on the news of the defeat and death of Flarold As
foon as William paffed the , Thames at Wallingford,
Stigand, the primate* made fubmiffions to him in the
name of the clergy ; and before he came within fight
of London, all the chief nobility, and even Edgar A-
theling himfelf, who, being the rightful heir to the
throne, had juft before been declared king, came and
o fubmitted to the conqueror. William very readily ac-
WilUamthe cepted of the crown upon the terms that were-offered
Conqueror, him ; winch were, that he ffiould govern according to
the eftabliftied cuftoms of the country.. He could in¬
deed have made what terms he pleafed ; but,-, though
really a conqueror, he chofe rather to be thought an
eledled king. For this reafon he was crowned at Wed-
minder by the archbiffiop of York, and took the oath
adminiftered to the former kings of England ; namely,
60s ] ENG
that he would p rot eel and defend the church, obferve Ervdand.
the laws of the realm, and, govern the kingdom with v—
impartiality.
The Englidi hiftorians complain of the mod grie- gg
vous, oppreffipn by William and his Normans. Whe- TheEnglirti
ther by his condudl the conquerqr willingly gave thegnevnufly
Engiiffi opportunities of rebelling againd him, in or-'’PPreffed*
der to have a pretence for, oppreffing them afterwards,
is np* eafy to fay ; but it is certain that the beginning
of his reign cannot, judly be blamed. The fird difgud
againd his government was excited among the clergy.
William could not ayord the rewarding of thofe nume¬
rous adventurers who had accompanied him in his ex¬
pedition. He fird divided the lands of the Enghfit
barons who had oppofed him among his Norman ba¬
rons t but as thefe were found infufficient, he quarter¬
ed the red on the rich abbeys, of which there were
many in the kingdom, until fome other opportunity of
providing for them offered itfelf.
Though this lad dep was highly refented by the
clergy, it gave very little offence to the laity. The
whole nation, however, was foon after difguded, by
feeing all the real power of the kingdom placed in the
hands of the Normans. He difarmed the city- of Lon¬
don, and other places which appeared mod warlike and
populous, and quartered Norman foldiers wherever he
dreaded an infurredlion. This was indeed adling as a
conqueror, and not as an eledled king; but the event
(bowed the neceffity of fuch precautions. The king ha¬
ving thus fecured, as he imagined, England from any
danger of a revolt, determined to pay a viiit to his
Norman dominions. He appointed his brother Odo,
bidiep of Bayeaux, and William Fitz-Ofborne, regents
in his ^bfence; and to fecure himfelf yet farther, he
refolved to carry along with him fuch of the Engliftx
nobility as he put the lead confidence in.
Having taken all thefe methods to enfure the tran¬
quillity of his new kingdom, William fet fail for Nor¬
mandy in March-1067 ; but his abfence produced the
mod fatal confequences. Difcontents and murmurings
were multiplied every where ; fecret confpiracies were
entered into againd the government; hodilities were
commenced in many places ; and every thing feemed
to threaten a fpeedy revolution. William of Poidtiers,
a Norman hiftorian, throws the blame entirely on the
Englifli. He calls them a fickle and mutinous race,
while he celebrates with the highed encomiums the
judice and lenity of Odo’s and Fitz-Olborne’s admini-
dration. On the other hand, the Engliffi hidoriahs
tell us, that thefe governors took all opportunities of
oppreffing the people, either with a view to provoke
them to rebellion, or in cafe they tamely fubmitted to
their impofitions, to grow rich by plundering them.
Be this as it will, however, a fecret confpiracy was
formed among the Englilh for a general maffacre of
the Normans, like wh3t had formerly been made of the
Danes. This was profecuted with io much animofity,
that.the vaffals of the earl of Coxo put him to death
becaufe he refufed to head them in the enter prife. > The
coiifpirators had already taken the refolution, and fix¬
ed the,day for their intended maffacre, which was to
be on Affi-Wednefday, during the time of divine fer-
(b) Anciently thefe two titles were fynonymous.
ENG [ 6o5 ] ENG
England, vice, when all the Normans would be unarmed as pe-
*' nitents, according to the difeipline of the times. But
the prefervee of William difeoncerted all their fchemes.
Having got intelligence of their bloody purpofe, he
haftened over to England. Such of the confpirators
as had been more open in their rebellion, confulted their
fafety by flight; and this ferved to confirm the proofs
of an accufation againft thofe who remained. From
this time the king not only loft all confidence in his
Engliih fubjefts, but regarded them as inveterate and
irreconcileable enemies. He had already raifedfuch a
number of fortrelfes in the country, that he no long¬
er dreaded the tumultuous or tranfient efforts of a
difeontented multitude. He determined therefore to
treat them as a conquered nation. The firft inflance
of this treatment was his revival of the tax of Dane-
gelt, which had been impofed by the Danifti con¬
querors, and was very odious to the people. This
produced great difeontents, and even infurredlions-
The inhabitants of Exeter and Cornwal revolted ; but
were foon reduced, and obliged to implore the mercy
of the conqueror. A more dangerous rebellion hap¬
pened in the norths but this was alfo foon quaflied,
and the Englifti became fenfible that their deftru&ion
was intended. Their eafy fubmiffion after the battle
of Haftings had infpired the Normans with contempt;
their commotions afterwards had rendered them ob-
je&s of hatred ; and they were now deprived of every
expedient which could make them either regarded or
beloved by their fovereign. Many fled into foreign
countries ; and among the reft Edgar Atheling him-
felf, who made his efcape to Scotland, and carried
thither his two fifters Margaret and Chriftina. They
were well received by Malcolm, who foon after mar¬
ried Margaret the elder After, and alfo received great
numbers of other exiles with the utmoft kindnefs.
The Englifh, though unable to make any refiflance
openly, did not fail to gratify their refeutment againft
the Normans in a private manner. Seldom a day paf-
fed, but the bodies of affaffinated Normans were found
in the woods and high-ways, without any poffibility of
bringing the perpetrators to juftice. Thus, at length,
the conquerors themfelves began again to wifti for
tranquillity and fecurity ; and feveral of them, though
entrufted with great commands, defired to be difmif-
fed the fervice. In order to prevent thefe defertions,
which William highly refented, he was obliged to
allure others to ftay by the largenefs of his bounties.
The confequences were, frefh exaftions from the
Englifti, and new infurre&ions on their part againft
their cruel mafters. The Norman power, however,
was too well founded to be now removed, and every
attempt of the Englifti to regain their liberty ferved
only to rivet their chains the more firmly. The county
of Northumberland, which had been mofta&ive in thefe
infurre&ions, now fuffered moft feverely. The whole
of it was laid wafte, the houfes were burned, the in-
ftruments of agriculture deftroyed, and the inhabitants
forced to feek new places of abode. On this occafion
it is faid that above 100,000 perfons periftied either by
the fword or famine ; and the country is fuppofed, even
to this day, to retain the marks of its ancient depopu¬
lation. The eftates of all the Englifti gentry were next
confifcated, and beftowed on the Normans. By this
means all the ancient and honourable families were re¬
duced to beggary ; and the Englifti found themfelves England,
totally excluded from every road that led either to ho- -y—
nour or preferment.
By proceeding in this manner, William at laft broke
the fpirit of the Englifti nation, and received no far¬
ther trouble from them. In 1076, however, he found oiffeniions
that the latter part of his life was likely to be unhap-inWilliam’s
py through diffenfions in his own family. He had four family,
fons, Robert, Richard, William, and Henry, befides
feveral daughters. Robert, his eldeft fon, furnamed
Curthofe, from the ftiortnefs of his legs, was a prince
who inherited all the bravery and ambitipn of his fa.
mily. He had formerly been promifed by his father
the government of the province of Maine in Fyance,
and was alfo declared fucceffor to the dukedom of Nor¬
mandy. He demanded from his father the fulfilment
of thefe promifes; but William gave him a flat denial,
obferving, that “ it was not his cuftom to throw off
his clothes till he went to bed.” Robert declared his
refentment ; and openly expreffed his jealoufy of his
two brothers William and Henry, (for Richard was
killed, in hunting, by a flag). An open rupture was
foon commenced. The two young princes one day
took it into their heads to throw water on their elder
brother as he paffed through the court after leaving
their apartment. Robert conftrued this frolic into a
ftudied indignity ; and having thefe jealoufies ftill far¬
ther inflamed by one of his favourites, he drew his
fword, and ran up ftairs with an intent to take re¬
venge. The whole caftle was quickly filled with tu¬
mult, and it was not without fome difficulty that the
king himfelf was able to appeafe it. But he could not
allay the animofity which from that moment prevail¬
ed in his- family. Robert, attended by feveral of his
confederates, withdrew to Rouen that very night, ho¬
ping to furprife the caftle ; but his defign was defeat¬
ed by the governor. The popular chara&er of the
prince, however, engaged all the young nobility of
Normandy, as well as of Anjou and Brittany, to e-
fpoufe his quarrel; even his mother is fuppofed to have
fupported him in his rebellion by fecret remittances.
The unnatural conteft continued for feveral years; and
William was at laft obliged to have recourfe to Eng¬
land for fupport againft his own fon. Accordingly,
he drew an army of Englifhmen together; he led them
over to Normandy, where he foon compelled Robert
and his adherents to quit the field, and was quickly re*
inflated in all his dominions. Robert then took (bel¬
ter in the caftle of Gerberoy, which the king of France
had provided for him, where he was (hortly after be-
fieged by his father. As the garrifon was ftrong, and
confcious of their treafon, they made a gallant defence;
and many (kirmilhes and duels were fought under its
walls. In one of thefe the king and his fon happen¬
ed to meet; but being both concealed by their hel¬
mets, they attacked each other with mutual fury. The
young prince wounded his father in the arm, and threw
him from his horfe. The next blow would probably
have put an end to his life, had he not called for af-
fiftance. Robert inftantly recolledted his father’s voice,
leaped from his horfe, and raifed him from the ground.
He proftrated himfelf in his prefence, afked pardon for
his offences, and promifed for the future a drift ad¬
herence to his duty. The king was not fo eafily ap¬
pealed ; and perhaps his refentment was heightened
6 by
ENG
[ 607 ]
ENG
England, by the difgrace of being overcome. He therefore gave found that the infurgents had been fecretiy aflifted and England.
—^ his maledi&ion to his fon ; and returned to his own excited by the kii»g of France, who took all opportu-l"—'■Y-'" -1,
camp on Robert’s horfe, which he had affilled him to nities of lelfening the Norman power, by creating dif-
mount. After fome recolle&ion, however, he was
reconciled to Robert, and carried him with him into
England.
fenfions among the nobles. His difpleafure on this
account was very much increafed, by notice he re¬
ceived of fome railleries thrown out againft him by
William returned in 1081; and being now freed from the French monarch. It feems that William, who
his enemies both at home and abroad, began to have vvas become corpulent, had been detained in bed fome
more leifure to attend to his own domeftic affairs. For time by ficknefs ; and Philip was heard to fay, that
this purpofe the DoomnAr-Book was compofed by his he only lay in of a big belly. This fo provoked the
order, of which an account is given under that article. Englilh monarch, that he fent him word, he would
He referved a very ample revenue for the crown; and
in the general diftribution of land among his follow¬
ers, kept poffeflion of no fewer than 14CO manors in
different parts of the country. No king of. England
was ever fo opulent; none was able to fupport the
fplendor and magnificence of a court to fiicH a degree;
none had fo many places of trufl and profit to bellow;
and confequently none ever had fnch implicit obedience
paid to his commands. He delighted greatly in hunt-
fpon be up, and would, at his churching, prefent fuch
a number of tapers as would fet the kingdom of France
in.a flame.
T-o perform thispromife, he levied a powerful army ;
and, entering the Ifle of France, deftroyed every thing
with fire and fvvord. He took the town of Mante, and
reduced it to afhes. Rut a period was foon put to the
conquefts and to the life of this great warrior by an
v o accident. His borfe happening to put his fore feet . h
mg ; and to indulge himfelf in this with the greater on fome hot afhes, plunged fo violently, that the rider ° th?
freedom, he depopulated the county of Hampfhire was thrown forward, and bruited his belly on the pom-
for 30 miles, turning out the inhabitants, deilroying mel of the faddk. Being now in a bad habit of body,
all the villages, and making the wretched outcalls no as weM as fome what advanced in years, he began to be
compenfation for fuch an injury. In the time of the apprehenfive of the confequences, and ordered himfelf
Saxon kings, all noblemen without diltinftion had aright to t>e carried in a litter to the monaflery of St Ger-
to hunt in the royal forefts ; but William appropriated vaife. Finding his illnefs increafe, and being fenfible
all thefe to himfelf, and publifhed very fevere laws to °f approach of death, he difeovered at lafl the va-
prohibit his fubje&s from encroaching on this part of n*ty of all human grandeur ; and was {truck with re-
his prerogative. The killing of a boar, a deer, or morfe for thofe many cruelties ahd violences of which
even an hare, was punifhed with the lofs of the de- he had been guilty. He endeavoured to make com-
linquent’s eyes ; at the time when the killing of a man penfation by prefents to churches and monafteries, and'
might' be atoned for by paying a moderate fine or com- gave orders for the liberation of feveral Eugliflj noble-
pofition. men. He was even prevailed upon, though not with-
As the king’s wealth and power were fo great, it 0llt relu£tance, to releafe his brother Odo, againft
may reafonably be fuppofed, that the riches of his mi- whom he was very much incenfed. He left Normau-
nifters were in proportion. Odo, bifhop of Bayeux, dy and Maine to his eldeft fon Robert. He wrote to
William’s brother, was become fo rich, that he refol- Eanfranc the primate of England, defiring him to
ved to purchase the papacy. For this purpofe, taking crown William king of England. To Henry he be-
the opportunity of the king’s abfence, he equipped a queathed nothing but the poffeffions of his mother
veflel in the Ifle of Wight, on board of which he fent Matilda but foretold, that one day he would furpafs
immenfe treafures, and prepared for his embarkation, both his brothers in power and opulence. Fie expired
He was detained, however, by contrary winds; and, ou the 9th September 1087; in the 63d year of his
in the mean time, William, being informed of his de- age, in the 21ft of his reigu over England, and. 54th
figns, refolved to prevent the exportation of fo much of that over Normandy. .
wealth from his dominions. Returning therefore from William, furnamed Rufus, from his red hair, was in JP*
Normandy, where he was at that time, he came to Normandy at the time of his father’s illnefs. He .no-RufuL"*
England the very inftant his brother was ftepping on fooner received the letter for Lanfranc, than, leaving
board. He immediately ordered him to be made hi$ father in the agonies of death, he fet out for Eng-
prifoner : but his attendants, refpedting the bifhop’s land ; where he arrived before intelligence of the de-
ecclefiaftical charaflcr, ferupled to execute his com- ceafe of the Conqueror had reached that kingdom,
mands y fo that the king was obliged to feize him Being fenfible that his brother Robert, as being the
with his own hand. Odo appealed to the Pope : but eldeit fon, had a preferable title to himfelf, he ufed the
the king replied, that he did not feize him as birtiop utmoft difpatch in getting himfelf firmly dtablilhed on
of Bayeux, but as earl of Kent; and, in that capacity, the throne. The Englifh were fo effectually fubdued,
he expe&ed, and would have, an account of his admi- that they made no oppofition ; but the Norman barons
nil!ration. He tvas therefore fent prifoner to Nor- were attached to Robert. This prince was brave,
mandy; and, notwithflanding all the remonftrances and open, fincere, and generous ; and even his predominant
threats of pope Gregory, was detained in cuftody du- fault of indolence was not dilagreeableto thofe haughty
ring the remainder of William’s reign. barons, who affetfed an almoft total independence of
   _ Soon after this, William felt a fevere blow in the their fovereigfi. The king, on the other hand, was
the queen; death of Matilda his queen ; and, almbft at the fame violent, haughty, and tyrannieak A powerful con-
time, received information of a general infurreQion in fpiracy was therefore carried on againft William ; and.
Maine, the nobility of which had always been averfe to Odo, bifliop of Bayeux, undertook to conduft it. Ma-
his government. Upon his arrival on the continent, he ny cf the moft powerful nobility were concerned ; andi
X:
ENG i 6
England. as the confpirators expefled to be in a,fhort time fup-
v—~— ported by powerful fuccours from Normandy, they re¬
tired to their caftles, and put themfelves in an offenfive
pofture.
William, fenfible of his danger, engaged the Englilh
on his fide, by promiling fome mitigation of their hard-
(hips, and liberty to hunt in the royal forefts Robert,
in the mean time, through his natural indolence, ne-
glefted to give his allies proper affiftance. The con-
Ipirators were obliged to fubmit. Some of them were
pardoned; but moll of them'con fifcated, and their
eftates bellowed on the barons who had continued
p 93 faithful to the king.
— a William, freed from this danger, thought no more
of his promifes to the Englilh He proved a greater
tyrant than his father ; and, after the death of Lan-
frartc, who had been his preceptor, and kept him with¬
in fome bounds, he gave full fcope to bis violent and
rapacious difpofition. Not content with oppreffing the
laity, he invaded the privileges of the church ; which,
j in thofe days, were held moft facred. He feized the
temporalities of all the vacant bifhoprics and abbeys,
and openly put to fale thofe fees and abbeys which he
thought proper to difpofe of.
Att- s Thefe proceedings occafioned great murmurs among
the on- the ecclefialiics. which were quickly fpread through the
queftof nation, but the terror of William’s authority preferved
J’the public tranquillity. Ttl icqo, the king thought
himfelf ftrong enough to at. ’ the conqueli of Nor¬
mandy, which at that time v i the greateft confu-
fion through the indolent and ligent adminiftration
of Robert. Several of the hi • had revolted, and
thefe revolts were encouraged 1 ' \he king of France.
Robert alfo imagined he had reafon to fear the iqtrigues
of his other brother Henry, whom for 3000 merks he
had put in pofleflion of Cottentin, near a third part of the
duchy of Normandy He therefore threw him into
prifon ; but finding himfelf threatened with an inva-
fion from the king of England, he gave Henry his li¬
berty, and even made ufe of his affillance in fuppref-
iing the infurreflions of his rebellious fubje£ls. Wil¬
liam,how’ever, was no fooner landed in Normandy, than
the nobility on both fides interpofed. and a treaty of
peace was concluded. In this treaty Henry finding his
interells entirely negledted, retired to St Michael’s
Mount, a ftrong fortrefs on the coaft of Normandy,
and infefted the neighbourhood with his incurfions.
He was befieged by his two brothers, and obliged to
capitulate in a ftiort time ; after which, being deprived
of all his dominions, he wandered about for fome time
with very few attendants, and often in great poverty.
The peace with Robert was of no long duration. In
the interval fome hoftilities with Scotland fucceeded,
and thefe terminated in the death of Malcolm king of
that country; after which new broils enfued with Nor¬
mandy. The rapacious temper of William prompted him
to encroach upon his brother’s territories, and the fame
rapacity prompted him to ufe a very extra rdinary expe¬
dient in order to accomplifti his defigns. Having gone
over to Normandy to fupport his pardfans, he ordered an
army of 20,000 mentoberaifedin England, and conduc¬
ted to the fea-coaft as if they were to be immediately em¬
barked : but when they came there, inftead of embark¬
ing, they were forced to pay the king ten (hillings a
man ; after which they were difmified to their feveral
J\T° 116.
.8 ] ENG
counties. With this money William engaged the king England,
of France to depart from the protedlion of Robert ; —
and alfo bribed many of the Norman barons to revolt
He was called from Normandy, however, by an irrup
tion of the Wellh ; and having repulf d them, he w?.&
prevented from attempting other enterprifes by a con-
fpiracy of his barons.
In 1096, however, the fuperftition of Robert Put'p,.rc^ff6S
the king of England in pofieffion of thofe dominions the tiUchy
which he had not been able to conquer by force of for 10,000
arms. The crufades were now commenced, and Ro- merks.
bert was defirous of undertaking an expedition into the
Holy Land. As money for this purpofe was wanting,
he mortgaged his dominions to his brother for 10,000
merks. The king raifed the money by violent extor¬
tions on his fubjedb; forcing even the convents to melt
their plate, in order to furnifti the quota demanded of
them. He was then put in poffdfion of Normandy and
Maine ; and Robert with a magnificent train fet out
for the Holy Land.
After the death of Lanfranc, the king had retained
in his own hands the revenues of Canterbury, as he
had done thofe of many other biftioprics; but falling
into a dangerous illnefs, he was feized with remorfe;
and the clergy reprefented to him that he was in dan¬
ger of eternal perdition if he did not make atonement
for thofe impieties and facrileges of which he hath been
guilty. He therefore inftantly refolved to fupply the
vacancy of Canterbury : he fent for Anfelm, a Pied-
montefe by birth, abbot of Bee in Normandy, who
was much celebrated for his piety and devotion. The
abbot refufed the dignity with great earneftnefs ; fell
on his knees, wept, and intreated the king to change
his purpofe ; and when he found him obftinate in for¬
cing the paftoral ftaff"upon him, he kept his fift fo hard
clenched, that it required the utmoft violence of the
byftanders to open it, and force him to receive that
enfign of his fpiritual dignity. William foon after re¬
covered his health, and with it his violence and rapa¬
city. As he now fpared the church no more than be-.H;s qUairei
fore, a quarrel with Anfelm foon enfued; and this was with the
the more dangerous to the king, on account of the primate,
great charafter for piety which th? primate had acqui¬
red by his zeal againil abufes of all kinds, particular¬
ly thofe of drefs and ornament.
At this time there was a mode which prevailed not
only in England, but throughout Europe, both among
men and women, .of giving an enormous length to their
(hoes, drawing the toe to a (harp point, and affixing
to it the figure of a bird’s bill, or fome fuch ornament,
which was turned upwards, and which was often fuf-
tained by gold or filver chains tied to the knee. The
ecclefiaftics took exception at this ornament, which
they faid was an attempt to bely the feripture, where
it is affirmed, that no man can add a cubit to his fta-
ture ; and they not only declaimed againft it with ve¬
hemence, but aftembled fome fynods, in which the fa-
ftiion was abfolutely condemned. Such, however, are
the contradi&ions in human nature, that all the in¬
fluence of the clergy, which at that time was fufficient
to fend vaft multitudes of people into Afia to butcher
one another, was not able to prevail againft thofe long-
pointed (hoes. The faffiion, contrary to what hath
happened to almolt all others, maintained its ground
for feveral centuries; and even Anfelm found his en¬
deavours
ENG [ 6°9 ] ENG
England, deavours againft it ineffe&ual. He was more fuccefs- the woods by the country-people, and buried without England.
£ul in decrying the long hair and curled locks then ceremony at Winchefter.
worn by the courtiers. He refuted the allies on Alh-
Wednefday to fuch as were to accoutred ; and his au¬
thority and eloquence had fuch influence, that the
young men univerfally abandoned that ornament, and
appeared in the cropt hair recommended to them by the
After the death of William, the crown of right de¬
volved to Robert his eldelt brother j for William had
no legitimate children. But what Robert had for¬
merly loft by his indolence, he was again deprived of
by his abfence at the holy war. Prince Henry was in
fermons of the primate. For this reformation Anfelm the foreft with William Rufus at the time the latter
s highly celebrated by his hiftorian Eadmer, who was
alfo his companion and fecretary.
When William’sprofanenefs returned with his health,
was killed. He no fooner heard the important news, Prince
than he hurried to Winchefter, and fecured the royal Henry u-
treafure. William de Breteuil, keeper of the treafure,furp5 the
11 n . 1 r • t „ . . . 7 crown.
See An-
fclm.
he was engaged in almoft perpetual contefts with this arrived almoft the fame inftant, and oppofed his pre-'
auftere prelate*. Thefe were pretty well fettled, teniions; telling him, that the treafare belonged to his
when the king, who had undertaken an. expedition into elder brother, who was now his fovereign, and for whom
Wales, required Anfelm to furniih him with a certain he was determined to keep it. But Henry, drawing
number of foldiers. The primate regarded this as an in- u:" r-—-1  —J L: -l • n
vafion of the rights of the church ; and therefore, tho1
he durft not refufe compliance, fent the men fo mifer-
his fword, threatened him with inftant death if he da¬
red to difobey him ; and others of the late king’s re¬
tinue, who came every moment to Winchefter, joining
ably accoutred, that the king was exceedingly difplea- the prince’s party, he was obliged to defift. Henry
fed, and threatened him with a profecution. Anfelm loft no time in fully accomplifhing his purpofe. In lefs
than three days he got himfelf crowned king of Eng¬
land by Maurice bilhop of London. Prtfent pofleflion
fupplied every deficiency of title; and no one dared to
demanded reftitution of all his revenues which the
king had feized, and appealed to the Pope. The quar¬
rel, however, ran fo high that the primate found it
Who leaves dangerous to remain in England. He defined and ob- appear in defence of the abfent prince,
the king- tained the king’s permiflion to retire beyond fea. His r"’
dom. temporalities were confifcated immediately on his de¬
parture ; but pope Urban received him as a martyr in
jrk — • — —~ 100
The beginning of king Henry’s reign promifed to His charter
be favourable to the Englilh liberty ; owing chiefly toi'J‘favour10*
his fear of his brother. To conciliate the affe&ions ofthe P60*’16*
the caufe of religion, and even threatened the king his fubjeds, he palfed a charter calculated to remove
with fentence of excommunication. William, however,
proceeded in his projeds of ambition and violence,
without regarding the threats of the Pope; who he
knew was at that time too much engaged with the cru-
fades to mind any other bufinefs. Though his ac-
quifition of Maine and Normandy had brought him in¬
to perpetual contefts with the haughty and turbulent
barons who inhabited thofe countries, and raifed end-
lefs tumults and infurredtions; yet William feemed ftill
many of the grievous oppreflions which had been c ....
plained of during the reigns of his father and brother.
He promifed, that at the death of any abbot or bi¬
lhop, he' never would feize the revenues of the fee or
abbey during the vacancy, but would leave the whole
to be reaped by the fucceffor ; and that he would ne¬
ver let to farm any ecclefiaftical benefice, or difpofe of
it for money. To the laity he promifed, that, upon
the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his
intent on extending his dominions either by purchafe or heir Ihould be admitted to the pofleffion of his eftate
TTovl on paying a juft and lawful relief; without being ex-
pofed to thofe enormous exa&ions which had been for¬
merly required. He remitted the wardlhip of mi¬
nors ; and allowed guardians to be appointed, who
Ihould be anfwerable for the truft. He promifed not
to difpofe of any heirefs in marriage but by advice of
all the barons; and if any baron intended to give his
conqueft. William Earl of Poi&iers and Duke of Gui-
enne had refolved upon an expedition to the Holy Land;
and, for this purpofe, had put himfelf at the head of a
vaft multitude, confiding, according to fome hiftorians,
of 60,000 horfe, and a much greater number of foot.
Like Robert of Normandy, he offered to mortgage
his dominions for money fufficient to condudf this mul¬
titude into Afia. The king accepted his offer ; and daughter, filler, niece, or kinfwoman, in marriage, it
had prepared a fleet and army to take poffefiion of Ihould only be neceffary for him to confult the king.
thefe dominions, when an unfortunate accident put an
end to his proje&s and his life. He was engaged in
hunting, the foie amufement, and indeed the principal
who promifed to take no money for his confent, nor
ever to reiufe permiffion, unlefs the perfon to whom it
propofed to marry her Ihould happen to be his
Death of
the -king.
occupation, of princes in thofe rude times. Walter enemy. ~ Fie granted his barons and military tenants
Tyrrel, a French gentleman remarkable for his He ill the power of bequeathing by will their money or per¬
il! archery, attended him in this recreation, of which fonal eftates ; and if they negletfted to make a will
the new foreft was the feene. William had difmount- he promifed that their heirs Ihould fucceed to them!
ed after a chafe; and Tyrrel, impatient to Ihow his
dexterity, let fly an arrow at a flag which fuddenly
He renounced the right of impofing moneyage, and
of levying taxes at pleafure, on the farms which the
ftarted before him. The arrow glanced from a tree, barons kept in their own hands. He made fome ge-
and ftruck the king to the heart. He inftautly fell
down dead; and Tyrrel, terrified at the accident,
clapt fpurs to his horfe, haftened to the fea-fhore, and
embarked for France, where he joined the crufade that
was letting out from that country.' This happened on
the 2d of Augull 1 too, alter the king had reigned
13 years, and lived about 40. His body was found in
Vol.VI. Part II.
neral profelfions of moderating fines ; he offered a par
don for all offences; and remitted all debts due to the
crown. Fie alfo required, .that the vaffals of the ba¬
rons Ihould enjoy the fame privileges which he granted
to his own barons; and he promifed a general con¬
firmation and obfervance of the laws of king Edward*. * See
To give greater authenticity to thefe conceffions,
4 H copy
ENG T 610 I E N
England, copy of the charter was lodged in fome abbey of each
  county.
King Henry, farther to increafe his popularity, de*
graded and committed to prifon Ralph Flambard bi-
Ihop of Durham, who had been the chief inilrument
of oppreffion under his brother. He Tent for Anfelm,
who was then at Lyons, inviting him to return and
Quarrels take poffeflion of his dignities. Anfelm returned; but
with the when Henry propofed to him to do the fame homage
primate, to him which he had done to his brother, the king met
with an abfolute refufal. During his exile, Anfelm
had aflifted at the council of Bari; where, befides fix¬
ing the controverfy between the Greek and Latin
churches concerning the proceffion of the Holy Qhoft,
the right of election to church-preferments was decla¬
red to belong to the clergy alone, and fpiritual cen-
fures were denounced againft all ecclefiaftics >Vho did
homage to laymen for their fees and benefices, and on
f See Feo- ah laymen who exa&ed it. The rite of homage f by
dal ‘Tenure, the feudal cuflomjs was, that the vaffal fliould throw
himfelf on his knees, put his joined hands between
thofe of his fuperior, and (hould in that pofture fwear
fealty to him. But the council declared it execrable,
that pure hands, which could create God, and offer
him up for the falvation of mankind, {hould be put, af¬
ter this humiliating manner, between profane hands,
which, befides being inured to rapine and bloodflied,
we e employed day and night in impure purpofes and
obfeene contafts. To this decree therefore Anfelm
appealed; and declared, that fo far from doing ho¬
mage for his fpiritual dignity, he would not even com¬
municate with any ecclefiaftic who paid that fubmif-
fion,or who acceptedof inveftitures from laymen. Hen¬
ry durft not infift ; and therefore defired that the con¬
troverfy might be fufpended, and that meffengers
might be fent to Rome to accommodate matters with
the Pope, and to obtain his confirmation of the laws
and cuftoms of England.
Henry now took another ftep which feemed capable
of confirming his claims to the crown without any dan¬
ger of a rival. The Englifh remembered with regret
their Saxon monarchs, when they compared the liber¬
ty they enjoyed under them with the tyranny of the
Normans. Some defeendants of that favourite line
ffill remained; and among the reft, Matilda, th^fvieee
of Edgar Atheling. Upon her the king fixed his
eyes as a proper confort, by whofe means the breach
between the Saxons and Normans might be cemented.
A difficulty, however, occuned, becaufe fhe had been
educated in a nunnery. The affair was examined by
Anfelm in a council of prelates and nobles fummoned
at Lambeth. Ma ilda the,'e proved, that (he had put
on the veil, not with a defign of entering into a reli¬
gious life, but merely in imitation of a cuftom familiar
to the Engliffi ladies, who proteftc-d their chaftity from
the brutal violence of the Normans by taking {helter
under that habit, which amid the horrid licentioufnefs
of the times was yet generally revered. The council,
fenfible that even a princefs had otherwife no fecurity
He marries ^or ^er honour, admitted this reafon as valid. They
Matilda, pronounced that Matilda was ftill free to marry ; and
her nuptials with Henry were celebrated by Anfelm
with great folemnity and pomp.
While Henry was thus rendering himfelf popular at
home* his brother Robert, who had loitered away a
twelvemonth in Italy, where he married Sibylla {laugh- England,
ter of the count of Converfana, arrived in England, in v——^
i ioi, in order to put in his late and ineffedfual claim 0ro^n’ of
to the crown. His fame, however, on account of t,he gn^hind
exploits he had performed in Paleftine, was fo great, claimed by
that even yet he was joined by many noblemen of the Robert,
firll rank, and the whole nation feemed prepoffeffed in
his favour. But Henry, having paid his court to An¬
felm, by his meanli retained the army in his interefts,
and marched with them to Portfmouth, where Robert
had landed his forces a few days before. The armies
lay for fome time in fight of each other ; when an ac¬
commodation was effefted through the mediation of
Anfelm and other great men. By this treaty it was a-
greed, that Robert {hould refign his preteniions to
England, and receive in lieu of them an annual pen-
fion of 3000 marks ; that if either of the princes died
without iffue, the other {hould fucceed to his domi¬
nions ; that the adherents of each {hould be pardoned,
and reftored to all their poffeffions either in Normandy
or England; and that neither Robert nor Henry
{hould thenceforth encourage, receive, or proteft, the
enemies of each other.
The two princes feparkted with mutual marks of
friendlhip ; but next year, Henry, under various pre¬
tences confifcated the eftates of almoft all the noble¬
men who had favoured his brother’s pretenfions. Ro¬
bert, enraged at the fate of his friends, ventured to
come to England in order to remonftrate with his
brother in perfon. But he met with fuch a bad re¬
ception, that, apprehending his liberty to be in dan¬
ger, he was glad to make his efcape by refignihg his
Pe?fl0.n\ . 104
This infringement of the treaty was followed the Normandy
enfuing year by an invafion of Normandy, at the defire inva<led by
of Robert’s own fubje&s, whom he was totally inca-**61"'^
pable of governing *. The event of this war was the * SeeiVir-
defeat and captivity of Robert, who was henceforth
deprived not only of all his dominions, but of his per-
fonal liberty. He lived 28 years a prifoner, and died
in the caftle of Cardiff in Glamorganfliire. It is even
faid by fome, that he was deprived of his fight by a
red-hot copper-bafon applied to his eyes, and that king
Henry appeafed his confcience by founding the mona-
ftery of Reading.
The conqueft of Normandy was completed in 1006;
and next year the epmroverfy between the king and pri¬
mate, concerning the inveftitures of clergymen and
their doing homage to princes, was refumed. The king
was very fenfible that it was not his intereft to quarrel
with fuch a powerful body as the clergy were at that
time ; and on the other hand he fully underftood the
neceffity of guarding the prerogatives of the crown
from their encroachments. While, therefore, he avoid-0 l0^.
ed an open rupture with Anfelm, he obftinately refu-wuh the
fed to give up the privileges which had been enjoyed primate,
by his predeceffors. On the firft arrival of Anfelm,
the king had avoided the difpute in the manner already
mentioned. A meffenger was difpatched to Rome, in
order to compromife matters with the Pope. The mef-
fenger returned with an abfolute refufal of the king’s
demands. One of the reafons given by the Pope on
this occafion, was expreffed in the following words :
“ It is monftrous that a fon {hould pretend to beget
his father, or a man to create his God : priefts are
called
ENG [6
England, called gods in fcripture, as being the vicars of God:
y * and will you, by your abominable pretenlions to grant
them their inveftiture, affume the right of creating
them ?” Henry was not yet convinced ; but as he was
determined to avoid, or at leaft to delay, the coming
to any dangerous extremity with the church, he per-
fuaded Anfelm, that by farther negociation he fhould
be able to compound matters with the Pope. Mef-
fengers were therefore difpatched to Rome a fecond
time from the king ; and alfo from Anfelm, who want¬
ed to be fully allured of the Pope’s intentions. They
returned with letters wrote in the moll arrogant and
pofnive manner, both to the king and primate. The
king fupprelfed the letter fent to himfelf; and perfua-
ded the three bilhops, by whom it was fent, to alfert,
upon their epifcopal faith, that the Pope had allured
them o£ his private good intentions towards king
Henry, and of his refolution not to refent any future
exertion of his prerogative in granting invellitures;
though he himfelf fcrupled to give this affurance under
his hand, left other princes Ihould copy the example
and alfume a like privilege. Anfelm’s two meffen-
gers, who were monks, affirmed that it was impoffible
this ftory could have any foundation ; but their word
was not deemed equivalent to that of three bifhops ;
and the king, as if he had finally gained his caufe, pro¬
ceeded to fill the fees of Hereford and Salilbury, and
to inveft the new bilhops in the ufual manner. Anfelm,
however, gave no credit to the affertions of the king’s
melfengers ; and therefore refufed not only to co- fe-
crate them, but-even to communicate with them ; and
the hilltops themfelves, finding they were become uni-
verfally odious, returned the enfigns of their fpiritual
dignity.
The quarrel continued between the king and pri¬
mate, till the latter, fenlible of his dangerous fituation,
dtfired leave to make a journey to Rome, in order to
lay the cafe before the Pope. This permiffion was
eafily obtained; but no fooner was the primate gone,
than Henry confifcated all his revenues, and fent ano¬
ther meffenger to negociate with the Pope. The new
meflenger told his holinefs, that his mailer would foon¬
er part with his crown than the tight of granting in-
vcllitures. “ And I (replied the Pope) would ra¬
ther lofe my head than allow him to retain it.” This
quarrel now became very dangerous to the king; as he
was threatened by the Pope with excommunication,
which would have been attended with terrible confe-
quences. At laft, however, a compromife was "made
in the following manner. Before bifhops took pofTef-
lion of their dignities, they had formerly been accu-
llomed to pafs through two ceremonials : They recei¬
ved, from the hands of the fovereign, a ring and cro-
fier as the fymbols of their office, and this was called
their invejliturc: they alfo made thofe fubmiffions to
the prince, which were required of the vaflals by the
rites of the feudal law, and which received the name
of homage. The Pope, therefore, was for the prefent
contented with Henry’s refigning his right of granting
rnveftitures, by which the fpiritual dignity was fuppo-
fed to be conferred ; and he allowed the bilhops to do
homage for their temporal properties and privileges.
After this, the Pope allowed Anfelm to communicate
■with the prelates who had already received inveftitures
from the crown; and he only required of them fame
ii 1 ENG
fubmiffions for their pall conduit. He alfo granted to England.
Anfelm a plenary power of remedying every iifoider,
which he faid might arife from the barbaroufnefs of
the country. About the fame time the marriage of
priefts was prohibited ; and even laymen were not al¬
lowed to marry within the feventh degree of affinity.
By this contrivance the Pope augmented the profits
which he reaped from granting difpenfations, and like-
wife thofe from divorces. For as the art of writing
was then rare, and parilh-regifters were not regularly
kept, it was not eafy to afcertain the degrees of affi¬
nity even among people of rank ; and any man who
had money to pay for it, might obtain a divorce,
on pretence that his wife was more nearly related to
him than was permitted by the canons. A decree
was alfo publilhed, prohibiting the clergy to wear long
hair ; and the king, tho’ he would not refign his pre¬
rogatives to the church, very willingly cut his hair in
the form which was required of him, obliging all the
courtiers at the fame time to follow his example.
From the time of this compromife, which happened
in 1107, to the year 1120, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened except fome flight commotions in Normandy :
but this year, prince William, the king’s only fon, 10$
was unfortunately drowned off the coaft of Normandy; J ; ce
and Henry was fo much affedled, that he is faid never Wllliam
afterwards to have fmiled or recovered his wonted'lrowne^*
cheerfulnefs. It is very doubtful, however, whether
the death of this prince was not an advantage to the
Britifli nation, fince Tie was often heard to exprefs
the utmoft hatred to the natives; infomuch that he had
threatened, that'when he came to the throne, he
would make them draw the plough, and would turn
them into beafts of burden. Thefe prepoffeffions he
inherited from his father; who, though he was wont,
when it might ferve his purpoles, to value himfelf on
his birth as a native of England, fliowed, in the courfe
of his government, an extreme prejudice againft that
people. All hopes of preferment to ecclefiafiical as
well as civil dignities are denied to the Englifh during
this whole reign ; and any foreigner, however igno¬
rant or worthlefs, was fure to have the preference in
every competition. The charter formerly mentioned,'
which the king granted at the beginning of his reign,
was no more thought of; and the whole fell fo much
into negledl and oblivion, that in the following cen¬
tury, when the barons, wh<x had heard an obfeure tra¬
dition of it, defired to make it the model of the great
charter which they exadled from king John, they could
only find one copy of it in the whole kingdom ; while
the grievances, propofed to be redreffed by it, conti*
nued ftill in their full extent.
As Henry had now no legitimate children except
Matilda, whom in mo he had betrothed, though
only eight years of age, to the emperor of Germany,
he was induced to marry a fecond time in hopes of ha¬
ving fons. tie made his addreffes accordingly to A-
delais the daughter of Godfrey Duke of Lovaine, and
niece to Pope Calixtus ; a young princefs of an ami¬
able perfon. But Adelais brought him no children: -tov
and in 1135, the king died in Normandy, from eating Death of
too plentifully of lampreys ; having lived 67 years, and KinS Heir-
reigned 35. _ r7-
By the will of king Henry, his daughter Matilda
became heirefs of all his dominions, fcihe had been
4 W a man,
£ N G [ 612 ] ENG
England, married, after her firfl hufband’s death, to Geoffrey king; a man of great honour and ability, and was very England.
Plantagenet eldeft fon of the count of Anjou, by whom much attached to the interefts of Matilda. When
Ihe had a fon named Henry; but as Geoffrey had gi- Stephen ufurped the throne, he offered to do him ho-
ven umbrage to the king of England in feveral inftan- mage, and take the oath of fealty ; but with an ex-
ces, no notice was taken of him in the will. The no- prefs condition, that the king fhould maintain all his
bility had already fworn fealty to her; and the fore- ftipulations, and never invade any of Robert’s rights
moft to Ihowthis mark of fubmiffion to the king’s will or dignities. With this condition Stephen was obliged
had been Stephen, fon of the count of-BJois (who had to comply, on account of the great power of that
married Adela the daughter of William the Conque- nobleman, though he knew that it was meant only to
ror). He had been married to Matilda daughter and afford him a favourable opportunity of revolting when
heirefs of Euftace Count of Boulogne; who brought him, occafion ferved. The clergy imitated Robert’s ex-
befides that feudal fovereignty of France, a vaft pro- ample ; and annexed to their oath of allegiance the
perty in England, which in the diftribution of lands following condition, namely, that they were only
had been conferred by the Conqueror on the family of bound as long as the king defended the ecclefiaftical
Boulogne. By this marriage Stephen acquired a new liberties, and fupported the difcipline of the church,
conneftion with the royal family of England: for Ma- The barons, in return for their fubmiffion, exacted
ry, his wife’s mother, was fifter to David the prefent terms of ftill more pernicious tendency. Many of them fUte of the
king of Scotland, and to Matilda the firft wife of Henry required to have the right of fortifying their caftles, kingdom,
and mother of the emprefs. The king alfo, imagining and putting themfelves in a pofture of defence ; and
that by the aggrandizement of Stephen he ftrengthen- with this exorbitant demand the king was forced to
ed the intereft of his own family, had enriched him with comply. All England was immediately filled with
many pofleffiona; but inftead of this, it appeared by thefe fortreffes ; which the noblemen garrifoned either
the event that he had only put it more and more in wdth their vaffals, or with licentious foldiers, who
3o8 his pow'er to ufurp the throne. flocked to them from all quarters. The whole king-
Stephenu- No fooner was Henry dead, than Stephen haftened dom now became a fcene of rapine and devaftation.
turps the from Normandy into England. The citizens of Do- Wars were carried on by the nobles in every quar-
thjone. ver and Canterbury, apprized of his purpofe, flmt their ter; the barons even affumed the right of coining mo-
gates again ft him ; but when he arrived at London, ney, and of exercifing, without appeal, every act of
fome of the lower ckfs of people, inftigated by his e- jurifdidtion; and the inferior gentry, as well as the
miffaries, immediately proclaimed him king. The people, finding no defence from the laws, during this
archbifliop of Canterbury refufed to give him the royal total djffolution of fovereign authority, were obliged,
undtion ; but this difficulty was got over by Stephen’s for their immediate fafety, to pay court to fome neigh-
brother the bifhop of Winchefter. Hugh Bigod, ftew- bouring chieftain, and to purchafe his proteftion, both
ard of the houfehold, made oath before the primate, by fubmitting to his exaftions, and by aflifting him in
that the late king, on his death-bed, had difeovered a his rapine upon others.
diffatisfaftion with his daughter Matilda, and had ex- In ■ 137, the Earl of Glocefter having proje&ed an
preffed his intention of leaving the Count of Boulogne infurre&ion, retired beyond fea, fent the king a de-
heir to all his dominions; and the bilhop, either belie- fiance, and folemflly renounced his allegiance. The next
ving, or pretending to believe, this teftimony, gave year David king of Scotland appeared with an army
Stephen the royal unction. Very few of the nobility in defence of his niece’s title ; and penetrating into
attended his coronation ; but none oppofed his ufurpa- Yorklhire, committed the greateft devaftations. He
tion, however unjuft or flagrant. was defeated, however, with great flaughter, at North-
Stephen, in order to eftablilh himfelf on the throne allerton, by fome of the northern barons, who had rai-
as firmly as poffible, puffed a charter, in which he fed a powerful army ; and this fuccefs fo much over-
made liberal promifes to all ranks of men; To the awed the malecontents in England, that Stephen’s
clergy he promifed, that he would fpeedily fill all the power might have received fome liability, had he not
vacant benefices, and never would levy any of the rents unfortunately engaged himfelf in a conteft with the
during the vacancy. To the nobility he gave liberty clergy. He had already feen the mifehief arifing from
to hunt in their own forefts; and to the people he pro- the liberty he had granted of fortifying fo many
miled to remit the tax of danegelt, and to reftore fhe caftles in different parts of the kingdom. He there-
laws of Edward the Confeffor. He feized the king’s fore determined to abridge this liberty as much as pof-
treafure at Winchefter, amounting to L. 100,000; fible ; and for that purpofe he began with the caftles
with part of which money he hired mercenary foldicrs creeled by the clergy, who feemed to have lefs right
from the continent; and with another part procured a to thefe military fecurities than the barons. Taking
bull from the Pope, confirming his title to the Englilh advantage therefore of a fray which had arifen at court
throne. between the retinue of the bilhop of Salilbury and the
Matilda, in the mean time, endeavoured to recover Earl of Brittany, he feized the bilhops both of Salif-
her juft rights of which Stephen had deprived her; but bury and Lincoln, threw them into prifon, and obli-
for fome time Ihe met with no fuccefs either in Eng- ged them to deliver up the caftles which they had late-
lahd or Normandy. Her hulband Geoffrey himfelf was ly creeled. This produced fuch a violent commotion,
obliged to conclude a peace with Stephen, on condi that the opportunity leemed favourable to the preten- JIQ
tion of the king’s paying him during that time an an- fions of Matilda. On the 22d of September 1139, Ihe Matilda
nual penfion of L. 500O. landed in England with Robert Earl of Glocefter, at-lac sin
Robert Earl of Glocefter was the firft who Ihook the tended only by 140 knights ; but her partizans daily ^
power of Stephen, lie was natural fon to the late increafed, and Ihe was foon in a condition to face Sr-.
t ghen
England.
Stephen de¬
feated a .!
taken pri-
ENG [61
phen with equal forces in the fiehl. Numberlefs en¬
counters happened, the detail of which could afford
very little entertainment to the reader. War was
fpread through every quarter; and the turbulent ba¬
rons having, in a great meafure, fhaken off all reftraint
of government, and now obtained the fanclion of
fighting in the caufe of their country, redoubled their
opprefBons, tyrannies, and devaftations. The caftles
of the nobility became receptacles of licenfed robbers ;
who, fallying forth day and night, fpoiled the open
country, plundered the villages, and even cities. They
tortured the captives to make them reveal their trea-
fures; Told their perfons to (lavery; and fet lire to the
houfes, after they had pillaged them of every thing
valuable. In confequence of this deftruftion, the land
was left untilled ; the inftruments of hufbandry were
abandoned ; -and a grievous famine reduced the nation
to the moft deplorable ftate that can be imagined.
After a multitude of indecifive conflidls, a battle
enfued which feemed likely to enfure the public peace
for fome time. Stephen had marched his forces to re¬
lieve the city of Lincoln ; the Earl of Gloctfter led a
body of troops to affift thofe of Matilda’s party, who
were befieging that place. The two armies engaged
on the 2d of February within fight of the city, and a
defperate battle enfued. At lalt Stephen’s army was
defeated. He himfelf was for forse time left without
attendants ; and fought on foot in the midft of his
enemies, affaulted by multitudes, and refifting all their
efforts with aftonifhing intrepidity. Being hemmed in
on every fide, he forced a way for fome time with his
battle-ax ; but that breaking, he drew his fword, and
with it furioufly affailed his antagonifts for fome time
longer. But at length the fword alfo flying in pieces,
he was obliged to furrender himfelf a prifoner. He was
conduced to Glocefter; and though at firft treated
with refpedl, he was in a ihort time, upon fome fufpi-
cions, thrown into irons.
About a month after, Matilda was crowned at Win-
chefter with great folemnity ; but foon fhowed herfelf
totally incapable of governing fuch a turbulent nation.
She determined to reprefs the power of the nobles, who
had now left only the fhadow of authority to their fo-
vereign. But being dellitute of policy or prudence fuffi-
cient to accomplifh fo difficult an undertaking, a con-
fpiracy was foon formed againil her, and the biffiop of
Winchefter detached a party of his friends and vaffals to
block up the city of London where the queen refided.
At the fame time meafures were taken to inftigate the
Londoners to a revolt, and to feize the. queen’s per-
fon. Matilda, having timely notice of this confpi-
racy, fled to Winchefter. Here (he was foon after
befieged'by the biffiop : but the town being diftrtfs-
ed by famine, ffie with difficulty made her efcape ;
while her brother the Earl of Glocefter, endeavouring
to follow, was taken prifoner, and exchanged for
Stephen.
Matilda was now obliged to take ffielter in Oxford,
while Stephen reafcended the throne. The civil war
broke out with redoubled fury. Many battles were
fought, and both parties were involved in many di-
ftreffes. Matilda efcaped from Oxford at a time when
.the fields were covered with fnow, by being drefied all
in white, with four knights her attendants drefled in
the fame colour. Another time Stephen was furpriied
3 1 ENG
by the earl of Glocefter at Wilton, and made his e- England,
[cape with the utmoft difficulty. At laft Matilda was —-y—s
obliged to quit the kingdom ; and the death of the earl
of Glocefter foon after feemed to give a fatal blow to
her interefts. In 1151, however, prince Henry, Ma¬
tilda’s fon by her fecond huffiand Geoffrey, came
over to England, in order once more to difpute Ste¬
phen’s pretenfions to the crown. After fome fuccefs
on his firft landing, he was oppofed by Stephen with
a powerful army, and matters feemed likely to come
to the decifion of a-general engagement. But while
the two armies continued within a quarter of a mile of
each other, a treaty was fet on foot by the interpofition
of William earl of Arundel, for terminating the difpute
in an amicable manner. The death of Euftace, Ste¬
phen’s fon, whom he had defigned for the throne, which
happened during tBe courfe of the treaty, facilitated
its conclufion. It was agreed, that Stephen ffiould
reign during his life, and that juftice ffiould be admi-
niftered in his name ; that Henry, on Stephen’s death,
ffiould fucceed to the kingdom; and that William,
Stephen’s fon, ffiould inherit Boulogne and his pa¬
trimonial eftate. This treaty filled all Europe with
joy ; and after the barons had fworn to it, Henry left
England, and Stephen returned to the peaceable enjoy¬
ment of his throne. His reign, however, was but His death,
of ffiort continuance ; his death happening on the 25th
of October 1154.
Henry was on the continent befieging a caftle of one
of the mutinous barons, when news was brought him
of Stephen’s death. But, as he was fenfible of the
goodnefs of his title, he did not abandon his enterprize
till the place was reduced. Ide then fet out on his
journey, and was received irv England with the utmoft IJtg
joy. The firft a&s of his reign feemed to promife an Henry IL
happy and profperous adminiftration. He inftantly
difmiffed the mercenary foldiers who had committed
the greateft diforders throughout the nation. He or¬
dered all the caftles which had been ere&ed fince the
death of Henry I. to be demoliflied, except a few
which he retained in his own hands for the protection
of the kingdom. The adulterated coin which had been
ftruck during the reign of Stephen was cried down,
and new money ftruck of the right value and ftandard.
He refumed many of thofe benefaCtions-which had
been made to churches and monafteries in the for¬
mer reigns. He gave charters to feveral towns,
by which the citizens claimed their freedom, and
privileges independent of any fuperior but himfelf.
Thefe charters were the ground-work of the Engliffi
liberty ; for thus a new order, namely, the more opu¬
lent of the people, began to claim a ffiare in the ad-
minittration, as well as the nobility and clergy. Thus
the feudal government was at firft impaired ; and liber¬
ty began to be more equally diffufed throughout the
nation.
Henry II. on his acceffion to the Engliffi throne,.
found himfelf poffeffed of very.extenfive dominions on
the continent. In the right of his father, he poffeffed
Anjou^Touraine, and Maine ; in that of his mother,
Normandy ; in that of his wife, Guienne, Poi&ou,
Xaintogne, Auvergne, Perigoxd, Angouonois, and .
the Limoufin. Soon after, he annexed Brittany to
his other ftates, by marrying his fon, who was yet
a child, to the heirefs of Brittany, who was a child
alfd,-
ENG [6
Eng'lan3. alfo, and was already in pofieffion of the fuperiority
j over t;jiat prov;nce- Thefe territories compofed above
a third of the French monarchy, and were by far the
moft opulent part of it; fo that Henry, though vaf-
fal to the king of France, was greatly fuperior to him
in power: and when England was added to all thefe,
the French king had great refcfon to apprehend fome"
difafter to himfelf and family. The king of England,
however, refided at too great a diftance to be able to
employ this formidable power with fuccefs againft the
French monarch. He foon became a kind of ftranger
in his continental dominions; and his fubjefts there
confidered their allegiance as more naturally due to
their fuperior lord, who lived in their neighbourhood,
and who was acknowledged to be the fupreme head of
their nation. Their immediate lord was often at too
great a dillance to proteA them ; and a commotion
in any part of Henry’s extenhve dominions gave
great advantages againft him. The wife and vigo¬
rous adminiftration of Henry, however, counterbalan¬
ced in a great meafure thefe difadvantages ; and he
maintained a furprifing tranquillity throughout his ejf-
tenfive dominions during the greateft part of his reign.
Henry found no great difficulty in circumfcribing
the power of the barons; but when he attempted to do
the fame thing with the clergy, he met with the moft
violent oppofition. That body had carried their inde¬
pendence on the civil power fo far, that now they
feemed to aim at nothing lefs than a liberty to commit
all manner of crimes with impunity. During the
reign of Stephen, they had extorted an immunity from
c See (Be ecc^la^ca^ penalties*; and that grant they
mefitof)6 vvere refolved to maintain for the future. It may ea-
Chrgy. fily be fuppofed, that a law which thus fcreened their
116 wickednefs, contributed to increafe it; and we accord-
Monftrnus jng}y gn(j Upon record, not lefs than 100 murders
cJpthe ne * committed by men in holy orders, in the ftiort period
dergy. fince the king’s acceffion, not one of which was pu-
niftied even with degradation ; while thebiftiops them-
felves feemed to glory in this horrid indulgence. The
king did not make any attempts againft them during
the life of Theobald archbilhop of Canterbury, who
was a man of a mild charadler, and befides had great
merit; becaufe, during the former reign, he had refu-
fed to put the crown on the head of Euftace, Stephen’s
fon. He died in 1162; and the kingr after his death,
advanced to the fee of Canterbury Thomas a Becket,
his chancellor, on whofe compliance he thought he
117 might entirely depend.
Contefts The new archbilhop was thfe firft man of Englifli
of the king pedigree, who, fince the Norman conqueft, had rifen
with Tho t0 a confiderable ftation. Before his inftalment in
mas a Bee- . „ , . . . ...
ket.
the fee of Canterbury, Becket had been exceedingly
complaifant, good-humoured, and agreeable to his
mafter; and had alfo been accuftomed to live very
freely. But no fooner was he inverted with this high
dignity, than he totally altered his condufk, and put
on all thofe airs of affe&ed and oftentatious humility
which could recommend him to the fupertlitious and
ignorant multitude in that age. The ftrft ftep taken
by this hypocrite after his advancement, was to refign
the office of chancellor. This he did without con-
fulting the king: the reafon he gave was, that hence¬
forth he muft detach himfelf from fecular affairs, and
be folely employed in the duties of his facred fundlion ;
14 ] ENG
but in reality, that he might break off all connexion England,
with Henry. As he knew that the king intended to
abridge the ecclefiaftical power, he thought the bell
method would be to become himfelf the aggreffor.
He therefore fummoneef the earl of Clare to furrender
the barony of Tunbridge ; which, ever fince the Con-
queft, had remained in the family of that nobleman ;
but which, as it had formerly belonged to the fee of
Canterbury, the primate pretended that his predecef-
fors were prohibited by the canons from alienating.—
William de Eynsford, a military tenant of the crown,
was patron of a living which belonged to a manor that
held of the archbilhop of Canterbury ; and Becket,
without regard to William’s right, prefented, on a
new and illegal pretence, one Laurence to that living,
who was violently expelled by Eynsford. Upon this,
Eynsford was excommunicated. He complained to
the king, that he, who held in capite of the crown,
fhould, contrary to the praftice eftablilhed by the Con-
querorsand maintained ever fince by his fucceffors, be
fubjefted to that terrible fentence, without the prevU
ous confent of the fovereign. Henry, by a meffenger,
commanded Becket to abfolve Eynsford. The haughty
primate anfwered, that it belonged not to the king to
inform him whom he Ihould abfolve, and whom ex¬
communicate ; but, after qlL he was obliged to com¬
ply with' the king’s orders, though with the worft
grace imaginable.
As Henry perceived that the crown was now in dan¬
ger, through the fuperftition of the people, of falling
totally under the power of the clergy, he refolved to
exert himfelf to the utmoft againft their fcandalouar
ufurpations. Among their other inventions to obtain
money, they had now inculcated the neceffity of pe¬
nance as an atonement for fin ; and having again in¬
troduced the practice of paying them large fums as an
equivalent for thefe penances, the fins of the people had
thus become a revenue to the priefts; and the king
computed, that, by this invention alone, they levied
more money from his fubjedts than what flowed by all
the funds and taxes into the royal exchequer. To eafe
the people of fo heavy and arbitrary an impolition, the
king required, that a civil officer of his appointment
ftiould be prefent in all ecclefiaftical courts, and fhould
for the future give his confent to every compofition
made for fpiritual offences. About this time alfo the .
king had an opportunity of proceeding againft the
clergy on another footing. A clerk in Worcefter-
fhire, having debauched a gentleman’s daughter, mur¬
dered her father. The king required that the clerk
fhould be delivered up to the magiftrate. Becket
pleaded the privileges of the church ; confined the cri¬
minal in the bifhop’s prifon, left he ihould be feized by
the king’s officers; and maintained that no greatef
punifhment could be inflifted on him than degradation.
The king then required, that, immediately after he
was degraded, he fhould be tried by the civil powers;
but the primate afferted, that it was iniquitous to try
a man twice upon the fame accufation, and for the fame
crime. Upon this, Henry fummoned an affembly of
all the prelates in England ; and put to them this de-
cifive queflion. Whether or not they were willing to
fubmit to the ancient laws and cuftoms of the king¬
dom i The bifhops unanimoufly replied, that they
were willing, faving their own order. The king was
5 * pro-
ENG [6
England, provoked to the laft degree at this equivocal anfwer.
He left the affembly with evident marks of difpleafure ;
and required the primate inftantly to furrender the
cattles of Eye and Berkham. The other prelates were
terrified ; but Becket continued inflexible : however,
he was at laft prevailed upon, by the interpofition of
Philip the pope’s legate and almoner, to retradt the
faving claufe, and promife without any referve to ob-
ferve the ancient cuftoms.
The king was not now to be fatjsfied with general
promifes from the clergy. He was determined that
the ancient laws and cuftoms ftiould be defined, as
well as the privileges of the clergy. He therefore
fummoned another great council of the clergy and no¬
bility at Clarendon, to whom he fubmitted this im¬
portant affair. A number of regulations was there
drawn up, which were afterwards well known by the
title of the Conjlitutions of Clarendon. By thefe it was
enafted, that clergymen accufed of any crime ftrould
be tried in the civil courts ; that laymen ihould not be
tried in fpiritual courts, except by legal and reputable
witneffes; that the king (hould ultimately judge in ec-
clefiaftical and fpiritual appeals; that the archbiftiops
and biihops {hould be regarded as barons, and obliged
to contribute to the public expences like other perfons
of their rank ; that the" goods forfeited to the king,
fhould not be protected, in churches or church-yards by
the clergy; and that the fons of villeins ftiould not
take orders without the confent of their lord. Thefe,
with fome others of lefs confequence, to the number of
16, were fubfcribed by all the bifhops prefent, and
even by Becket himfelf; who, at firft, ftiowed fome
reluttance.
Nothing now remained but to get the conftitutions
ratified by the Pope ; but in this the king was difap-
pointed. The Pope rejected them with the utmoft in¬
dignation ; and, out of 16, admitted only fix, which
he thought were not important enough to deferve cen-
fure.— Becket was now mortified to the higheft de¬
gree. He retraced his confent to the eonftitutions,
redoubled his aufterities, and even refufed to execute
any part of his facerdotal fundtion till he had obtained
abfolution from his holinefs. Henry, confidering thefe
humilities as infults offered to himfelf, defired the Pope
to fend him a legate. He did fo; but annexed a claufe
to his commiffion, by which he was prohibited from
afting againft the archbiftrop of Canterbury. The king
fent back the commiflion to the Pope; and being now
exafperated beyond all patience, commenced furious
profecutions againft Becket. He firft fued him for
fome lands belonging to his primacy ; and Becket be¬
ing detained by ficknefs from coming into court, his
non-attendance was conftrued into difrefpeft. The
primate afterwards defended his caufe in perfon ; but
all his goods and chattels were confifcated, and the bi-
flrop of Winchefter was obliged to pronounce the fen-
tence. Another fuit was commenced againft him
for L. 300, which he had levied on the honours of
Eye and Eerkham, and the primate agreed to give fe-
curities for the payment of the fum. The next day a
third fuit was commenced againft him for 1,000 marks,
which the king had lent him upon fome former occa-
fion : and, immediately upon the back of thefe, a ftill
greater demand was made; namely, that Becket
lliguld give an account of the money he had received
1 eng
and expended during the time he was chancellor. The England;
money was computed at no lefs than 40,000 marks; "
and the primate, unable either to give an account, or
find fecurities, took the following extraordinary me¬
thod of evading the king’s defigns. He arrayed him¬
felf in his epifcopal veftments; and with the crofs in
his hand, went forward to the palace. Having en¬
tered the royal apartments, he fat down, holding up
the crofs as his banner and proteftion. The king,
who fat in an inner apartment, ordered by proclama¬
tion all the prelates and nobility to attend him; to
whom he loudly complained of Becket’s infolence.
The whole council joined in condemning this inftance
of his unaccountable pride ; and determined to expo-
ftulate with him about his inconfiftency concerning
the conftitutions of Clarendon. But all their mef-
fages, threats, and arguments, were to no purpofe.
Becket put himfelf, in the moft folemn manner, under
the proteftion of the fupreme pontiff, and appealed to
him againft any penalty which his iniquitous judges
might think proper to inflidL Then leaving the pa-3ec£gf
lace, he allied the king’s immediate permifiion to quit to ^he con-
Northampton ; but being refufed, he fecretly withdrew tinent.
in difguife, and at laft. found means to crofs over to the
continent.
Becket was received with the greateft marks of e-
fteem, firft by the king of France (who hated Henry
on account ofhis great power), and then by the Pope,
whofe caufe he had fo ftrenuoully defended in England.
Henry at the fame time fent ambaffadors to the Pope;
who were treated with coolnefs and contempt, while
Becket was honoured with the greateft marks of di-
ftin&ion. Thefe favours beftowed upon an exile and
a perjured traitor (for fuch had been Becket’s fen-
tence of condemnation in England), irritated the king
to fuch a degree, that he refidved to throw off at once
all dependence upon the Pope. He accordingly iffued
out orders to his jufticiaries ; inhibiting, under fevere
penalties, all appeals to the Pope or the archbifliop;
and forbidding any of them to receive mandates from
them, or to apply to their authority. He declared it
treafonable to bring over from either of them any in-
terdidf upon the kingdom. This he made puniftiable
in fecular clergymen by the lofs of their livings, and
by caftration ; in regulars, by the amputation of their
feet ; and in laymen, by death. On the other hand,
the Pope and the archbifhop did not fail to iffue forth
their fulminations in fuch a manner as to lhake the.
very foundation of the king’s authority. Becket ex¬
communicated by name all the king’s chief minifters
who had been concerned in fequeftrating the revenues
of his fee-, and all who obeyed or favoured the confti¬
tutions of Clarendon. He even threatened to excom¬
municate the king if he did not fpeedily repent; and
had not the Pope himfelf been threatened every day
with the machinations of an antipope, whofe pretenfions
he was afraid the king of England might fupport, the
fentence of excommunieation would certainly have been
denounced.
At-firft, Henry paid little regard to thefe fulmina-
tions ; but afterwards, when he found that his autho¬
rity, over his fubje&s began to decline on that account,
and that his rivals on the continent were endeavouring
to difturb the tranquillity of his dominions, he began
fincerely to defire a reconciliation. This the Pope and.
Becket;
ENG [ 61
England. Becket alfo became defirous of, becaufe they faw that
■u—^ their utmoft endeavours were infufficientto draw Hen¬
ry’s fubje&s into a revolt againft him. The treaty of
accommodation, however, was often broke off, through
the extreme jealoufy of each of the parties ; but at
length, by the mediation of the Pope’s legate, all dif¬
ferences were adjufted, and Becket was reinftated in
11^ the fee of Canterbury.
Is reft'red, On the recovery of his dignity, the primate behaved
and behaves with all his ufual arrogance. Inftead of retiring
fornier'in- <lu'et^y to his diocefe when he landed in England, he
folence. made a progrefs through Kent with all the fplendor
and magnificence of a fovereign pontiff. As he ap¬
proached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, and all
ranks of people, came forth to meet him, and celebra¬
ted his triumphal entry with hymns of joy. Being
thus confident of the fupport of the people, he refol-
ved to make his enemies feel the fevereft effedls of his
vengeance. He fufpended the archbifhop of York,
who had crowned Henry’s eldeft fon in his abfence.
He excommunicated the bifhops of London and Salif-
bury, with fome of the principal nobility and pre¬
lates who had affiited at the coronation. One man
he excommunicated for having fpoken againft him, and
another for having cut off the tail of one of his horfes.
The excommunicated and degraded prelates immedi¬
ately made their complaints to the king; and he
having dropped fome paffionate expreffions, intimating
a defire to have Becket’s life taken away, the fuppo-
fed wall of the king was inftantly accomplifhed ; nor
could the king’s exprefs orders to the contrary arrive
time enough to hinder the execution of this fatal pur-
lao pofe. See Becket.
Grief of the The king was thrown into the utmoft confternation
king for his on hearing 0f Becket’s murder. He knew that the
ta ' primate’s death would accomplifh what his moft vio¬
lent oppofition during his life could never have done,
and therefore he gave himfelf up to forrow; for three
days he even refufed all nourilhment; till at laft his
courtiers were obliged to break in upon his folitude,
and induce him to acquiefce in an event which could
not poffibly be recalled. The pope was with fome
difficulty made fenfible of the king’s innocence ; but
refufed to grant him a pardon, except on condition
that he fhould make every future fubmiffion and per¬
form every injunction the holy fee thought proper to
demand. When things were thus adjufted, the affaf-
fins who had murdered Becket were allowed to retire
in fafety to the enjoyment of their former dignities;
and the king, with a view to divert the minds of the
people to. a different objeft, undertook an expedition
into Ireland, and totally reduced that illand. See
Ireland.
©MTenfions The king Was fcarce freed from the war with Ire-
in Henry’s land, and the dangerous controverfy which he had en-
family. gaged in with the church of Rome, when he found
himfelf involved in the moft unnatural contefts with his
children, to whom he had always behaved in the moft
tender and affedlionate manner. He had ordered
Henry his eldeft Ton to be anointed king; and had
deftined him for his fucceffor in the kingdom of Eng¬
land, the duchy of Normandy, and the counties of
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; territories which lay
contiguous, and which might thus eafily lend their
affiftance to one another. Richard his fecond fon
N° 116.
6 ] ENG
was invefted in the duchy of Guienne and county of England.
Poiddou : Geoffrey, his third fon, inherited, in right y—
of his wife, the duchy of Brittany: and the new con-
queft of Ireland was deftined for the appendage of
John his fourth f n, for whom he had negociated a
marriage with Adelais the only daughter of Humbert
count of Savoy and Maurienne; and with whom he
was to receive as a dowry very confiderable demefnes
in Piedmont, Savoy, Breffe, and Dauphiny. This
greatnefs of Henry’s family alarmed the king of
France; and he therefore excited young prince Henry
to demand of his father, either the immediate refigna-
tion of the crown of England, or the duchy of Nor¬
mandy. The king refufed to comply with fuch an ex¬
travagant demand ; upon which the prince made his
efcape to Paris, where he was protected by the French
king. This happened in 1173 ; and the fame year,
queen Eleanor, finding that fhe was now grown very
difagreeable to the king, communicated her difcontent
to her two younger children Geoffrey and Richard,
whom fhe engaged alfo to demand the territories af-
figned them, and then fly to the court of France. The Queen E
queen herfelf was meditating an efcape to the fame leJnor com
court, and had put on man’s apparel for that purpofe, fined,
when ftie was feized and confined by Henry’s order.
The licentious barons in the mean time wilhed for a
change of government; hoping^ to have liberty, under
young and unexperienced princes, to commit thofe ra¬
pines and violences which they could not do with fafety
when governed by fitch a prudent and vigilant king
as Henry. In the midft of this univerfal defection,
however, the Englilh monarch ftill retained his ufual
intrepidity, and prepared with as much vigour as pof-
fible for the conteft. As he could depend on the fi¬
delity of very few of his nobility, he was obliged to
enlift in his fervice a number of defperate ruffians call¬
ed Brabengons, and fometimes Routiers or Cottereaux,
though for what reafon is not mentioned in hiftory.
Thefe banditti were very numerous during the times
of the feudal government, when many private wars
were carried on between the nobles; and 20,000 of
thefe, with a few forces furniffied by his faithful ba^
rons, compofed the whole of Henry’s army on this oc-
cafxon.
With this force die king of England totally over¬
threw the fchemes of his enemies on the continent;
but being very defifous of putting an end to the war,
he this very year (1173) agreed to a conference with
the king of France. At this interview, Henry offer¬
ed his children the moft advantageous terms. He in¬
filled only on retaining the fovereign authority in all
his dominions. To Henry he offered half the revenues
of the crown of England, with fome places of furety
in that kingdom; or if he thofe rather to refide in Nor¬
mandy, half the revenues of that duchy, with all thofe
of* Anjou. He made a like offer to Richard in Gui¬
enne ; he promifed to refign all Brittany to Geoffroy ;
and if thefe conceffions were not deemed fufficient, he
agreed to add to them whatever the Pope’s legates, who
were prefent, Ihould require of him. The conference,
however, was broke off by the violence of the earl of
Leicefter; who not only reproached Henry in the moft
indecent manner, but even put his hand to his fword,
as if he intended to attempt fome violence againft
him.
ENG r 617 ] ENG
King of
Scotland
defeated
and taken
prifoner.
■England. ‘ In tlxe mean time, the moll of the Ertglilh nobility
**'■' united in oppofition againft their fovereign; and an ir¬
ruption at this time by the king of Scotland aflilled
their rebellious fchemes. The earl of Leicefter foon
after invaded Suffolk at the head of a body of Fle¬
mings; but they were repulfed with great flaughter,
and the earl himfelf was taken prifoner. Soon after,
William king of Scotland, who had been repulfed,
and agreed to a ceffation of arms, broke the truce,
and invaded England with an army of 80,coo men,
committing the molt terrible devaftations. Henry in
the mean time, to reconcile himfelf thoroughly to the
church, performed the penances at the tomb of Tho¬
mas a Becket which he had formerly promifed to do.
As foon as he came within fight of the church of Can¬
terbury, he alighted from his horfe, walked barefoot
towards the town, and proftrated himfelf before the
flrrine of the faint. He remained a whole day in prayer
and fading, watched the holy relics all night, made a
grant of 501. a-yearto the convent for a conftant fup-
ply of tapers to illuminate the fhrine ; and not fatis-
fied with thefe fubmiffions, he affembled a chapter of
monks, diftobed himfelf before them, put a fcourge
into each of their hands, and prefented his bare (boul¬
ders to their ftrokes. Next day he received abfolu-
tion; and, departing for London, had the agreeable
news of the defeat and captivity of William king of
Scotland, which happened on the very aday of his ab-
folution.
This vidlory proved decifive in Henry’s favour. The
Englifh barons who had revolted, or were preparing
for a revolt, inftantly delivered up their callles to the
vidlor, and the kingdom was in a few weeks rtftored
to perferit tranquillity. Prince Henry, who was ready
to embark with a great army to join the Englifh rebels,
abandoned all thoughts of the enterprife. Soon after
a treaty was concluded with the king of France ; in
which Henry granted his children much lefs advanta¬
geous terms than he had offered them before. The
principal were, fome penfions for their fupport, cattles
for their refidence, and an indemnity to all their ad-
herents. The greateft fufferer by this war was Wil-
iOwns!: m-liam king of Scotland. He was compelled to fign a
lelf Henry’streaty, by which he obliged himfelf to do homage to
vafldl. Henry for the kingdom of Scotland. It was agreed,
that his barons and Littiops (hould do the fame; and
that the fortreffes of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, (hould be delivered into
the hands of the conqueror till the articles were'per-
formed. This treaty was executed moft pun&ually
and rigoroufly on the joth of Auguft 1175. The
king, barons, and prelates of Scotland, did homage
to Henry in the cathedral of York ; the greateft hu¬
miliation to which the Scottifh nation had ever been
fubje&ed.
Henry was now freed from all troubles either at
fioullri ^lome or a^roa^> f°r fiye years; during which time he
Henry’s f?.- made feveral falutary laws for the good of his king-
tnily. dom. But, in 1180, the ambitious fpirits of his chil¬
dren involved him in frefti calamities. Richard, who
had been invefted by his father with the fovereignty of
Guienne, refufed to do homag£ to his elder brother,
as king Henry had required him to do. Young Henry
and Geoffrey, uniting their arms, invaded their bro¬
ther’s dominions ; and while the king was endeavour-
Vol.VJ. Part II.
ing to compofe their differences, he found himfelf con-
fpired againft by them all. The confpiracy, however*
was defeated by the death of prince Henry in 118:5.
He had retired to Martel, a cattle near Turenne, where
he was feized with a fever; and perceiving the ap*
proaches of death, he was at laft (truck with remorfe
for his undutiful behaviour towards his father. He
fent a meffenger to the king, who was not far diftant;
expreffed his contrition for his faults ; and intreated
the favour of a vifit, that he might at lead die with the
fatisfadtion of having received his forgivenefs. The
king, who had fo often experienced his fon’s ingrati¬
tude and violence, apprehended that his ficknefs was
entirely a feint, and dared not truft himfelf in the
prince’s hands. But foon after, receiving certain in¬
telligence of his death, and proofs of his fincere re¬
pentance, the good old king was affedted with the
deepeft forrow. He thrice fainted away; he accufed
his own hard-heartednefs in refufing the dying requeft
of his fon ; and he lamented that he had deprived the
prince of the laft opportunity of making atonement for
his offences.
Prince Henry, who died in'the 28th year of his age,
left no pofterity. His brother Richard fucceeded to
his dominions, and foon difcovered as turbulent a fpirit
as that which had adluated his brother. He refufed
to give up Guienne, which Henry had defigned for his
fourth fon John ; and even made preparations for car¬
rying on war againft his father, and brother Geoffrey.
Henry fent for Eleanor his queen, the heirefs of Gui¬
enne; to whom Richard, either dreading an infurrec-
tion in her favour, or out of a fenfe of duty, willingly
yielded up the territory, and retired peaceably to his
father’s court. This breach, however, was no fooner
made up, than Geoffrey, demanded Anjou to be added
to his dominions in Brittany. This the king refufed;
upon which he fled to the court of France, and pre¬
pared to levy an army againft his father. Henry, how¬
ever, was freed from the danger which threatened him
from that quarter, by his fon’s death, who was killed
in a tournament at Paris. The lofs of this prince gave
few, except the king himfelf, any uneafinefs; for lie
was univerfally hated, and went among the people by
the name of the Child of Perdition. The widow of
Geoffrey, foon after his deceafe, was delivered of a
fon, who received the name of Arthur, and was inveft¬
ed in the duchy of Brittany, under the guardianfhip of
his grandfather, who, as duke of Normandy, was alfo
fuperior lord of that territory. Philip, as lord para¬
mount, difputed for fome time his title to this ward-
(hip ; but was obliged to yield to the inclinations of
the Bretons, who preferred the government of Henry.
Some other caufes inflamed the diffenfion between thefe
two monarchs, and Philip once more feduced Richard
from his duty. He infilled, that his marriage with
Adelais, Philip’s filler, (hould be immediately com¬
pleted, and threatened to enforce his pretenfions with
a formidable army. This occafioned another confe¬
rence between Gifors and Trie, the ufual place of
meeting, under a vaft elm that is faid to have (haded
more than an acre. In the midft of this conference
the archbilhop of Tyre appeared before the affembly
in the moft miferable habit, and begged alfiftance a-
gainftthe infidels, who, under Saladin, had almoft to¬
tally expelled the Chriftians from Afia. His intelli*
4 I gencg
fir>g!an<L
ENG [ 618 ] ENG
England, gence appeared fo very difmal, that the kings of France their nation, prefumed, notwithftanding thefe orders, England,
and England laid afide their animofity. Both of them to approach the hall in which the king dined. Being —"V—
immediately took the crofs; but Richard, who had difcovered, they were expofed to the infults and in-
long wiihed to have all the glory of fuch an expedition juries of the by danders; in confequence of which they
to himfelf, could not bear to have even his father for fled, and were purfued by the people. A report was
a partner in his vi&ories. He therefore entered into fpread, that the king had given orders to maflacre all
a confederacy with the king of France; fo that Henry the Jews. This fuppofed command was executed in
found himfelf at laft obliged to give up all thoughts of the moft cruel manner. Multitudes were flaughtered
the crufade, in order to defend himfelf againft this un¬
natural combination. The event of the war proved
very unfortunate for Henry, who loft feveral towns, and
the city of London, and this example was followed
in moft of the cities in England. Five hundred Jews
had retired into York caftle for fafety : but finding
narrowly efcaped falling into the hands of the enemy themfelves unable to defend the place, they murdered
himfelf. At laft a treaty was concluded at the inter- their wives and children ; threw the dead bodies over
ceffion of the duke of Burgundy, the count of Flan¬
ders, and the archbiftrop of Rheims; but upon terms
very humiliating to the king of England. It was a-
greed, that Richard ftiould marry the princefs Adelais,
and be crowned king of England during the lifetime
the wall againft their enemies who attempted to fcale
it ; and then, fetting fire to the houfes, periflted in
the flames. The gentry in the neighbourhood, who
were all indebted to the Jews, ran to the cathedral
where their bonds were kept, and made a folemn
of his father ; that Henry ftiould pay 20,000 marks to bonefire of them before the altar.
the king of France, as a compenfation for the charges
of the war; that his own barons fliould engage to
make him obferve this treaty, and in cafe of violating
it, to join Philip and Richard againft him ; and that pedients he could think of, however pernicious to the toPaleftine.
Richard immediately began to take meafures for his Richard’s
expedition into Paleitine. His father had left him
100,000 merks; and this fum he augmented by all e *
all his vafials who had efpoufed the caufe of Richard
His ex- ftiould receive an indemnity for their offence. Thefe
treme grief terms, mortifying as they were, Henry bore with pa-
and death. t[ence . but when, upon receiving a lift of the barons
that were to be pardoned, he found his own fon John,
who was his favourite, among them, he could no longer
fupport his grief. He broke out into the moft la¬
mentable expreffions of defpair; curfed the day in
public, or dangerous to the royal authority. He fet
up to fale the revenues and manors of the crown, and
feveral offices of the greateft truft and power. Liber¬
ties, charters, cattles, were given to the bell bidders.
His friends warned him of the danger attending this
venality ; but he told them he would fell the city of
London itfelf, if he could find a purchafer. Nume¬
rous exadlions were alfo pradlifed upon all ranks and
which he received his miferable being; and beftowed ftations; menaces, promifes, and expoftulations, were
©n his ungrateful children a maledidlion which he
could never afterwards be prevailed upon to retradl.
Soon after, he fell into a lingering fever occafioned by
his grief; and of this he died on the 6th of July 1189,
in the 58th year of his age and 35th of his reign. His
natural fon Geoffrey, who alone had behaved dutifully
ufed to fright the timid, and allure the avaricious. A
zealous preacher of thofe times was emboldened to re-
monftrate againft the king’s condudl; and advifed him
to part with his three daughters, which were pride,
avarice, and fenfuality. To this Richard readily re¬
plied, “ You counfel right, my friend: and I have al-
towards him, attended his corpfe to the nunnery of ready provided hulbands for them all. I will difpofe of
Fontevrault, where it lay in Hate in the abbey-church, my pride to the templars ; my avarice to the monks ;
Next day Richard, who came to vifit the dead body of and as for my fenfuality, the clergy fhall (hare that a-
his father, was ftruck with horror at the fight. At his mong them.” At length the king having got toge-
approach, the blood was feen to gufh out at the mouth ther a fufficient fupply for his undertaking, and
and noftrils of the eorpfe; and this accident was, by even fold his fuperiority over Scotland for a mode-
the fuperftition of the times, interpreted as the moft
dreadful rebuke. Richard could not endure the fight.
He exclaimed that he was his father’s murderer; and
expreffed a ftrong, though too late, fenfe of his undu-
tiful condudl.
Richard fucceeded to the throne without oppofi-
tion, immediately after his father’s death; and, on his
accefiion, fet his mother Eleanor (who had been again
confined), at liberty. A romantic defire for ftrange
adventures, and an immoderate zeal for the external
rites of religion, were the ruling pafiiona of the times.
By the firft of thefe Richard was inflamed to the
higheft degree, and therefore behaved as if the whole
defign of his government had been to attempt the
recovery of the Holy Land from the Infidels. The
fuperftition of the people fhowed itfelf in 
a moft r
rate fum, fet out for the Holy Land; whither he
was impelled by repeated meffages from the king of
France, who was ready to embark in the fame enter-
prife.
An account of Richard’s exploits in this expedition
is given under the articles Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus,
&c.—Having at laft concluded a truce with Saladin,
he fet out on his return for England. He was, how¬
ever, at a lofs how to proceed. He durft not return
by the way he came, as this would put him in the
power of the king of France, between whom and the
king of England an irreconcileable enmity had taken
place. No way therefore was left, but by going more
to the north; for which reafon he took flapping for
Italy, but was wrecked near Aquileia. From thence
the Jews.
he travelled towards Ragufa, and refolved to make his 130
lent and tragical manner on the very day of the king’s way through Germany in the habit of a pilgrim. But Taken pri-
coronation. The Jews were the .objetls of univerfal his expences and liberalities having betrayed him not-foner on ^I3
hatred, fo that Richard had iffued out orders forbid- withftanding this difguife, he was arreftedby LeopoldretUrn*
ding any of them from appearing at his coronation, duke of Auftria, who commanded him to be loaded
But fome of them bringing him large prefents. from, with (hackles.. This prince had ferved under Richard’
at.
ENG . f 6l
England at the fiege of Acres (the ancient Ptolemais), where
*»-- received fome difguft, he took this bafe me¬
thod of revenging himfelf. Henry VI. emperor of
Germany, was then equally an enemy to Richard on
account of his having married Berengaria the daughter
of Tancred king of Sicily. He therefore required the
royal captive to be delivered up to him, and (tipulated
a large fum of money to the duke as a reward for his
fervice.
The kingdom of England in the mean time was in
great confufion. Richard had left it under the direc¬
tion of Hugh bilhop of Durham, and Longcl\amp bi-
fhop of Ely. The tempers of thefe prelates being
very different, an animofity between themdbon took
place. Longchamp at laft arrefted his colleague, and
obliged him to refign his power in order to obtain his
liberty. The king, by many letters, commanded
Eongchamp to replace his coadjutor, but to no pur-
pofe. When the frtuation of the king became uncer¬
tain, Longchamp tyrannized to fuch a degree, that
John the king’s brother thought proper to oppofe
him. He then left the kingdom ; and upon this the
archbifhop of Rouen was made jufticiary in his room.
The king of France being informed of thefe diffen-
fions, drove to increafe them as much as poffible ; and
had even almoft prevailed upon John to throw off his
allegiance, by promifing to put him in poffefEon of all
i j Richard’s continental dominions.
Treachery When the Englifh firft received the news of Ri-
nf John the chard’s captivity, a general indignation was excited
king’s bro- through the whole nation. The greateft, and almoft
ther. tjie onjy traitor in the kingdom, was the king’s own
brother John. , On the very firft invitation from the
court of France, he went abroad; and held a conful-
tation with Philip, the objeft of which was the perpe¬
tual ruin and captivity of his unhappy brother. He
promifed to deliver into Philip’s hands a great part of
Normandy; and, in return, he received the invefti-
ture of ail Richard’s tranfmarine dominions: it is even
faid, that he did homage to the French king for the
crown of England.
In confequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor¬
mandy, and made confiderable progrefs in the conqueft
cf it. He was, however, at laft repulfed by the Earl
of Leicefter, who was now returned from the Holy
Land; and a truce was concluded on condition of pay¬
ing the French king 20,coo merks, and putting four
caftles into his hands by way of fecurity for the pay¬
ment.—John, who had come over to England, met
with ftill lefs fuccefs in his enterprifes. He was only
able to make himfelf matter of the caftles of Windfor
and Wallingford ; but when he came to London, and
demanded the kingdom as heir to his brother, of whofe
death he pretended to have received certain intelli¬
gence, he was reje&ed by all the barons, and meafures
were taken to oppofe and fubdue him. The defence
of the kingdom was fo well provided for, that John,
after fome fruitlefs efforts, was obliged to conclude a
truce with his opponents ; and, before the expiration
of it, he thought proper to retire to France, where he
openly acknowledged his alliance with Philip.
All the efforts of Richard’s enemies proved ineffec¬
tual to detain him in captivity. He was brought be¬
fore the diet of the empire at Worms, where the em¬
peror Henry brought againft him a charge of many
9 ] ENG
crimes and mifdemeanours: but to this the king replied England,
with fo much fpirit and eloquence, that the German ——-v—
princes exclaimed loudly againft the conduit of the
emperor ; the Pope threatened him with excommuni¬
cation ; and Henry, who had hearkened to the propo-
falsof the king of France and prince John, found that
it would be impofiible for him to execute his and their
bafe purpofes, and detain the king of England any
longer in captivity. He therefore concluded a treaty
with him for his ranfom; and agreed to reftore him to
his liberty for 150,000 merks, about L. 300,000 of
our money, of which 100,000 merks were to be paid
immediately, and ,67 hoftages delivered for the re¬
mainder.
The money for the king’s ranfom was moft cheer- Richard re-
fully raifed by the Englifh. The churches and mona- leafed frotu
fteries melted down their plate to the amount ofcaPtlvlti''
30,000 merks; the bifhops, abbots, and monks, paid
a fourth part of their yearly rent; the parochial clergy
contributed a tenth part of their tythes; andtherequi-
fite fum being thus colledted, queen Eleanor and Wal¬
ter archbifhop of Rouen fet out with it for Germa¬
ny, paid the money to the emperor and duke of Au-
ftria at Mentz, delivered them hoftages for the re¬
mainder, and freed Richard from his captivity. His
efcape was very critical. Henry had been detected in
the affaffination of the bifhop of Liege, and in an at¬
tempt of the like nature on the duke of Louvaine ;
and finding himfelf extremely obnoxious to the Ger¬
man princes on account of thefe odious pra&ices, he
had determined to feek fupport from an alliance with
the French king, and to detain Richard in perpetual
captivity, notwithftanding the fum he had already re¬
ceived for his ranfom. He therefore gave orders that
Richard fhould be purfued and arrefted ; but the
king making all imaginable hafte, had already em¬
barked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and was out of
fight of land when the emperor’s meffengers reached
Antwerp. The king of France no fooner heard of
Richard’s deliverance, than he wrote to John his con¬
federate in thefe terms : “ Take care of yourfelf: the
devil is broke loofe.”
The king of England returned from captivity on Rett0
the 20th of March 1194, and was received with the England,
utmoft joy by his fubjedls. He had been but one day
landed, when his treacherous brother John came to
make his fubmiffion. At the interceffion of queen E-
leanor he was received into favour. “ I forgive him
(faid the king), and hope I fhall as eafily forget his
offences as he will my pardon.” Richard was impa¬
tient to revenge himfelf on the king of France, and
therefore inftantly made war upon him. But though
both kings were inflamed with the moft violent refent-
ment againft each other, they found it impoflible to
engage their powerful barons heartily in their caufe.
The war, therefore, produced no remarkable event;
and, in 1195, was concluded by a truce for five years.
On fome flight occafion it was ready to break out a-
new, when the pope’s legate interpofed, and a treaty
was about to be concluded. King Richard in the
mean time was wounded by an arrow at the fiege of
Chains, a cattle of Limoges. The wound was not in
itfel? dangerous; but being unfliilfully treated, a mor- 18
tification enfued, and the king expired on the 6th of
April 1199, in the joth year of his reign and 42d of
4I 2 his
ENG [ 620
England, his age. By his will he left the kingdom to his bro-
ther John, but diltributed a fourth part of his treafure
among his fervants.
John fucceeded to the crown of England without
ENG
ard in Normandy. For this reafon, he levied large England,
firms on their ettates; in order, as he faid, to under- —y—#
take an expedition to the continent. This expedition,
however, he feveral times capricioufly deferred; and
Tolin IllC JvJilll lUCCCCuCvi. tU LllC cruwu Ul Jlillgiduu WILiIUUL ilvJ WC V Cl j 11C ICVCI di LllULa cduriciviuiiy ucicrrcu j dllCX
ceeds to the 0PP°^':*0n> hut foon found his affairs embarraffed on once having ventured out to fea, returned again with-
the continent. The king of France, who, during the
life of king Richard, had always fupported the pre¬
tentions of John, now gave a like fupport to the claims
of prince Arthur the fon of Geoffrey, who, though
only 12 years of age, promifed to be deferving of the
kingdom. But in this matter the king of France thow-
out making the fmalleft attempt. At laft, he landed
at Rochelle, and burnt the city of Angiers; but hear¬
ing that the enemy were preparing to oppofe him, he
returned without attempting any thing elfe.
This irrefolute and cowardly behaviour of John made
him contemptible in the eyes of his fubjedls; but the
ed fo much regard to his own intereft, that Conftantia Norman princes had fo far extended the prerogatives .
136
His bad
qualities.
the mother of the young prince, thinking that her
ally defigned to keep for himfelf the provinces which
he pretended to conquer for Arthur, fubmitted herfelf vernment.
and her fon to John, who detained them in Mans;
and thus became undifputed mafter of the whole em¬
pire.
The new king was weak, tyrannical, cruel, and
treache. out. In thort, he feemed to be endowed with
almoft every bad quality that can fall to the (hare of
man. His conduct, therefore, foon rendered him uni-
verfally odious. Imagining himfelf now fecure on the
fide of France, he indulged his pafiion for Ifabella
the daughter and heirefs of the count of Angouleme,
with whom he was much enamoured. His queen, the
heirefs of the family of Glocefter, was ftill alive; and
Ifabella was married to the count de la Marche, tho’,
by reafon of her youth, the marriage had not been con-
fummated. John perfuaded the count de Angouleme
to carry off his daughter from her hutband; at the
fame time that he procured, under fome pretence or
©ther, a divorce from the queen. Thus he incurred
the difpleafure of the pope, and alfo of the count de
3a Marche, and a powerful confederacy was formed a-
gainft him.
As John had neither courage nor policy fufficient to
keep his barons in awe, he took a method for that
purpofe equally bafe and cruel. This was by hiring
a fet of ruffians, whom he called his champions, to fight
duels with them, in cafes where they required to clear
themfelves from any charge by fighting a duel, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of thofe times. Thus he propo-
fed to get rid of his refractory barons; but they, de-
fpifing opponents who were fo far below their rank,
refufed to fight with them, and a dangerous combina-
of the Engliffi crown, that the barons, however difeon-s
tented, durft not yet attempt to change the form of go- ,„g
John, by entering into a controverfy with His comsft
the church, completed his ruin. The clergy, who for w*th the
fome time had adted as a community totally indepen-P°Pe“
dent of the civil power, had their eltClions of each o-
ther generally confirmed by the pope, to whom alone
they owned fubje&ion. The election of archbiffiops, ,
however, had been a fubjett of continual difpute be¬
tween the fuffragan bifhops and the Auguftine monks,'
In the mean time the archbifhop of Canterbury died j
and the Augufiine monks, in a very private manner,
eleCted Reginald, their fuperior, in his place. The.
bilhops exclaimed againft this eleClion, as a manifeft
innovation of their privileges ; and a furious theologi¬
cal contefi was likely to eniue. John very imprudently
took a fide in this controverfy, and efpoufed the caufe
of the fuffragan bifhops; in confequence of which,
John de Grey bifhop of Norwich was chofen. The
caufe was appealed to Rome ; and Pope Innocent III.
feizing with avidity an opportunity of extending his
power, commanded the monks to choofe cardinal Ste¬
phen Langton, an Englifhman, then at the court of
Rome. The being able to nominate an archbifhop of
Canterbury (a perfon of almoft. equal authority with
the king), was an acquifition that would effeClually.
give the court of Rome an unlimited authority over
England. John therefore was refolved not to fubmit
to this impofition ;. but he had not judgment fufficient
to conduCt him. He violently expelled the monks from
their convent, and feized upon their revenues. The
pope, perceiving from this abfurd conduft, that John
was unequal to the talk he had undertaken, after fome
intreaties, threatened to put the whole kingdom under
an interdiCL The prelates threw themfelves on their
tion was formed among the barons againft him.
*37 ,. The murder of prince Arthur rendered John flill knees before the king, and in the molt earneft manner
nephew8 1Smore generally detefted. The young prince with his intreated him to avoid the refentment of the holy tri¬
mother had fled to the court of France, where they were
received with the greateft kindnefs, and found their in-
bunal, by receiving the primate, and reftoring the
monks to their convent. John, however, broke out
terefts more vigoroufly fupported than before. Their into the mefl violent inveCtives. He fwore by Gad’s
enterprifes were attended with confiderable fuccefs,
when Arthur himfelf had the misfortune to be taken
prifoner. All the other captives were fent to England;
but the prince was fhut up in the caftle of Falaiie, and
from that time was never heard of. It was univerfally
believed that John had murdered him with his own
hand ; and this inflamed the general refentment againft
him to fuch a degree, that he foon after loft all his
teeth (his ufual oath), that if the kingdom was put un¬
der an interdict, he would banifh the whole body of
the clergy, and confifcate all their poffeffions. Che
pope at laft, finding he might do it with fafety, iffued
forth this terrible fentence fo much dreaded by the
whole natron. A flop was immediately put to divine The
fervice, and the adminiflration of all the facramentsdom laid
except baptifm. The church-doors were fhut, and under a
French provinces. In 1205, the duchy of Normandy the images of the faints laid on the ground. The interJl<a‘>
itfelf was alfo conquered by Philip, and John was for¬
ced to fly with difgrace to England.
The king was refolved to wreak his vengeance upon
the barons, who, he pretended, had defer Led. his Hand-
dead were refufed Chriftian burial; and were thrown
into ditches and on the highways, without any fune¬
ral folemnity. Marriage was celebrated in the church-
jards, and the people prohibited the life of meat as
ENG P 621 1 ENG
in times of public penance. They were debarred from
all pleafure ; even from {having- their beards, faluting
each other, or paying any regard to their apparel. The
clergy deplored the unhappy {late of the nation in the
moft lamentable manner; while John, in revenge, im-
prifoned all their conoubines, and treated the adherents
of Langton with the utmod rigour.
The furious and imprudent efforts of John proved
totally ineffe&ual. He had fcarce a friend left in the
whole nation ; and therefore, in 1209, the pope de¬
nounced a fentence of excommunication againft him.
nicated, and rpin's was foon followed by another flill more terri-
dorn^'iven > namely, the abfolving all the fuhjefts of the
to Philip of king of England from their allegiance, and declaring
France. every one to be excommunicated who had any com¬
merce with him at his table, council, or even in private
converfation. The king, rendered quite furious by
thefe repeated indignities, wreaked his vengeance on
his unhappy fubjtfts, whofe affections he ought rather
to have attempted to conciliate. The pope, therefore,
proceeded to execute the full meafure of his wrath on
this devoted prince, by giving away his kingdom to
Philip of France. He publifhed a crufade all over Eu¬
rope againft king John ; exhorting the nobility, the
knights and men of every condition, to take up arms
agaiiift him, and eniilt under the French banner. Phi¬
lip was not lefs a&ive on his part. He fummoned all
the vaffals of the crown to attend him at Rouen ; and
having colle£led a fleet of 1700 veffels, was ready, in
1213, to invade England.
The pope had now overftretched his power; and
had the Englifh nation been governed by a prince of
any degree of prudence or refolution, the power of the
clergy would in all probability have been totally bro¬
ken. The people, however fuperftitious and ready to
obey in matters of religion, could not tamely fubmit
to be given away by the pope as Haves from one ma¬
tter to another ; and therefore this confideration, added
to the natural antipathy fubfifting between the French
and Englifh, put John, notwithftandingall his offences,.
at the head of an army of 60,000 men. But the pope
was too great a politician to fuffer matters to be car¬
ried to extremities. He promifed himfelf many more
advantages from the fubmiflion of John than from an
alliance with Philip ; and therefore came over in per-
fon, or, according to fome, fent over his legate, to
England, under pretence of conferring with the ba¬
rons, but in reality to hold a conference with John.
He there reprefented to this forlorn prince, the num¬
bers of the enemy, the hatred of his own fubjefts, and
the fecret confederacy there was againft him in Eng¬
land. He intimated, that there was but one way to
fecure him from the impending danger ; namely, to put
himfelf under the protettion of the pope, who was a
merciful father, and ftill willing to receive a repenting
fmner. The abjetl and irrefolute fpirit of John fub-
mitted to this lail piece of arrogance, and he took an
oath to obey whatever the pope fhould command. In
confequence of this oath, he took another, the moft ex¬
traordinary mentioned in the records of hiftory ; and
which, as it was taken while he commanded an army
14I of 60,000 men, difeovers a meannefs of fpirit almoft
Jcihn’sfub- incredible. The terms impofed by it were exprefied
miffion to in the following words. “ I John, by the grace of
the pope. king of England and lord of Ireland, in order to
expiate my fins, from my own free will, and the advice England,
of my barons, give to the church of Rome, to pope
Innocent and his fucceflbrs, the kingdom of England,
and all other prerogatives of my crown. I will here¬
after hold them as the pope’s vaflal. I will be faith¬
ful to God, to the church of Rome, to the pope my
majler, and his fucceffors legitimately defied. I pro-
mife to pay him a tribute of 1000 merks ; to wit, 706
for the kingdom of England, and 300 for the kingdom
of Ireland.”
This oath was taken by the king before all the peo¬
ple, kneeling, and with his hands held up between
thofe of the legate. Having then agreed to reinftate
Langton in the primacy, he received the crown which
he had been fuppofed to have forfeited ; while the le¬
gate, to add to his former infolence, trampled under
his feet the tribute which John had confented to pay.
— The king of France was enraged at this behaviour
of the pope; and refolved to execute his projefl of con¬
quering England, in fpite of him and all his cenfures.
His fleet, however, was attacked in their harbours by
the Englifli, who took 300 veflels, and dtftroyed a-
bout 100 more ; while Philip, finding it impofiible to
prevent the reft from falling into the hands of the e-
nemy, fet fire to them himfelf, and thus was obliged
to give up all hopes of fuccefs.
John being thus freed from all danger, continued toThJ^rn
follow-the fame cruel and tyrannical meafures which attempt™"*
had hitherto rendered him odious to his fubjefla. His reduce the
fcandalous fubjeflion to the clergy, now gave the ba-l’.rero£a*
rons an opportunity of exerting themfelves, in order to”g“°f thet
reduefe the enormous-prerogatives of the crown. Their
defigns were greatly facilitated by the concurrence of
Langton the primate, who on all occafions {bowed a
fincere regard for the interefts of the kingdom. At a
fynod of his prelates and clergy, convened in St Paul’s,
on pretence of examining into the Ioffes of fome bilhops
who had been exiled by John, he privately conferred
with a number of barons, to whom he expatiated upon
the vices and injuftice of their fovereign. He ftiowed
them a copy of Henry the firft’s charter; (being the
only one in the kingdom, and which had been buried in
the rubbiih of an obfeure monaftery ). Langton exhorted
the barons to infill on a renewal of it; and this they fo-
lemnly fwore to perform. The fame agreement was af¬
terwards renewed at a more numerous meeting of ba¬
rons fummoned by Langton at St Edmonftwiry. Here
it was refolved, that at Chriftmas they would prefer
their common petition in a body ; and in the mean time
they feparated with a defign to put themfelves in a po-
fture of defence, enlift men, and fortify their caftles.
In the beginning of January 1215, they repaired to
London, accoutred in their military garb and equi¬
page, and prefeuted their petition to the king, alleging
that he had promifed to grant a confirmation of the
laws of Edward the Confeffor, at the time he was
abfolved from his excommunication.. John refented
their prefumption ; and required.a promtle under their
hands and feala, that they would never demand, or at¬
tempt to. extort, fuch privileges for the future. This
they refufed with fuch unanimity and refolution, that
the king defired time to confider of their demands.
He promifed, that, at the feftival of Eafter, he would
give a pofitive anfwer to their petition; and offered •
them the. archbiihop of. Canterbury, the bifliop of
ENG [ 622 ] ENG
ngiand. Ely, and the earl marefchal, as furetles for fulfilling
his engagements.
The barons accepted of his fecurities, and departed
peaceably; but John had no defign of complying with
their defires. He had recourfe to the clergy, whofe
power he had feen and felt in fo many inftances. He
courted their favour, by granting them a charter efta-
blilhing all thofe rights of which they were already in
the poffeffion, and which he now pretended to confirm
when he had not the liberty to refufe. To ingratiate
lu’mfelf ftill farther with this body, he took the crofs,
and appealed to the pope againft the ufurpation of the
barons. The pope wrote letters to England, reproach¬
ing the primate and bifhops with favouring thefe dif-
fenfions ; and commanded them to promote peace be¬
tween the two parties. He exhorted the barons to
conciliate the king, not with menaces, but with humble
intreaties ; and promifed, upon their obedience, to in-
terpofe his own authority in favour of fuch of their pe¬
titions as he fliould find to be juft. At the fame time
he annulled their affociation, and forbad them to enter
into any confederacy for the future.
The barons paid no regard to the pope’s remon-
llrances; knowing that the fulminations of the court
of Rome would be of little avail, unlefs they were fe-
conded by the clergy of England. After waiting till
Eafter, when the king promifed to return them an
anfwer, they met by agreement at Stamford. There
they affembled a force of above 2000 knights, and a
prodigious number of foot. Thence they marched to
Brackley, about 15 miles from Oxford, the place where
the court then refided. John, hearing of their ap¬
proach, fent the archbiftiop of Canterbury, the earl of
Pembroke, and others of his council, to know the par¬
ticulars of their requeft, and what thofe liberties were
which they fo much importuned him to grant. The
barons delivered a fchedule containing the chief articles
of their demands, founded on the charters of Henry and
Edward; but which were in the higheft degree dif-
pleafing to the king. He burft into a furious palfion,
afked the barons why they did not alfo demand his
kingdom, and fwore that he would never comply with
fuch exorbitant demands. The confederates then chofe
Robert Fitzwalter for their general; whom they dig¬
nified with the title of “ Marefchal of the army of
God and of the holy church.” They laid fiege to
Northampton, took Bedford, and were joyfully re¬
ceived into London. They wrote letters to all the
nobility and gentry who had not yet declared in their
favour, threatening their eftates with devaftation in
cafe of refufal or delay.
In the mean time the king was left at a place called
Odihain in Surrey, attended only by feven knights.
He vainly endeavoured to avert the ftorm by the me¬
diation of his biftiops and minifters. He appealed to
Langton againft the barons, not fufpefting that he
was engaged in the confederacy ; and defired him to
fulminate the church-cenfures againft thofe who had
made war upon their lawful prince. Langton declared
that he would pafs no cenfure where he found no de¬
linquent ; but faid, that much might be done if the
king would difmifs fome foreign auxiliaries which he
had lately brought over. Upon this John difbanded
a great body of Germans and Flemings whom he had
hitherto retained in his fervice, and Langton refufed
to excommunicate a fingle baron. The king, being England. :
now quite defencelefs, was obliged at laft to comply 
with the demands of his fubjedts. A conference was
accordingly appointed, and all things were adjuftedfor
this moft important treaty. ^
The king’s commiffioners met the barons at a place They force
called Runimede, between Staines and Windfor ; and him to figs
which is yet held in reverence as the fpot where the ^?aSna
ftandard of freedom was firft eredfed in England. Here^ ana'
the king figned the charter called Magna Charta}
which continues in force to this day, and is ftill re¬
garded as the great bulwark of Biitifti liberty. See
Magna Charta.
This charter, however, at the time that it was made, Princij a!
fecured liberty to the clergy, barons, and gentlemen,art‘c'cs
much more than to the bulk of the people, who didlt‘
not for a long time obtain any privileges of import¬
ance. Freedom of eledtions was fecured to the cler¬
gy ; and it was determined, that fines on them for any
offence, fhould be laid on in proportion to their eftates,
and not the value of their benefices. The privileges
fecured to the barons were, either abatements in the
rigour of the feudal laws, or relief from arbitrary and
ambiguous decifions before the courts. It was alfo
decreed, that barons fhould recover the lands of their
vaffals, even though forfeited by felony, after having
been in the pofleffion of the crown for a year and a
day ; and no tax was to be impofed without confent
of the great council of the nation, excepting in cafe
of the captivity of the king, the knighting of his el-
deft fon, or n^arrying his eldeft daughter. No land
belonging to any baron was to be feized for a crown
debt, unlefs the pofleffor had not perfonal property
enough to pay it ; neither was any vaffal to be allowed
to fell fo much of his land as to incapacitate him from
performing the neceffary fervice to his lord. It was
alfo determined, that when the great council of the
nation was called, the prelates, earls, and barons, fhould
be fummoned by a particular writ, and the leffer ba¬
rons fhould receive a fummons from the fheriff. In
favour of the people it was ftipulated, that they fhould
have from the barons all the immunities and privileges
granted by the king to the former. Merchants were
to be allowed to carry on their bufinefs without any
arbitrary tolls or impofitions, and to go out of the
kingdom and return at pleafure. The goods of every
freeman were to be difpofed of according to his will;
or if he died inteftate, the neareft heir fhould fucceed
him. No carts, horfes, or wood, were to be taken by
the crown officers without the confent of the owner.
The king’s courts were to be ftationary, and no delay
to be made in doing juftice to every one ; no freeman
fhould be taken or imprifoned, difpoffefred of his free
tenement, outlawed or banifhed, unlefs by the legal judg¬
ment of his peers, &c. It was likewife ftipulated, that
London fhould remain in the hands of the barons, and
the tower be configned to the primate, till the 15th
of Auguft following ; or till the articles of the charter
fhould be fulfilled To give the more fecurity for this,
the king allowed them to choofe 25 of their own num¬
ber, to whofe authority no limits were fet either in
extent or duration. If any complaint were made of a
violation of the charter, either by the king, or his of¬
ficers, any four of the barons might admonifh the king
to redrefs the grievance } and if fatisfa&ion were not
obtained.
ENG [6
England, obtained, they might afiemble the whole council of 25 ;
and they, in conjunction with the great council, were
empowered to compel him to fulfil the charter. In
cafe of his refiftance, they had liberty to levy war a-
gainft him, attack his caftles, and ufe every kind of
violence, except againft his perfon, or thofe of the
queen or children. All men throughout the kingdom
were bound, under the penalty of confifcation, to
fwear obedience to the 25 barons ; and the freeholders
of each county were to choofe i 2 knights, whofe bu-
finefs it was to report fuch evil cuftoms as ought to
be redreffed in terms of Magna Charta.
But althougdi John had thus obliged himfelf, by wri¬
ting, to allow liberty to his fubjeCts, he had no mind that
they fhould enjoy it in reality. The fenfe of his fubjeCtion
to his own vaflals funk deep in his mind. He became
fullen, filent, and referved. He thunned the fociety
of his former friends; and retired into the Ifle of Wight,
i 145 as if to hide his difgrace in folitude; but, in reality, to
iThe king meditate revenge againft the barons. He fent to the
,raifes an ar-continent to enlift a large body of mercenary troops,
his barons* and made complaints to the pope of the infurre&ions
‘ of the barons againft him. The pontiff very warmly
efpoufed his caufe ; a bull was fent over, annulling
the whole charter ; and at the fame time the foreign
troops arrividjg, the king once more found himfelf in a
condition to demand his own terms from his fubjefts.
The barons had made no preparations for war, not
fufpeCting the introduction of a foreign army. The
king, therefore, was for fome time undifputed mafter
of the field, and the moil horrid cruelties were com¬
mitted by his army. The nobility who had been moft
aCtive in procuring the great charter fled with their fa¬
milies to Scotland, where they obtained the protection
The^offer k*n§ Alexander by doing homage to him. The
the king- barons being totally unable to raife an army capable of
dom to contending with that of John, applied to their old ene-
thc my Philip of France, offering to acknowledge his eldeft
fon Louis for their fovereign, on condition of his pro¬
tecting them from the fury of John and his mercena¬
ries. The French king accepted their propofal with
joy ; and twenty-five hoftages which he demanded be¬
ing fent over, began to make the moft diligent prepa¬
rations for this expedition, regardlefs of the menaces of
the pope, who threatened him with excommunication,
and actually excommunicated his fon Louis fome time
after.
The firft troops who came to the affi fiance of the
barons, were only a body of 7000 men ; but, foon
after, Louis with a powerful army landed at Sand¬
wich. The firft effeCt of this invafion was, that moft
of John’s foreign troops deferted, refufing to ferve
againft the heir of their monarchy. Many cgnfiderable
noblemen alfo deferted his caufe, and Louis daily gain¬
ed ground. This prince advanced to London, w'hqre
the barons and burghers did him homage, and took
the oath of allegiance, after he had fworn to confirm
the liberties and privileges of the people. His impru¬
dence, however, in preferring on all occafions his French
fubjeCts to the Englilh, foon excited a jealoufy againft
him, which proved very prejudicial to his caufe. This
jealoufy was greatly increafed by the death-bed con-
feflion of the count de Melurt, one of his courtiers, who
declared to thofe about him, that it was Louis’s de-
fign to exterminate the Englilh barons as traitors.
French
king’s fon.
23 ] ENG
and to beftow their dignities and eftates upon his England.
French fubjeCts, on whofe fidelity he could more fafe- ''J.
ly rely. This caufed a confiderable defertion among
Louis’s party: fo that John once more found himfelf
in a condition to make an effort for his crown. He
refolved to penetrate into the heart of the kingdom ;
and, for this purpofe, he departed from Lynn, and
took the road towards Lincolnfhire at the head of a
great body of troops. His road lay along the ftiore,
which was overflowed at high water; but the king,
not being apprifed of this, or being ignorant of the
tides of the place, loft all his carriages, treafure, and
baggageby their influx. He himfelf efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty, and arrived at the abbey of Swin-
ftead; where his grief for the lofs he had fuftained, and
the diftraCted ftate of his affairs, threw him into a
fever, which foon appeared to be attended with fatal I^7
fymptoms. He died at Newark in the year 1216, the Death of
51ft of his age, and 18th of his reign. He left king John*,
two legitimate fans: Henry, who fucceeded him on
the throne, and was about nine years of age ; and
Richard, who was about feven. He left alfo three
daughters; Jane, married to Alexander king of Scot¬
land ; Eleanor, married to the Earl of Pembroke ; and
Ifabella, married to the emperor Frederic II.
When John died, the Earl of Pembroke was mare-
fchal of England. By this office he was at the head
of the army, and of confequence, in times of fuch tur¬
bulence, at the head of the ftate. He was a noble¬
man of great honour and fidelity, and had continued
faithful to John in his greateft reverfes of fortune. He
now determined to fupport the authority of the infant
prince Henry ; and therefore carried him immediately
to Gloucefter, where the ceremony of coronation was
performed, in the prefence of Gualo the legate and a
very few noblemen, by the bifhops of Winchefter and 148
Bath. The young prince was obliged to fwear fealty Henry Hr*
to the pope, and renew the homage which his father
had done for the kingdom ; after which the Earl of
Pembroke was-chofen proteftor.
Till the king arrived at the years of maturity, the
tranfaftions of his reign can only be confidered as the
confequences of the difpofition of his tutors. Pern- l49’
broke caufed him grant a new charter of liberties,
confifting of the conceffions extorted from John, withter.. ~
fome alterations ; and the nexf year it was renewed,
with the addition of fome other articles. Thus thefe
famous charters were brought very nearly to the Ihape
in which they have ever fince flood ; and they were,
during many generations, efteemed the moft facred
rampart to national liberty and independence. As
they fecured the rights of all orders of men, they were
anxioufly defended by all, and became in a manner the
bafis of the Englifh monarchy, and a kind of original
contra#, which both limited the authority of the king,
and enfured the conditional allegiance of his fubje#s.
Though often violated, they were ftill claimed and re¬
called by the nobility and people ; and as no prece¬
dents were fuppofed valid that infringed them, they
rather acquired, than loft, authority, from the frequent
attempts made againft them, in feveral ages, by regal
and arbitrary power.
Thefe charters were made ufe of by Pembroke as ar¬
guments to draw off the malecontent barons from their-
allegiance to Louis. He reprefented to them, that#,
1 whatever:-
?E N G
T 624 ]
ENG
Engkiul. whatever jealsufy they might have entertained againll difabled from defending themfelves. This misfortune England,
the late king, a young prince, the lineal heir of their
ancient monarchs, had now fucceeded to the throne,
fo difcouraged the barons who yet adhered to Louis, ~
that they came from every quartento make their fub-
without fucceeding either to the refentments or prin- miffion to Pembroke ; and Louis himfelf, finding his
ciples of his predecefibr: That the defperate expedi- affairs totally defperate, was glad to make his efcape
ent, which they had employed, of calling in a foreign from a country where every thing was become hoilile I^1
to him. He therefore concluded a peace with the Pro-1)^
potentate, had, happily for them, as well as for the na¬
tion, failed of entire fuccefs ; and it Was ftlll in their
power, by a quick return to their duty, to nffore the
independence of the kingdom, and to fecure that li¬
berty for which they fo zealoufly cofntended ; That, as
all paft offences of the barons were now buried in obli¬
vion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com¬
plaints again ft their late fovereigu ; who, if he had
been anywife blameable in his conduff, had left to his
fon the falutary warning to avoid his paths, which had
led to fuch fatal extremities: And that, having now
obtamed a charter for their liberties, it was their in-
teftor; promifed to evacuate the kingdom ; and only dor
ftipulated, in return, an indemnity to his adherents, and
a reftitution -of their honours and fortunes, together
with the free and equal enjoyment of thofe liberties
which had been granted to the reft of the nation.
When the king grew up, he was found to be very
unfit for the government of fuch a turbulent people aa
the Englifh at that time were. Though his temper
was mild and humane, he was alfo very weak, fickle,
and irrefolute. He difgufted the people by the caref-
fes he bellowed on foreigners; and this difguft rofe
tereft to ftiow, by their conduft, that that aequifition once to fuch a height, that the barons refufed to af-
was not incompatible with their allegiance ; and that femble in the general council of the nation, or parlia-
the rights of the king and people, fo far from being ment, at his defire. When commanded to do fo, they
hoftile and oppofite, might mutually fupport and fuftain fent a meffage to Henry, defiritrg him to difmifs his fo-
each other.
Thefe confiderations, enforced by Pembroke’s known
fcharafter of conftancy and fidelity, had a very great
r*influence on the barons. Moft of them began to ne-
gociate with him, and many actually returned to their
reigners ; otherwife they would drive both him and
them ont of the kingdom, and put the crown on the
head of one who was more worthy to wear it. The
facility of Henry’s temper alfo induced him to heap
riches upon his foreign favourites in a manner which
duty. At the fame time Louis continued to difguft he could by no means afford : this often brought him
thofe of his own party by the preference which he vi-
fibly gave to the French. Though he went over to
France, therefore, and brought frefh fuccours from
thence, he found that his party was greatly-weaker
: than before, by the defertion of his Engliih confede¬
rates ; and that the death of king John had, contrary
to his expeftations, occafioned the total ruin of his af¬
fairs. In a fhort time Pembroke was fo much ftrength-
ened by deferters from Louis’s party, that he ventu-
into very great ttraits; and to relieve, himfelf, he
was obliged to have recourfe to many arbitrary mea-
fures, which he could not otherwife have chofen. No¬
thing, however, of very great moment happened till
the year 125 j, when the Pope found means to embark The pope
Henry in a fcheme for the conqueft of Naples, or Si- undertakes
cily on this fide the Fare, as it was called; an enterprife
which not only brought much dilhonour on the king, Sicily for
but involved him for fome years in very great expence Henry’s
red to inveft Mount-Sorel; though upon the approach and trouble. The court of Rome fome time before
of the count de Perche with the French army, he de-
fifted from that enterprife. The French general im-
had reduced the kingdom of Sicily to the fame ftate
of feudal vaffalage which Ihe pretended to exercife
mediately marched to Lincoln; and, being admitted over England ; but Mainfroy, an ufurper, under pre-
into the town, laid fiege to the caftle, and foon redu¬
ced it to extremity. Pembroke fummoned his forces
from every quarter, in order to relieve this important
place; and he appeared fo much fuperior to the
French, that they (hut themfelves up within the city,
refolving to take (belter there. But the garrifon of the
tence of governing the kingdom for the lawful heir,
had feized the crown, and was refolved to rejeft the
Pope’s authority. As the Pope found that his own
force alone was not fufficient to gain his point, he had
recourfe to Richard the king of England’s brother,
who had been created Earl of Cornwall, and had fuch
caftle, having received a ftrong reinforcement, made a talents for amalfing money, that he was reckoned the
vigorous fally upon the beiiegers, while the Englifh richeft prince in Chriftendom. To him the Pope of-
n- r— "-!—- rTn-~ ^ u   fered the kingdom of Sicily, upon the fingle condition
of his conquering it from the ufurper. Richard was too
army affaulted them from without. The French army
was totally routed ; the count de Perche with only
two perfons more were killed ; but many of the chief wife to accept this offer; upon which the Pope applied
commanders, and about 400 knights, were made pri-
foners. On the news of this fatal event, Louis raifed
the fiege of Dover, and retired to London ; where he
received intelligence of a new difafter, which put an
end to all his hopes. A French fleet, which carried
to Henry, and offered him the crown of Sicily for his
fecond fon'Edmund. Henry, dazzled by this propo-
fal, without refle&ing on the confequences, or with¬
out confulting his brother or the parliament, gave the
Pope unlimited credit to expend whatever fums be
a ftrong reinforcement, had appeared on the coaft of thought neceffary for completing the conqueft of Ski-
Kent; where they were attacked and repulfed with
confiderable lofs, by Philip D’Albiney. He is faid to
have gained the vidlory by the following ftratagem.
Having got the wind of the French, he came down
upon them with violence; and throwing on their faces
a great quantity of quicklime, which he purpofely car¬
ried on board, they were fo blinded that they were
N° 116.
ly. In confequence of this unlimited grant, his holinefs.
determined to exert his apoftolical authority to the ut- extnrtfons6
moft, in extorting money from the Englifh. A era-by his
fade was publifhed, requiring every one who had takenholinch.
the crofs againft the infidels, or even vowed to advance
money for that purpofe, to fupport the war againft
Mainfroy, whom he accufed as being a more terrible
2 enemy
E N G
England, enemy to the Chriftian faith than any Saracen. A
1 tenth on all the ecclefiaftical benefices in England was
levied for three years ; and orders were given to ex¬
625 ] ENG
and ambitious temper, determined to attempt an inno- England -
vation in 1 he government. He formed a powerful con-' \r—~‘
federacy againft the king, and the defigns of the con-
communicate the bifhops who did not make punctual fpirators were effe&ually put in execution in the year
payment. A grant was made to the.king of the goods 1258. Henry had fummoned a parliament in expec-
of inteftate clergymen, as well as of the revenues of tation of receiving fupplies for his Sicilian projedt;
vacant benefices and thofe of non-refidents. Thefe when the barons appeared in the hall, clad in com-
taxations, however grievous,
: fubmitted to with plete armour, with their fwords by their Tides. The
little murmuring ; but another fuggefted by the bifhop king, ilruck with thisunufual appearance, allied them
of Hereford excited the moll violent clamours. This what was their purpofe, and whether they pretended
to make him their prifoner ? Roger Bigod, Earl Ma-
refchal, anfwered in name of the reft, that he waS not
their prifoner; that they even intended to grant him
ich he granted to Italian merchants in confideration large fupplies, in order to fix his fon on the throne of
the money they had advanced or pretended to ad- Sicily; that they only expe&ed fome return for this
ice for the fupport of the Sicilian war. As it was expence and ferviee ; and that as the king had fre-
prehended that the Englifti clergy would not eafily quently made fubmiffions to the parliament, had ac¬
knowledged his paft errors, and had ftill allowed him-
felf to be carried into the fame path, which, gave them
fuch reafon of complaint, he mull now yield to more
ftri£t regulations, and confer authority on thofe who
were able and willing to redrefs the public grievances.
Henry inftantly allured them of his intentions to grant
them all poffible fatisfadtion ; and for that purpofe
fummoned another parliament at Oxford, to digeft the
new plan of government, and to ele& proper perfons
who were to be entrufted with the chief authority.
This affembly, afterwards called the mad parliament.
prelate, who at that time refided at,the court of Romej
drew bills on all the abbots and bilhops of the king¬
dom, to the amount of no lefs than 150,540 marks,
which ’
of
vance for the fupport of the Sicilian war. As it
apprehended that the Englilh clergy wou
fubmit to fuch an extraordinary demand, a commiffion
was given toRuftand, the Pope’s legate, to ufe his autho¬
rity. An affembly of the prelates and abbots was accor¬
dingly fummoned; who, on hearing the propofcl fan&i-
fied with the names both of the Pope and King, were
iiruck with the utmoft furprife and indignation. A
violent altercation took place ; during which the legate
told them, that all ecclefiaftical benefices were the pro¬
perty of the Pope, and that he might difpofe of them
as he pleafed. The affair ended, however, in the fub-
' miffion of the clergy: but the barons'ftill continued re-
fra&ory, and for fome time anfwered the king’s de- went very expeditioufly to work on the bufmefs of re¬
mands of fupplies with expoftulations; urging the formation. Twenty-four barons were appointed, with
king’s partiality to foreigners, and the various injuries fupreme authority, to reform the abufes of the ftate ;
the nation had fuftained from the fervants of the crown, and Leicefter was placed at their head. Their firil ftep
was to order four knights to be chofen out of each
county, who fliould examine into the ftate of their
The great council of the nation, which had lately ob¬
tained the name of parliament, was therefore diffolved,
and another called, but with as little fucce'fs as before, refpeftive conftituents, and ftrould attend at the en-
The king, however, had involved himfelf in fo much
debt, that a large fupply was become abfolutely necef-
fary ; and as that could by no means be obtained from
parliament, he was now reduced to the humiliating ex-
fuing parliament to give information of their com¬
plaints. They ordained that three fefiions of parlia¬
ment ftiould be regularly held every year ; that a new
high {heriff fhould be eledfed annually ; that no wards
pedient of going about among fuch of his fubje&s as he nor ca,flies fhbuld be entrufted to foreigners, no new.
thought mofl attached to him, end begging affiftance forefts made, nor the revenues of any counties let to
from them at their own houfes. At length his barons,
perceiving the exigencies to which he was reduced,
[f53l
Hern y fo-
lemuly re¬
news Magi
Teemed ■
fine
illing to afford him aid"; and, upon hispr
ant them a plenary redrefs of grievances, a very
Thefe conftitutions were fo juft, that fome of them Bad con-
remain to this day. But the parliament having onceduCl: of
obtained the fovereign power, took care not to partnew ru^er5,
'mu,,..  1.. r
liberal fupply was obtained, for which he renewed their with it again. They not only protrafted the time of
charter with more than ufual folemnity. All the pre¬
lates and abbots were affembled with burning tapers in
their hands ; the magna charta was read in their pre¬
fence ; and they denounced fentence of excommunica¬
tion upon all who fhould infringe upon its rlecifions.
They then put out their tapers on the ground, and
their fitting under various pretences; but at laft had
the effrontery to impofe an oath upon every individual
of the nation, declaring an implicit obedience to all
the ftatutes executed or to be yet executed by the
barons who were thus appointed as rulers. They not
only abridged the authority of the king, but the effi-
claimed, “ May every foul that proves falfe to this a- cacy of parliament alfb ; giving up to 12 perfons the
greement fo flink and corrupt in hell.” The king whole parliamentary power between cash feffion 
So help me God, I will inviolably keep Their ufurpations were firft oppofed by the knights of
greement
fubjoined,
all thefe things, as I am
man, as I am a Chriftian, the fhire, whom they themfelves had appointed. Thefe
154 anointed.
1 am a knight, and as I am a king crowned and had for fome time begun to be regularly affembled in
He breaks
his engage-
Which oc-
cafions a
revciluticn.
a feparate houfe, to confider of the national grievan-
No fooner had the king received the fupplies of ces; the firft of which was the conduft of the 24 ru-
which he ftcod fo much in need, than he forgot all his lers. They reprefented, that though the king had
engagements, put his confidence entirely in foreign
counfellors, and evaded or broke through in number-
lefs inftances the charters he had given. This conduft
rendered him fo obnoxious to the barons, that Simon
Mountfort Earl of Leicefter, a man of a very violent
Vol.VI. Part II.
performed all that was required of him, the barons
had hitherto done nothing on their part that fhowed
an equal regard for the people ; that their own intereft
and power feemed the only aim of all their decrees ;
aad they even called upon the king’s eldeft fon prince-
4 K Edward
ENG [ 626 ] ENG
England. Edward to interpofe his authority, and favg the fink-
ing nation.
isf6r. The prince was at this time about 22 years of age,
pnnce^d ^ anc^ hY ^’s a^'ve ar>d refolute conduft had infpired the
ward. nation with great hopes. He told thofe who made the
application to him, that he had fworn to the late con-
ftitutions; and, on that account, though they were
contrary to his own private opinions, he was refolved
not to infringe them. At the fame time, however, he
fent a meflage to the barons, requiring them to bring
their undertaking to an end, or otherwife to expe&
the moft vigorous refiftance to their ufurpations. On
this the barons were obliged to publifh a new code of
laws, which, though it contained fcarce any thing
material, yet, it was fuppofed, would for a while
dazzle the eyes of the people, until they could take
meafures to ettabliih their authority upon furer foun¬
dations. In this manner, under various pretences,
they continued their power for three years ; while the
whole nation loudly condemned their treachery, and
the Pope himfelf at laft abfolved the king and his fub-
je&s from the oath they had taken to obey their in-
jun&ions. Soon after this, a parliament was called,
and the king reinftated in his former authority. The
barons were obliged to fubmit for a time; but the Earl
ofLeicefter having joined the Wellh, who at this time
made an irruption into England, the kingdom was re¬
duced to the moft deplorable fituation. The pufillani-
mity of the king prevented any proper or judicious
method from being purfued for extricating the people
from their diftrefles ; and at laft a treaty was conclu¬
ded with the barons on the moft difadvantageous terms
that can be imagined. They were reftored to the
fovereignty of the kingdom, took pofleffion of all the
royal caftles and fortrefles, and even named the officers
of the king’s houfehold. They fummoned a parliament
to meet at Oxford, in order more fully to fettle the
plan of government; and by this affembly it was en-
aifted, that the authority of the 24 barons ftiould con¬
tinue not only during the life of king Henry, but alfo
157 during that of prince Edward,
feated'and* Thefe fcandalous conditions would have been eafdy
taken pri- complied with by king Henry ; but they were utterly
loner, with rejefted by prince Edward, and a civil war immediate-
the king ly enfued. The prince was at firft fuccefsful; but,
ther^k10" through his impetuofity, occalioned the lofs of a great
battle, in which his father and uncle were taken pri-
foners, and he himfelf was obliged foon after to furren-
der to the earl of Leicefter. The king was now redu¬
ced to the moft deplorable fituation. His parti-
fans were totally difarmed, while thofe of the earl
of Leicefter ftill kept themfelves in an offenfive pofture.
Leicefter feized the eftates of no fewer than 18 barons;
engroffed to himfelf the ranfom of all the prifoners;
monopolized the fale of wool to foreign markets; and
at laft ordained that all power ffiould be exercifed by
nine perfons, who were to be chofen by three others,
' or the majority of them ; and thefe three were the earl
of Leicefter himfelf, the Earl of Glocefter, and the bi-
148 fhop of Chichefter.
Firft Houfe The miferable fituation to which the kingdom was
of Com- novv ,-educed, proved at laft the means of fettling the
government on a more proper foundation. Leicefter,
in ol der to fecure himfelf, was obliged to have recourfe
to an aid, till now, entirely unknown in England,
namely, that of the body of the people. He called a
parliament, where, belides the barons of his Own par- England:
ty, and feveral eccldiaftics who were not proper te- —v~*~-
nants of the crown, he ordered returns to be made
of two knights from every {hire ; and alfo deputies
from the boroughs, which had been hitherto confider-
ed as too inconfiderable to be allowed any ffiare in
the legiftation. This parliament was called on the
20th of January 1265 : and here we find the firft out¬
line of an Englifh Houfe of Commons; an inftitution
which has ever fince been confidered as the bulwark of
Britifh liberty.
The new parliament was far from being fo compliant
to Leicefter as he had deiired orexpecled. Many of
the barons who had hitherto ftedf^ftly adhered to his
party, were difgufted with his boundltfs ambition ;
and the people, who found that a change of mafters was
not a change from mifery to happinefs, began to wifh
for the re-eftablifhment of royal authority. Leicefter
at laft, to make a merit of what he could not pre¬
vent, releafed prince Edward from his confinement,
and had him introduced at Weftminfter-hall, where his
freedom was confirmed by the unanimous voice of the
barons. But though Leicefter had all the popularity
of reftoring the prince, he was yet politic enough to
keep him guarded by his emiffaries, who watched all
his aftions. At laft, however, he found means to
make his efcape in the following manner. The Duke
of Glocefter, being difgufted with Leicefter, retired
from court, and went to his eftates on the borders of
Wales. His antagonift purfued him thither ; and to
give the greater authority to his arms, carried the king
and prince of Wales along-with him. This furnifil¬
ed young Edward with the opportunity he had fo long
defired. Being furnifiied by the Earl of Glocefter
with an horfe of extraordinary fwiftnefs, he took leave
of his attendants, who were in fa& his guards, but
were not able to come up with him. They purfued
him, however, for fome time ; but the^appealance of a
body of troops belonging to Glocefter foon put an
end to their purfuit.
The prince no fooner recovered his liberty, than the PHncefid-
royalifts joined him from all quarters, and an army was ward reco-
foon procured which Leicefler could not withiland. vers his ii-
This nobleman novv found himfelf in a remote quarter herty*
of the kingdom ; furrounded by his enemies ; and de¬
barred from all communication with his friends by the
river Severn, whofe bridges Edward had broken down.
In this extremity, he wrote to his fon to haften to his
affiftance from London, with a confiderable army which
he had under his command. With this view his fon
advanced to Kenilworth; but here he was furprifed,
and his army entirely difperfed by prince Edward.
The young prince, immediately after this vidlory, ad¬
vanced againft Leicefter himfelf; who, ignorant of
the fate of his fon’s army, had paffed the Severn in
boats. He was by no means able to cope with the
royalifts ; his men being inferior both in numbers and
refolution to their antagonifts. His army was defeat- ^
ed with great flaughter. Leicefter himfelf was flain, EarlofFel-
though he called out for quarter, together with his el- celter de-
deft fon Henry, and about 160 knights and other fe.ate^ail(^
gentlemen. The old king had been purpofely placed kl,lcd*
by the rebels in the front of the battle, where he was
wounded, and in great danger of being killed; but, cry¬
ing out, “ I am Henry ofWinchefteryour king,” he
was faved and put in a place of fecurity by his fon,.
who
ENG [ 627 ] ENG
England; who' had flown to his afiillance. The body of Leicefter
being found among the dead, was barbaroufly mang¬
led by one Roger Mortimer; and then fent to his wi¬
dow, as a teftimony of the royal party’s barbarity and
fuccefs.
This viftory, gained at Evelham, proved decifive in
favour of the royal party. Almolt all the caftles,
garrifoned by the barons, haftened to make their fub-
miflions, and opened their gates to the king. The
Ifle of Axholroe alone, and that of Ely, tiufting to
the ftrength of their fituation, ventured to make re-
fiftance ; but were at laft reduced, as well as the caftle
of Dover, by the valour and adlivity of prince Ed¬
ward. Adam de Gourdon, a courageous baron, main¬
tained himfelf fome time in the forefts of Hamplhire,
committing depredations in the neighbourhood ; and
obliged the prince to lead a body of troops into that
country againft him. Edward attacked the camp of
the rebels ; and being tranfported by the ardour of
a&ion, leaped over the trench with a few followers,
and encountered Gourdon himfelf in Angle combat.
The viftory was long difputed between thefe two va¬
liant combatants ; but ended at laft in the prince’s fa¬
vour, who wounded his antagonift, threw him from his
horfe, and took him prifoner. He not only granted
him his life; but introduced him that very night to
the queen at Guildford, procured his pardon, and was
ever after faithfully ferved by him.
In 1271, prince Edward, having fettled the affairs
of the kingdom, undertook an expedition to the Holy
Land, where he fignalized himfelf by many adtsof va¬
lour. The king’s health declined vifibly after the de-
parture of his ion ; and at laft, worn out with cares
I Death of anc^ tbe infirmities of age, he expired at St Edmonfbury
Henry HI. on the 16th of November 1272, in the 64th year of
his age and the 56th of his reign.
Prince Edward had reached Sicily in his return from
the Holy Land, when he received an account of his
father’s death; at which he expreffed much concern.
As he knew that England was at that time in a ftate
of perfect tranquillity, he was in no hafte to return,
jgj but fpent near a year in France before he made his ap-
| Edward I. pearance in England. He was received by his fub-
jefts with the utmoft joy, and crowned at Weftmin-
Iter by Robert archbilhop of Canterbury on the 19th
of Auguft 1274. He immediately applied himfelf to
the correcting of thofe diforders which the civil com¬
motions, and weak adminiftration of his father, had
introduced. A fyftem of ftridt juftice, bordering on
feverity, was introduced and kept up thro’ the whole
of this reign. The Jew's were the only part of his
fubjetts whom Edward oppreffed. Many arbitrary
taxes were levied upon them; 280 of them were hang¬
ed at once for adulterating the coin ; the goods of the
reft were confifcated, and all of them banifhed the
163 kingdom.
Conquers jn 1276, the king undertook an expedition againft
Wales. Lewellyn prince of Wales, who had refufed to do ho¬
mage for his crown. The conqueft of that country
was not fully accomplifhed till the year 1283 ; after
which the principality of Wales was annexed to the
crown of England, and thenceforth gave a title to the
* See king’s eldeft fon*.—In 1286, the fettlement of Wales
appeared fo . complete, that the king went abroad in
order to make peace between Alfonfo king of Arra-
gon and Philip le Bel king of France, who had a dif- England,
ference about the king ;om of Sicily. He fucceeded
in his negociations; but, flaying abroad three years,
he found that many diforders had been introduced in
his abfence. Many inftances of robbery and violence
had broke out in all parts of England; but the cor¬
ruption of the judges, by which the fountains of juftice
were poifoned, was of ftill more dangerous confequence.
Edward, in order to remedy this prevailing abufe,
fummoned a parliament, and brought the judges to a
trial; where all of them except two, who were clergy¬
men, were convidfed of this flagrant iniquity, were
fined, and depofed from their office. The amount of
the fines levied upon them is of itfelf a fufficient proof
of their guilt, being above 100,000 marks; an immenfe
fum in thofe days, fufficient to defray the expences of
a war betwixt two great nations. The king afterwards
made all the new' judges fwear that they would take no
bribes; but the depofing and fining the old ones was
the more effedlual remedy. 16+
In 1291, king Edward began to meditate the con-^®^1®
queft of Scotland, which employed him during theqUee^°”f
reft of his life ; but which, though that kingdom was Scotland,
by him reduced to the greateft diftrefs, he was never
able to accomplilh *. At the fame time, he was en- • See Scot-
gaged in expenfive contefts wdth France ; and thefe
multiplied wars and preparations for war, by obliging
him to have frequent recourfe to parliamentary fup-
plies, became the remote caufes of great and impor- 165
tant changes in the government. The parliament was New ma-
modelled into the form which has continued ever fince. e
As a great part of the property of the kingdom, by ment.
the introduftion of commerce and improvements in
agriculture, wras transferred from the barons to the
lower clafs of people, fo their confent was thought
neceffary for raifing the fupplies. For this reafon, the
king iffued writs to the fiieriffs, enjoining them to fend
to parliament, along with two knights of the (hire, two
deputies from each borough within their county ; and
thefe provided with fufficient powers from their con-
ftituents to grant fuch demands as they fhould think
reafonable for the fafety of the ftate. The charges of
thefe deputies were to be borne by the boroughs w'hich
fent them; and fo far were they from confidering this
deputation as an honour, that nothing could be more
difpleafing to any borough than to be thus obliged to
fend a deputy, o„r to any individual than to be thus
chofen. The authority of thefe commoners, however,
increafed through time. Their union gave them weight;
and it became cuftomary among them, in return for
the fupplies which they granted, to prefer petitions to
the crown for the redrefs of thofe grievances under
which the nation was fuppofed to labour. The more
the king’s neceffities increafed, the more he found it
neceffary to give them an early redrefs; till, from re¬
queuing, the commons proceeded to requiring; and
having all the property of the nation, they by degrees
began alfo to be poffeffed of the power.
Edward I. died of a dyfentery at Carlifle on then. .
7th of July 1307, as he was leading a great army into j *
Scotland, againft the inhabitants of which he hadbyEdw.IL
vowed the moft dreadful vengeance. He was fucceed¬
ed by his fon Edward II. whom he had charged with
his dying breath to profecute the war againft Scot¬
land, and never to defift till he had finally fubdued the
4 K 2 king-
ENG r 628 1 ENG
England, kingdom. But the new king was of a very diffe-
rent difpofition from his father. The Scots gra¬
dually recovered their power; and in 1314 gave the
Englifh fuch a terrible defeat at Bannockburn, that
for many yehrs no fviperiority of numbers could en¬
courage them to look the Scots in the face. See
SCOTLAND.
Difcontents The reign of Edward II. affords no particulars of
of his fub- great moment. Being a prince of a weak underiland-
je&s. ing, though endued with no remarkable bad qualities,
his reign was one continued feries of quarrels with his
turbulent fubjedt?. His favourites were the moil ge¬
neral caufes of difcontent. The firft of thefe was one
Piers Gavefton, ihe fon of a Gafcon knight of fome
diftinftion, who had honourably ferred the late king,
and who, in reward for his Cervices, had obtained an
eftablifhment for his fon in the family of the prince of
Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is
no doubt in itfelf a fufficient offence to the reft of the
courtiers. Numberlefs faults were therefore found
with Gavefton by the Englifh barons. When the king
went over to France to efpoufe the princefs Ifabella,
to whom he had been long contradled, Gavefton was
left guardian of the realm, with more ample powers
than had ufually been conferred in fuch a cafe. But
when the queen, who was of an imperious and in¬
triguing fpirit, arrived, Gavefton had the misfortune
to fall under her difpleafure alfo, on account of the
afcendency he had acquired over the king. A con-
fpiracy was therefore icon formed againft the favour¬
ite ; at the head of which were, the queen, and the
Earl of Lancafter coufin-german to the king, and the
moil opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The
king, unable to refill fuch a combination, was at laft
obliged to banilh Gavefton ; but recalled him fome
time after. This was fufficient to fpread an alarm over
the whole kingdom : a civil war enfued ; and the nobi¬
lity having got Gavefton into their hands, foon freed
themfelves of any farther apprehenfions from him, .by
putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, king
Edward chofe a new favourite named LeDefpenfer.
He was 3 young man of a noble Englilh family; fome
merit, and very engaging accomplilhments. His fa¬
ther was a perion of a much more refpedlable charac¬
ter than the fon ; but the being admitted to a lhare of
king Edward’s favour was a fufficient crime. The king
imprudently difpoffeffcd fome lords of their eftates, in
order to beftow them upon this favourite; and this
was a fufficient pretence for openly attacking both the
father and fon. The Earls of Eancafter and Here¬
ford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from par¬
liament of perpetual exile againft the two Spenfers,
with a forfeiture of all their eftates. At laft the king
took the field at the head of 30,000 men, and preffed
the Earl of Lancafter fo clofely, that he had not time
to collerft his forces together ; and, flying from one
place to another, he was at laft Hopped in his way to¬
wards Scotl&nd,. and made prifoner. He was imme¬
diately condemned by a court-martial; and executed
on an eminence near Pomfret, with circumftances of
the greateft indignity.
Spenfer now triumphed for fome time over his ene¬
mies ; moft of the. forfeitures were feized for his ufe.
and he is faid to have been guilty of many adls of ra- E.-gtand.
pine and injuftice. But he was foon oppofed by a more  
formidable enemy. Queen Ifabella fled to France, andInfu^£8c
refufed to return to England till Spenfer was removed t;on againft
from the royal prefence, and baniflied the kingdom, him by the
Thus (he made herfelf popular in Enghnd, where (Iueen\
Spenfer was univerfally diffiked’; and flie had the plea-
fure of enjoying the company of a young nobleman
Kamed Mortimer, upon whom fhe had lately placed her
affedlions. The queen’s court, therefore, became a
fandluary for all the malecontents who were banifhed
their own country, or who chofe to come over. When
{he thought matters were ripe for her purpofe, fhe fee.
fail from Dort harbour, accompanied by 3000 armed'
men. She landed without oppofition on the coaft of
Suffolk, on the 24th of September 1326 ; and ftie no
fooner appeared, than there feemed to be a general re¬
volt in her favour. The unfortunate king found the
fpirit of difloyalty fpread over the whole kingdom.
He had placed fome dependence on the garrifon of
Briftol, which was under the command of the elder
Spenfer : but they mutinied againft their governor;
and that unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and
condemned by the tumultuous barons to the moft igno¬
minious death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his ar¬
mour ; his body was cut in pieces and thrown to the
dogs; and his head was Cent to Winchefter, where it
was fet on a pole, and expofed to the infults of the
populace. Young Spenfer did not long furvive his fa¬
ther. He was taken, with fome others who had fid-
lowed the fortunes of the wretched king, in an ob-
feure convent in Wales. The queen had not patience
to wait the formality of a trial; but ordered him to
be immediately led forth before the infulting populace,
and feemed to take a favage pleafure in beholding his
diftrefs. He was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high ; his
bead was fentto London, where it was received by the
citizens with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, who hoped to find re¬
fuge in Wales, was quickly difeovered, and delivered
up to his adverfaries, who infulted him in the groffeft
manner. He was conduced to the capital amidft the
infults and reproaches of the people, and confined in
tire tower. A charge was foon exhibited againtl him;
in which no other crimes but his incapacity to govern,
his indolence, hts love of pleafure, and his being
fwayed by evil counfellors, were objedled againft him.
His depofition, however, was quickly voted by parlia- n , ,
ment ; he was aihgned a penlion tor his tupport; his p0fe^.
fon Edward, a youth of 14, was chofen to fucceed
him, and the queen was appointed regent during the
minority. The depofed monarch did not long furvive
the lofs of his crown. He was at firft configned to the
cuftody of the Earl of Lancafter; but this nobleman
Flowing fome marks of refpeft and pity, he was taken
out of his hands, and delivered over to the lords Berke¬
ley, Mautravers, and Gournay, who were entrufted
alternately, each for a month, with the charge of
guarding him. While he was in Berkeley’s cuftody,
he was itill ufed with fome degree of humanity ; but
when the turn of Mautravers and Gournay came, every
fpecies of indignity was pradltfed upon him, as if they
had defigned to accelerate his death by the bitternefs
of his fufferings. If is reported, that one day when.
ENG [ 629 ] ENG
England, Edward was to be ftiaved, they ordered cold and dirty wherein the Englifh renounced all title to the fove- En^’and.
‘r—v— vvater ti> be brought from a ditch for that purpofe ; reignty of Scotland for the fum of 30,000 marks. Soon v
and when he defired it to be changed^ and was ft ill de- after Mortimer feized and executed the earl of Kent,
nied his requeft, he burft into tears and exclaimed, brother to the late king; who, fuppoiing Edward II.
That in fpite of their infolence he would be ftiaved to be ftill'alive, had formed adefign of reinftating him
with clean and warm water. As his perfecutors, how- in his kingdom. The execution was fo fudden, that
ever, faw that his death might not arrive, even under the young king had not time even to interpofe in his
every cruelty they could prattife, and were daily afraid behalf; and Mortimer foon after feized this nobleman’s
of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid eftate for his own ufe, as he did alfo the immenfe for-
themfelves of their fears by deftroying him at once, tunes of the Spenfers.
Mortimer, therefore, fecretly gave orders to the two Edward,/hiding the power of Mortimer a continual
keepers, who were at his devotion, inftantly to dif- reftraint upon himfelf, refolved to (hake off an autho-
patch the king ; and thefe ruffians contrived to make rity that was likewife grown odious to the whole na-
the manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as pof- tion. The queen and Mortimer had for fome time
{idle. Taking advantage of Berkeley’s ficknefs, in chofen the caftle of Nottingham for their refidence. It
whole cuftody he then Was, and who was thereby in- was ftriftiy guarded, the gates were locked cveiy night,
capacitated from attending his charge, they came to and' the keys carried to the queen. It was therefore
Berkeley-caftle, and put themfelves in pofleffion of the agreed between the king and fome of the barons, who
king’s perfon. They threw him on a bed, and hild fecretly entered into his defigns, to feize upon them in
1.0 him down with a table which they had placed over this fortrefe.. Sir William Eland tlic governor was iii-
And cruel- him. They then ran a horn pipe up his body, through duced to admit them through a fubt’erraneous paflage,
[y murder- which they conveyed a red-hot iron ; arid thus burnt which had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but
Kb his bowels without disfiguring his body. By this in- was now choked up with rubbifti, and known only to
fernal contrivance they expected to have their crime one or two. Through this paffage the noblemen in the
concealed: but the horrid ihrieks of the king, which king’s intereft entered the caltle in the night-time;,
were heard at a diftance from the caftle, gave a fufpi- and Mortimer, without having it in his povver to make
cion of the murder; and the whole'was foon after di- any re-fiftanpe, was feized in an apartment adjoining to
vulgcd by the confeffion of one of the accomplices, that of the queen. The parliament, which was then
Gournay and Mautravers were held in deteftation by fitting, condemned him, without cither permitting him
all mankind ; and when the enfuing revolution depri- to make his defence, or examining a fingle witnefs a- 175;
ved their prote&ors of power, they found it neceffary gainft him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place Mriranuoy
to fly the kingdom. Gournay was afterwards feized, called Elmesy about a mile from London. A fimilarexecutccj'
atMarfeilles,delivered over to the fenefchnl of Guienne,, fcntence was paffed againft fome of his adherents, par-
and put on board a (hip with a view of carrying him ticularly Gournay and Mautravers, who found an op-
over to England ; but he was beheaded at fea, by fe- portunity of efcaping as above mentioned. The queen,
cret orders, as was fuppofed, of fome nobles and pre- w ho was perhaps the moft culpable of the whole, wms
kites in England, anxious to prevent any difeovery fereened by the dignity of her ftation. She was, how-
which he might make of his accomplices. Mautra- ever, depofed from all /hare of power; and confined
vers concealed himfelf for fome years in Germany; for life to the caftle ofR'fings, with a penfion of 3000
but having fouad means of rendering fome fervices to pounds a-year. From this confinement fire wms never
Edward III. he ventured to approach his perfon,. fet free, though the king paid her an annual vifit of
threw himfelf on his kneea before him, and received a ceremony. She lived 25 years after her depofiticn.
pardon. Edward III. proved the-greateft warrior that ever
By the death of Edward II. the government fell fat on the Englifti throne. He firft attempted to raife
entirely into the hands of the queen and her paramour Edward Baliol to the fovereignty of Scotland; but this Ti'> .
Mortimer. The parliament, which raifed young Ed- he .found impoffible fully to aceomplifii. Ldward
ward to the throne, had indeed appointed 12 perfons next formed a project, of invading and conquering France
as his privy-coutacil, to direft the operations of govern- France, to the fovereignty of which he pretended a fucceftfal*-
ment. Mortimer excluded himfelf, under a Ihow of right. His firft expectations W'ere .attended with fo'X’
moderation; but at the fame time fecretly. influenced little fuccefs, that on his'return to England he found
all the meafures that came under their deliberation, the nation very much difeontented, and himfelf haraf-
As this influence began vuy foon to be perceived, and fed by his numerous creditors without any fufficient
the queen’s criminal attachment to Mortimer w'as uni- refource for paying, them. Being determined, hovv-
vtrfally known, thtfe governors foon became very ob- ever, not to bear any blame himfelf if he could throw
noxious to the people. The firft ftroke given to Mor- it any where elfe, he took the fiift opportunity of ,7^
timer’s power was during an irruption of the Scots, wreaking his vengeance upon his fubjects. Finding His arbi-
wben the favourite prevented the young king from at- therefore the tower of London negligently guarded on tr.iir3' keha*.
tacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that his arrival, he iraprjfoned the con [table and all his iii-J''!our oi|l
the Englifti army-would have been dcilroyed by ma- ferior officers, treating them with the g-xateft fever itv. ‘1'> •
king an attack on an army fituated in fuch an advanta- He then fell upon the fherifTs and cpHecftois of the ra-
geous poll as the Scots at that time occupied, Mor- venue, whom he difiniffed from their employments, and
iimer incurred great blame on that account. He was appointed an inquiry into their conduct to be made by
accufed of having allowed the Scots to make their e- perfons who, knowing the king’s humour, were fine tor.
fcape; and the general difguft on this account was in- find everyone guilty who came before them. The keeper <•
sxeafed by his concluding a peace with that kingdom, of,theprivy-feal? the chief-juftice,the mayor of London,,
*71
Sovereign
fumed by
the queen
and Mor¬
timer.
ENG [6
1* gland. tKe i>iftiops of Chichefter and Litchfield, with the
^ chancellor and treafurer, were depofed and iraprifoned.
^ j In this career of refentment and cruelty, however, he
by The” ^ f°un(l himfelf oppoftd by the archbifiiop of Canter-
ar'chbifhrtp bury, whom he had appointed to colleft the taxes laid
of Canter- on for the fupport of the French war. That prelate
bury; happening to be abfent at the time of the king’s ar¬
rival, did not immediately feel the effefts of his refent¬
ment. Being informed, however, of the humour in
which his fovereign was, he iffued a fentence of ex-
communication againft all who, on any pretence what¬
ever, fhould exercife violence againft the perfons or
eftates of clergymen, or who infringed thofe privi¬
leges fecured by the great charter, or who accufed
a prelate of treafon, or any other crime, in order
to bring him under the king’s difpleafure. A re¬
gular combination .was formed againft the king- by
the clergy, with the primate at their head; who,
to execute the indignation of the people as much
as poffible, reported, that the king intended to recal
the general pardon and the remiffion to old debts
which had been granted, and to impofe new' and arbi¬
trary taxes without confent of parliament. The arch-
bifliop alfo, in a letter to the king, informed him, that
there were tw'o powers by which the world was go¬
verned, viz. the holy pontifical apoftolical dignity and
the regal authority ; of which the clerical power was
evidently the fupreme, as the priefts were to anfwer
even for the conduft of kings at the laft judgment;
and were befides the fpiritual fathers of all the faithful,
kings and princes not excepted ; having, befides, a
heavenly charter, intitling them to direft their wills
and adtions, and to cenfure their tranfgreffions. On
this the king refolved to mortify him, by fending no
fummons to him when the parliament was called : but
the prelate, undaunted by this mark of refentment,
appeared before the gates of the parliament-houfe with
his crofier in his hand, demanding admittance as the
firft peer of the realm. This application was rejedled
for two days, but at laft complied with; and the par-
176 liament now feemed inclined to abridge the king’s au-
And obli- thority confiderably. They began with obferving,
Se atlaft a3 the great charter had been violated in many
to u nut. p0;ntSj particularly by the illegal imprifonment of many
freemen and the feizure of their goods, it was necef-
fary to confirm it anew, and to oblige all the chief
officers of the law and others to fwear to the obfer-
vance of it. It was alfo required, that whenever any
of the great offices became vacant, the king ftiould
fill them up by the advice of his council and the con¬
fent of fuch barons as ftiould at the time be found to
refide in the neighbourhood of the court. They enail¬
ed alfo, that on the third day of every feffion the king
ffiould refume all fuch offices into his own hand, ex¬
cepting thofe of the juftices of the two benches and
the barons of exchequer; that the minifters fhould for
the time be reduced to private perfons ; that they
ffiould in that condition anfwer before parliament to
any accufation preferred againft them; and that, if
they were found in any refpedl guilty, they ffiould be
finally deprived of their offices, and, others appointed in
theii Head. In return for fuch ample conceffions, the
king was offered a grant of 20,000 facks of wool; and
fuch was his urgent neceffity, that he was compelled
to accept of it even upon thefe terms. Still, however,
4
0 ] ENG
he determined to adhere to his engagements no lono-er England. ,
than till this neceffity was removed. Though the a-
greement therefore was ratified in full parliament, he
fecretly entered a prote.ft, that, as foon as his conve¬
nience permitted, he would from his own authority
revoke what had been extorted from him. This pro-
teft was afterwards confirmed by a public edift; in
which he afferted, that that ftatute had been made con¬
trary to law; that it was prejudicial to the preroga¬
tives of the crown, which he had only diffembled when
he feemed to ratify it; and that in his own bread he
had never affented to it: and declared,that from thence¬
forth it had no force or authority. This exertion of 177
arbitrary power, which it might have been imagined B.llt rega'-n»
would have occafioned a prodigious clamour, was nothis Power*
taken notice of by any of the fubfequent parliaments;
fo that in the courfe of two years Edward had entirely
regained his authority, and obtained a repeal of the ,7g
obnoxious ftatute juft mentioned. Having thus fet- Performs
tied matters to his fatisfa&ion, the king refumed his west ex-
expedition againft France, where he gained great ad-P^^n
vantages. In his abfence the Scots invaded England;
but were entirely defeated at Durham, and their king
himfelf taken prifoner. The Engliffi king in the mean
time continued his victories on the continent; in
which he was greatly affifted by Edward furnamed the
B/aci Prince, the greateft hero recorded in the Engliffi
annals. But for the wars of Edward III. and the
exploits of this famous prince, fee the articles Scot¬
land and France. The Black Prince died on the
8th of June 1376, and the king furvived only about a 179
year. He expired on the 21ft of June 1377, and was Ritliard H.
fucceeded by his fecond fon Richard.
As the new king was only eleven years old when he
afeended the throne, the government was veiled in the
hands of his three uncles the dukes of Lancafter, York,
and Glocefter. The different difpofitions of thefe no¬
blemen, it was thought, would caufe them check the
defigns of each other. Lancafter was neither popular
nor enterprifing; York was indolent and weak; and
Glocefttr turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Dif-
contents firft arofe among the common people. They
had now acquired a ffiare of liberty fufficient to infpire
them with a defire for more, and this defire was great¬
ly encreafed by the difeourfes of one John Ball a fedi-
tious preacher. He went about the country, and in¬
culcated on-his audience, that mankind were all de¬
rived from one common ftock; and that all of them
had equal right to liberty and the. goods of nature, of
which they had been deprived by the ambition of a
few infolent rulers.
Thefe do&rines were greedily fwallowed by the po¬
pulace, who were farther inflamed by a new impofition
of three groats a-head upon every perfon in the king¬
dom above 15 years of age. 'This had been granted
as a fupply by parliament, and was no doubt neceffary
on account of the many expenfive wars in which the
kingdom was engaged ; but its apparent injuilice, in
laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor,
excited the utmoft refentment ef the people. The
manner, too, of colle&ing thistax, foon furnilhed them
with an occafion of revolt. It began in Effex, where a
report was induftrioufly fpread that the peafants were
to be deftroyed, their houfes burned, arid their farms
plundered. A blackfmith, well known by the name
of
ENG t 63J 1 ENG
Efcghrul. of Wai Tyler, was the fir ft that excited them to arms
u—-n. tax-gatherers coming to this man’s houfe while
Dinner u; WaS at wor^’ demanded payment for his daughter,
jnfuntc- This he refufed, alleging that fhe was under the age
rion by mentioned in the a<ft. One of thefe fellows offered to
Wat Ty- produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at
^®r- the fame time laid hold of the maid. This the father
refenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian’s brains
with his hammer. The byftanders applauded the ac¬
tion ; and exclaimed that it was high time for the peo¬
ple to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindi¬
cate their native liberty. The whole country imme¬
diately took- arms, and the infurgents foon amounted
to about 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheath,
where they fent a meffage to the king, who had taken
flicker in the tower, defiring a conference with him.
The king was defirous of complying with their de¬
mands, but was intimidated by their fierce behaviour.
In the mean time they entered the city, burfiing and
plundering the houfes of fuch as were obnoxious for
their power or riches. Their animofity was particu¬
larly levelled againft the lawyers, to whom they (bow¬
ed no metcy. The king at laft, knowing that the
tower was not able to refill: their affaults, w^ent out
among them, and defired to know their demands. To
this they made a very humble remonftrance ; requiring
a general pardon, the abolition of flavery, freedom of
commerce in the market-towns, and a fixed rent in-
ilead of thofe fervices required by the tenure of vil-
lenage. The king granted ail thei'e requefts ; and
charters were made out by which the grant was rati¬
fied. In the mean time, however, another body of
thefe infurgents had broke into the tower, and mur¬
dered the chancellor, the primate, and the treafurer,
with feme other officers of diftintftion. They then di¬
vided themfelves into bodies, and took up their quar¬
ters in different parts of the city. At the head of one
of thefe was Wat Tyler, wrho led his men into Smith-
field, where he was met by the king, who invited him
to a conference under pretence of hearing and redref-
fing his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to
retire till he fliould give, them a (ignal, and boldly ven¬
tured to begin a conference wuth the king in the midft
of his retinue. His demands were, That all (laves
(hould be fet free ; that all commonages (hould be open
to the poor as well as to the rich ; and that a general
pardon (hould be pafled for the late outrages. Whilft
he made thefe demands, he now and then lifted up his
fword in a menacing manner : which infolence fo rai-
fed the indignation of William Walworth lord mayor
He is kill- of London, that, without confidering the danger to
ed. ‘ vvhich he expofed his majefty, he dunned Tyler with
a blow of his mace ; while one of the king’s knights
riding up, difpatched him w-ith his fword. The mu¬
tineers, feeing their leader fall, prepared themftlves to
take revenge. Their bows were already bent for exe¬
cution ; when Richard, though not yet 16 years of
age, rode up to the rebels, and with admirable prefence
of mind cried out: “What, my people, will you kill
your king ? Be not concerned for the lofs of your lea¬
der. I myfelf will now be your general. Follow me
into the field, and you (hall have whatever you defire.”
The multitude immediately defifted, and followed the
king into the fields, where he granted them the fame
charters that he had before granted to their compa¬
nions. Thefe charters, however, were foon'after re- Englandi
yoked, and the common people reduced to the fame  v—
fituation in which they had formerly been.
The courage, addrefs, and prefence of mind, which
the king had difeovered in quelling fuch a dangerous
tumult, gave great hopes to the nation : but, in pro¬
portion as Richard advanced in years, thefe hopes were
blafted ; and his want of capacity, or at lead of folid
judgment, appeared in every enterprii'e he attempted.
The king had unluckily loft the favour of the com- jgj
mon people after the infurre&ion juft mentioned. He The king
allowed the parliament to revoke the charters of en- lofcs d1'
franchifement and pardon which had been granted ;
fome of the ringleaders in the late diforders had been 6 ^e°*> **
feverely puniffied, and fome even put to death with¬
out any form of procefs or trial. Thus the popular
leaders were greatly exafperated by this cruelty, though
probably the king did not follow the di&ates of his
own mind fo much in it as the advice of his counfel-
lors. But having thus loft the favour of one party,
he quickly after fell under the difpleafure of the other
alfo. Suppofing himfelf to be in too great fubjedtion
to his uncles, particularly the Duke of Glocefter,
he attempted to (hake off the yoke, by raifing o-
thers to fuch a degree of power as might enable 183
them to rival them. His firft favourite was Robert excef-
de Vere Earl of Oxford, a young man of an agree-
able perfon, but diffolute in his behaviour, who foon ofOxforL
acquired an abfolute afeendant over him. So much
was he determined to (how his attachment to this
nobleman, that he firft created him Marquis of
Dublin, a title never known in England before;
then Duke of Ireland ; transferring to him the entire
fovereignty of that ifland by patent for life. He gave
him in marriage his coufin-german, the daughter of
the Earl of Bedfordbut foon after permitted him to
divorce her for another lady with whom he had fallen 184
in love. This nobleman foon became the difpenfer of A Col:ftT
all the king’s favours to fuch a degree, that a confpi- ^cy a&aiD&
racy was formed againft him. At the head of which 6 ‘ng'
were, Mowbray Earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan Earl
of Arundel, Percy Earl of Northumberland, Monta-
cute Earl of Saliffiury, and Beauchamp Earl of War¬
wick. Vere was impeached in parliament ; and tho’
nothing of moment was even alleged againft him, he
was condemned and deprived of his office. They next
proceeded to attack the royal authority itfelf. Under
pretence that the king was yet unable to govern the
kingdom, though at that time 21 years of age, they
appointed a commiffion of 14 perfons to whom the
fovereignty was to be transferred for a year. This
meafure was driven forward by the duke of Glocefter,
and none but his own fa&ion were admitted as mem¬
bers of the committee. The king could not without
regret perceive himfelf thus totally deprived of autho¬
rity. He firft endeavoured to gain over the parlia¬
ment to his interefts, by influencing the (heriffs of each
county, who were then the only returning officers.
This meafure failing, he next applied to the judges.
They declared, that the commiffion which had depri¬
ved the king of his authority was unlawful, and that
thofe who procured or advifed it were puniffiable with
death. Their (entence was quickly oppofed by decla¬
rations from the lords. The Duke of Glocefter arrri-
ed his partifans; and appeared at Haringay park near
High gate.
ENG [6
England. Highgfate, at the he&d of a body of men fufficient to
^ intimidate the king and all his adherents. Thefe in-
furgents, feniible of their own power, began by de¬
manding of the king the names of thofe who had ad-
vifed him to his late rafh -meafures. A few days after¬
wards they appeared armed in his prefence, and ac-
cufed by name the Archbifhop of York, the Duke of
Ireland, the Earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Trefilian,
one of the judges who had declared in his favour, to¬
gether with Sir Nicholas Bember, as public and dan¬
gerous enemies to the ftate. The duke of Ireland fled
- into Chefhire, where he attempted to raife a body of
forces ; but was quickly obliged to fly into Flanders,
cn the arrival of the Duke of Glocefter with a fuperior
army. Soon after, the king was obliged to fummon
a parliament, where an accufation was drawn up a-
gainlt five of his counfellors. Of thefe only Sir Ni¬
cholas Bember was prefent; and he was quickly found
guilty, condemned, and executed, together with Sir
•Robert Trefilian, who had been difcovered and taken
during the interval. Lord Beauchamp of Holt was
•foon after condemned and executed; and Sir Simon
Burley, who had been appointed the king’s governor,
■fhared the fame fate, though the queen continued for
•three hours on her knees before the Duke of Glocef¬
ter, imploring his pardon.
Such unparalleled infolence and barbarity in a fub-
jedl could not go unpuniflied. In 1389, the king, at
an extraordinary council of the nobility affembled after
^ Eafler, to the aflonifhment of all prtfent, defired to
The king know his age. Being told that he was turned of two
takes the and twenty, he alleged that it was then time for him
power into t0gOVCrri without help ; and that there was no reafon
handJ0 why he fhowld be deprived of thofe rights which the
meant ft of his fubje&s enjoyed. The lords anfwered
in fome confufion, that he had certainly an undifputed
right to take upon himfelf the government of the king¬
dom. “ Yes (replied the king), I have long been
under the government of tutors; and I will now firft
flrow my right to power by their'removal.” He then
• ordered Thomas Anfndtl, whom the commiflioners
had lately appointed chancellor, to give up the feals ;
which he next day delivered to William Wickham bi-
fhop of Winchefter. He next removed the Duke of
Gloceiltr, the Earl of Warwick, and other lords of the
oppofition, from the council; and all the great offi¬
cers of the houfehold, as well as the judges, were
changed.
The king being thus left at liberty to govern as he
thought proper, for fome time behaved in fuch a man¬
ner as to gain the affe&ions of the people. It does
not appear indeed that he ever gave much caufe of
complaint; but it was impoffible for any prince in thofe
days to keep himfelf fecure on the throne but by a very
fever e and vigorous adminiftration. The Duke of Glp-
ceiler, perceiving that Richard was not of a warlike
difpofltion, frequently fpoke with contempt of hisper-
fon and government, and deliberated concerning the
lawfulnefs of throwing off all allegiance to him. The
king being infprmed of his conduit by fpies appointed
for that purpofe, at laft formed a refolution of ridding
himfelf of Glocefter and his faition at once. He there¬
fore ordered that nobleman to be immediately arrelted
and fent over to Calais, where there was no danger of
his being refeued by his numerous adherents. The
N° 116.
32 ] _ ENG
earls of Arundel and Warwick were feized at the fame England,
time ; and a new parliament, which the king knew —“-v—^
would be perfectly obedient to his will, was fummoned
to Weftminfter. Here the commiffion of 14, who had
ufurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever;
all thofe ails which had condemned his former mini-
fters were repealed ; and the general pardon which the
king had formerly given when he affumed the govern¬
ment into his own hands, was revoked. Several of 186
Glopefter’s party were condemned and executed, and^ikeof
at laft that nobleman himfelf was called for to take his GIo'jfrtej
trial as well as the reft ; but he had before been pri-mur ered'
vately difpatched in prifon.
After the deftrudtion of the Duke of Glocefter and
the heads of his party, a mifunderftanding arofe among
the noblemen who had joined in the profecution. The
Duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accufed
the Duke of Norfolk of having fpoken feditious words
againft his majefty in a private converfation. Norfolk
denied the charge, gave Hereford die lie, and offered
to prove his innocence by Angle combat. The chal¬
lenge was accepted ; but on the day appointed for the
duel, the kipg would not fuffer the combatants to en¬
gage, but commanded both of them to leave the king¬
dom. The Duke of Norfolk he baniflied for life, but
the Duke of Hereford only for ten years. The former ig7
retired to Venice, where in a fliort time he died of a Di kes of
broken heart. Hereford behaved in a refigned and"HerefoI<*
fubmiffive manner; which fo pleafed the king, that he
confented to (horten the time of his banifhment four ed.
years : he alfo granted him letters patent, enfuring
him of the enjoyment of any inheritance which ftiould
fall to him during his abfence; but upon the death of
his father the Duke of Lancafter, which happened
fliortly after, Richard revoked thofe letters, and kept
the eftate to himfelf. jgg
This laft injury inflamed the refentment of Here- Hereford
ford to fuch a degree, that he formed a defigu of de- [^"^ea0£
throning the king. He was a great favourite both dethroning
with the army and people ; he was immenfely rich, the king,
and connedted by blood or alliance with all the great
families of the nation. The king at the fame time, it
is faid, gave himfelf up to an idle, effeminate, life ; and
his minifters following his example, the national ho- ,
nour was loft. The number of malecontents daily in-
creafed, and only wafted for the abfence of the king,
in order to put their fchemes in execution ; and this
opportunity foon offered.
The Earl of March, prefumptive heir to the crown,
having been appointed the king’s lieutenant in Ireland,
was flain in a flcirmiih with the natives of that country ;
which fo inceni’ed Richard, that, unmindful of his
precarious fltuation at home, he went over to Ireland
with a confrderable army, in order to revenge his death
in perfon. The Duke of Lancafter (for that was the
title which Hereford affumed on the death of his fa¬
ther) hearing of the king’s abfence, inftantly embark¬
ed at Nantz ; and with a retinue only of 60 perfons in
three fmall veffels, landed at Ravenfpur in Yorkftrire.
The Earl of Northumberland, who had long been a
malecontent, together with Henry Percy his fon, who
from his ardent valour was furnamed Hotfpur, imme¬
diately joined him with their forces; and the people
flocked to him in fuch numbers, that in a few days his
army amounted to 60,000 men.
6
Richard,
ENG [ «33 1 ENG
XngJand. Richard, in the mean time, continued in perfedl fe-
curity in Ireland for fome time. Contrary winds for
three weeks together prevented his receiving any news
of the rebellion which was begun in his native domi¬
nions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven with¬
out fufpicion, attended by a body of 20,000 men ; but
immediately found himfelf oppofed by a power which
he could by no means refill. His army gradually de-
ferted him, till at laft he was obliged to acquaint the
duke, that he would fubmit to whatever terms he
,g9 pleafed to prefcribe. The duke did not think pro-
Richard de- per to enter into any treaty with the king ; but car-
gofed and ried him to London, where he was confined clofe pri-
jnurdered. foner jn the i'ower, formally depofed by parliament,
or rather by the Duke of Lancafter, and at laft put
to death. The manner of his death is varioufly rela¬
ted. According to fome, eight or nine ruffians were
fent to the caftle of Pomfret, whither the unhappy
prince had been removed, in order to difpatch him.
They rulhed unexpectedly into his apartment; but
Richard, knowing their defign, refolved to fell his life
as dear as poflible. He wrefted a pole-ax from one of
the murderers, with which he killed four of them ;
but was at length overpowered and killed. Others
relate that he was ftarved in prifon ; and that, after he
was denied all nourilhment, he prolonged his life 14
days, by feeding on the flocks of his bed. He died
in the year 1399, in the 34th year of his age, and 23d
of his reign.—It was during the reign of Richard II.
that Wickliff, the noted reformer, publifhed his doc-
jg0 trines in England. See Wickliff.
Duke of After fcntence of depofition had been pronounced
Lancafter’s on Richard by both houfes of parliament, the throne
crown0 ^ being then vacant, the Duke of Lancafter ftepped
forth ; and having crofted himfelf on the forehead and
on the bread, and called on the name of Chrift, gave
in his claim to the throne in the following words,
which we fhall give in the original language. “ In
the name of Fadher, Son, and Holy Ghoft, I Henry
of Lancafter, challenge this rewme of Ynglonde, and
the croun, with all the membres and the appurtenan¬
ces ; als I that am defeendit by right line of the
blode, coming fro the gude King Henry therde, and
throge that right that God of his grace hath fent me,
wfith help of kyn, and of my frendes to recover it ;
the which rewme was in poynt to be ondone by de-
faut of governance, and ondoying of the gude laws.”
The right which the duke here claimed by defeent
from Henry III. proceeded on a falfe ftory that Ed¬
mond Earl of Lancafter, fon of Henry III. was really
the elder brother of Edward I- ; but that, by reafon
of fome deformity in his perfon, he had been poft-
poned in the fucceffion, and Edward the younger bro¬
ther impofed on the nation in his Head. The prefent
Duke of Lancafter inherited from Edmund, by his
mother, the right which he now pretended to the
crown ; though the falfehood of the ftory was fo ge¬
nerally known, that he thought proper to mention it
only in general terms.—No oppofition, however, was
made to the validity of this title in parliament; and
thus commenced the differences between the houfes of
York and Lancafter, which were not terminated but
by many bloody and ruinous wars.
Henry1 IV. ^ re*gn Henry IV. was little elfe than a con¬
tinued feries of infurredtions. In the very firft parlia-
Voa. VI. Part II.
ment he called, no fewer than 40 challenges were given England.
and accepted by different barons ; and though Henry  v—
had ability and addtefs enough to prevent thefe duels
from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent
continual infurreftions and combinations againft him¬
felf. The moft formidable one was condu&ed by the
Earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. 1402.
The occafion of it was, that Henry denied the Earl li¬
berty to ranfom fome Scots prifoners which had been
taken in a flcirmifti with that nation. The king was
defirous of detaining them in order to increafe his de¬
mands upon Scotland in making peace ; but as the
ranfom of prifoners was in that age looked upon as a
right belonging to thofe who had taken them, the
earl thought himfelf grievoufly injured. The injury
appeared ilill the greater, becaufe Northumberland
confidered the king as indebted to him both for his
life and crown. He refolved therefore to dethrone Infurree-
Henry ; and to raife to the throne young Mortimer, t*011 ' f rhs
who was the true heir to the crown, as being the fon Northum
of Roger Mortimer Earl of March, whom Richard II. berlan'l.
had declared his fucceffor. For this purpofe he en¬
tered into an alliance with the Scots and Welfti, who
were to make an irruption into England at the fame
time that he himfelf was to raife what forces he could
in order to join them. But when all things were pre¬
pared for this infurredtion, the Earl found himfelf un¬
able to lead on the troops, by a fudden fit of illnefs
with which he was feized at Berwick. On this, young
Piercy (furnamed Hotfpur) took the command ; and
marched towards Shrewlbury, in order to join the Wellh.
But the king had happily a fmall army with which he
intended to have afted againft the Scots ; and know¬
ing the importance of celerity in civil wars, inftantly
hurried down, that he might give battle to the rebels.
He approached Shrewlbury before a jundtion with the
Wellh could be effedted ; and the impatience of Pier¬
cy urged him to an engagement, which at that time
he ought to have declined. The evening before the
battle, he fent a manifefto to Henry; in which he re¬
nounced his allegiance, fet the king at defiance, and
enumerated all the grievances of which he imagined
the nation might juftly complain. He reproached
him (and very juftly) with his perjury ;.for Henry, on
his firft landing in England, had fworn upon the gofpels,
before the Earl of Northumberland, that he had no o-
ther intention but to recover poffelfion of the duchy of
Lancafter, and that he would ever remain a faithful
fubjedl to King Richard. He aggravated his guilt, in
firft dethroning and then murdering that prince ; and
in ufurping on the title of the houfe of Mortimer ; to
whom, both by lineal fuccelfion and by declarations
of parliament, the throne, then vacant by Richard’s
death, did of right belong. Several other heavy char¬
ges were brought againft him; which, at that time,
could be productive of no other effeCt than to irritate
the king and his adherents to the utmoft,
The armies on each fide were in number about Hu fm de-
12,000; fo that they were not unmanageable by their fe*ted an^
commanders; and as both leaders were men of known
bravery, an obftinate engagement was expedted. The bury,
battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403 ; and we
can fcarce find in thofe ages any other in which the
{hock was fo terrible and conftant. At laft Piercy be¬
ing killed by an unknown hand, the vidory was de-
4 L cided
ENG [ 634 ] ENG
England, cldfcd in favour of the royalifts. There are faid to have
'—""'v fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000
private rften, of whom near two thirds were of Piercy’s
afmy.
The Earl of Northumberland having recovered from
his ficknefs, and levied an army, was on his march to
join his fon; but being oppofed by the Earl of Wetl-
moreland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewfbury, he
difmiffed his forces, and came with a fmall retinue to
the king at "York. He pretended that his foie inten¬
tion was to mediate between the contending parties;
, and the king thought proper to accept of his apology,
and grant him a pardon for his offence. The other re¬
bels were treated with equal lenity; and none of them,
except the Earl of Worcefter and Sir Richard Vernon,
who were regarded as the chief authors of the infur-
re&ion, penfhed by the hands of the exe'cutioner. This
lenity, however, was hot fufficient to keep the king¬
dom quiet; one infurreftion followed another almoit
during the whole of this reign ; but either through
Henry’s vigilance, or the bad management of the con-
fpirators, they never could unite their forces in fuch a
manner as was neceffary for bringing their proje&s to
194 bear.
Archbifhop This reign is remarkable for the firft capital punifh-
ccuted11 eX"ment inflicted on a clergyman of high rank. The Arch-
bifhop of York having been concerned in an infurrec-
tion againft the king, and happening to be taken pri-
foner, was beheaded without either indiftment, trial,
or defence ; nor was any difturbance occafioned by
this fummary execution. But the mod remarkable
trania&ion of this reign was, the introduction of that
J95 abfurd and cruel practice of burning people on account
Burning of of their religion. Henry, while a fubjeCt, was thought
heretics in- have been very favourable to the doCtrines of Wick-
troduced. , ^ut when he came to the throne, finding his pof-
feffion of it very infecure, he thought fuperitition a
neceflary implement of his authority, and therefore de¬
termined by all means to pay court to the clergy.
There were hitherto no penal laws againft herefy; not
indeed through the toleration of the court of Rome,
hut through the ftupidity of the people, who could not
perceive the abfurdities of the eftablifhed religion. But
when the learning and genius of Wickliffe had onfce
broken the fetters of prejudice, the ecclefiaftics called
aloud for the punifhment of his difciples; and Henry,'
who was very little fcrupulcrus in his conduA, refolved
to gratify them. He engaged parliament to pafs a
law for this purpofe : it was enafted, that when any
heretic, who relapfed, or refufed to abjure his opinions,
was delivered over to the fecular arm by the biihop or
his commiffaries, he fliould be committed to the flames
before the whole people. This weapon did not remain
long unemployed in the hands of the clergy. William
•Sautre, reftpr of St Ofithes in London, had been con¬
demned by the convocation of Canterbury; his fen-
tence was ratified by the houfe of Peers; the king if-
fued his writ for the execution ; and the unhappy man
was burnt alive in the year 1401. The doftrines of
Wickliffe, however, feem to have already gained ground
very c mfiderably in England. In 1405, the commons,
who had been required to grant fupphes, propofed in
plain terms to the king to feize all the temporalities of
the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to
ferve the exigencies of the ftate. They infilled that
5
the clergy poffeffed a third of the lands of the king- England.
dom; and they contributed nothing to the public bur-  \r—
dens; ami that their exorbitant riches tended only to
difquallfy them from performing their minifterial func¬
tions with proper zeal and attention. When this ad-
drefs was prefented, the Archbilhop of Canterbury, who
then attended the king, objeded that the clergy, though
they went not in perfon to the wars, fent their vafials
and tenants in all cafes of neceffity ; while at the fame
time, they themfelves who ftaid at home were employ¬
ed night and day in offering Up their prayers for the
happinefs and profperity of the ftate. The fpeaker an-
fwered with a fmile, that he thought the prayers of the
church but a very.flender fupply. The archbiihop, how¬
ever, prevailed in the difpute ; the king difeouraged
the application of the commons ; and the lords rejec¬
ted the bill which the lower houfe had framed for de-
fpoiling the church of her revenues. The commons
were not difeouraged by this repulfe. In 1410, they
returned to the charge with more zeal than before.
They made a calculation of all the ecclefiaftical reve¬
nues, which, by their account, amounted to 485,000
marks a-year, and included 18,400 ploughs of land,
They propofed to divide this property among 15 new
earls, 1500 knights, 6:00 efquires, and 100 hofpitals;
befides 20,000 pounds a-year, which the king might
keep for his own ufe: and they infilled that the cleri¬
cal funAions would be better performed than at pre-
fent, by 15,000 paulh-prietls, at the rate of 7 marks
a-piece of yearly ftipend. This application was ac¬
companied with an addrefs for mitigating the ftatutes
enaAed againft the Wickliffites or Lollards, fo that the
king knerv very well from what fource it came. He
gave the commons, however, a fevere reply; and fur¬
ther to fatisfy the church that he was in earned, or¬
dered a Lollard to be burnt before the diffolution of
parliament.
The king had been for fome time fubjeA to fits,
which continued to increafe, and gradually brought
him to his end. He expired at Weftminfter in 1413,
in the 46th year of his age, and the 13^ orin's reign. ,
He was fucceeded by his fon Henry V. whofe martial Henry V.
talents and charaAer had at firft occafioned unreafon-
able jealoufies in the mind of his father, fo that he
thought proper to exclude him from all fhare of public
bufinefs. The aAive fpirit of Henry being thus re-
ftrained from its proper exercife, broke out in every
kind of extravagance and difiipation. It is even re¬
ported, that, when heated with liquor, he fcrupled not
to accompany his riotous affociates in attacking the
paffengers on the ftreets and highways, and robbing
them of their goods. No foonef, however, did he
afeend the throne, than he called together his former
companions, acquainted them with his intended refor¬
mation, exhorted them to imitate his example; but
ftriAly prohibited them, till they had given proofs of
their fincerity in this particular, to appear any more in'
his prefence: after which, he difmiffed them with libe¬
ral prefents. His father’s wife minifters, who had
checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to
themfelves, been paying the higheft court to their fo-
vereign; and were received with all the marks of fa¬
vour and confidence. The chief juftice, who had for¬
merly imprifoned the prince himfelf, and therefore
trembled to approach the royal prefence, met with
praifes
ENG [ 635 1 ENG
England, praifes Inftead of reproaches for his pad conduit, and
—* was exhorted to perfevere in the fame rigorous and
impartial execution of the laws. The king was not
only anxious to repair his own mifconduit, but alfo to
make amends for thofe iniquities into which policy or
neceflity of affairs had betrayed his father. He ex-
preffed the deepeft forrow for the fate of the unhappy
King Richard, and even performed his funeral obfe-
quies with pomp and folemnity, and heaped favours
upon all thofe who had (hown themfelves attached to
him. He took into favour the young Earl of March,
though his competitor for the throne ; and gained fo
far on his gentle and unambitious nature, that he re¬
mained ever after fincerely attached to him. The fa¬
mily of Piercy was reftored to its fortune and honours;
and the king feemed defirous to bury all diftin&ions in
oblivion. Men of merit were preferred, whatever party
they had been of; all men were unanimous in their
attachment to Henry; and the defecfs of his title were
forgot amidft. the perfonal regard which was univer-
fally paid him.
Enforces The only party which Henry was not able to over-
the laws a- COnie was the new fe£t of Lollards, or reformers of re-
tics” eie"lig’on- Thefe were now gaining fuch ground in Eng¬
land, that the Romifh clergy were greatly alarmed, and
Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them.
The head of that ,party at prefent was Sir J ohn Old-
caftle, Lord Cobham ; a nobleman who had diftin-
guifned himfelf by his valour and military talents on
many occailons, and acquired the edeem both of the
late and prefent king. His high chara&er and zeal for
the new fedl pointed him out to Arundel Archbifhop of
Canterbury as a proper objeft of ecclefiaftical fury, and
therefore he applied to Henry for permiffion to indidt
him. The king defired him firft to try gentle me¬
thods, and undertook to converfe with Lord Cobham
himfelf upon religious fubje&s. He did fo, but could
not prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his
enemies. He was immediately condemned to the
flames : but having found means to make his efcape,
he railed an infurredtion; which was foon fuppreffed,
without any other confequence than that of bringing
a ftain on the fed! to which he belonged. Cobham
himfelf made his efcape, but four years afterwards
was taken and executed as a traitor. Immediately af¬
ter, the moft fevere laws were enadted againft the Lol¬
lards. It was enadfed, that whoever was convidted of
Lollardy, belides fuffering capital punifhment accord¬
ing to the laws formerly eftablifhed, Ihould alfo for¬
feit his lands and goods to the king; and that the
chancellor, treafurer, jultices of the two benches, Ihe-
riffs, juftices of the peace, and all the chief magi-
ffrates in every city and borough, fhould take an oath
to ufe their utmofl. endeavours for the extirpation of
■herefy.
Notwithftanding thefe terrible laws, the very parlia¬
ment which enadled them, namely that of 1414, when
the king demanded a fupply, renewed the offer for¬
merly preffed upon Henry IV. and intreated the king
to feize all the ecclefiaftical revenues, and convert them
to the ufe of the crown. The clergy were greatly a-
larmed. They could offer the king nothing of equal
value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all
the priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in
Normandy, and which had been bequeathed to them
when that province was united to England. The England,
moft effeftual method, however, of warding off the —
blow at prefent was by perfuading the King to under¬
take a war with France, in order to recover the pro¬
vinces in that kingdom which had formerly belonged
to England. This w^s agreeable to the dying injunc¬
tion of Henry IV. He advifed his fon never to let the
Englifti remain long in peace, which was apt to breed
inteftine commotions ; but to employ them in foreign
expeditions, by which the prince might acquire ho¬
nour, the nobility in (haring his dangers might at¬
tach themfelves to his perfdn, and all the reftlefs fpi-
rits find occupation for their inquietude. The natural
difpofition of Henry fufficiently inclined him to follow
this advice, and the civil diforders of France gave him 198
the faireft profpeft of fuccefs. Accordingly, in 1415J France in»
the king invaded France at the head of 30,000 men. vade<i.
The great progrefs he made there is related at length
under the article France. He had efpoufed the king’s
daughter, and conquered the greateft part of the king¬
dom. His queen was delivered of a fon named Henryy
whofe birth was celebrated by the greateft rejoicings
both at London and Paris; and the infant prince feemed
to be univerfally regarded as heir to both monarchies.
Rut Henry’s glory, when it feemed to be approaching
the fummit, was blafted at once by death, and all his
mighty projects vanifhed. He was feized with a fi-
ftula, a diftemper which at that time the phyficians had rop
not (kill enough to cure ; and he expired on the 31 ft of Death of
Auguft 1422, in the 34th year of his age, and the HcIiry V*
loth of his reign. 100
Henry VL fucceeded to the throne before he was Henry VT,
quite a year old, and his reign affords only the moft
difmal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars. His
relations very foon began to difpute about the admi-
niftration during the minority. The Duke of Bed¬
ford, one of the moft accompliftied princes of the age,
was appointed by parliament prote&or of England,
defender of the church, and firft counfellor to the
king. His brother, the Duke of Gloceller, was fixed
upon to govern in his abfence, while he conduced the
war in France; and in order to limit the power of
both brothers, a council was named, without whofe
advice and approbation no meafure could be carried
into execution.
The kingdom of France was now in the moft de*
fperate lituation. The Englifli were mafters of almoft
the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was
folemnly invefted with regal power by legates from Pa¬
ris ; fo that Charles VII. of France fucceeded only to
a nominal kingdom. With all thefe great advantages,
however, the Englifti daily loft ground ; and in the
year 1450 were totally expelled from France f. It | gec
may eafily be imagined, that fuch a train of bad fuccefs France,
would produce difcontents among the rulers at home.
The Duke of Glocefter was envied by many on account
of his high hation. Among thefe was Henry Beaufort,
Biftiop of Winchefter, great uncle to the king, and the
legitimate fon of John of Gaunt brother to Richard II.
The prelate, to whom the care of the king’s educa¬
tion had been committe d, was a man of great capaci¬
ty' and experience, but of an intriguing and dangerous
difpofition. He had frequent difputes with the Duke
of Glocefter, over whom he gained feveral advantages
on account of his open temper. The Duke of Bed-
4 L 2 ford
ENG
[ 636 ]
E N G
England, ford employed both his own authority and that of par-
Jiament to reconcile them, but in vain ; their mutual
animofities ferved for feveial years to embarrafs go¬
vernment, and to give its enemies every advantage.
The fentiments of the two leaders were particularly di¬
vided with regard to France. The bilhop laid hold of
every profpe£l of accommodation with that country ;
and the Duke of Glpceftcr was for maintaining the
honour of the Englifh arms, and regaining whatever
had been loft by defeats or delay. Both parties call¬
ed in all the auxiliaries they could. The bifhop re-
folved to ftrengthen himfelf by procuring a proper
match for Henry, at that time 23 years old ; and then
bringing over the queen to his interefts. According¬
ly, the Earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew to
be ftedfaft in his attachments, wasfent over to France,
apparently to fettle the terms of a truce which had
then been begun, but in reality to procure a fuitable
201 match for the king.
Married to The biftrop and his friends had call their eye on
Margaretcf Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king
nJ0U' of Sicily, Naples, and Jerufalem ; but without either
real power or poffeffions. She" was confidered as the
moft accompliftied princefs of the age, both in mind
and perfon and it was thought would, by her own
abilities, be able to fupply the defefts of her hufband,
who appeared weak, timid, and fuperftitious. The
treaty was therefore haftened on by Suffolk, and foon
after ratified in England. The queen came immedi¬
ately into the bilhop’s meafures : Glocefter was depri¬
ved of all real power, and every method taken to ren¬
der him odious to the public. One ftep taken for this
purpofe was to accufe his duchefs of witchcraft. She
was charged with converfing with one Roger Boling-
broke, a prieft and reputed necromancer; and alfo
with one Mary Gourdemain,who was faid to be a witch.
It was afferted that tbefe three in conjunftion had made
an image of the king in wax, which was placed before
a gentle fire ; and as the wax diffolved, the King’s
ftrength was expe&ed to wafte ; and upon its total dif-
folution, his life was to be at an end. This accufation
was readily believed in that fuperftitious age. The
prifoners were pronounced guilty; the duchefs was
condemned to do penance and fuffer perpetual impri-
fonment; Bolingbroke the prieft was hanged, and the .
woman burnt in Smithfield.
The biihop, called alfo the Cardinal, of Winchefter,
was refolved to carry his refeptment againft Glocefter
to the utmoft. He procured a parliament to be fum-
moned, not at London, which was too well affected to
the duke, but at St Edmundfbury, where his adhe¬
rents were mfficiently numerous to overawe every op¬
ponent. As foon as Glocefter appeared, hewasaccu-
fed of treafon and thrown into prifon ; and on the day
on which he was to make his defence, he was found
murdered. ;n ys though without any figns-of violence
upon his body;
The death of the Duke of Glocefter was univerfally
afcribed to the Cardinal of Winchefter, who himfelf
died fix weeks after, teftifying the utmoft remorfe for
the bloody fcene he had afted. What ftiare the queen
had in this tranfa&ion, is uncertain ; but moft people
believed that without her knowledge the duke’s ene¬
mies durft not have ventured to take away his life.
The king himfelf {hared in the general ill-will, and he
Duk6 of
•S-locefter
never had the art to remove the fufpicion. His inca- England,
pacity alfo began every day to appear more clearly, v
and a pretender to the throne foon made his appear¬
ance. 203
In the year 1450, Richard Duke of York began to Duke of
think of preferring his claims to the crown. All the Yo' l”'
males of the houfe of Mortimer were-extinft; but*°u|v®
Anne, the fifter of the laft Earl of March, having
efpoufed the Earl of Cambridge, who had been behead¬
ed for treafon in the reign of Henry V. had tranf-
mitted her latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her
fon Richard. This prince, defcended by his mother
from Philippa only daughter of the Duke of Clarence,
fecond fon of Edward III. ftood plainly in order of
fucceflion before the King; who derived his defcent
from the duke of Lancafter, third fon of that monarch.
The duke was a man of valour and abilities, as well as
of fome ambition ; and he thought the weaknefs and
unpopularity of the prefent reign afforded a favourable
opportunity to affert his title. Theenfign of Richard
was a wdiite rofe, that of Henry a red one ; and this
gave names to the two fa&ions, who were now about
to drench the kingdom in blood. J0^
Afterthe Cardinalof Winchefter’sdeath, thcDuke of i)uke o£-
Suffolk, who alfo had been concerned in the affaffination Suffolk ba«
of Glocefter, governed every thing with uncontrollable
fway. His conduft foon excited the jealoufy of the
other nobility, and every odious or unfuccefsful mea-
fure was attributed to him The duke, however, ima¬
gining that his crimes were of fuch a nature as could
not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to (how
an inftance of his guilt. The houfe of commons imme¬
diately opened againft him a charge of corruption, ty¬
ranny, and treafon. He was accufed of being the
caufe of the lofs of France ; of perfuading the French
king, with an armed force, to invade England ; and of
betraying the fecrets of ftate. The popular refentment
againft him wa»' fo ftrong, that Henry, in order to K-
cure him as much as pofiible, fentenced him to five
years baniftiment. This was confidered hy his enemies
as an efcape from juftice. The captain of a {hip was And mur~-
therefore employed to intercept him in his paffage to dered.
France. He was feized near Dover, his head ftruck
off on the fide of a long boat, and his body thrown in¬
to the fea. 2q6
The complaints againft Henry’s government were infurrec-
heightened by an infurre&ion headed by one John tion ofJohar
Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly Cade,
over into France for his ciimes: but, on his return,
feeing the people prepared for violent meafures, he af-
furocd- the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of
20,000 Kentifti men, advanced towards Blackheath..
The king fent a meffage to demand the caufe of their
rifing in arms. Cade in the name of the community
anfwered. That their only aim was to punifn evil mi-
nifters, and procure a redrefs of grievances for the peo¬
ple. On this a body of 15,000 troops were levied^,
and Henry marched with them in perfon againft Cade,
who retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid
of coming to an engagement. He lay in ambufh, how¬
ever, in a wood ; not doubting but he ftiould be pur-
fued by the king’s'whole army: but Henry.was con¬
tent with fending a-detachment after the fugitives, and
returning to London himfelf; upon which Cade iffuecj
fiom his ambufcade, and cut the detachment in pieces-.
Sooa,
ENG [ ^37 ] ENG
Buke of
York fuf-
ptdted by
the c
I* England. Soon after, the citizens of London opened their gates
to the vi&or; and Cade, for feme time, maintained
great order and regularity among his followers. He
always led them out into the fields in the night-time,
and publiflred feveral edidfs again't plunder and violence
of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep
his people in fubjedfion. He beheaded the treafurer
Lord Say, without any trial ; and foon after, his troops
committing feme irregularities, the citizens refolved to
fhut their gates againft him. Cade endeavouring to
force his way, a battle enfued, which lafted all day, and
was ended only by the approach of night. The Arch-
biihop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had ta¬
ken refuge in the Tower, being-informed of the fitua-
tion of affairs, drew up, during the night, an adt of
amnefty, which was privately difperfed among the re¬
bels. This had fuch an effedt, that in the morning
Cade found himfelf abandoned by his followers; and
retreating to Rochefter, was obliged tQ fly alone into
the woods. A price being fet on his head by procla¬
mation, he was difeovered and (Tain by one Alexander
Eden ; who, in recompence for this fervice, was made
ao? governor of Dover caftle.
The court now began to entertain fufpicions that
the infurredtion of John Cade had not happened mere¬
ly in confequence of his own machinations and ambi¬
tion, but that he had been inftigated thereto by the
Duke of York, who, as we have already feen, pretended
a right to the crown. As he was about this time ex-
pedted to return from Ireland, and a report took place
that he was now to affert his fuppofed right by force
of ar ms, orders were iffued in the king’s name to deny
him entrance into England. This was prevented
by his appearing with no more than his ordinary at¬
tendants ; but though he thus efcaped the danger for
the prefent, he inftantly faw the neceffity of proceed¬
ing in fupport of his claim- His partizans were in-
ftrudted to diitinguiflr between his right by fncceffion
and by the laws of the kingdom The adherents of
Lancafter maintained, that though the advancement of
Henry IV. might be looked upon as irregular, yet it
was founded upon general confent; or even allowing
it to have been at firit invalid, it had now been for a
long time eftablifhed, and acquired folidity of confe¬
quence; nor could the right of fucceffion at any rate
be pleaded for the purpofe of overthrowing the gene¬
ral peace and tranquillity of the kingdom. The prin¬
ciples of liberty as well as the maxims of true policy
had been injured by the houfe of York; while the pub¬
lic were bound to thofe of Lancafter, no lefs by politi¬
cal than moral duty, in confequence of the oaths of
fealty that had been fo often fworn to them; the
Duke of York himfelf having repeatedly fworn allegi-
giance to them, and thus indiredtly renounced thofe
claims which he now brought forward to difturb the
public tranquillity. On the part of the Duke of
York, it Was replied, that the good of the people re¬
quired the maintenance of order in the fucceffion of
princes ; that, by adhering conftantly to this rule*
a number of inconveniences would be prevented
which muff otherwife enfue; and though that or¬
der had been broken through in the cafe of Hen¬
ry IV. it was never too late to remedy any pernicious
precedent, It .would indeed be a great encourage-.
houfes >f
York and
Lancafter.
ment to ufurpers, if the immediate poffeffion of power, England,
or their continuance in it for a few years, could con- * '*
vert them into legal princes; and the people mull be
in a very miferable fituation, if all reftraints on vio¬
lence and ambition were taken off, and full liberty
given to every innovator to make what attempts he
pleafed. They did not indeed deny that time might
confer folidity on a government originally founded in
ufurpation ; but a very long courfe of years was not
only required for this purpofe, but a total extinftion
of thofe who had any juft title. The depofition of
Richard II. and advancement of Hemy iV. were not
legal a6!s, but the effedls of mere levity in the people ;
in which the houfe of York had acquiefced from ne¬
ceffity, and not from any belief of the juftice of their
caufe ; nor could this be ever interpreted into any re¬
nunciation of their pretenfions; neither could the re-
ftoration of the true order of fucceffion be confidered
as an encouragement to rebellion and turbulence, but
the corre&ion of a former abufe by which rebellion
had been enepuraged. Befides, the original title of
Henry IV. was founded entirely on prefent conveni¬
ence ; and even this was now entirely ihifted to the
houfe of York. The prefent prince was evidently in¬
capable of governing the kingdom by reafon of his
imbecillity; fo that every thing was governed either
by corrupt minifters or an imperious queen, who en¬
gaged the nation in foreign connexions entirely con¬
trary to its interefts ; while on the other hand, the true
heir of the crown was a prince of approved judgment
and experience, and a native of England, who, by his re-
ftoration, would undoubtedly correX all thofe abufes of
which there was now fuch juft reafon to complain.
In this difpute it was evident that the houfe of
York had the better in point of argument: neverthe-
lefs, as a prince of the houfe of Lancafter was in imme¬
diate poffeffion of the throne, and could by no means
be charged with any crime, the caufe of the former was
lefs generally interefting; efpecially as it muft always
have been uncertain, a/ri&ri, whether the Duke of York
would have governed any better than King Henry.
After his return from Ireland, however, the former The Duke-
ufed all his power and influence to foment the difeon-of York
tents-which had for fome time prevailed in the king-*™?6"19
dom ; and the conduX of the next parliament mani-jjgt^e^°n*
fefted the fuccefs of his intrigues. A violent attack the king
was made upon fuch noblemen as were known to be and parks-
moft in favour with the king. The houfe of com-1*161^*
mons prefented a petition againft the Duke of Somer-
fet, the Duchefs of Suffolk, the Bilhop of Chefter,
Lord Dudley, and feveral others of. inferior rank;
praying not only that the king would remove them
from his council, but that he would prohibit them
from coming within twelve miles of the court. Hen-
ry not daring to refufe this petition altogether, con-
fented to baniffi all thofe of inferior rank, whom the
commons had fpecified, but only for a year and this
too on condition that he had no ufe for their affiftance
in quelling any rebellion. But he rejeXed a bill for
attainting the late Duke of Suffolk, and propofed fome
other meafures which feemed to militate againft the
court, though it had paffed both the houfe of lordk
and the houfe of commons.
Encouraged by this difagreement between Henry;
and.-.
ENG t 638 ] ENG
Richard
raifee an
army;
Bur is obli
tire.
England, and his parliament, the Duke of York raifed an ar-
my 0f 10,000 men, with whom he marched towards
London, demanding a reformation in matters of go¬
vernment, and the removal of the Duke of Somerfet.
This firft enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful;
the gates of the city were fhut againft him, and he was
purfued by the king at the head of a fuperior army.
. On this he retired into Kent; and as there was a
number of his own friends in the army of the king, a
conference took place, in which Richard ft ill infilled
upon the Temoyal of the Duke of Somerfet, and his
fubmitting to be tried in parliament. This requeft
was in appearance complied with, and Somerfet ar-
refted : the Duke of York was then perfuaded to wait
upon the king in his royal 'pavilion ; but, on repeat¬
ing his charge againft the duke, he was furprifed to
fee the latter come out from behind the curtain, and
offer to maintain his innocenpe. Richard perceiving
that he had not fufficient intereft to ruin his adverfary,
pretended to be fatisfied, and retired to his feat at Wig-
more in Wales ; and during the time he refided there,
a better opportunity was given him of accompliftiing
his defigns than he could have hoped for. The
king fell into a kind of lethargic diforder, which in-
creafed his natural imbecillity to fuch a degree, that
he could no longer retain a lhadow of royalty. Rich¬
ard now had intereft enough to get himfelf appointed
proteftor, with power to hold parliaments at pkafure ;
with which high office he vV&s no fooner invefted, than
he turned out all the Lancaftrian party from their
offices, and lent the Duke of Somerfet to the Tower:
but on the recovery of the king, which happened in
no long time after, he himfelf was difmiffed from his
employment, the Duke of Somerfet releafed, and the
admimiftration once more put into his hands. On
this the duke of York levied an army, merely, as he
pretended, to enforce the reformation of government
and the removal of the Duke of Somerfet. Thus
Henry, though fore againft his will, was obliged to
face him in the field. A battle enfued at St Al¬
ban’s ; in which the royalifts were defeated, and the
Duke of Somerfet, the chief partifan of their caufe,
killed in the a&ion. The king himfelf was wounded,
and took ffielter in a cottage near the field of battle ;
where he was taken prifoner, but was afterwards treat¬
ed with great refpeft and kindnefs by the Duke of
York.
Henry, though he was now only a prifoner treated
•with the forms of royalty, was neverthelefs pleafed with
his fituation ; but his queen, a woman of a bold and
mafculine fpirit, could not bear to have only the ap¬
pearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real
power. She therefore excited the king once more to
affert his right by force of arms; and after feveral ma¬
noeuvres, the Diike of York was obliged to retire from
court. A negociation for peace was at firft fet on foot,
but the mutual diftrufts of both parties foon broke it oft'.
The armies met at Bloreheathon the borders of Stafford-
fliire, on the 23d of September 1439; and the Yorkifts at
firft gained fome advamages. But when a more general
engagement was about to enfue, a body of veterans who
ferveel under the Duke of York deferted to the king ;
and this fo intimidated the duke’s party, that they fe-
parated the next day without linking a blow. The
He is ap¬
pointed
•quence ot
the king’s
illnefs.
213
Is depefed
and levies
an army.
*'4 „
Hiftory of
the civil
war be¬
tween Hen¬
ry and the
J>uke of
York.
Duke of York fled to Ireland; and the Earl of War- England. •
wick, one of his ableft and heft fupporters, efcapedto ——v—‘
Calais, with the government of which he had been en-
trufted during the late prote&orfhip.
The York party, though thus in appearance fup-
preffed, only waited a favourable opportunity of re¬
trieving their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long
wanting. Warwick having met with fome fucceffes
at fea, landed in Kent; and being there joined by
other barons, marched up to London amidft the ac¬
clamations of the people. The city immediately open¬
ed its gates to him, and he foon found himfelf in a
condition to face the royal ai my. An engagement en¬
fued at Northampton on the 10th of July 1460 ; in
which the royalifts were entirely defeated, and the
king again taken prifoner. The Duke of York then
openly laid claim to the crown ; and on this occa-
fion the firft inftance of a fpirit of national liberty is
faid to have appeared in the Houfe of Lords. The
caufe of Henry and the Duke of York was folemnly
debated; and the latter, though a conqueror, did not
abfolutely gain his caufe. It was determined that
Henry ftiould poffefs the throne during his life ; and
that the Duke of York IhouM be appointed hisfijccef-
for, to the utter exclufion of the Prince of Wales, who
was then a child.
Though the royal party now feemed deftitute of e-
very refource, the queen ftill retained her intrepidity.
j3he fled into Wales, where Ihe endeavoured to raife
another army. The northern barons, provoked at the
fouthern ones for fettling the government and fu:cef-
fion to the crown without their confent, foon furnifh- '
ed her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle
was fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of De- 2rf
cember 1460. The Yorkifts were defeated, and the Duke nf
duke himfelf was killed in the adlion. His head was ‘< ris
afterwards cut off by the queen’s orders, and fixed on ed’
one of the gates of York, with a paper-crown, in de-
rifion of his pretended title. His fon the Earl of Rut¬
land, a youth of 17, was taken prifoner, and kiljed
in cold blood by Lord Clifford, in revenge for his fa¬
ther’s death, who had fallen in the battle of St Alban’s.
After this viclory, Margaret marched towards Lon¬
don, in order to fet the king at liberty ; but the Earl
of Warwick, who now put himfelf at the head of the
Yorkifts, led about the captive king, in order to give
a fauclion to his proceedings. He engaged the queen’s
forces at St Alban’s; but through the treachery of
Lord Lovelace, who deferted during the heat of the
engagement with a confiderable body of forces, War¬
wick was defeated, and the king fell once more into
the hands of his own party.
The fubmiffion of the city of London feemed now
to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen’s
fuccefs ; but Warwick had fecured it in his interefts,
and the citizens refufed to open their gates to the
queen. In the mean time, young Edward, udeft fon
of the late Duke of York, put himfelf at the head of
his father’s party. He was now in the bloom of youth,
remarkable for the beauty of his perfon and his bra¬
very, and was a great favourite of the people. He de¬
feated Jafper Tudor Earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s
crofs in Herefordfhire. The earl himfelf was taken
prifoner, and immediately beheaded by Edward’s or¬
ders.
ENG [ 639 ] ENG
£rigland. dcrs. After this, he advanced to London ; and being Edward, in the mean time, thinking hitnfelf fe- England.
^ ^ ^ joined by the remainder of Warwick’s army, he foon curely fixed on the throne, gave a loofe to his fa- ——v~—^
SdwardIV. obliged Margaret to retire, entered the city amidft the vourite paffions; one of which was an immoderate love
acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on of women. To divert him from this, the Earl of
the 5 th of March 146
Warwick, to whom he was indebted for his crown, ad-
Notwithftanding all her misfortunes, however, Mar- ‘vifed him to marry. Edward confented, and fent him Warwifk
^ . 0 . , . . * , t .1 . • • , . , . Htf niter! hn
garet ftill continued undaunted. She retired to the
north, where flie was foon joined by fuch numbers,
Affair--of that her army amounted to 60,000 men. She was
the queen oppofed by young Edward and Warwick at the head
tetallyruin- Dp ^0j0qo . and both armies met near Teuton in the
’ county of York, on the 29th of March 1461 A
bloody battle enfued, in which the queen's army was
totally defeated ; and as Edward, promptedby his na¬
tural cruelty, had ordered no quarter to be given,
40,000 of the Lancadrians were (lain in the field or ih
the purfuit. Edtvard is faid to have gained this vic¬
tory by means of a violent ftorm of fnow, which blew
fell in the face of the queen’s army, and fo blinded
them that they could fcarce make any ufe of their
arms. After this, difalter the queen fled to Scotland
with her hufband and fon ; and notwithftanding all the
misfortunes flic had already met with, refolved once
more to enter' England at the head of 5000 men
granted her by the king of France. But even here flie
was attended by her ufual bad fortune. Her little
fleet was difperfed by a tempeft, and fhe herfelf efca-
over to the continent to negociate a match with the
princefs of Savoy. The negociation proved fuccefsful;
but, in the mean time, the king had privately efpoufed
Elizabeth Woodville, daughter of Sir Philip Wood-
ville, who had married the Duchefs of Bedford after the
death of her firft hufband. Edward had employed his
arts of feduftion againlt this lady in vain before he
married her; but unfortunately the match was conclu¬
ded juft at the time that the Earl of Warwick had pro¬
ved fuccefsful in his negociation with the princefs of
Savoy. The minifter therefore returned full of indig¬
nation againft his fovereign : and Edward, forgetting
how great caufe he had to be offended, determined to re¬
move him entirely from his councils. Warwick was like-
wife difgufted by the favour (hovvn to the queen’s par¬
ty ; which, though certainly a piece of very commend¬
able policy in Edward, was entirely difagreeable to the
ambitious difpofition of that nobleman. A plan of re¬
venge was therefore thought of; and a moft powerful
combination was formed againft Edward: to accomplifh
which, Warwick not only employed his own influence,
ped with the utmoft difficulty by entering the mouth which was very 1 xtenfive, but likewife that of the Duke 231
of the Tweed. Soon after, a defeat, which her few of Clarence, Edward’s brother, to whom the earl had al-’r,le lcing’s
forces fuftained at Hexham, feemed to render her lied himfelfbygivinghim his daughter in marriage; after
caufe entirely defperate ; and the cruelties pradlifed which he perfuaded him to embrace his caufe. Some cir- amfj.iracy
upon all her adherents rendered it very dangerous to cumftances which took place about this time alfo favour-againtthima
Kt-fripnH Vipr. pA flip frVipmp inhabitant!* about Sit T.pnnatvpQ in
befriend her.
By thefe repeated misfortunes the houfe of Lancaf-
ed the fcheme. The inhabitants about St Leonard’s in
Yorkftnre complained, that the duties levied for that in- An infur-
Adve
and qneen^ ter was effe^ua^y ruined, that Margaret was obliged ftitution, and which had been originally appointed for rt-dtion ir
to feparate from her hufband, and both of them to pious purpofes, were fecreted by the managers,, who York^l'rei
fliift for themfelves the beft way they could. The king refufed to contribute their part..
was ftill protedted by fome of his friends, who convey¬
ed him to Lancafhire, where he remained in fafety for
As the clergy were
concerned in this affair., they attempted to filenoe their
antagonifts by ecclefiaftical fulminations againft them;
a twelvemonth ; but being at laft diicovered, he was upon which the latter took up arms, fell upon the offi
thrown into the Tower and kept clofe prifoner. The cers of the hofpital, and having maffacred them, pro¬
queen fled with her fon to a foreft, where fhe was fet ceeded towards York, to the number of 15,000. In
upon by robbers, who ftripped her of her rings and
jewels, treating her otherwife with the utmoft indigni¬
ty. A quarrel which happened among them about the
divifion of the fpoil afforded her an opportunity of efca-
ping from their hands into another part of the foreft,
the firft fkirmiih, they had the misfortune to lofe
their leader, who was inftantly executed. The rebels,
however, ftill continued in arms, and in a fhort time
appeared in fuch numbers as to become formidable
to government. Henry Earl of Pembroke was fent
where fhe wanderedfor fome time without knowing what againft them with a body of yocomen; and having
to do. At laft, when quite fpent with hunger and fa¬
tigue, fhe faw a robber coming up to her with a drawn
taken Sir Henry Nevil, one of the leaders of the in fur-
gents, prifoner, inftantly put him to death; but this
fword in his hand. Finding it altogether impoffible to was foon revenged by a fimilar execution on himfelf,
efcape, flie fuddenly took the refolution of putting her- who happened to be defeated and taken prifoner a fhort
felf under his proteftion. Advancing towards him, time after. This defeat had been occafioned by a dif-
therefor^, and prefenting the young prince, “ Here agreement betwixt the Earls of Pembroke and Devon-
(fays fhe), my friend, I commit to your care the fafety fhire ; in confequence of which the latter had gone off"
©f your king’s fon.*’ This addrefs fo much furprifed
the robber, that, inftead of offering her any injury, he
with his troops, leaving Pembroke to fhift for himfelf
the beft way he could. The king, enraged at this,
profeffed himfelf entirely devoted to her fervice. After caufed Devonfhire to be executed in a like fummary
living for fome time concealed in the foreft, fhe was at manner: but this was of no fervice to his caufe ; a new
body of infurgents appeared under Sir Robert Welles,,
fon to a nobleman of that name. The latter, in order
219 conduced to the fea-iide, where fhe found a fhip
The queen which conveyed her to Flanders. On her arrival there,,
retires to fha went to her father’s houfe, who,.though very poor.
to fecure himfelf from all fufpicions of difloyalty, fled!
gave her fuch entertainment as he could afford ; and in to a monaftery ; but he was foon enticed from thence
this retreat fhe (laid fome years in expedation of find- and put to death by the infidious promifes of king Ed-
ing an opportunity of retrieving her affairs. ward, whofe treachery was equal to his cruelty. His-
foir
ENG [ 64° 1 ENG
England, fon foon after (hared the fame fate, being defeated and
taken prifoner by Edward, who inftantly ordered him
to be beheaded, along with Sir Thomas Launde and
other perfons of diftin&ion.
Warwick Notwithftanding fuch an appearance of a general
md Cla- infurredlion, the king had fo little fufpicion of the loy-
rence join alty of Warwick and Clarence, that he employed them
the infur- j,, rajfing troops to quell the infurgents. In (lead of
*en£s' executing their commiffion with fidelity, however, they
joined the malecontents with all the forces they could
raife; but being quite difconcerted by the defeat and
death of Sir Robert Welles, they retired to Lanca(hire,
in hopes of being joined by Lord Stanley, who had
married the Earl of Warwick’s filler. Being difap-
pointed in this, they were obliged to dilband their ar¬
my, and fly into Devonlhire, whence they fet fail for
Calais. Upon their arrival on the continent, matters
feemed not to be much mended : the deputy-governor,
whom Warwick had left, refufed him admittance ; nor
would he even allow the Duchefs of Clarence to land,
though (he had been delivered of a fon on board on¬
ly a very few days before, and was at that time ex¬
tremely ill. Being well acquainted, however, with the
uncertainty of the affairs of England at that time, he
afterwards made an apology to Warwick for this beha¬
viour. The latter pretended to be ealily reconciled ;
but immediately left the place, having feized fome Fle-
42 mi(h veflels which he found lying in the neighbourhood,
iecnnrll'a- As a very clofe alliance fubfifted between Warwick
and the Duke of .Burgundy, the king of France be¬
came uneafy; and therefore, as foon as the earl landed
on his dominions, received him with the greateft marks
of efteem. The reconciliation betwixt him and the
unfortunate Queen Margaret now' feemed to be natu¬
ral, though,confidering allcircumftances, this mud have
formerly appeared in a manner impofiible. The earl’s
father had been put to death by the orders of Margaret;
and Warwick, in return, had twice taken prifoner
twixt Mrai
wick and
*the queen
King Henry, banKhed the queen, and put to death
ahnoft all their faithful adherents. By the mediation
”of the French monarch, however, all differences were
lands accommodated. A fleet was prepared to recondutl
in Erg- them to England; and feizing a proper opportunity,
Jand., they landed at Dartmouth with a fmall body of troops,
while Edward was in the north fupprefling an infurrec-
tion which had lately appeared there. Warwick was
attended with aftonifhing fuccefs on his arrival in Eng¬
land, and in lefs than fix days faw himfelf at the head
of 60,000 men. Edward was now obliged in his turn
to fly the kingdom. Having narrowly efcaped an at¬
tempt made-upon his perfon by the Marquis of Mon¬
tague, he embarked on board a fmall fleet which lay
off Lynn in Norfolk. While at fea, he was chafed by
fome (hips belonging to the Hans Towns that were
then at war both with France and England ; but at
length, having efcaped all dangers, Edward landed
fafely in Holland, where he met with but an indiffe
rent reception from the Duke of Burgundy, with w hom
he had lately entered into an alliance.
Warwick in the mean time advanced to London, arid
once more releafed and placed on the throne the mi
ferable king Henry VI. A parliament was called
which very folemnly confirmed Henry’s title to the
throne, and Warwick himfelf was dignified by the
people with the title of the king maker. All the at-
N01.1 <5.
tainders of the Lancaftrians were reverfed; and every
one was reftored who had loft either honours or for¬
tune by his former adherence to Henry’s caufe. All
the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or
took (heker in monafteries, where they were pro-
tedled by the ecclefiaftical privileges. But Edward’s
party was not yet deftroyed. After an abfence of nine
months, being feconded by a fmall body of troops
granted him by the Duke of Burgundy, he madea de-
fcent at Ravenfpur in Yorkfhire. At firft he met with
little fuccefs; but his army increafing on his march,
he was foon in a condition to appear before the ca¬
pital, which immediately opened its gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked
from the throne; and the hopes of Warwick were almoft
totally blafted by the defedtion of Clarence. Edward’s
brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an
engagement as foon as pcflible. Warwick knew his
forces to be inferior to thofe of Edward, but placed
great dependence onJiis own generakhip. He there¬
fore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles of London,
where he refolved to wait the coming of Edward. The
latter foon came up with him, and on the 14th of A-
pril 1471, a moft obftinate and bloody battle was
fought. Edward, according to cuftom, had ordered no
quarter to be given ; and obtained the vidlory through
a miftake of a body of Warwick’s forces, who fell with
fury on their own party inftead of the enemy The earl
himfelf was (lain, together with his brother, and 10,000
of his braveft followers.
The queen was juft then returned with her fon from
France, where (he had been foliciting fupplies. She
had fcarce time to refrefti herfelf from the fatigues of
the voyage, when (he received the fatal news of the
death of Warwick, and the total deftru&ion of her
party. All her refolution was not able to fupport her
under fuch a terrible difafter. Her grief now for the
firft time, it is faid, manifefted itfelf by her tears ;
and (he immediately took fanriluary in the abbey of
Beaulieu in Hampftiire. Here (he dill found fome
friends willing to affift her. Tudor Earl of Pembroke,
Courtney Earl of Devonfliire, the Lords Wenlock and
St John, with fome other men of rank, encouraged her
yet to hope for fuccefs, and promifed to Hand by her
to the laft. On this aflurance, (he refumed her courage;
and advancing through the counties of Devon, Somer-
fet, and Glocefter, increafed her army every day. At
laft, however, (he was overtaken by Edward with his
victorious army at. Tewkelbury, on the banks of the
Severne. TheQuen’s army was totally defeated; the Total de-
Earl ofDevonflrire and LordWenlockwere killed in the ftrudion of
field ; the Duke of Somerfet, and about 20 other per-tl^|‘(ueen *
fons of diflindlion, who had taken (helter in a church, *>an5r'
were furrounded, dragged out, and immediately be¬
headed ; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and
the army was entirely difperfed. Queen Margaret and
her fon w'ere taken prifoners, and brought to the king,
who aflced the prince in an infulting manner, how he
dared to invade his dominions? The young prince re¬
plied, that he came thither to claim his juft inheritance;
upon which Edward ftruck him on the face with his
gauntlet. TheDuktsof Clarence and Glocefter, Lord
Haftings, and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this blow as
a fignalfor farther violence, hurrieci the prince into
the next apartment, and there difpatched him with
their
ENG [ 641 ] ENG
England, their daggers. Margaret was thrown into the Tower
^along with her hulband Henry, who expired in that
confinement a few days after. It was univerfally be¬
lieved that he was murdered by the duke of Glocefter,
though of this there was no diredt evidence. • Marga¬
ret was ranfomed by the king of France for 50,000
crowns, and died a few years after in a moft miferable
lituation.
Edward being now freed from all his enemies, be¬
gan to inflidt punifhment on thofe who had formerly
appeared againft him. Among the cruelties he com¬
mitted, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was
the moft remarkable. The king happening to be one
day hunting in the park of Thomas Burdet, a fervant
of the duke killed a white buck which was a great
favourite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the lofs,
broke out into a pafiion,- and wifhed the horns of the
deer in the belly of the perfon who advifed the king to
that infult. For this exclamation Burdet was tried for
his life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Cla¬
rence exclaimed againft the iniquity of this fentence ;
upon which he was arraigned before the houfe of peers,
found guilty, and condemned to death. The only fa¬
vour granted him was to have the choice of his death;
and his choice was a very fingular one, namely, to be
drowned in a butt of Malmfey wine ; which was ac¬
cordingly done.—The reft of this reign affords little
elfe than an hiftory of the king’s amours. Among his
many miftreffes, Jane Shore was the moft remarkable;
(fee Shore.) The king died on the 9th of April
1482, in the 42ft year of his age, and 21ft of his
reign, counting from his firft aftuming the crown.
Befides five daughters, he left two fons ; Edward
prince of Wales, his fucceffor, then in his 13th year;
and Richard duke of York in his 9th.
Edward V. On the death of Edward IV. the kingdom was di¬
vided into two new faftions. The queen’s family,
which during the laft reign had come' into power, was
Become obnoxious to the old nobility, who confidered
them as their interiors. The king had endeavoured
to prevent thefe animofities from coming to a height,
by defiring on his death-bed that his brother Richard
duke of Glocefter ftiould be entrufted with the regen¬
cy; and recommended peace and unanimity during the
minority of his fon. But the king was no fooner dead
than the former refentment between thefe parties broke
out with violence ; and the duke of Glocefter, who
was endued with almoft every bad quality, refolved to
profit by their contentions. His firft ftep was to get
Duke of himfelf declared prote&or of the realm ; and having
Glocefter arrefted the earl of Rivers, the king’s uncle and guar-
declared dian, he met young Edward in his way from Ludlow
pro e or. ca^.jej w}-iere iate k;ng }jacj ref1(le(j during the latter
part of his reign, and refpedlfully offered to conduct
him to London. Having thus fecured the perfon of
the king, he next got poffeffion of his brother’s perfon
alfo- The queen had retired with this child into
Weftminfter abbey; and it was not without extreme
regret that Ihe delivered him up at the interceffion of
the primate and archbiftiop of York.
In a few days after Glocefter had made himfelf ma¬
iler of the perfons of the tvo princes, he had them
confined in the Tower, under pretence of guarding them
from danger; and foon after fpread reports of their il¬
legitimacy, and by pretended obftacles put off the
Vol.VI. Paitll.
young king’s coronation. Lord Stanley firft began England,
to fufpedl his defigns; and communicated his fufpicions 1
to lord Haftings, who had long been firmly attached
to the king’s family. Lord Haftings would not at
firft give credit to this furmife ; but he very foon had
a fatal proof of the truth of what had been communi¬
cated to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he was
hurried out of the council-room in the Tower by Glo-
cefter’s order, and beheaded on a log of timber. The
foldiers who carried him off made a buftle as though
an attempt had been made to refcue him, and one of
them difcharged a blow at Lord Stanley’s head with a
pole-ax; but he happily efcaped by (hrinking under
the table. The fame day were executed the Earl Ri¬
vers, and fome others, who had committed no other
crime than being faithful to the young king.
The protestor now thought he might with fafety
lay claim to the throne. He had previoufly gained
over the duke of Buckingham, a nobleman of great
influence among the people. He ufed his utmolt en¬
deavours to infpire the people with a notion of the il¬
legitimate birth of the late king, and confequently of
his children. Dr Shaw, a popular preacher, was alfo
hired to harangue the people to the fame purpofe from
St Paul’s crofs. Having expatiated on the inconti¬
nence of the queen, and the illegality of the young
king’s title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues
.of the protestor. “ It is the protestor (continued he)
who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the
marks of a true defcent. He alone can reftore the loft
glory and honour of the nation.” It was hoped that
upon this occafion ome of the populace would have
cried out, “ Long live King Richard!” but the audi¬
ence remaining filent, the duke of Buckingham under¬
took in his turn to perfuade them. Having expatiated
on the calamities of the laft reign and the illegitimacy
of the prefent race, he told the people, that he faw only
one method of warding off the miferies which threat¬
ened the ftate, which was by eledting the protedlor;
but he feemed apprehenfive that he would never be pre¬
vailed upon to accept a crown accompanied with fuch
difficulty and danger. He next alked his auditors,
whether they would have the protedlor for their king?
but was mortified to find that a total filence enfued.
The mayor, who was in the fecret, willing to relieve
him in this embarraffed iituation, obferved, that the ci¬
tizens were not accuftomed to be harangued by a man
of his quality, and would only give an anfwer to their
recorder. This officer, therefore, repeated the duke’s
fpeech ; but the people continuing ftill filent, “ This
is ftrange obftinacy (cried the duke): we only require
of you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you
will have the duke of Glocefter for your king; as the
lords and commons have fufficient power without your
concurrence ?” At this, fome of the meaneft appren¬
tices, incited by the fervants of the protedtor and
Buckingham, raifed a feeble cry of “ God fave King
Richard!” The mob at the door repeated the cry; and
throwing up their caps into the air, cried out, “ A
Richard! A Richard!” After this farce was adled,
Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited on
Richard with offers of the crown: but the protestor,
with hypocritical modefty, at firft declined the offer;
till being told, that the people, in cafe of his refufal,
muft look out for one that would be more compliant,
4 M he
ENG
t England, h-e accepted the governme nt of England and France,
v ' with a refolution, as he faid, to defend the one and
Ri h3dm
c ar . taken by the new king was to fend or¬
ders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the Tower,
to put the young princes to death. But this he re-
fufed; and fubmiffively anfwered, that he knew not
how to embrue his hands in innocent blood. A fit
inftrument for this-purpofe, however, was not long
wanting. Sir James Tyrrel readily undertook the of¬
fice ; and Brackenbury was ordered to refign the keys
to him for one night. Tyrrel choofing three aflbciates,
Slater, Deighton, and Foreft, came in the night-time
to the door of the chamber where the princes were
lodged; and fending in the affafilns, bid them execute
their commiffion, while he himfelf ftaid without. They
a-3i found the young princes in bed, and fallen into a found
Edward V. fleep. The afiailins fmothered them with the bolder
and his an,j pillows; after which they fiiowed their naked bo-
muriWd C,'CS t0 Tyrrel> wJl° ordered them to be buried at the
ftair-foot under an heap of ftones (c.)
Richard having thus fecured himfelf on the throne
by the moft iniquitous methods, attempted to ftrength-
en his intereft by foreign alliances, and procuring the
favour of the clergy at home by great indulgences ;
but he found his power threatened from a quarter where
he leaft expefted an attack. The duke of Bucking¬
ham,who had been fo inftrumental in raifing him to the
throne, did not think himfelf properly rewarded. Fie
made a demand of fome confifcated lands in Hereford,
to which his family had an ancient claim. Richard
either reluftantly complied with his requeft, or only
granted it in part; fo that a coolnefs foon enfued be¬
tween them, and in a little time Buckingham came to
a refolution of dethroning the monarch whom he had
juft, raifed. For fome time he remained in doubt, whe-
ther he fhould aflume the crown himfelf or fet up ano-
ham defer- t^e^• ^ determined on the latter; and re¬
mines to folved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who
fupport the was at that time an exile in Brittany, and was confi-
elaimof the^ered as the only furviving branch of the houfe of
' r Eancafter. He was one of thofe who had the good
C 642 ]
ENG
fortune to efcape the numerous maffacres of the for-
fions which had fo long filled the kingdom with blood- England.
Ihed and confufion. Richard, in the mean time, ''“""vj
from fome reafons which have not been particula¬
rized by hiftorians, began to entertain doubts of the
fidelity of Buckingham, and determined to cut him
off. For this purpofe he fent for him to court: i
but Buckingham, infteadof obeying the fummons, fled He takes
into Wales, where he raifed a confiderable army, and arms, but li
forthwith fet out to the eaftvvard with a defign to in- abandoned :
vade England. Richard haftened to meet him wkh
what forces he could raife ; but the march of Buck- to
ingham being retarded by a moft uncommon inunda-death,
tion of the Severn which latled 10 days, his troops
were fo diftieartened at this event, that they almoft all
deferted him. The duke was therefore obliged to fly
in diftrefs, and Richard inftaatly fet a price upon his
head. Buckingham was now obliged to truft his life
in the hands of an old fervant of his own, named Ba-
nljier; but this man, tempted by the greatnels of
the reward, betrayed him to the (herift of Shrop-
Ihire, by whom he was feized and conducted to Ri¬
chard at Salilbury, who caufed him to be executed 234
without delay. The earl of Richmond, in the mean Richmond >
time, had fet fail from St Maloes with a body of
5000 men: but after his arrival in England, receiving but’isobU*
the difagreeable news of Buckingham’s misfortune, hegedtorc-
fet fail again for Bretagne; while Richard, embolden-turn,
ed by the bad fuccefs of his enemies, determined to
confirm his title to the throne by calling a parliament,
which till this time he had not ventured to do. At
prefent, matters were fo circumftanced, that the par¬
liament had no other refource than to comply with his _ *351
defires, and acknowledge his right to the crown. An
adt was paffed confirming the illegitimacy of Edwardls gnnecj ^
children; and an attainder was aifo confirmed againftparliament,,
the earl of Richmond; the duties of tonnage and.
poundage were granted to the king for life; and his
only fon Edward, then about 12 years of age, was
created Prince of Wales. In return for thde concef-
fions, Richard paffed feveral popular laws, particular¬
ly againft the extorting of money by benevolences, and
fome others calculated to gain the good will of the op-
pofite party. He paid his court alfo to the queen-
mer reigns; but as he was a defeendant of John of dowager with fuch afliduity and fucceCs, that ihe left
Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reafon ob¬
noxious to thofe in power. He had long lived in
exile, and was once delivered over to the ambaffadors
of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him to-
England ; when the duke of Brittany, who delivered
k.im, repented of what he had done, and took him from
the ambaffadors juft as they were carrying him on fhip-
board. His right to the crown by fucceffion was very
doubtful: but the cruel behaviour of Richard inclined
the people is general greatly to favour him; and, to
give an additional ftrength to his title, a match was
proje&ed betwixt him and the prrncefo Elizabeth, the
eldeft daughter of Edward IV. which, by uniting the
two rival families, would put an end to thofe diffen-
her fandluary, and put herfelf and her daughters into
his hands. The ambition and cruelty of this man in¬
deed are faid to have extinguilhed every fentiment of,
natural affedlion as well.as humanity. He had married
Anne, the fecond daughter of the earl of Warwick,
and widow of Edward prince of Wales, whom he him¬
felf had murdered ; but having born him but one fon
who died about this time, he confidered her as an in¬
vincible obftacle to the accomplilhment of his delires; .
for which reafon it was thought he put an end to her
life by poifon: and as he knew that the projected match
between the earl of Richmond and the Princefs Eliza¬
beth could only make the rivalfliip of the former any
way formidable, he refolved to obtain a difpenfa-
tion
(c) Thefe cireumftances are faid to have been confeffed in the fucceeding reign, though the perpetrator*
efcaped punifhment. The bodies of the two princes were fought for without any fuccefs under the reign of
Henry VII. but in.the time of Charles V. the bones of two perfons anfwering to their age were found in the
fpot where they were faid to have been buried ; which, being fuppofed to be the remains of thefe two unfor¬
tunate youths, they were buried under a marble monument in Weiiminfter abbey.
ENG
■ tion from the pope for mr.trying her' himfelf. The
queen-dowager is even faid to have come into this
fcheme with a view to recover her power; but the
princefs herfelf always reje&ed his addreffes with ab-
[ 643 ]
ENG
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and fon of Enpland.
the unfortunate duke of Clarence ; and to releafe the v~—-y—^
Princefs Elizabeth, who had been confined in the Tower.
He then advanced by flow and gradual marches to the
horrence. The refuial. of the princefs occafioned no city of London, where he was received with the great-
536
Richmond „ w w „
lands in Henry fet fail from Harfleur in Normandy, and landed ferred peerages on three. Jafper earl of Pembroke*
England a • • ^ ’ ■' ., <• a n r. . , • , , . • , 1 >- t> .a . mi r .
fecond
tunc.
fmall perplexity in Richard ; and before he could de¬
termine on any proper method of accomplilhing his
purpofe, he received news of Richmond’s preparations
l for landing in England. Thefe being foon accomplilhed,
without oppofition, on the 17th of Auguft 1485, at
Milford haven in Wales. Richard in the mean time,
not knowing where the invafion was to take place, had
polled himfelf at Nottingham; which being almoft in
ell demonllrations of joy. He was crowned King of Henry VI*.
England on the 30th of Ottober 1485; and, to
heighten the fplendor on that occafion, he bellowed
the rank of knights-banneret on 12 perfons, and con¬
ferred peerages on three. Jafper earl of Pembroke,
his uncle, he created duke of Bedford; Thomas Lord
Stanley his father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward
Courtenay, Earl of Devon (hire. At the coronation
likewife appeared a new inllitutien, which the king
the centre of the kingdom, was therefore proper for re- had ellablilhed for perfonal fecurity as well as pomp ;
filling any invader. Sir Rice ap Thomas and Sir a band of 50 archers, who were denominated Yeomen
Walter Herbert were commillioned by Richard to op-
pofe his rival in Wales; but the former immediately
of the Guard. But left the people Ihould take umbrage
at this Hep, as if it implied a diffidence of his fubjedts,
deferted to him, and the latter made bu^a very feeble re- he declared the inftitution to be perpetual. Thee
finance. Richard inftantly refolved to meet his anta* remony of the coronation was performed by Cardinal
gonift, and to rilk every thing on the event of a battle. Bourchier archbilhop of Canterbury.—On the 18th of
Richmond, though he had not above 6000 men, and January 1486, he was married to the Princefs Eliza-
the king near double that number, did not decline the beth; and his marriage was celebrated at London with
combat; being chiefly encouraged by the promifes of greater appearance of joy than either his firll entry ot
l.ord Stanley to join him with a body of 7000 men, and his coronation had been. Henry remarked, with
with whom he hovered at a little dillance from the in- much difpleafure, this general favour borne to the
tended field of battle, feemingly indetermined to join houfe of York; and the fufpicions arifing from it, not
either fide.
Richard de¬
feated and
killed.
only dillurbed his tranquillity during the whole of hia
The king having commanded his army to form them- reign, but bred difgull towards his confort herfelf, and
felves in order of battle, intrufted the van to the duke
of Norfolk, while he himfelf, with the crown on his
head, took the command of the main body. Lord
Stanley in the mean time poked himfelf on one flank
poifoned all his domellic enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VII. was for feveral years dif-
turbed by plots and infurredtions. The people, by a
long courfe of civil war, had become fo turbulent and
between the twro armies, while his brother Sir William factious, that no governor could rule, nor could any
took his ftation directly oppofite. As his intention of king pleafe them. The violent animofity expreffed by 239
either joining the enemy or keeping neutral during the this monarch. howrever. asainft the hnnfe of York, mavl:!.8
time of the engagement was now far from being doubt¬
ful, Richard fent him orders to join the main body ;
which not being complied with, the tyrant determined
to put to death Stanley’s fon, who had been left with
him as a pledge of his father’s fidelity. He was per- a a
fuaded, however, to defer the execution till after the journey, foon after his acceffion, to the north of Eng-
engagement, that Stanley might thereby be induced land, where the Yorkiits were very numerous; hoping
to delay his purpofe in joining the enemy. This, how- to get the better of them by his prefence. In his
ever, did not anfwer the expeftation. Soon after the journey thither, he received intelligence of an infurrec-
engagement was begun, Stanley deferted Richard’s tion againll him by Vifcount Lovel, with Sir Henry 240
party, and joining Richmond entirely decided the for- Stafford, and Thomas his brother, who had raifed an s^fforcTs^
tune of the day. The tyrant perceiving his fituation army, and were marching to befiege the city of Wor* infer region
this monarch, however, againft the houfe of York, may diftjrbed
jullly be confidered as one of the caufes of the extreme by frequent
pronenefs to rebellion manifefted by his fubjefts. In-rebellions,
(lead of endeavouring to conciliate the affe&ions of the
oppofite party, he always drove to quell them by ab-
folute force and violence. For this purpofe he took a
to be quite defperate, and feeing his rival at no great
diftance from him, drove up,* againft him with fury,
in hopes that either Henry’s death or his own would
decide the victory between them. He killed Sir Wil¬
liam Brandon the earl’s llandard-bearer ; he difmount-
ed Sir John Cheyney; and was within reach of Rich-
mor.d, when Sir William Stanley breaking in with
his troops, Richard was furrounded and overwhelmed
cetler, while Lovel approached to affill them with afuppreffed.
body of three or four thoufand men. They were dif-
perfed, however, by the offer of a general pardon;
which induced Lovel to withdraw from his troops,
who were thereupon obliged to fubmit to the king’s
mercy. The Staffords took fandluary in the church
of Colnham near Abingdon ; but as it was found that
this church had not the privilege of protedling rebels,
by numbers. His body was found in the field, cover- they were taken from thence: the elder was executed at
ed with dead enemies, and befmeared with blood. It
was thrown carelefsly acrofs a horfe, carried to Lei-
cefter amidll the (bouts ofinfulting fpedlators, and inter¬
red in the Gray-Friar’s church of that place.
Tyburn; but the younger, pleading that he had been
milled by his brother, received a pardon. 24r
This fuccefs was foon after followed by the birth of Prince Ar»
a prince; whom Henry named in honour of the ce-thurhor®*
The ufurper’s crown being found on the field of lebrated king Arthur, who is faid to have been the diredt
battle, was placed on the head of the conqueror, v^’hile anceftor of the houfe of Tudor. All this fuccefs,
the whole army cried out, “ Long live king Henry!” however, as well as the general fatisfa&ion which the
Two days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con- birth of a prince defeended from the houfes both of
ENG [ 644 ] ENG
England. York and Lancafter neceflarily occafioned, were not
' fufficient to reconcile the hearts of the Englifti to their
Difcontents fovereign. His extreme feverity towards the houfe
of the of York ftill continued; and unfortunately this was
people. much more beloved by the generality of the nation,
than that of Lancafter. Many of the Yorkitls had
been treated with great cruelty, and deprived of their
fortunes under pretence of treafon ; a general refump-
tion had likewiie been made of the grants made by the
princes of the houfe of York. It was likewife univer-
fally believed that the queen herfelf met with harlh
treatment, on account of her being one of that unfor¬
tunate houfe; and, from all thefe circumftances, it was
not unreafonably imagined that his enmity was inve¬
terate and invincible. Hence, nothwithftanding his
politic and vigorous adminiftratjon, people made no
fcruple of openly expreffing their difapprobation of his
conduct and government; and one rebellion feemed to
*43 ^ fog extinguilhed only to give birth to another. The
ofRobert at t^le commencernent of his reign, confined
Simnpi the duke of Clarence’s fon, as has already been men¬
tioned. This unfortunate youth, who had obtained
the title of the earl of Warwick, was, through long
confinement, entirely unacquainted with the affairs of
the world. Simple as he was, however, he was now
made ufe of to difturb the public tranquillity. The
queen-dowager was with great reafon fufpefted to be
at the bottom of this confpiracy ; but not choofing to
interfere openly in the matter herfelf, flie employed
one Simon a prieft of Oxford to execute her purpofes.
This man caff his eyes upon one Lambert Simnel a ba¬
ker’s fon in the fame place, a youth of only 15 years
of age ; but who, from his graceful appearance and
accompliihments, feemed proper for perfonating a man
of quality. A report had been fpread among the people,
that Richard duke of York, fecond fon of Edward
IV. had fecretly made his efcape from the cruelty of
his uncle, and lay fomewhere concealed in England.
Simon had at firft inftru&ed his pupil to affume that
.same, which he found to be much the obje& of public
affedtion ; but hearing aferwards a new report, that
Warwick had efcaped from the Tower, and obferving
that this news was attended with no lefs general fatis-
fadtion, he changed the plan of his impofture, and made
S;mnel perfonate that unfortunate prince. The pliant
vouth was therefore diredled by his inftrudtor to talk
upon many occurrences, as happening to him in the
court of Edward. But as the impofture was not
calculated to bear a clofe examination, he was re¬
moved to Ireland ; and fo well had he profited by the
leffons given him, that he no fooner prefented himfelf
to the earl of Kildare the deputy, claiming his pro-
tedlion as the unfortunate earl of Warwick, than he
began to confult with feveral other noblemen with re¬
gard tq him. Thefe expreffed even a ftronger belief
in Sinmel’s {lory than the deputy himfelf had done;
and in proportion as the ftory was fpread abroad, the
more credit vit obtained. The impoftor was lodged in
the caftle of Dublin ; the inhabitants univerfally took
an oath of allegiance to him, as the true defeendant
of the Plantagenets; he was crowned with a diadem
taken from the fta^ue of the bleffed virgin, and pro¬
claimed king by the title of Edward VI.; and the
whole kingdom followed the example of the capital.
Sych an unexpected event alarmed Henry fp much,
that he would have gone over to Ireland on purpofe to England.
quell the rebellion in perfon, had he not been afraid of  J
the machinations of the queen-dowager in his ahfence.Tjleal^een
To prevent any thing of this kind, it was refolved to dowager
confine her for life in a monaftery; under pretence, how-confined,
ever, that it was done on account of her having for¬
merly delivered up the princefs her daughter to King
Richard. The queen murmured againll the feverity
of her treatment; but the king periitled in his refolu-
tion* and Ihe remained in confinement till the time of
her death, which happened fome years after.
The next meafure was to ihow Warwick to the
people. He was taken from the Tower, and led thro’
the principal ftreefs of London; after which he was
conducted in folemn procefiion to St Paul’s, where
great numbers were affembled to fee him. Still, how¬
ever, they proceeded in Dublin to honour their pre¬
tended monarch; and he was crowned with great fo-
lemnity in the prefence of the earl of Kildare, the
chancellor, and the other officers of ftate. At laft,
being furniffied by the duchefs of Burgundy with a
body of 2000 veteran Germans under the command
of Martin Swart, a brave and experienced officer, he
refolved to invade England. He landed in Lancaftiire,
from whence he marched to York, expe&ing that the
country-people would rife and join him on his march.
But in this he was deceived : the people were unwil¬
ling to join a body of foreigners; and were befides kept
in awe by the great reputation of Henry. Lord Lin¬
coln, therefore, who commanded the rebel army, de¬
termined to bring the matter to a fpeedy iffue. Ac¬
cordingly he met the royal army at Stoke in the county
of Nottingham. An obftinate engagement enfued, but
at length King Henry obtained a complete viclory.
Lord Lincoln, with 4000 private men, periftied in the
battle; and Simnel with his tutor Simon were taken
prifoners. Simon being a prieft, could not be tried by
the civil power, and was only committed to clofe con¬
finement. Simnel was pardoned, and made a fcullion in
the king’s kitchen, whence he was afterwards advanced
to the rank of falconer, in which employment he died.
Henry being now freed from all danger from that
quarter, determined to take ample vengeance on hisnifheshis
enemies. For this purpofe he took a journey into the enemies,
north; but though he found many delinquents, his
natural avarice prompted him to exaft heavy fines from
them rather than to put them to death. His proceed?
ings, however, were extremely arbitrary; the crimi¬
nals being tried, not by the ordinary judges, but ei¬
ther by commiffioners appointed for the occafion, or
fuffering punifhment by fentence of a court-martial.
Having thus fully eftabliffied his authority as far as it
could be done by fuppreffing and puniftiing domeftic
enemies, he next determined to recommend himfelf topretenjga
his fubje&s by a report of his military difpofition ; ho? defire of ac-
ping, that by undertaking, or pretending to undertake, ch‘evjng
fome martial enterprifes, he would thus gain the favournJartial ex~
of a people naturally turbulent, and Vnaccuftomed to"
live long at peace with their neighbours. He certainly
had not, however, the leaft intention of profecuting
foreign conquefts; though, to pleafe the people, he
frequently gave out that he defigned to invade France,
and lay wafte the whole country, rather than not re¬
cover his continental poffeffions. Under thefe preten¬
ces, particularly that of affifting the Bretons whom, the
3 king^
ENG [ 6+5 ] ENG
England, king of- France had lately fubdued, and who had ap-
• plied to him for relief, he perfuaded his parliament to
ad7 grant him a confiderable fupply; but this involved him
^bfidyon in fome difficulties. The counties of Durham and
pretence ofYork, who had always been difcontented with Henry’s
affifting theg0vernmenti ancl ftiH farther provoked by the oppref-
ic!^bitant^1-ons un(jer which they had laboured after the extinc-
cf retaSnetjon Qf simnel’s rebellion, oppofed the commiffioners
fent by the king to levy the tax. The latter applied
to the earl of Northumberlad, requeuing his advice
and affitlance in the execution of their office; but in-
ftead of being able to enforce the levying of the tax,
he himfelf was attacked and put to death by the infur-
gents. This aft of violence committed by themfelves,
feemed to render the infurgents defperate, lb that
without more -ado they prepared to refill the royal
An infur- power, under the conduft of one Sir John Egremond;
reftion but in this ill-condufted and precipitate fcheme they
fupprdTed. met with no fuccefs. Henry inllantly levied a confi-
derable force, which he committed to the charge of
the earl of Surrey ; by whom the rebels were quickly
defeated, and one of their leaders taken prifoner. Sir
John Egremond fled to the duchefs of Burgundy, who
afforded him proteftion.
Thus Henry obtained the fubfidy which he had fo-
licited under pretence of invading France, though
he would willingly have avoided any expence in pre¬
parations for that purpofe in order to keep the mo¬
ney in his pofieffion ; but as the Bretons had applied
to him for affiftance, and their dillrefles became every
249 day more urgent, he found himfelf obliged to attempt
Henry fomething. With this view he fet fail for Calais with an
makes a amy 0f 2j>000 foot and 1600 horfe, of which he gave
•vafion of' the command to the duke of Bedford and the earl of
Fiance. Oxford: but notwithllanding this apparent hoftile
difpofition, negociations for peace had been fecretly be¬
gun, and commiffioners even appointed to confider of
the terms, three months before King Henry fet out for
the continent. As the love of money was the prevail¬
ing paffiqn of the Englilh monarch, and the pofleffion
of Bretagne was a great objeft to France, an accom¬
modation foon took place betwixt the contending par-
Obtamsa ties' The king of France engaged to pay Henry near
fum of mo- L.200,000 as a reimburfement for the expences of
ney andan-his expedition, and ftipulated at the fame time to pay
jjualpen- an(j }jjs heirs an annual penfion of 25,000 crowns
more.
Thus the authority of Henry feemed to be fo firm¬
ly eftabliffied, as to leave no reafon to dread any rival
in time to come ; but Hill he found himfelf miltaken.
1m othire The duchefs of Burgundy, refenting the depreffion
of Perkm of her family, and exafperated by her frequent mif-
Warbeck. carriages in the attempts already made, refolved to
make a final effort againft Henry, whom fire greatly
hateel. For this purpofe, flie propagated a report that
her nephew Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, had
efcaped from the Tower where his elder brother was
murdered, and that he Hill lay fomewhere concealed.
Finding this report eagerly received, ffie foon found a
young man who affumed both his name and charafter.
The perfon chofen to aft this part was the fon of one
Olbeck, or Warbeck, a converted Jew, who had been
ia England during the reign of Edward IV. His name
was Peter ; but' it had been corrupted after the Fle-
mifli. manner into Peterkini or Per km. It was by fome
believed, that Edward, among his other amorous ad- England.,
ventures, had a fecret correfpondence with Warbeck’s ' *
wife, which might account for the great fimilarity of
features between Perkin and that monarch. The
duchefs of Burgundy found this youth entirely fuited
to her purpofes. The leffons ftie gave him were eafily
learned and ftrongly retained. His graceful air, his
courtly addrefs, his eafy manners, and elegant conver-
fation, were capable of impofing upon all but thofe
who were privy to the impofture. The kingdom
of Ireland was pitched upon for Perkin’s firll appear¬
ance, as it had been before for that of Simriel. He
landed at Cork; and immediately affuming the name
of Richard Plantagenet, was followed by great num¬
bers of credulous people. He w’rote letters to the
earls of Defmond and Kildare, inviting them to join
his party ; he difperfed every where the llrange intel¬
ligence of his efcape from his uncle Richard’s cruelty;
and his ftory meeting with general credit, he foon be¬
came an objeft of the public favour. All thofe who
were difgulted with the king, prepared to join Per¬
kin ; but particularly thofe who formerly were Hen¬
ry’s favourites, and had contributed to place him on
the throne. Thefe, thinking their fervices had not been
fufficiently repaid, now became heads of the confpi-
racy. Their attempts, however, were all fruftrated by
the vigilance of the king, and moll of the confpirators
of any note were publicly executed.
Perkin finding it was in vain to attempt any thing
in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scot¬
land. Here he was received with great cordiality; and
James carried his confidence in him fo far, that he even
gave him in marriage lady Catherine Gordon, daugh¬
ter to the earl of Huntley, and a near kinfwoman of
his own. But when he attempted to- fet him on the
throne of England, he found himfelf totally-difappoint-
ed; and on the conclufion of peace between the two
kingdoms, Periiin was obliged to leave Scotland. From
thence he went to Flanders; and meeting with but a
cool reception there, he refolved to try the affeftions
of the people of Cornwall, who had lately rifen againd
the king on account of a new tax which had been le¬
vied upon them. On his fird appearance, Perkin was
joined by about 3000 of thefe people, with which
force he laid fiege to Exeter. Henry, however, having
marched againft him with a confiderable army, Per¬
kin’s heart failed him, though his followers now a-
mounted to 7000; and he took ftifelter in a monaltery.
His wife fell into the conqueror’s hands; who placed
her in a refpeftable fituation near the queen’s perfon,
with a fuitable penfion, which (he enjoyed till her
death. Perkin being perfuaded to deliver himfelf into
the king’s hand, was compelled to fign a confeffion of
his former life and conduft ; but this was fo defective
and contradiftory, that very little regard was paid to
it. His life was granted him ; though he was itill de¬
tained in cuftody, and keepers were appointed to watch
his conduft. From thefe, however, he broke loofe; and
flying to the fanftuary of Shyne, put himfeif into the
prior’s hands. He was once more prevailed upon to truft
himfelf in the king’s hands, and was committed to the
Tower; but having here entered into a correfpondehce
with the earl of Warwick in order to make their e-
fcape, both of them were condemned and executed.
To Henry VII. in a great meafure is owing the
PIe'-
E N G [ 646 ] ENG
i England.- prefent civilized ftate of the EngliHi nation. He had
v all along two points principally in view; the one to de-
En na Pre^s ^le nohih’ty and clergy, and the other to exalt
tinii cwi- and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every
K/.ed by nobleman was pofleffed of a certain number of vaffals,
Henry, over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an
almoft abfolute power; and, therefore, upon every
flight difguft, he was able to influence them to join
him in his revolt or difobedience. Henry conlidered,
that the giving of his barons a power to fell their
eftates, which were hefore unalienable, muft greatly
weaken their intered. This liberty therefore he gave
them ; and it proved highly plealing to the commons,
nor was it difagreeable to the nobles themfelves. His
next fcheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many
hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like
the fbldiers of a Handing army to be ready at the com¬
mand of their lord. By an a& paffed in this reign,
none but menial fervants were allowed to wear a livery;
and this law was enforced under fevere penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not fo fuccefsful. The
number of criminals of all kinds who found prote&ion
in monafteries and Other places appointed for religious
worfhip, feemed to indicate little lefs than an abfolute
toleration of all kinds of vice. Henry ufed all his in-
terell with the pope to get thefe fan&uaries abolilhed,
but to no purpofe. All that he could procure was,
that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, regiltered as
fanftuary men, fhould fally out and commit frelh of¬
fences, and retreat again, in fuch cafes they might
be taken out of the fanftuary and delivered up to ju-
;ftice.
In 1500, the king’s eldell fon Arthur was married
to the Infanta Catharine of Spain, which marriage had
been projefted and negociated feven years. But the
prince dying in a few months after marriage, the prin-
cefs was obliged to marry his younger brother Henry,
who was created Prince of Wales in his room. Henry
himfelf made all the oppofition which a youth of 12
years of age is capable of; but as the king perfifted
in his refolution, the marriage was by the pope’s dif-
penfation Ihortly after folemnized.— In the latter part
of this king’s reign, his economy, which had always
been exaft, degenerated into avarice, and he oppref-
fed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had
two minifters, Empfon and Dudley, perfectly quali¬
fied to fecond his avaricious intentions. They were
both lawyers, and ufually committed to prifon by in-
di&ment fuch perfons as they intended to opprefs ;
from whence they feldom got free but by paying heavy
fines, which were called mitigations and compofitions :
but by degrees the very forms of law were omitted; and
they determined in a fummary way upon the proper¬
ties of the fubjefts, and confifcated their effe&s to the
Death of royal treafury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his
Henry Vll-ftomach, in the year 1509, having lived 52 years, and
reigned 23; and was fucceeded by his fon Henry VIII.
In Henry VII.’s reign was built a large (hip of war
called the Great Harry, which coft L. j 4,000. This
was, properly fpeaking, the firft Ihip in the Englifh
navy. Before this period, when the king wanted a
fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire Ihips from
the merchants.
HenryVIH. Henry VIII. afcended the throne when he was a¬
bout 18 years of age, and had almoft every advantage England.
which a prince can have on his acceffion. He had a  v—w
well-ltored treafury, an indifputed title, and was at
peace with all the powers in Europe. Commerce and
arts had been fome time introduced into England,
where they met with a favourable reception. The
young prince himfelf was beautiful in bis perfon, ex¬
pert in all polite exercifes, open and liberal in his air,
and loved by all his fubje&s. The old king, who was
himfelf a fcholar, bad in (trusted him in all the learning
of the times, fo that he was an adept in fchool-divinity
before the age of 18.
All thefe advantages, however, feemed to have been
loft upon the new king. Being deftitute of a good
heart and folid under Handing, he proved a tyrant.
Being always actuated not by reafon but the pafiion
which happened to be upper-mod in his mind, he be¬
haved in the moft abfurd and contradictory manner;
and however fortunate fome of his meafurcs proved at
laft, it is impofiible that either his motives, or the means
he took for the accompliflunent of his purpofes, can be
approved of by any good man.
One of Henry’s firft a&ions in bis royal capacity
was to punilh Empfon and Dudley, who were obnoxi¬
ous to the populace on account of their having been
the inftruments of the late king’s rapacity. As they
could not be impeached merely on account of their
having ftridtly executed the will of the king, they
were accufed of having entered into a treasonable con-
fpiracy, and of having defigned to feize by force the
adminiftration of government; and though nothing
could be more improbable than fuch a charge, the ge¬
neral prejudice againft them was fo great, that they
were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with pope
Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, againft
Louis XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was
the only difinterefted perfon. He expe&ed nothing
befides the glory which he hoped would attend his
arms, and the title of Mnjl Chriftian King, which the
pope allured him would foon be taken from the king
of France to be conferred upon him. The pope was
defirous of wrefting from Louis fome valuable pro¬
vinces which he poflefied in Italy, and Ferdinand was
defirous of {haring in the fpoil. Henry fummoned his
parliament; who very readily granted him fupplies, as
he gave out that his defign was to conquer the king¬
dom of France, and annex it to the crown of England.
It was in vain that one of his old prudent counfellorS
objected, that conquefts on the continent would only
drain the kingdom without enriching it; and that Eng¬
land, from its fituation, was not fitted to enjoy exten-
five empire. The young king, deaf to all remon-
flxances, and hurried away by his military ardour, re-
folved imediately to begin the war. But after feveral at¬
tempts, which were rendered unfuccefsful only by the mif-
management of thole who conduced them, a peace was
concluded with France on the 7th of Auguft 1514.
Henry’s arms were attended with more fuccefs in Scot¬
land; where King James IV. with the greateft part
of the Scot’s nobility, and 10,000 of the common
people, were cut off in the battle of Flowden*. Henry * See Scot*
in the mean time, puffed up with his imaginary fuc- la',d'
ceffes againft France, and his real ones againft Scot¬
land,
F, N G [ 647 ] E N
bEngland. land, continued to lavifh his treafures by expenfive when it took place; and what
' pleafures and no iefs expenilve preparations for war,.
The old tninifters who had been appointed by his fa-
worfe, he had long England,
foreften, from what he knew of the king’s capricious " ‘
Arbitrary
ther to direft him, were now difregarded; and the king’s
confidence was entirely placed in Thomas afterwards
Cardinal Wolfey, who feconded him in all his favourite
purfuits, and who, being the fon of a private gentle¬
man at Ipfwicb, had gradually raifed himfelf to the
See IVol- firft employments of the date*. He doth not feem
to have had many bad qualities befides his exceffive
pride, which difgufted all the nobility ; but the great
hi a re he pofieffed in tlie favour of fuch an abfolute
prince as Henry VIII. put him quite out of the reach
his enemies.
The king having foon exhaufted all the treafures
of the kUr ^ ^7 his father, as well as the fupplies which
e in^ he could by fair means obtain from his parliament, ap¬
plied to Wolfey for new methods of repknifning his
coffers. The minifter’s firft fcheme was to get a large
fum from the people under the title of benevolence;
though no title could be more improperly applied, as
it was not granted without the greateft; murmurings
and complaints. Wolfey even met with oppofition in
the levying of it. In the firft; place, having exacted a
confiderable fum from the clergy, he next applied him¬
felf to the houfe of commons; but they only granted
him half the fum he demanded. The minifter at firft:
was highly offended, and defired to be heard in the
houfe; but they replied, that none could be permitted
to fit and argue there except fuch as were members.
I Soon after, the king having occafion for new fupplies,
by Wolfey’s advice attempted to procure them by his
prerogative alone, without confulting his parliament.
He iffued out commiffions to all the counties of Eng¬
land for kvying four (hillings in the pound from the
clergy, and three (hillings and fourpence from the laity.
This ftretch of royal power was foon oppofed by the
people, and a general infurreftien feemed ready to en-
lue. Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular
letters; in which he declared, that what he demanded
was only by way of benevolence. The city of Lon¬
don, however, (till hefitated on the demand; and in
fome parts of the country infurre&ions were adtually
begun. Thefe were happily fuppreffed by the duke
of Suffolk; but the cardinal Idftfomewhat of the king’s
and obftinate temper, that it certainly would hap- Car^f
pen one time or other. The caufe of his final over-Wolfey>s'.
throw was the defire King Henry began to entertain djfgrace.
of having his Queen Catherine divorced. The doc¬
trines of the reformation, propagated by Luther in
1517, had gained confiderable ground in England, and
many profitffed a belief in them, notwithftanding the
fevere perfiecution which had been carried on againfl:
heretics during fome of the preceding reigns. The
clergy had become fo exceedingly corrupt, and were
immerfed in fuch monftrous ignorance, that they were
univerfally hated even by their own party, while no
regard at all w'as paid to their decifions, or rather
they were looked upon with the utmoft abhorrence, by
the reformers. Even the papal authority, though (till
very great, had, in no greater a fpace of time than ten
years (viz. from 1517, when Luther firfi: began to at¬
tack it, to the prefent year 1527), declined very
fenfibly The marriage of King Henry therefore be- gcrup'j(?s
ing in itfelf looked upon by all parties as illegal in it-concerning
felf, and only fandtified by a difpenfation from the the legality /
pope, had been frequently objedted to on different oc- Henry s
cafions. We are informed by fome authors, that whenmarn88S’
Henry VII. betrothed his fon, at that time only 12
years of age, he evidently (bowed an intention of taking
afterwards a proper opportunity to annul the con-
tradf ; and that he ordered Prince Henry, as foon as
he (hould come of age, to enter a proteftation againft
the marriage; charging him on his death-bed not to
finilh an alliance fo unufual, and liable to fuch infu-
perabk objedfions. Some members of the privy coun¬
cil, particularly Warham the primate, afterwards de¬
clared againft; the completion of the marriage ; and
even after it was completed, fome incidents which in a
(liort time took place were fuffieient to make him
fenfible of the general fentiments of the public on that
fubjedt. The dates of Caftik had oppofed a marriage
betwixt the emperor Charles and the Englifh princef& •
Mary, Henry’s daughter, urging among other things
the illegitimacy of her birth. The fame objedrion
afterwards occurred on opening a negociation with
France for a marriage, with the duke of Orleans.
o If thefe accounts are to be depended upon as au- Other rea-
favour on account of the improper advice he had given, thentic, we can fcarce conceive it poffibk but Henry fon- for
him. To reinftate himfelf in his good graces, Wolfey himfelf muft have been fomewhat daggered by them
mafic r(ic kmcr a nrcfcnt r%f a nnKlc though it is by no means probable that they were hisyorce.3 ^
only motives. The queen was fix.years older than
the king, her perfonal charms were decayed, and his
affedtion kffened in proportion. A11 her children had
died in infancy except one daughter, the Princefs Mary
above mentioned; and Henry was, or pretended to be,
greatly (truck with this, as it feemed fomething like
the curfe of being childkfs; pronounced in the Mo-
faic law againft fome evil-doers. Another point .
of the utmoft importance was the fucceffion to the
crown, which any queftion concerning the legitima¬
cy of the king’s marriage would involve in confu-
fibn. It was alfo fuppofed, with great reafon, that
made the king a prefent of a noble palace called York-
place, at Weftmirifter, affuring him that from, the firft
he had intended it for the king’s ufe. In order to have,
a pretence for amaffing more wealth, Wolfey next un¬
dertook to found two new colleges at Oxford; and for
this pupofe he received every day frefti grants from
the pope and the king. The former imprudently gave
him liberty to fopprefs fome monafteries, and make ufe
of their revenues for the ere&ion of his new colleges;
but this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff’s interefts,
as it taught the king to feize on the monafticrevenues
■whenever he ftood in need of money;
For a confiderable time Wolfey continued to enjoy
the king’s favour in -an extreme degree ; and as no (hould any obftacks of this kind occur, ..the king of
monarch was ever more defpotic than Henry VIII.
no minifter was ever more powerful than Wolfey. This
extraordinary elevation ferved only to render his fall
the more confpicuous, and htxnfelf the more miferabk,
Scotland would ftep in as the next heir, and ad-
vance his-pretenfions to the crown of England. But.His I vefor
above all, it is probable that he was influenced by the.Anne Bo- .
love he had now contracted for Anne Bokyn, who had
lately
?i6o
Sends to
Rome to
E N G [ 6j
Eit'land, 'lately been appointed maid of' honour to the queen.
'~-v— l„ this ftation Henry had frequent opportunities of
feeing her, and foon became deeply enamoured; and
finding/that his paffion could not be gratified but by a
marriage, it is not to be doubted that he was thus ob-
ftinately fet upon the divorce ; for which purpofe he
obtain a°di ^ent ^'s fecretat7 to Ronie to obtain from Clement a
vorce. f°r diffolving his marriage with Catharine. That
lie might not feem to entertain any doubt of the pope’s
prerogative, he infifted only on fome grounds of nul¬
lity in the bull granted by his predecelfor Julius for
the accompliihment of the marriage. In the preamble
to this bull, it had been faid, that it was granted only
•upon the folicitation of Henry himfelf; though it was
known that he was then a youth under 12 years of age:
it was likewife aiferted, that the bull was necelfary for
maintaining the peace between the two crowns; though
otherwife it is certain that there was no appearance of
a quarrel betwixt them. Thefe falfe premifes feemed
to afford a very good pretence for diffolving it; but,
26! as matters then flood, the pope was involved in the
Extreme utmoft perplexity. Queen Catharine was aunt to the
-perplexity emperor, who had lately' made Clement himfelf a pri-
S‘pee foner, and whofe refentment he ftill dreaded: and be-
fides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare
the bull of the former pope illicit, as this would give
a mortal blow to the doftrine of papal infallibility.
On the other hand, Henry was his protestor and friend;
the dominions of England were the chief refource from
whence his finances were fupplied; and the King of
France, fome time before, had got a bull of divorce in
circumftances nearly fimilar. In this exigence he
thought the wifeft method would be to fpin out the
affair by negociation; and in the mean time he fent
over a commiffion to Wolfey, in conjunction with the
archbifhop of Canterbury or any other Englifh pre¬
late, to examine the validity of the king’s marriage
and of the former difpenfation ; granting them alfo a
provifional difpenfation for the king’s marriage with
•any other perfon.
The pope’s meflage was laid before the council in
England : but they confidered, that an advice given by
the pope in this fecret manner might very eafily be
difavowed in public; and that a clandeftine marriage
would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any iffue the
king might have by fuch a match. In confequence of
this, frefh meffengers were difpatched to Rome, and
evafive anfwers returned; the pope never imagining
that Henry’s paflion would hold out during the tedious
courfe of an ecclefiaftical controverfy. But in this he
was miftaken. The king of England had been taught
controverfy to difpute as well as the pope, and valued himfelf not
with him. a little in his knowledge on theology: and to his ar¬
guments he added threats; telling him, that the Eng-
lifli were but too well difpofed to withdraw from the
holy fee ; and that if he continued uncomplying, the
whole country would readily follow the example of
their monarch, who ftiould always deny obedience to a
pontiff that had treated him with fuch falfehood and
duplicity. The king even propofed to his holinefs,
■whether, if he were not permitted to divorce his pre-
fent queen, he might not have a difpenfation for ha¬
ving two wives at once ?
The pope, perceiving the king’s eagernefs, at laft
fent Cardinal Campegio his legate to London; who,
N9 1x7.
.s ]
ENG
ith Wolfey,' opened a court for trying the legitimacy England.
of the king’s marriage with Catharine, and cited the  v—-
king and queen to appear before them. The trial com- 263
menced the 31ft of May 1529; and both parties prefen-^nal °fthc
ted themfelves. The king anfwered to his name when Re¬
called : but the queen, inftead of anfwering to hers, f0re the
rofe from her feat, and throwing herfelf at the king’s pope’sle-
feet, made a very pathetic harangue; which her dig-gate*
nity, her virtue, and misfortunes, rendered ftill more
affedfting. She told her hufband, “ That file was a ftran-
ger in his dominions, without prote&ion, without
counfel, and without affiftauce ; expofed to all the in-
jufiice which her enemies were pleafed to impofe up¬
on her: That fhe had quitted her native country, with¬
out any other refource than her conne&ions with him
and his family ; and that, inftead of fuffering thence
any violence or iniquity, fhe had been affured of ha¬
ving in them a fafeguard againft every misfortune :
That file had been his wife during 20 years; and would
here appeal to himfelf, whether her affectionate fub-
miffion to his will had not merited other treatment than
to be thus, after fo long a time, thrown from him with
indignity : That fhe was confcious,—he himfelf was af¬
fured,—that her virgin honour was yet unftained when
he received her into his bed ; and that her connexions
with his brother had been carried no farther than the
mere ceremony of marriage: That their parents, the
kings of England and Spain, were efteemed the wifeft
princes of their time, and had undoubtedly aXed by
the beft advice when they formed the agreement for
that marriage, which was now reprefented as fo crimi¬
nal and unnatural: And that fire acquiefced in their
judgment, and would not fubmit her caufe to be tried
by a cobrt whofe dependence on her enemies was too
vifible ever to allow her any hopes of obtaining from
them an equitable or impartial decifion.” Having fpo-
ken thefe words, the queen rofe, and, making the king
a low reverence, left the court; nor would (lie ever a-
gain appear in it. The legate having again fummoned
the queen to appear before them, on her refufal, decla¬
red her contumacious, and the trial proceeded in her
abfence. But when the bufinefs feemed to be nearly
decided, Campegio, on fome very frivolous pretences,
prorogued the court, and at laft. transferred the caufe
before the fee of Rome.
All this time Cardinal Wolfey feemed to be in the gmpa^afr
fame dilemma with the pope, and indeed much worfe; ment cf
as he could not boaft of the fame independence which Cardinal
his holinefs poffeffed. On the one hand, he was very Wolfey-
folicitous to gratify the king his matter, who had
diftinguifhed him by fo many and extraordinary marks
of favour; on the other, he feared to offend the pope,
whofe fervant he more, immediately was, and who like¬
wife had power to puniflr his difobedience. He had
long known that this affair was certainly to end in his
ruin ; and by attempting to pleafe all parties, he fell
under the difpleafure of every one ; fo that he was at
laft left without a Angle friend in the world. The king
was difpleaied on account of his not entering into his
caufe with the warmth he thought he had reafon to ex-
peX; Anne Boleyn imputed to him the difappointment
of her hopes ; while even queen Catharine and her
friends expreffed the greateft indignation againft him
on account of the part he had openly taken in the af¬
fair of her divorce. In this miferable fituation the
king
ENG
^England, kin^ fent him a meflage by the dukes of Norfolk and
Suffolk, demanding the great feal: the cardinal refu-
fed to deliver it without a more exprefs warrant; upon
[ 649 ]
ENG
that his fubjefls were entirely at his command, refol- England.
Ved to feparate totally from the church of Rome. In ' '
the,year 1534, he was declared head of the church by 268
which Henry wrote him a letter, and on receipt of this parliament; the authority of the pope was completely jC ?r,i‘
..... •a. ..si.. ..... .11  .-j .. .u.nea<J “ tnc
it was inftantly given up. The feal was beftowed on
Sir Thomas More; a man who, befideselegant literary
talents, was poffeffed of the higheft. capacity, integrityj
abolifhed in England; all tributes formerly paid to thechurclu
holy fee were declared illegal; and the king was en-
trufted with the collation to all ecclefiaftical benefices.
and virtue. Wolfey was next commanded to depart The nation came into the king’s meafures with joy.
from York-pkce palace which he had built in London;
and which, though it belonged to the fee of York, was
v feized by the king, and afterwards became the re-
and took an oath called the oath of fupremacy: all the
credit which the popes had maintained over England
for ages, was now overthrown at once ; and none
fidence of the Britifti fovereigns, under the name of feemed to repine at the change, except thofe who were
Whitehall. All his furniture and plate, the richnefs of immediately interefted by their dependence on Rome.
266
dl the
Jniverfities
If Europe
■bnfulted
Shout the
fcgahty of
■he king’s
iiarriage.
I See Cran-'
267
enry’s fi¬
lial quarrel
' :h the
which feemed rather proper for a monarch than a fub-
jeft, was feized for the king’s ufe. He was then com¬
manded to retire to Eiher, a country-feat which he
poffeffed near Hampton court, and there to wait the
king’s pleafure. One difgrace followed another; and
his fall was at length completed by a fummons to Lon¬
don to anfwer a charge of high-treafon. This fum¬
mons he at firft refufed to anfwer, as being a cardinal.
However, being at length perfuaded, he fet out on his
journey ; but was taken ill, and died by the way. See
the article Wolsey.
After the death of Wolfey, the king, by the advice
of Cranmer*, had the legality of his marriage debated
in all the univerfities of Europe; and the votes of thefe
were obtained in his favour by dint of money. The de-
burfements made on the occafion have even been prefer-
ved to this day. To a fubdeacon he gave a crown, to a
deacon two crowns, and fo to the reft in proportion
to the importance of their ftation or opimon.—Be¬
ing thus foitified by the opinions of the univerfities,
and even of the Jewilh rabbies (for them alfo he had
confulted), Henry began to think he might fafely op-
pofe the pope himfelf. He began by reviving in par¬
liament an old law againft the clergy, by which all
thofe who had fubmitted to the authority of the pope’s
1 gate were condemned to fevere penalties. The cler¬
gy, to conciliate the king’s favour, were obliged to
pay a fine of 118,000 pounds. A confeffion was like-
wife extorted from them, that the king, and not the
pope, was the fupreme head of the church and clergy
of England. An aft was foon after paffed againft le¬
vying the firft-fruits, or a year’s rent of all the bi-
fhoprics that fell vacant. After this the king piivately
married his beloved Anne Boleyn ; and fhe proving
with child foon after marriage, he publicly owned
her for his wife, and paffed with her through London,
with a greater magnificence than had ever been known
before. Theftreets were ftrewed with flowers, the walls
of the houfes hung with tapeftry, and an univerfal joy
feemed to be diffufed among the people. The unfor¬
tunate queen Catharine, perceiving all further oppofi-
tifin to be vain, retired to Amphthill near Dunftable,
where Are continued the reft of her days in privacy and
peace. Her marriage with Henry was at laft declared
invalid, but not till after the latter had been married
to Anne Boleyn, though this declaration ought un¬
doubtedly to have preceded it. See Boleyn.
The pope was no fooner informed of thefe proceed¬
ings, than he paffed a fentence, declaring Catharine to
be the king’s only lawful wife; requiring him to take
her again, and denouncing his cenfures againft him in
Cafe of a refufal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
Vot.VI. Part II.
But though the king thus feparated from the church
of Rome, he by no means adhered to the doftrines of
Luther which had been lately publiftied. He had
written a book againft this celebrated reformer, which
the pope pretended greatly to admire ; and honoured
King Henry, on its account, with the title of “ De¬
fender of the faith.” This charafter he feemed to be
determined to maintain, and therefore perfecuted the
reformers moft violently. Many were burnt for deny¬
ing the popifh doftrines, and fome alfo were executed
for maintaining the fupremacy of the pope. The
courtiers knew not which fide to take, as both the new
and old religions were equally perfecuted; and as both
parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was
by that means enabled to affume an abfolute authority
over the nation. As the monks had all along fhown
the greateft refiftance to Henry’s ecclefiaftical charac¬
ter, he refolved at once to deprive them of the power
of injuring him. He accordingly empowered Crom¬
well, fecretdry of ftate, to fend commiffioners into the
feveral counties of England to infpeft the monafteries;
and to report, with rigorous exaftnefs, the conduft
and deportment of fuch as were found there. This
employment was readily undertaken by fome creatures
of the court, whofe names were Layton, London,
Price, Gage, Petre, and Belafis. They are faid to
have difeovered monftrous diforders in many of the re¬
ligious houfes; whole convents of women abandoned
to all manner of lewdnefs ; friars accomplices in their
crimes; pious frauds every where committed, to in-
creafe the devotion and liberality of the people ; and
cruel and inveterate faftions maintained between the
inhabitants. Thus a general horror.was excited againft Suppreflioft
thefe communities ; and therefore the king, in 1536, °f die mo-
fuppreffed the leffer monafteries, amounting to 376 inna^eties"
number. Their revenues, computed at 32,000 pounds
a-year, were confifcated to the king’s ufe; befides their
plate and other goods, computed at 100,000 pounds
more. 101538, the greater monafteries alfo were demo-
lilhed. The better to reconcile the people to this great
innovation, ftories were publiftied, perhaps with aggra¬
vations, of the deteftable lives which the friars led in
their convents. The reiiques alfo, and other objefts of
fuperftitious veneration, were now brought forth, and
became objefts of derifion to the reformers. A great
number of thefe are enumerated by Proteftant writers ;
fuch as the parings of St Edmund’s toes ; fome of the
coals that roafted St Laurence ; the girdle of the Vir¬
gin Mary, fhown in no fewer than eleven different
places ; twb or three heads of St Urfula ; the felt of
St Thomas of Lancafter, an infallible cure for the
headach j part of St Thomas of Canterbury’s fhirt,
4 N muck
ENG [ 65
Englancl. much reverenced among big-bellied women; feme re-
1« liques, an excellent prd'ervative againft rain, others
againLt weeds in corn; &c. Sotne impodures, how¬
ever, were difeovered, which difplayed a little more in¬
gen. in the contrivance. At Hales in the county
of Glocelter had been fhown, during feveral ages, the
blood of Chrift brought from Jerufalem. The vene¬
ration for this precious relique may eafily be imagined;
but it was attended with a mod remarkable circum-
ftance not obferved in any other reliques. The facred
blood was not vifible to any one in mortal fin, even
when fet before him ; nor could it be difeovered till he
had performed good works fufficient for his abfolution.
At the diffolution of the monadery, the whole con¬
trivance was difeovered. Two of the monks who were
let into the fecret, had taken the blood of a duck,
which they renewed every week : they put it into a
phial, one fide of which was thin and tranfparent cry-
ftal, the other thick and opaque. When any rich pil¬
grim arrived, they were fure to Ihow him the dark fide,
till maffes and offerings had expiated his offences; af¬
ter which they made him happy, by turning the phial.
— A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxely in
Kent, and bore the appellation of the rood of grace.
The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the
approach of its votaries. Helfey bifhop of Rocheder
broke the crucifix at St Paul’s crofs, and fiiowed to all
the people the fprings and wheels by which it had
been fecretly moved. A great wooden idol, called
Darnel Gatherin, was alfo brought to London and cut
in pieces : and, by a cruel refinement of vehgeance, it
was employed as fuel to burn Friar Fored ; who was
punifhed for denying the king’s fupremacy, and for
fome pretended herefies. A finger of St Andrew,
covered with a thin plate of filver, had been pawned for
a debt of 40 pounds ; but as the king’s commidioners
refufed to releafe the pawn, people made themfelves
very merry with the poor creditor on account of his
fecurity. On this occafion alfo was demolilhed the
noted fhrine of Thomas a Becket, commonly called
• See St Thomas of Canterbury *. The riches of it were
JBedet. inconceivable when broken down; the gold with
which it was adorned filled two large cheds that eight
drong men could fcarce carry out of the church. The
king, on the whole, fuppreffed 645 monaderies, of
which 28 had abbots who enjoyed a feat in parliament.
Ninety colleges were demolifired in feveral counties;
2374 chantries and free chapels, and no hofpitals.
The whole revenue of thefe edablilhments amounted to
161,100 pounds.
It is eafy to imagine the indignation which fuch an
uninterrupted courfe of facrilege and violence would oc¬
cafion at Rome. In 1535, the king had executed
Bilhop Fifher, who was created a cardinal while in
prifon, and Sir Thomas More, for denying or fpeak-
ing ambiguoufly about his fupremacy. When this was
reported in Italy, numerous libels were publifhed all
over the country, comparing the king of England to
Nero, Domitian, Caligula, and the mod wicked ty¬
rants of antiquity. Clement VII. died about fix months
after he had threatened the king with afentence of ex-
communication ; and Paul III. who fucceeded him in
the Papal thront, entertained fome hopes of an accom¬
modation. But Henry was fo much accudomed to do¬
mineering, that the quarrel was foon rendered totally
o ] ENG
incurable. The execution of Fifher was reckoned fuch England,
a capital injury, that at lad the pope paffed all his cen- v
fures againd the king, citing him and all his adherents,^ *7? *
to appear in Rome within qo days, in order to anfwer ior excommu-
their crimes. If they failed, he excommunicated them ; ideated,
deprived the king of his realm ; fubjedfed the kingdom
to an interdict ; declared his iffueby Anne Boleyn ille¬
gitimate ; diffolved all leagues which any Catholic prin¬
ces had made with him ; gave his kingdom to any inva¬
der ; commanded the nobility to take up arms againd
him ; freed his fubje&s from all oaths of allegiance;
cut off their commerce with foreign dates; and decla¬
red it lawful for any one to feize them, to make flaves
of their perfons, and to convert their effe&s to his own
ufe. But though thefe cenfures were then paffed, they
were not openly denounced. The pope delayed the
publication till he fhould find an agreement with Eng¬
land totally defperate, and till the emperor, who was
then hard preffed by the Turks and the Protedant prin¬
ces of Germany, fhould be in a condition to carry the
fentence into execution. But in 1538, when news ar¬
rived at Rome that Henry had proceeded with the mo¬
naderies as above related, the pope was at lad provo¬
ked to publifh the cenfures againd him. Libels were
again difperfed, in which he was anew compared to
the mod furious perfecutors of antiquity, and the pre¬
ference was now given on their fide. Flenry, it was
faid, had declared war with the dead, whom the Pagans
themfelves refpected ; was at open enmity with heaven;
and had engaged in profeffed hodility with all the faints
and angels. Above all, he was reproached with his
refemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it was faid)
he imitated in his apodacy and learning, though he fell
fhort of him in his morals. But thefe terrible fulmina-
tions had now lod their effeft. Henry had long ago
denied the fupremacy of the Pope, and therefore had
appealed from him to a general council; but now, when
a general council was fummoned at Mantua, he refu¬
fed to be fubjeft to it, becaufe it was called by the
pope, and lay entirely under fubjeftion to that fpi-
ritual ufurper. He engaged his clergy to make a de¬
claration to the like purpofe, and preferibed to them
many other alterations with regard to their ancient te- 2yi
nets and practices. It was expedled that the fpirit of His abfurd
oppofition to the church of Rome would have at lad ai.ld t)'ran*
made him fall in with the doArines of the reformed; con'
but though he had been gradually changing the theo¬
logical fydem in which he was educated, ever fince he
came to the years of maturity, he was equally pofitive
and dogmatical in the few articles he retained, as tho’
the whole fabric had continued entire and unfhaken :
and though he dood alone in his opinion, the flattery
of courtiers had fo much inflamed his tyrannical arro¬
gance, that he thought himfelf intitled to regulate by
his own particular dandard, the religious faith of the
whole nation. The point on which he chiefly reded
his orthodoxy was the mod abfurd in the whole Popilh
do&rine, namely, that of tranfubdantiation. All de¬
parture from this he held to be a damnable error; and
nothing, he thought, could he more honourable for
him, than, while he broke off all conne&ions with the
Roman pontiff, to maintain, in this effential article, the
purity of the Catholic faith.
In 15:39, a parliament was called, which met on
the 28th day of April. The chancellor opened this
4 par-
ENG [651
upland- parliament by informing the Houfe of Lords, that it
  was his majefty’s earneft defire to extirpate from his
kingdom all diverfity of opinions with regard to reli¬
gion ; and as this enterprife was, he owned, difficult
and important, he defired them to choofe a committee
from among themfelves, who might frame certain ar¬
ticles, and communicate them afterwards to parlia-
] ENG
fenders; and, in a fhort time, no fewer than foo per- England.
fons were thrown into prifoo. But fome of the chief v J
officers of ftate remonftrating againft the cruelty of pu-
niffiing fuch a number of delinquents, they were all
of them fet at liberty; and foon after this, Henry, as
if he had refolved to give each party the advantage by
turns, granted every one permiffion to have a tranfla-
ment. The lords named the vicar-general Cromwell, tion of the Bible, which had been newly made, in his
now created a peer, the archbifhops of Canterbury and family.
York, the bifhops of Durham, Carlifle, Worcefter,
Bath and Wells, Bangor and Ely. This fmall com-
^ mittee itfelf was agitated with fuch diverfity of opi-
of the fiions, that it could come to no conclufion. The Duke
articles of Norfolk then moved, that fince there was no hope
of having a report fiom the committee, the articles of
faith propofed to be eftablifhed ffiould be reduced to
fix, and a new committee be appointed to frame an aft
with regard to them. As this peer was underftood to
fpeak the king’s mind, his motion was immediately
complied with; and after a ffiort prorogation, the bill
of the fix articles, or the bloody bill, as the Proteftants
juftly termed it, was introduced ; and having palled
the two houfeS, received the king’s alfent. By this
law the doftrine of the real prefence was eftablifhed ;
the communion in one kind ; the perpetual obligation
of vows of chaftity; the utility of private malfes; the
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament
of the great diverfity of religious tenets which pre-
vailed among his fubjefts; a grievance, he affirmed,
which ought the lefs to be endured, becaufe the ferip-
tures were now publilhed in England, and ought uni-
verfally to be the ftandard of belief to mankind. But
he had appointed, he faid, fome bilhops and divines to
draw up a lift of tenets ; and he was determined that
Chrift and the truth Ihould have the viftory ; whence
he feems to have expefted more from this new book
of his doftors, than had enfued from the publica¬
tion of the feriptures. Cromwell, as vicar-general, al-
fo made a fpeech in the upper houfe ; and the peers
in return told him, that he deferred to be vicar-gene¬
ral to the univerfe : To fuch a degree of mean and fer-
vile fubmiffion was the Englilh parliament at this time
reduced.
celibacy of the clergy ; and the neceffity of auricular This yearalfo the king fupprefled the only religious Suppreifioo
Confeffion. The denial of the real prefence fubjefted order remaining in England; namely, the knights of’f the
the perfon to death by fire, and to the fame forfeiture -r 1'/r '■ ■< tni./Kfcnf
as in cafes of treafon ; and admitted not the privilege
of abjuring : an unheard-of cruelty, unknown even to
the inquifition itfelf. The denial of any of the other
articles, even though recanted, was puniftiable by the
forfeiture of goods and chattels, and imprifonment du¬
ring the king’s pleafure: an obftinate adherence to er¬
ror, or a relapfe, was adjudged to be felony, and pu-
li ifbable by death. The marriage of priefts was fub¬
jefted to the fame punifhment. Their commerce with
women, was, for the firft offence, forfeiture and impri¬
fonment ; and for the fecond, death. Abftaining from
’confeffion, and from receiving the eucharift at the ac-
cuftomed times, fubjefted the perfon to fine, and to im¬
prifonment during the king’s pleafure ; and if the cri¬
minal perfevered after conviftion, he Was punifhable by
death and forfeiture, as in cafes of felony. Commif-
fioners were to be appointed by the king for inquiring
into thefe herefies and irregular praftices, and the cri¬
minals were to be tried by a jury.
The parliament having thus furrendered their eccle-
fiaftical privileges, next proceeded to furrender their
civil ones alfo. They gave to the king’s proclamations
the fame force as to ftatutes enafted by parliament, and
thus by one blew made a total fubverfion of the Eng
St John of Jerufalem, or the knights of Malta, as they kni«fits of
are commonly called. This order had by their valour
done great fervice to Chriftendom ; and had very much
retarded, at Jerufalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid
progreis of the barbarians. During the general fur-
render of the religious houfes in England, they had
obftinately refufed to give up their revenues to the
king; and Henry, who would endure no fociety that
profeffed obedience to the pope, was obliged to have
recourfe to parliament for the difiblution of this order.
Their revenues were large, and formed a confiderable
addition to the acquifitions which the king had al¬
ready made. But he had been fuch a bad economift,
that, notwithftandingthe immenfe plunder afforded him
by the church, he now demanded from parliament a
very confiderable fupply. The commons, however,
though laviih of the blood of their fellow-fubjefts, were
extremely frugal of their money ; and it was not with¬
out murmuring that the grant could be obtained, even
by this abfolute and dreaded monarch.
The king all this time continued to punifh with un¬
relenting feverity the Proteftants who offended againft
the law of the fix articles, and the Papifts who denied
his fupremacy ; which gave occafion to a foreigner at
that time to fay, that thofe who were again ft the
lifti conftitution ; and to render the matter worfe, if Pope were burned, and thofe who were for him were
poffible, they framed this law as if it were only de- '
elavatory, and intended to explain the natural extent
hanged. The king even feemed to difplay in an often-
tatious manner his tyrannical juftice and impartia-
6f the royal authority.—Notwithftanding this, how- lity which reduced Both parties to fubjeftion. This
ever, they afterwards pretended to make Tome limita-
tions in the regal power; and they enafted, that no
proclamation (hould deprive any perfon of his lawful
poffeffions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet in¬
fringe any common law or laudable cuftom of the
realm.
As foon as the aft of the fix articles had pafled, the
Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform egainlt ox-
year he executed three Proteftants and three Papifts
coupled together. The latter declared, that the mofl:
grievous part of their punifhment was the being cou¬
pled to fuch heretical mifereants as fufferedwith them.
In 542, Henry proceeded to the further diffolu- tndof ma’
tion of colleges, hofpitals, and other foundations of11? c?lffges,
that nature. The courtiers had been dealing with the ^cfpiUls*
prefidfiUs and governors to make a furrender of their C*
4^2 revenues
ENG L 652 ] ENG
England revenues to the king ; and they had fucceeded with
—' eight. But there was an obftacle to their farther prp-
grefs: it had been provided by the local ftatutes of
jnoft of thefe foundations, that no prefident nor any
fellows could make fuch a deed without the unanimous
confent of all the fellows. This confent would not
have been eafily obtained ; but the parliament proceed¬
ed in a fummary manner to annul all thefe ftatutes ; by
which means the revenues of thofe houfes were expo-
fed to the rapacity of the king and his favourites.
Henry alfp now extorted from many bifhops a furren-
der of their chapter-lands; by which means he pillaged
the fees of Canterbury, York, and London, and en¬
riched his favourites with their fpoils. He engaged
the parliament to mitigate the penalties of the fix ar¬
ticles, as far as regarded the marriage of priefts, which
was now only fubjefted to a forfeiture of goods, chattels,
and lands during life: he was ftill equally bent on
maintaining a rigid purity in fpeculative principles.
He had appointed a commiffion confifting of two arch-
bilhops and feveral bifhops of both provinces, together
with a confiderable number of doftors of divinity ; and
by virtue of his ecclefiaftical fupremacy he had charged
them to choofe a religion for his people. Before the
commiffioners, however, had made any progrefs in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had pafied a law
by which they ratified all the tenets which thefe divines
(hould eftabliih with the king’s confent; and thus they
were not aftramed of declaring exprefsly that they took
their religion upon truft, and had no other rule either
in religious or temporal concerns than the arbitrary w ill
of their mafter. One claufe of the ftatute, however,
ftems to favour (bmewhat of the fpirit of liberty. It
wasena&ed, that the ecclefiaftical commiffioners ftrould
eftahlHh nothing repugnant to the laws and. ftatutes of
the realm. But in reality this provifo was inferted by
the king, to ferve his own purpofes. By introducing
a confufion and con tradition into the laws, he became
more the mafter of every one’s life and property ; and
as the ancient independence of the church ftill gave him
j'ealoufy, he was well pleafed, under colour of fuch a.
tlaufe, to introduce appeals from fpiritual to civil
courts. For the fame reafon he would never promul¬
gate a body of canon law ; and he encouraged the
judges on all occafions to interpofe in ecclefiaftical cau-
fes, wherever they thought the law or the prerogative
concerned. Being thus armed by the authority of par¬
liament, or rather by their acknowledgment of his
fpiritual fupremacy, the king employed his commif¬
fioners to feledt a fyftem of tenets for the aflent and be-
1sittrcme t^le ^ fmall volume was publifhed,
ajkurdity of under the title of The InJUtutwn of a Chrifimn hrZan,
the king’s which was received by the convocation, and made the
sonduia. infallible ftandard of orthodoxy. In this book the
points of juftification, faith, free-will, good works, and
grace, were difeuffed in a manner fomewhat favour¬
able to the opinions of the reformers. The facraments,
which a few years before were only allowed to be three,
were now increafed to feven, conformably to the fenti-
ments of the Catholics. Throughout the whole of this
book the king’s caprice is very difcernible ; and the
book is in reality to be regarded as his. compofition.
For Henry, while he made his.opinion a rule for the
pation, would himfelf fubmit to no authority whatever;
not even to any which he had formerly eftablilhed. The
fame year the people had a farther inflance of the king’s England,
inconfiftency. Fie ordered a new book to be compo- 'V*
fed, called the Erudition of a Chrifiian Man ; and with¬
out alking the confent of the convocation, he publifhed
by his own authority this new model pf orthodoxy. He
was po lefs pofitive in his new creed than he had been
it) the old one ; but though he required the faith of the
nation to veer about at his fignal, he was particularly
careful to inculcate the doctrine of pgffive obedience in
all his books, and he was no lefs careful to retain the
nation in the practice.
But while the king was thus fpreadinghis own books
among the people, b°t^heand the clergy feem to have
been very much perplexed with regard to the ferip-
tures. A review had been made by the ecclefiaftical
fypod of the new tranflation of the Bible; and Bifhop
Gardiner had propofed, that inftead of employing Fug-
lifti expreffions throughout, feveral Latin words (hould
ftill be preferved, becaufe they contained, as he pre¬
tended, fuch peculiar energy and fignificance, that they
had no correfpondent terms in the Englifh tongue. A-
mong thefe were ecclefa, pccniteniia, pontfex, contritus,
&c. But as this mixture would appear extremely bar¬
barous, and was plainly calculated for no other pur-
pofe than to retain the people in their ancient igno¬
rance, the propofal was reje&ed. The knowledge of
the people, however, feemed to be ftill more danger¬
ous than their ignorance; and the king and parliament,,
foon after the publication of the feriptures, retra&ed
the conceffion which they had formerly made, and pro¬
hibited all but gentlemen and merchants to perufe
them. Even that liberty was not granted without an
apparent hefitation, and dread of the confequences.
Thefe perfons were allowed to read, fo it be done quietly
and with good order. And the preamble to the act feta
forth, “ That many feditious and ignorant perfons had
abufed the liberty granted them of reading the Bible;
and that great diverfity of opinion, animofities, tu¬
mults, and fchifins, had been occalioned by perverting
the fenfe of the feriptures.” The mafs-book alfo pafs-
ed under the king’s examination ; but little alteration*
was yet made in it. Some doubtful or fiftitious faints
only were ftruck out; and the name of the pope was
erafed. The latter precaution was alfo ufed with every
new book that was printed, and even every old one
that was fold. The word pope was carefully omitted
or blotted out; as if that precaution could aboliffi the
term from the language, or caufe the people forget
that fuch a perfon exifted. About this time alfo, the
king prohibited the ailing of plays, interludes, and
farces, in derifion of the Popifti fuperftitions ; which
the Proteftants had been in ufe to pradife: and this
prohibition was in. the higheft degree pleafing to the.
Roman Catholics.
In this tyrannical and head ftrong manner Henry
proceeded, with regard to ecclefiaftical affairs. In o-
ther refpe&s his condud was equally violent. -With
regard to his dqmeftic concerns, hiftory fcarce affords .
his parallel. We have already taken notice of his ex¬
treme love for Anne Boleyn, whom he married, con¬
trary even to his own principles, before the marriage
with Catharine was diffolved. His affe&ion for the.
former was carried to fuch an height, that he even,,
procured an ad excluding from the fucceffion the if-
fue of Queen. Catharine, in favour of the children of.
‘ Anns;
ENG [ 653 J ENG
, pnglaml. Anne Boleyn ; and failing them to the king’s heirs for cence before her judges; but thefe, as they had been England. ^
W—v< ever-An oath to this purpofe was likewife enjoined, un- from the beginning inefFedlual, fo it was not to be ^
276 der penalty of imprifonment during the king’s pleafure, fuppofed that they could now avail any thing. AnnP Execution
n'fet ^n<i f°rfe‘thre of goods and chattels. All dander againft was beheaded by the exeputioner of Calais, who was0f vnne
tfed on the king and his new queen or their ilfue, was fubjefted reckoned more expert than any in England ; and Hen- B leva, an l
children of to the penalty of treafon or mifprifion of treafon. The ry enjoyed the pleafure of marrying his beloved Jane
Anne Bo- reafon given for this extreme feverity toward his own Seymour, His fatisfa&ion, however, was of no kmg Henry.
kyn- child was, that her mother had obftinately refufed to continuance: for the queen, becoming pregnant imme- 282
quit the kingdom, notwithftanding all the methods he diately after marriage, died in two days after the birth Queen Jane
could take to induce her to do fo. The oath was ge- of the child; who being a fon, was bnptifed by
nerally taken throughout the kingdom; Sir Thomas name of Edward VI. As this lady had been more be-”
Mpre the chancellor, and Fiiher bifhop qf Rochefter, loved by Henry than any of his other wives, his grief
jaeing the only peffons who refufed ; for \yhich both of for the lofs of her was extreme. Hovyeyer, it didExtrava-
them wereimprifoned, andfoon after executed. Theun- not hinder him from entering very foon afterwards
fortunate queen Catharine died, in her retreat at Amph- into a new matrimonial fcheme ; in which he met treking
thill, in the year 1536. On her death-bed die wrote with many difficulties. His firll propofals were made concerning
a molt pathetic letter to the king, in which ffie for- to the duchefs dowager of Milan, niece to the em-hUfourth
gave him all the injuries ffie had received, and recom- peror and to Catharine his ovyn former queen; butrnania8!*
mended to him in the ftrongeft terms their daughter as he had behaved fo indifferently to the aunt, it is
Indecent the princefs Mary. This letter affefted Henry fo fcarce to be fuppofed that his addreffes could prove
behaviour much, that he could npt read it without tears; but agreeable to the niece. On th.s he demanffed the
cf the new the new queen is faid to have exulted in fuch a man- duchefs-dowager of Longueville, daughter of the
hearing of ner on hearing of the death of her rival, as was quite duke cf Guife ; but on making the propqfal tq the
the death of inconfiftent with either decency or humanity. Her French monarch, Francis I. he wns ipformed that the
Catharine, triumph, however, was of ffiort duration. Henry had princefs had been already betrothed to the king of
*7? , no fooner poffeffed her, fecure from every difquieting .Scotland. Henry, however, would take no refufal.
affe&iorf * thought by the death of queen Catharine, than his He had learned that the objeft of his affedlion was
declines, paffion began to decline ; and to this her delivery of a endowed with many accomplilhments, was very beau-
dead fon did not a little contribute ; for fo impetuous tiful, and of a large fize, which lad property he look-
and abfurd were his paffions, and fuch was his defire ed upon to be neceffary for him who wa^ now be-
for male illuc, that the difappointment in this refpedff come fomewhat corpulent himfelf. Francis, to pre-
alone was fufficient to alienate his affedtion from his vent any more folicitations on this fubjeft, fent the
wife. The levity of her temper, and her extreme princefs to Scotland, but at the fame time rqade Hen-
gaiety of behaviour bordering upon licentiotlfnefs, as ry an offer of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the
related under the article Boleyn, alfo gave an oppor¬
tunity to her enemies of enflaming the king’s jealoufy
againff her. The yifeountefs of Roch.eford, in parti-
l>uke of Vendofme. This princefs was rejedted by-
Henry, becaufe he had heard of her being formerly
refufed by the king of Scotland. He was then offered
cular, a woman of profligate manners, and who was his choice of the two younger fifters of the queen of
cufed of # .
infidelity married to the queen’s brother, had the cruelty to re-
to the king, port to the king that her huffiand committed inceft
with his own filler ; and, not content with this, ffie in¬
terpreted every inftance of favour ffiown by her to a
man, as proof of a criminal intercourfe between them.
Scotland,bothofthem being equal in merit as well as fize
to the one whom he had defired : but Henry, unwilling
to trull to any reports concerning the beauty of thefe
ladies, or even to their pidlures, propofed to Francis, .
that they ffiould have a conference at Calais under
At the fame time it mull not be forgot, that he. who in- pretence of bulyiefs, and that the latter fliould bring
filled on fuch rigid fidelity from his wives, was himfelf the with him the two princeffes of Guife with the findt
moll faithlefs of mankind. He had doubts, it may be ladies of quality in France, that he might make a
mour the allowed, about tbe legality of his marriage with Queen choice. This indelicate propofaf ffiocked Francis : he
cfAnnef5 Catharine, but Ids doubts were evidently confirmed by returned for anfwer, that he was too much impreffed
Henry’s
)ov« for
JaneSey
the charms of Anne Boleyn, After being fatiated
with the poffeffion of her for fix years, perhaps he really
doubted her fidelity ^ but here again his doubts were
confirmed by the beauty of Jane Seymour, with whom,
he had now fallen in love. It may eafily be believed,
that from this confideration alone there was no reafon
with regard for the fair-fex to carry ladies, of the fir ft
quality, like geldings, to a market, to be chofen or re-
jedled according to the humour of the purchafer.
Henry remonllrated and Itovmed as ufual; but though
Francis at this time earnellly wiffied to oblige him, he at
laff totally rejefted the propofaL. Negociations y
mat irom mis connaeration aione mere was no reaion lait totally rejected tne propolai,. iNegociations were
to hope that ever the unfortunate Anae would be able then entered into for a German match ; and the prin- Mardaw*
♦■/■v 11 wv***-/-» T-TA /"K.. ^„c 1     r 3 t   ...n      a. • « *
to exculpate herfelf. Had ffie really been guilty, her
monfter of a hufhand might have allowed her to five ;
but his cruelty was as unbounded and infatiable as his
other peryerfe paffions. She was condemned; and the
fentence pronounced againll her was, that ffie ffiould be
cefs of Cleves was propofed by Cromwell, on account with Arm* ,
of the great intereft her father had with the Proteilant °f CI£vt8»~
princesof Germany. Henry had alfo become enamoured
ofher perfon from a pidlureofher he had feen : but this,
tho’ drawn by an eminent artift, was unluckily done fo
burned or beheaded at the king’s pleafure. Gn hearing much to the advantage, that when the negociation was
this dreadful denunciation, ffie exclaimed, “ O Father
Q Creator ! thou who art the way, the truth, and the
life!, thou knoweff that I have not deferved this fate.”
She then made the moft folcmn proteffations of irmo-
quite finiffied, and the bride arrived in England, he loll
all patience, fwearing thatfhe was a great Flanders mare,
and that he could never bear her the fmalleft affebiioiu
The matter was ftill worfe., when he .found that (he .
could!
ENG
[ 654 ]
ENG
could fpeak no language but Dutcli, of which he wa
entirely ignorant. Notwithftanding all thefe objec¬
tions, however, he refolved to complete the marriage,
telling Cromwell, that fince he had gone fo far, he
whom we muil fuppofe he believed to be a pure and England,
peifedt virgin at the time he married her. So happy
indeed did he imagine himfelf in this new marriage,
that he publicly returned thanks for his conjugal feli-
muft now put his neck into the yoke. The reafon of city, when a moft unfortunate information concerning
this was, that the friendfhip of the German princes
was now more than ever neCeflary for Henry 5 and it
was fuppofed that the affront of fending the princefs
back to her own country might be refented. Crom¬
well, who knew that his own life depended on the e-
vent of the matter, was very anxious to learn from the
king how he liked his fpoufe after having paffed a
night with her ; but was ftruck with terror when he
replied that he now hated her more than ever; that
he was refolved not to cohabit with her, and even fu-
fpefted that fhe was not a virgin; a matter in which
he pretended to be a connoiffeury and about which he
was extremely fcrupulotis. In a little time his aver-
fion increafed to fuch a degree, that he determined at
l any rate to get rid of his queen and prime minifter
both at once. Cromwell had long been an objedf of
the queen’s incontinence was given to Cranmer by
one of the name of Lafcelles, whofe fifter had been
fervant to the duchefs-dowager of Norfolk. He not
only gave intelligence of her amours before marriage,
but affirmed that fhe had Continued the fame criming
pra&ices ever fince. Two of her paramours were -ar-
refted, and confeffed their crimes: the queen herfelf
alfo confeffed guilt before marriage, hut denied having
ever been falfe to the king’s bed; which, however, had
very little probability. She was beheaded on Tower-
hill, along with the vifcountefs of Rochford, who had
been a confident in her amours. The latter, as has
already been obferved, was a principal infirument in
procuring the deflru&ion of the unhappy Anne Bo-
leyn, and therefore died unpitied ; while the virtuous
character of that unfortunate lady received an addi-
averfion to the nobility, who hated him on account of tional confirmation from the difcovery of this woman’s
his obfcure birth ; his father being no other than a guilt.
fclenry falls
in love
with Ga-
blackfmith, though the foa had obtained the firft <
ployments in the kingdom. By his office of vicar-
general, he had an almoft abfolute authority over the
clergy ; he was alfo lord privy-feal, lord-chamber¬
lain, and mafter of the wards. He had alfo been in-
Vefted with the order of the garter, and Was created
earl of Effex. This was fufficient to raife the envy
of the courtiers: bat he had alfo the misfortune to
fall under the difpleafure of both Proteflants and Pa-
pifts; the former hating him on account of his con¬
currence with Henry in their perfecution, and the lat¬
ter looking upon him as the greateft enemy of their
religion. To thefe unfortunate circumftances on the
part of Cromwell, was added the ufual fituation of
Henry himfelf, who had nOw fallen in love with Ca¬
tharine Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk; to
enjoy whom, he now determined to divorce Anne of
Cleves. By the infinuations of this lady and her
uncle, Cromwell’s ruin was accompliffied; and he
was condemned, not only without any trial, but even
without examination. The charge was of herefy
&nd high treafon ; but the inttances of the latter
were quite abfurd and ridiculous. He fubmitted, how¬
ever, to his fentence without murmuring, as know¬
ing that his complaints on this fubjeft would be re-
■venged on his fon. He was terribly mangled by the
executioner before his head could be ftruck off* His
death was foon followed by the diffolution of the mar-
tiage with the princefs of Cleves, which was annulled
To fecure himfelf from any farther difafters ofAhfurdity
this kind, Henry palled a moft extraordinary law, 0f the king,
enabling that any one who Ihould know, or ftrong-
ly fufpeft any guilt in the queen, might, within 20
days, difcldfe it to the king or council, without in¬
curring the penalty of any former law againft defam¬
ing the queen ; though at the fame time every onfe
was prohibited from fpreading the matter abroad, or
even privately whifpering it to others. It was alfo
ena&ed, that if the king married any woman who had
been incontinent, taking her for a true maid, Ihe Ihould
be guilty of treafon if Ihe did not previoully reveal her
guilt to him.
Thefe laws afforded diVerfion to the people, who
now faid that the king muft look out for a widow ;
as no reputed maid would ever be perfuaded to incur
the penalty of the ftatute. This in truth happened to
be the cafe at laft ; for about a year after the death of
Catharine Howard, he married, for his fixth wife, Ca¬
tharine Parr, widow of Nevil Lord Latimer. This 289
lady, being fomewhat inclined to the doftrines of the s'xth rnaf'
reformation, and having the boldnefs to tell her huf-^^a^g
band her mind upon the fubjeft, had like to have lha- parr,whom
red the fate of the reft. The furious monarch, inca- he intends
pable of bearing the leaft contradiction, inftantly com-alf°to Iu-
plained to Bilhop Gardiner, who inflamed the quarrel10 eat
as much as poffible ; fo that at laft the King Confent-
ed that articles Of impeachment fhould be drawn up a-
gainft her. But thefe were rendered abortive by the
by the confent of both parties. The princefs parted prudence and addrefs of the queen, as related Under
from him with great indifference ; and accepted of the article ParR.
287
Infidelity
and death
of the new
L. 3600 a-year as a compenfation, but refufed to re¬
turn to her own country after the affront Ihe had re¬
ceived.
The king’s marriage with Catharine Howard foon
followed the diffolution of that with Anne of Cleves ;
but the event may furely be regarded as a providential
punilhment upon this tyrant, whofe cruelty, luft, and
other bad qualities, can fcarcely be matched in hiftoi y.
We have already mentioned his infinuations againft the
virtue of the unfortunate princefs of Cleves, were am¬
ply repaid by the a&ual infidelities of his new queen,
All this time Plenry had tyrannized over his nobi- jy[onft°oUS
lity in the moft cruel manner. The old countefs df cruelty of
Salifbury, the laft of the houfe of Plantagenet,'was ex-the king,
ecuted with circumftances of great cruelty. She had
been condemned, as ufual, without any trial; and
when fhe was brought to the fcaffold, refufed to lay
her head on the block in obedience to a fentence, to
the juftice of which fhe had never confented. She
told the executioner, therefore, that if he would have
her head, he muft win it the beft way he could ; and
thus fhe ran about the fcaffold, purfutd by the execu¬
tioner, .
S England,
lli Attainder
vf Norfolk
and Surry.
apa
1 Henr. dies,
» and is fuc-
i ceededby
S Edward VJ.
Reforma-
pleted.
ENG [ 655 ] ENG
tioner< who aimevl many fruitlefs blows at her neck mer, therefore, the reformation was carried forward England,
before he was able to put an end to her life. Soon and completed The only perfon of confequence
after her, the lord Leonard Grey was likewife exe- who oppofed the reformers was Gardiner bifhop of
cuted for treafon, but we have very little account of Winchelter; and, to the difgrace of their own prin-
this tranfa&ion. ciples, the reformers now ibowed that they could
The laft inttances of the king’s injullice and cruelty perfecute as feverely as the Papifts had formerly per-
were the duke of Nor&lk and his fon the earl of fecuted them. Gardiner was committed to the Fleet rhe refer.
Surry. The former had ferved the king with fidelity, pnfon, where he was treated with great feverity. Hemersperfe-
and the latter was a young man ot the moll promifing was afterwards fent to the Tower; and having con- ute.^eca.
hopes. His qualifications, however, were no fecurity tinued there two years, he was commanded to fubferibe^0^08’'
againll the violence of Henry’s temper. He had drop- feveral articles, among which was one confeffing the
ped fome expreffions of refentment againll the king’s jullice of his own imprifonment. To all the articles
minillers, who had difplaced him from the government but this he agreed to fubferibe; but that did not give
of Boulogne ; and the whole family had become ob- fatisfa£lion. He was then committed to clofe cullody;
noxious on account of the late Queen Catharine Ho- his books and papers were feized; all company was
ward. From th’efe motives, orders were given to arrell denied him, and he was not even permitted the ufe of
both the father and fon; and accordingly they were pen and ink. The bilhops of Chichefter, Worcelter,
an efted both on the fame day, and confined to the and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offi-
Tower. The duchefs-dowager of Richmond, Surry’s ces; but the bilhops of Landaff, Salilbury, and Co-
iown filler, was among the number of his accufers; ventry, efcaped by facrificing the molt confiderable lhare
and Sir Richard Southwell alfo, his moll intimate of their revenues. The libraries of Wellminller and
friend, charged him with infidelity to the king. Surry Oxford were ordered to be ranfacked, and purged of
denied the charge, and challenged his accufer to a the Romilh legends, mifials, and other fuperftitious vo-
fingie combat. This favour was denied him; and, lumes; in which fearch, great devaftation was made
not vithllanding his eloquent and fpirited defence, he even in ufeful literature. Many volumes clafped in
was condemned and executed at Tower-hill.—The duke filver were deltroyed for the fake of their rich bind-
of Norfolk vainly endeavoured to mollify the king by ings; many of geometry and aftronomy were fuppofed
let . jis and fubmiffions. An attainder was found againll to be magical, and deftroyed on that account; while
him. though the only crime his accufers could allege the members of the univerfity, unable to put a Hop to
was, that he had once fajd that the king was fickly, and thefe ravages, trembled for their own fafety.
could not hold out long ; and that the kingdom was The reformers, however, were not contented with”
likely to be torn between the contending parties of dif- feverities of this kind. A commiffion was granted to
ferent perfuafions. Cranmer, though engaged for many the primate and others, to fearch after all Anabaptifts,
years in an oppofite party to that of Norfolk,, and heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among
though he had received many and great injuries from the numbers who were found guilty upon this occafion,
him, would have no hand in fuch an unjuil profecu- was one Joan Boucher, commonly called o/-AW,•
tion ; but retired to his feat at Croydon. The death- who was fo very obllinate, that the commiffioners could
warrant, however, was made out, and immediately make no impreffion upon her. She maintained an ab¬
sent to the lieutenant of the Tower; but a period ftrufe metaphyfical fentiment, that Chrill, as man, was
was put to the cruelties and violence of the king by a finful man ; but, as the Word, he was free from fin,
his death, which happened on the 14th of January and could be fubject to none of the frailties of the
1547, the night before Norfolk was to have been exe- flefli with which he was clothed. For maintaining,
cuted. this dodlrine, the poor woman was condemned to be
Henry was fucceeded by his only fon Edward, a burnt to death as an heretic. The young king, who
boy of nine years of age. The moll remarkable tranf- it feems had more fenfe than his teachers, refufed at
a&ions of his reign are thofe with regard to religion, firft to fign the death-warrant : but ai laft, being o-
The reftraiot which Henry VIII. had laid upon the vercome by the importunities of Cranmer, he reludant-
Proteftants was now taken off; and they not only main- ly complied; declaring, that if he did wrong, the fin
tained their dodtrines openly, but foon became the Ihould be on the head of thofe who had perfuaded him
prevailing party. Henry had fixed the majority of his to it. The primate, after making another unfuccefsful
Ion at 18 years of age; and, in the mean time, ap- effort to reclaim the woman from her opinions, corn-
pointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, during the mitted her to the flames. Some time after, one Van
minority, he entrufted the government of the king Paris, a Dutchman, was condemned to death for Aria-
and kingdom. ^ This will, he imagined, would be o- nifm. He fuffered with fo much fatisfaction, that he
beyed as implicitly after his death as though he had hugged and careffed the faggots that were confuming
been alive. But the firft a£l of the executors was to him.
choofe the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somer- The reft of this reign affords only the hiftory of in¬
let, proteftor of the realm; and in him was lodged all trigues and cabals of the courtiers one againft another,
the regal power, together with a privilege of naming The prote&or was firft oppofed by his own brother
whom he pleafed for his privy council. admiral Sir Thomas Seymour,, who had married Ca-
The duke of Somerfet had long been reckoned a tharine Parr the late king’s widow. She died foon af-
fecret partifan of the reformers; and, immediately on ter the marriage; and he then made his addreffes to
his elevation to his prefent high dignity, began to ex- the princefs Elizabeth, who is faid not to have been
prefs his intention of reforming the abufes of the an- averfe to the match. His brother the duke, who
cient religion. Under his direftion and that of Cran- was at that time in the north, being informed of
his
ENG [6.
England, his ambitious projefts, fpeedily returned, had him at-
'' r '» tainted of high treafon* and at laft condemned and ex¬
ecuted. The duke of Somerfet himfelf, however, was
fume time afterwards deprived of his office by Dudley
duke of Northumberland ; who at laft found means to
get him accufed of high treafon, and executed. Not
fatisfied with the office of protestor, which he affumed
on the death of Somerfet, this ambitious nobleman
formed a fcheme of engroffing the fovereign power al-
vl.ady Jane together. He reprefented to Edward, who w-as now
Gray decla- in a declining ftate of health, that his fifters Mary
ired heir to an(j Elizabeth, who were appointed by Henry’s will
i ecrown. tQ £-uccee(]> jn failure of diredt heirs, to the crowm,
had both been declared illegitimate by parliament; that
the queen of Scots his aunt, flood excluded by the
king’s will; and, being an alien alfo, loft all right of
fucceeding. The three princefles being thus excluded,
the fucceffion naturally devolved to the marchionefs of
Dorfet eldeft daughter of the French queen, Henry’s
lifter* w'ho had married the earl of Suffolk after herfirft
hufband’s1 death. The next heir to the marchionefs w'as
Lady jane Gray, a lady univerfally refpedted, both on
account of the charms of her perfon, and the virtues
and endowments of her mind. The king, who was
accriftomed to fubmit to the politic views of this
ininifter, agreed to have the fucceffion fubmitted to
council, where Northumberland hoped to procure
an eafy concurrence. The judges, however, who
were appointed to draw up the king’s letters patent
for this purpofe, warmly objedled to the meafure ;
and gave their reafons before the council. They
begged that a parliament might be fummoned, both
to give it force, and to free its partifans from dan¬
ger : they faid that the form w'as invalid, and would
not only fubjedl the judges who drew it, but every
counfellor wftio figntd it, to the pains of treafon.
Northumberland could not brook their demurs; he
threatened them w’ith his authority, called one of
them a traitor, and faid he would fight with any man
in his fhirt in fuch a juft caufe as that of Lady Jane’s
fucceffion. A method was therefore found out of
fcreening the judges from danger, by granting them
the king’s pardon for what they fhould draw up;
and at length the patent for changing the fucceffion
was completed, the princeffes Mary and Elizabeth
were fet afide, and the crown fettled on the heirs of the
duchefs of Suffolk (for fhe herfelf was contented to
forego her claim.)
For fome time the king had languifhed in a confump-
tion. After this fettlement of the crown, his health
vifibly declined every day, and little hopes were enter¬
tained of his recovery. To make matters worfe, his
phyficians were difmifled by Northumberland’s advice,
and by an order of council; and he w'as put into the
hands' of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a
little time to reftore him to health. After the ufe of
her medicines all his bad fymptoms increafed to the
moft violent degree. He felt a difficulty of fpeech
and breathing; his pulfe failed, his legs fwelled, his
jqS colour became livid, and many other figns of approach-
Death of ing death made their appearance. He expired at Green-
JEdwardVI. wich on the 6th of July 1553, in the 16th year of his
age and 7th of his reign.
After the death of King Edward, very little regard
was paid to the new patent by which Lady Jane Gray
iij. 6
6 ] ENG
had been declared heif to the throne. The undoubt- England,
ed title of Mary, notwithftanding the fcandalous be- •—A—^
haviour of her father and his fervile parliaments, was
acknowleged by the whole nation. Northumberland,
however, was refolved to put the late king’s wall in exe¬
cution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of
Edward, in hopes of fecuring the perfon of Mary, who
by an order of council had been required to attend her
brother during his illnefs; but fhe being informed of
his death, immediately prepared to aflert her right to
the crown. Northumberland then, accompanied byLad^Jane
the duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, and fome Gray pla.
other noblemen, faluted Lady Jane Gray queen ofceci on the
England. Jane was in a great meafure ignorant o£h?me,*>ut
thefe tranfa&ions, and it was with the utmoft difficul- r!fig^u.'0
ty flie was perfuaded to accept of the dignity conferred
upon her. At laft fhe complied, and fuffered herfelf
to be conveyed to the Tower, where it was then ufual
for the fovereigns of England to pafs fome days after
their acceffion. Mary, however, who had retired to
Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found
herfelf at the head of 40,000 men ; and Lady Jane re-
figned the fovereignty in ten days, wdth much more
pleafure than fhe had received it. She retired with her
mother to their own habitation; and Northumberland
finding his affairs quite defperate, attempted to quit
the kingdom. But he was flopped by the band of pen-
fioner guards, who informed him that he muft flay to
juftify rheir conduct in taking arms againft their law¬
ful fovereign. He therefore furrendered himfelf to
Mary ; and was foon after executed, together with Sir
John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous
tools of his power. Sentence was alfo pronounced a-
gainft Lady Jane Gray and her hufband Lord Guild¬
ford ; but without any intention of putting it in exe¬
cution againft them at prefent, as their youth and in¬
nocence pleaded fo ftrongly in their favour, neither of
them having yet reached their 17th year,
Mary now entered London, and was peaceably fet- Mar^dc
tied on the throne without any effufion of blood. The dared *
Englifh, however, foon found reafon to repent their queen,
attachment to her caufe. Though fhe had at firft fo-
lemnly promifed to defend the religion and laws of
her predeceffor, fhe no fooner faw herfelf firmly efta-
blifhed on the throne, than fhe refolved to reftore the
Popifh religion, and give back their former power to
the clergy. Gardiner, Bonnar, and the other bifhops
who had been imprifoned or fuffered lofs during the
laft reign, were taken from prifon, reinftated in their
fees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence
of difeouraging controverfy, the queen by her preroga¬
tive filenced all preachers throughout England, except
fuch as fhoitld obtain a particular licenfe, and this me
was refolved to give only to thofe of her own perfua-
fion. The greater part of the foreign Proteftants took
the firft opportunity of leaving the kingdom; and ma¬
ny of the arts and manufactures, which they had fuc-
cefsfully introduced, fled with them. Soon after, the
queen called a parliament, which feemed willing ts
concur in all her meafures. They at once repealed all
the ftatutes with regard to religion that had paffed
during the reign of Edward VI. and the national reli¬
gion was again placed on the fame footing in which it
had been at the death of Henry VIII.
To ftrengthen the caufe of the Catholics, and give
the
ENG [ 657 3 ENG
England, the queen more power to eftabliih the religion to
v 1 yyhjch was f0 much attached, a proper match was
299 to be fought for her; and it was fuppofed that three
' larriage to already been propofed as candidates for her favour.
» ^ueenMa. Her affe&ion feemed to be engaged by the earl of De-
jr. vonrtiire ; but as he was rather attached to the Prin-
cefs Elizabeth, he received the overtures which were
made him from the queen with negleA. The next
perfon mentioned as a proper match for her was Car¬
dinal Pole, a man greatly refpefted for his virtues;
ibut as he was now in the decline of life, Mary foon
dropped all thoughts of that alliance. At laft (he
call her eye on Philip II. of Spain, fon to the Emperor
Charles V. He was then in the 27th year of his age,
and confequently agreeable in that refpeft to Mary,
who was in her 48th year; but when her intentions
with regard to this match became known, the great-
eft alarm took place throughout the whole nation.
The commons prefented fuch a ftrong remonftrance
againft a foreign alliance, that the queen thought pro-
y0 per to diffolve the parliament in order to get quit of
Uliance their importunity. To obviate, however, all clamour,
vith Spain the articles of marriage were drawn up as favourably
inTree^ as poffible for the interefts of England. It was agreed,
ble. * that though Philip ftiould have the title of king, the
adminiftration fhould be entirely in the queen ; that
no foreigner fhould be capable of holding any office in
the kingdom ; nor fhould any innovation be made in
the laws, cuftoms, and privileges of the people; that
Philip fhould not carry the queen abroad without her
confent, or any of her children without the confent of
the nobility. Sixty thoufand pounds a-year were to
be fettled upon her as a jointure ; and the male iffue of
this marriage were to inherit Burgundy and the Low
Countries as well as the crown of England : and in
cafe of the death of Don Carlos, Philip’s fon by his
former marriage, without any heir, the queen’s iffue
fhould inherit all the reft of the Spanifh dominions
alfo.
All thefe conceffions, however, were not fufficient
to quiet the apprehenfions of the people : they were
confidered merely as words of courfe, which might be
retraced at pleafure ; and the whole nation murmured
30l loudly againft a tranfaftion fo dangerous to its ancient
Wyatt’s in-liberty and independence. An infurreftion was raifed
Turredtion. by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at the head
of 4000 men, who fet out from Kent to London, pub-
lifhing a declaration againft the Spanifh match and
the queen’s evil counfellors. Having advanced as far
as Southwark, he required that the queen fhould put
the Tower of London into his hands; that fhe fhould
deliver four counfellors as hoftages; and, in order to
enfure the liberty of the nation, fhould marry an Eng-
lifhman. But his force was at prefent by far too
fmall to fupport fuch magnificent pretenflons; and he
unluckily wafted fo much time without attempting any
thing of importance, that the popular ferment entire¬
ly fubfided, his followers abandoned him gradually,
3oa and he was at laft obliged to furrender himfelf to Sir
He is con- Maurice Berkeley near Temple-bar. His followers
denmed and were treated with great cruelty, no fewer than 400 of
whitman t^em fuffer*ng by the hand of the executioner; 400
nthl/fol-7 more were conduced with ropes about their necks
lowers. into the queen’s prefence, and there received their
VOL. VI. Part II.
pardon. Wyatt himfelf was condemned and exe- England,
cuted. —-y—j
This rebellion had almoft proved fatal to the Prin- prj^c°r g
cefs Elizabeth, who for fome time paft had been treat-£™beth
ed with great feverity by her filler. Mary, who pof- harfhly
feffed a mod malignant and cruel heart, had never for- treated,
got the quarrel between their mothers ; and when a de¬
claration was made after her own acceffion, recognifing
Queen Catharine’s marriage as legal, fhe was thus fur-
nifhed with a pretence for accounting Elizabeth ille¬
gitimate. She was likewife obnoxious on account of
her religion, which Elizabeth at firft had not prudence
fufficient to conceal; though afterwards fhe learned
full well to difguife her fentiments. But above all, her
ftanding fo high in the affeftion of the Earl of De-
vonfhire, was a crime not to be forgiven ; and Mary
made her fenfible of her difpleafure by numberlefs mor¬
tifications. She was ordg^d to take place at court
after the Duchefs of Suffolk and the Countefs of Le¬
nox ; to avoid which, and other indignities, Elizabeth
at laft retired from court altogether into the country^
After the fuppreffion of Wyatt’s rebellion fhe was
committed to the Tower, and underwent a ftricl exa¬
mination before the council; but as Wyatt had made
a declaration on the fcaffold that fhe was in no manner
of way concerned, the queen found herfelf under a ne-
ceffity of releafing her. To get rid of fuch a trouble-
fome rival, however, fhe was offered in marriage to the
Duke of Savoy; and on Elizabeth’s declining the pro-
pofal, fhe was committed clofe prifoner to Woodftoke.
The rebellion proved fatal, however, to many perfons
of diftin&ion, and gave the queen an opportunity of
manifefting that unbounded cruelty which reigned in
her heart. The Tower, and all the prifons in the
kingdom, were filled with nobility and gentry, who
became objects of royal vengeance, more on account of
their credit and intereft with the people than any con¬
cern they were fuppofed to have had with Wyatt.
Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall;
but as no fatisfa&ory evidence appeared againft him,
the jury gave a verdidl in his favour. The queen was
fo much e'nraged at this difappointment, that fhe recom¬
mitted him to the Tower, fummoned the jury before
the council, and at laft fent them all to prifon, fining
them afterwards fome ofiooo 1. and others of zcool.
each. Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicho¬
las juft mentioned, was condemned and executed upon
evidence which had been already rejected as infuffi-
cient. But of all thofe who perifhed on this occafion, Eyeanfon
none excited more univerfal compaffion than the un- oflidy Jane
fortunate Lady Jane Grey and her hufband Lord Grey and
Guilford Dudley. They had already received fentencc Ler,hu^'
of death, as has been mentioned ; and two days after an '
the execution of Wyatt, they received orders to pre¬
pare for eternity. Lady Jane, who had been in ex-
peftation of this blow, was no way intimidated, but
received the news with the moft heroic refolution.
The place intended at firft for their execution was
Tower-hill; but the council, dreading the cffcdls of
the people’s compaffion for their youth, beauty, and
innocence, gave dire&ions that they (hould be beheaded
within the verge of the Tower. The duke of Suffolk
was foon after tried, condemned, and executed; but
would have met with more compaffion, had not hi*
4 O am-
ENG L 658 ] ENG
England, ambition been the caufe of his daughter’s unhappy fate
* v juft mentioned. Sir Thomas Gray alfo loft his life on
the fame account: but the cruel fpirit of Mary was
ftill unfatisfied ; and finding herfelf univerfally odious,
that ftre might free herfelf from any apprehenfions for
30j what was paft, as well as tyrannise with the more
The people freedom in time to come, fhe difabled the people from
difarmed. refiftance, by ordering general mufters, andcaufing the
commiflioners feize their arms and lay them up in
forts and caftles.
Notwithftanding this unpopularity, however, the re¬
bellion of Wyatt had fo ftrengthened the hands of go¬
vernment, that a parliament was affembled in hopes of
gratifying the queen’s wifhes in regard to her mar¬
riage with Philip of Spain. To facilitate this purpofe
alfo, the emperor of Germany fent over to England
■400,000 crowns to be diftributed among the members
of parliament in bribes and penfions ; a pradlice of
which there had hitherto been no example in England.
The queen, notwithllanding her bigotry, refumed the
title of Supreme Head of the Church, which fhe had
dropped three months before. Gardiner made a fpeech,
in which he propofed, that they fhould inveft the queen
with a legal power of difpofing of the crown, and ap¬
pointing her fuccefi'or; but the parliament, however
obfequious in other refpefts, did hot choofe to gratify
their fovereign in a meafure by which the kingdom of
England might become a province of the Spanifh mo¬
narchy. They would not even declare it treafon to
imagine or attempt the death of the queen’s hufband
during her life time, though they agreed to ratify the
articles of marriage. Finding therefore that the par¬
liament even yet was not fufficiently obfequious, it was
Marriage thought moft proper to diffolve them. Soon after this
with Philip the marriage with Philip was folemnized ; but as the
Solemnized, latter had efpoufed his queen merely with a view to be¬
come king of England, he- no fooner found himfelf
difappointed in this than he fhowed a total want of
affection for her as a wife. He paffed moft of his time
at a diftance from her in theLowCountries; and feldom
wrote to her except when he wanted money, with
which Mary would at all times gladly have fupplied
him even had it been at the expence of her kingdom,
if in her power.
Prot eft ants enem’es the ftate being fuppofed to be fup-
perfecuted. preffed, thofe of the Catholic religion were next per-
fecuted. The old fanguinary laws which had been re¬
jected by a former parliament, were now revived. Or¬
ders were given, that the priefts and bilhops who had
married fhould be eje&ed; that the mafs fhould be re-
ftored,and the pope’s authority eftablifhed; and that the
church and its privileges, all but their goods and eftates,
fhould be put on the fame footing on which they were
before the commencement of the reformation. But as
the gentry and nobility had already divided the church-
lands among them, it was thought inconvenient, and
indeed impofiible, to make a reftoration of thefe. The
perfons who chiefly promoted thefe meafures w'ere Gar¬
diner bifhop of Winchefter, and Cardinal Pole, who
was a kinfman of Henry VIII. but had been long in
Italy, and was now returned from it. The latter was
for tolerating the Proteftants; but the former, percei¬
ving that rigorous meafures would be moft agreeable
to the king and queen, declared himfelf againft it. He
was too prudent, however, to appear in perfon at the
head of the perfecution ; and therefore configned that England,
office to Bonner bifhop of London, a man of a very " *
abandoned character. The bloody fcene began by che
execution of Hooper bifhop of Glocefter, and Rogers
prebendary of St Paul’s. Thefe were quickly follow¬
ed by others, of whom the principal were Archbifhop
Cranmer, Ridley bifhop of London, and Latimer bi¬
fhop of Worcefter*. Thefe perfecutions foon became * See ^ra‘
odious to the whole nation, and the perpetrators ofmer’ &c-
them were all willing to throw the blame from them-
fclves upon others. Philip endeavoured to faften the
whole reproach upon Bonnar ; but that bifhop would
not take the whole, and therefore retorted on the
court. A bold ftep was now taken to introduce a
court fimilar to the Spanifh inquifition, that fhould be
empowered to try heretics, and condemn them with¬
out any other law but its own authority. But even
this was thought a method too dilatory in the prefent
exigence of affairs. A proclamation iffued againft
books of herefy, treafon, and fedition, declared, that
whofoever had fuch books in his pofleffion, and did
not burn them without reading, fhould fufttr as a re¬
bel. This was attended with the execution of fuch
numbers, that at laft the magiftrates who had been in-
ftrumental in thefe cruelties refufed to give their af-
fi(lance any longer. It was computed, that during
this perfecution, 277 perfons fuffered by fire, befides
thofe punifhed by imprifonments, fines, and confifca-
tions. Among thofe who fuffered by fire were5bifhops,
21 clergymen, 8 lay-gentlemen, 84 tradefmen, 100 huf-
bandmen, 55 women, and 4 children.
The only remarkable tranfadion which happened
during this reign with regard to the temporal affairs
of the kingdom was the lofs of Calais, which had been
in the pofleffion of the Englifh for upwards of 200
years*. This lofs filled the whole kingdom with*
complaints, and the queen with grief. She was heard
to fay, that, when dead, the name of Calais would 30g
be found engraven on her heart. She did not long Mary flies,
furvive this lofs; but died in the year 1558, of aandisfuc-
lingering illnefs, after a reign of five years four monthsb/
and eleven days. ihzabetb.
After the death of Mary, the Princefs Elizabeth
fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. She was
at Hatfield when news of her fifter’s death were brought
her; upon which fhe haftened up to London, where fhe
was received with great joy. This princefs was well
qualified for government. She had judgment fufficient
to make choice of proper minifters, and authority
enough to keep her fubjedls in awe. The reftraints-
alfo, to which fhe had been fubjedled during her fifter’s
reign, had taught her fo well to conceal her fentiments,
that fhe had become a perfedt miftrefs of diffimulation;
which, though no commendable part of her charadter,
proved occafionally of great fervice to her governmenti
She perfected the reformation, and put the religion of
England upon the fame plan which fubfifts at prefent.
This was accomplifhed without the leaft difficulty; for
the perfecutions in Mary’s reign had ferved only to
give the whole nation an averfion for popery. In the
time of Edward VI. the people had been compelled to
embrace the Proteftant religion, and their fears indu¬
ced them to conform ; but now, almoft the whole na¬
tion, were Proteftants from inclination. The reforma¬
tion was confirmed by aft, of parliament in 1559, and
thus
ENG [ 659 ] ENG
■at England, thus England was feen to change its religion four times Englirti were now excited to attempt invafions in England.
_,u—v— jn tjje fpace 0f years. their turn; which they executed in numerous defcents ——v——4
309 During the time that the queen and her counfellors on the Spanilh coatls ; though thefe were only tem-
igPcace wit were empl0yed in fettling the religious affairs of the porary, and defigned not for permanent conqueft, but
nation, negociations were likewife carried on for a to harafs the enemy. It would be endlefs to relate
peace between England and France ; which was at laft
concluded on the following terms, viz. that Henry
fhould reftore Calais at the expiration of eight years;
that in cafe of failure, he fhould pay 500,000 crowns,
all the advantages obtained over the enemy at fea,
where the capture of every fhip muft have made a fe-
parate narrative. It is fufficient to obferve, that the
fea-captains of that reign are ftill conffdered as the
and Elizabeth’s title to Calais flill remain ; that for boldeft and moft enterprifing fet of men that England
the payment of this fum he fhould find the fecurity of ever produced ; and among this number we are to rec-
eight foreign merchants, not natives of France; and
until that fecurity were provided he fhould deliver five
hoftages. If during this interval Elizabeth fhould
break the peace with France or Scotland, fhe fhould
forfeit all title to Calais; but if Henry made war on
Elizabeth, he fhould be obliged to reftore the fortrefs
immediately. This pacification was foon followed by
1 irreconcileable quarrel with Mary queen of Scot-
kon Raleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendifh, and
Hawkins. The Englifh navy then began to take the
lead ; and has fince continued irrefiftible in all parts of
the ocean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till
the year j 603; but all her greatnefs could not prevent
her from being extremely miferable before her death.
She had caufed her greateft favourite, and probably
land ; which was not extinguiflied but by the death of her lover, the earl of Efiex *, to be executed. Though ' See Devi-
the Scottifh princefs ; and that with fuch circumftances
of accumulated treachery, hypocrify, and diffimulation,
as have ftamped an indelible difgrace on the memory
of Elizabeth. See the articles Mary and Scotland.
Elizabeth having at laft got rid of her rival in the
war with
Spain.
this execution could not be called unjuft, the queen’sn
affedlion (on being informed that he had at laft thrown
himfelf entirely on her clemency) returned to fuch a
degree, that fhe thenceforth gave herfelf entirely over
o o to defpair. She refufed food and fuftenance; fhe con- ,3r3
year 1587, began to make preparations for refifting tinned lilent and gloomy ; fighs and groans were the
the Spanifh invafion. Hearing that Philip was fe- only vent fhe gave to her defpondence; and fhe lay for Ei,zabe.h,
cretly fitting out a great navy to attack her, fhe fent ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on cu-
Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to pillage his coafts ftiions, which her maids brought her. Perhaps the fa-
and deftroy his fhipping. On this, expedition he fet culties of her mind were impaired by long and violent
fail with four capital fhips furnifhed by the queen, and exercife ; perhaps fhe reflected with remorfe on fome
paft aCtions of her life, or perceived, but too ftrongly,
6 others of various fizes furnifhed him by the mer¬
chants of London in hopes of fharing the plunder.
Exploits of Having learned that a Spanifh fleet richly laden was
Sir Francis lying at Cadiz in readinefs to fet fail for Lifbon, he
’direfted his courfe towards the former port, where he
boldly attacked the enemy. Six galleys were obliged
to take fhelter under the cannon of the forts; he burn¬
ed about too veffels laden with ammunition and naval
ftores; and deftroyed a great fhip belonging to the
Marquis de Santa Croce. Thence fetting fail for
Cape St Vincent, he took by affault the caftle fituated
on that promontory, with three other fortreffes. Ha¬
ving next infulted Lifbon, he failed to the Teneras,
where after lying in wait for fome time, he took a rich _ ^
prize, and then returned to England ; having by this not to devolve upon any inferior character, but upon
fhort expedition taught the Englifh to defpife the huge her immediate heir the king of Scotland. Being then
and unwieldy fhips of the enemy, and thus prepared advifed by the archbifhop of Canterbury to fix her
them to ad with more refolution againft the formi- thoughts upon God, fhe replied, that her thoughts did
dable armament that now threatened to invade them. not in the leaft wander from him. Her voice foon af-
JWifcaiTlage But though the expedition of Sir Francis Drake had ter left her; fhe fell into a lethargic flumber, which
of Philip’s retarded the intended invafion of England for a twelve- — Jr 1  —1 <L- —: J  1
fcheme of <month, it had not by any means induced Philip to aban-
“va^’-don his defign. During that interval he continued his
preparations with the greateft afliduity, the more efpe-
cially as the invafion of England feemed to be a necef-
fary preparative for regaining his authority over the Ne¬
therlands, the revolted provinces having been ftrongly
fupported by Elizabeth. The fleet prepared at this
the decays of nature, and the approach of her diflblu-
tion. She faw her courtiers remitting in their aflidui¬
ty to her, in order to pay their court ta James the ap¬
parent fucceffor. Such a concurrence of caufes was
more than fufficient to deftroy the remains of her con-
ftitution; and her end was now vifibly feen to ap¬
proach. Feeling a perpetual heat in her ftomach, at¬
tended with an unquenchable thirft, fhe drank without
ceallng, but refufed the afliftance of her phyficians.
Her diftemper gaining ground, Cecil and the lord
admiral defired to know her fentiments with regard to
the fucceflion. To this fhe replied, That as the crown
of England had always been held by kings, it ought
continued fome hours; and fhe expired gently withoutHer3^atJ,
a groan, in the 70th year of her age, and 45th of her er ea
reign. She was fucceeded by James I. king of Scot¬
land; fince which time, the hiftory of both England and
Scotland is comprehended under the article Britain.
Since the Norman conqueft, England has been di- England,
vided intp fix circuits, each circuit containing a cer-how
tain number of counties. Two judges are appointed^"
time was fuperior to any thing then exifting in the for each circuit, which they vifit in the fpring and au-
r.—^.r. tumn, for adminiftering juftice to the fubje&swho are
at a diftance from the capital. In holding the lent (or
fpring) aflizes, the northern circuit extends only to
York and Lancafter ; the affizes at Durham, New-
caftle, Carlifle, and Appleby, being held only in the
4 O 2 autumn,
world; and no doubt being entertained of its fuccefs,
it was oftentatioufly ftyled the Itmlncibk ylrmada. The
miferable event of this expedition, and the total failure
of all the mighty hopes of Philip, are related under
the article Armada. The fpirit and courage of the
ENG [ 660 ] ENG
England, autumn, and diftingulfhed by the appellation of the long
"V'-—' circuit. Thefe circuits and counties are :
1. Home C/rrai/contains the counties of Effex, Hert¬
ford, Kent, Surry, and Suffex.
2. Norfolk Circuit contains thofe of Bucks, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucefter, Wor-
cefter, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit. Warwick, Leicefter, Derby,
Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
5. IVefern Circuit. Hants, Wilts, Dorfet, Somer-
fet, Devon, and Cornwal.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northum¬
berland, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, and Cumberland.
Middlefex and Chefhire are not comprehended in the
above circuits; the former being the feat of the fu-
preme courts of juftice, and the latter a county pa¬
latine. There is ftill a court of chancery in Lan¬
cafter and Durham, with a chancellor ; and there is
a court of exchequer at Chefter, of a mixed kind,
both for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of
Chefter is judge: there are alfo other juftices in the
counties palatine to determine civil adlions and pleas of
the crown.
Beftdes the 40 counties into which England is di¬
vided, there are counties corporate, confifting of cer¬
tain diftri&s, to which the liberties and jurifdiftions
peculiar to a county have been granted by charter from
the throne. Thus the city of London is a county di-
ftinft from Middlefex ; the cities of York, Chefter,
Briftol, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of King-
fton upon Hull and Newcaftie upon Tyne, are coun¬
ties of themfelves, diftinft from thofe in which they
lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed,
which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurifdiftion
a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the
river. Under the name of a /own, boroughs and cities
are contained: for every borough or city is a town,
though every town is not a borough or city.—An ac¬
count of the Englifh conftitution and government is
given under the articles King, Lords, Commons,
316 Parliament, Law, Liberty, Rights, &c.
Religion. The eftabliihed religion of England is Epifcopacy.
Since the reign of Henry VIII. the fovereigns of
England have been called, in public writs, the fupreme
heads of the church; but this title conveys no fpiritual
meaning, as it only denotes the regal po.ver to pre¬
vent any ecclefiaftical differences, or, in other words, to
ftibftitute the king in place of the pope before the re¬
formation, with regard to temporalities and the inter¬
nal economy of the church. The kings of England
never intermeddle in ecclefiaftical difputes, and are
contented to give a fanftion to the legal rights of the
clergy.
The church of England, under this defcription of
tire monarchical power over it, is governed by two arch-
bifirops, and 24 bifhops, befides the bifhop of Sodor and
Man, who, not being poffeffed of an Engliih barony,
does not fit in the houfe of peers. See Archbishop
and Bishop.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordi¬
nate to them are the rural deacons, formerly ftyled
archprejhyters, who fignify the bi/hop’s pleafure to his
clergy, the lower c.lafs of which confifts of parifh-
priefts (who are called reQors or vicars), deacons, and
curates. See the articles Curate, Dea<;ok, Parson, England,
and Vicar. New
The following is a lift of the Englifh bifhoprics, Eng‘anc^
with their revenues, as charged in the king’s books: ^
though that fum is far from being the real annual va- Revenues
lue of the fee, yet it aflifts in forming a comparative of the
eftimate between the revenues of each fee with thofe of c ergy-
Archbishoprics.
£■ s.
2682 12
1610 o
2000 O
1821 I
3I24 12
Canterbury,
York,
London,
Durham,
Winchefter,
Thefe three bifhops take precedency of all others
England, and the others according to the fenio-
rity of their confecrations.
Ely, - - 2134 18 6
Bath and Wells, - - 533 1 3
Hereford, - - 768 x 1
Rochefter,
Lichfield and Coventry.
Chefter,
Worcefter,
Chichefter,
St Afaph,
Salifbury,
Bangor,
Norwich,
Gloucefter,
Landaff,
Lincoln,
Briftol,
Carlifle,
Exeter,
Peterborough,
Oxford,
St Davids,
358
559 !7
420 1
929 13
677 1
187 11
1385 5
131 16
834 11
3i5 7
154 14
894 18
294 11
S31 4
500 o
4]4 14
381 11
426
The ecclefiaftical government of England is, pro¬
perly fpeaking, lodged in the convocation ; which is
a national reprefentative or fynod, and anfwers pretty
near to the ideas we have of a parliament. They are
convoked at the fame time with every parliament; and
their bufinefs is to coniider of the ftate of the church,
and to call thofe to an account who have advanced new
opinions, inconfiftent with the do&rines of the church
of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the
reign of queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of
George I. raifed the powers of the convocation to a
height that was inconfiftent with the principles of re¬
ligious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty: fo that
the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of call¬
ing the members together, and of diffolving them; and'
ever fince they have not been permitted to fit for any
time, in which they could do bufinefs.
New ENGLAND, late a province of the Britifh.
empire in America, is bounded on the north by Ca¬
nada, on the eaft by Nova Scotia and the Atlantic
ocean, on the fouth by the Atlantic and Long Ifland
Sound, and on the weft by New York. It lies in the
form of a quarter of a circle. Its weft line, beginning
at the mouth of Byram river which empties into
Long Ifland Sound at the fouth-weft corner of Con-
nedicut, latitude 410, runs a little eaft of north, un-
1 til
ENG [661] E ,N G
New til it ftrikes the 45th degree of latitude, and then blind fanaticifm. It bore the ftamp of the mde pre- New
L England. curves to the eaftward almoft to the gulph of St Law- judices on which it had been formed. There was in Englan<*\
^ v rence. this new code a Angular mixture of good and evil, of 'r“—*
When fir ft This country was difcovered in the beginning of the wifdom and folly. No man was allowed to have a /hare *0(le
difcovcred. laft century, and called North Virginia ; but no Euro- in the government except he were a member of the of laws,
peans fettled there till the year 1608. The firft co- eftabli/hed church. Witchcraft, perjury, blafphemy,
lony, which was weak and ill-dire&ed, did not fuc- and adultery, were made capital offences; and children
ceed ; and, for fome time, there were only a few ad- were alfo puni/hed with death, either for curfiug or
venturers who came over at times in the fummer, built ftriking their parents. Marriages, however, were to
themfelves temporary huts for the fake of trading with be foltmnized by the magiftrate. The price of corn
the favages, and, like them, difappeared again for was fixed at 2 s. 1 ifd. per bu/hel. The favages who
I the reft of the year. At laft fome Brownifts, headed negle&ed to cultivate their lands were to be deprived
by Mr Robinfon, whom Neal ftyles the Father of the of them ; and Europeans were forbidden under a
Independents, who in 1610 had been driven from Eng- heavy penalty to fell them any ftrong liquors or war-
land by perfecution, fled to Holland, and fettled at like /tores. All thofe who were defedcd either in ly-
Leyden ; but in 1621 determined, with Mr Brewfter ing, drunkennefs, or dancing, were ordered to bepub-
afliilant preacher to Mr Robinfon, to found a church licly whipped. But at the lame time that amufements
for their fe£l in the new hemifphere. They therefore were forbidden equally with vices and crimes, one
purchafed, in 1521, the charter of the Engli/h North might be allowed to /wear by paying a penalty of
Virginia company. Forty-one families, making in all ii^d. and to break the fabbath for 2 1. 19 s. 9^d.
120 perfons, landed in the beginning of a very hard Another indulgence allowed was, to atone, by a line,
winter, and found a country entirely covered with for a neg.eft of prayer, or for uttering a rafti oath,
wood, which offered a very melancholy profpedl to But it is ftill more extraordinary, that the wor/hip of
mtu already exhaufted with the fatigues of their voy- images were forbidden to the Puritans on pain of
age. Near one half peri/hed either by cold, the fcur- death ; which was alfo inflidted on Roman Catholic
vy, or other diftrefs. The courage of the reft was be- jjriefts, who /hould return to the colony after they had
ginning to fail; when it was revived by the arrival of been bani/hed ; and on Quakers who /hould appear _ ,
60 favage warriors, who came to them in the fpring, again after having been whipped, branded, and
headed by their chief. The old tenants afligned for pelled. Such was the abhorrepce for theft feclaries,
ever to the new ones all the lands in the neighbour- who had themfelves an averfion for every kind of cruel-
hood of the fettlement they had formed, under the ty, that whoever either brought one of them into the
name of New Plymouth; and one of the favages who country, or harboured him but for one hour, washable
underftood a little Engli/h, /laid to teach them how to to pay a confiderable fine.
cultivate the maize, and inftruct them in the manner Thofe unfortunate members of the colony, who, lefs
of fi/hing upon their coaft. violent than their brethren, ventured to deny the coer-
This kindneis enabled the colony to wait for the five power of the magiftrate in matters of religion,
companions they expedted from Europe with feeds, were perfecuted with ftill greater rigour. This was
with domeftic animals, and with every afliftance they coniidered as blafphemy by thofe very divines who
wanted. At firft thefe fuccours arrived but flowly ; had rather chofen to quit their country than to /how
but the perfecution of the Puritans in England increa- any deference to Epilcopal authority. This fyftem
fed the number of profelytes to fuch a degree in Ame was fupported by the feverities of the law, which at-
rica, that in 1630 they were obliged to form different tempted to put a Hop to every difference in opinion,
fettlements, of which Bofton foon became the princi- by infiidling capital puni/hment on all who dilfented.
pal. Thefe firft fettlers were not merely ecclefiaftics, Thofe who were either convuSted, or even fufpeded,
who had been deprived of their preferments on account 0/ entertaining fentiments of toleration, were expofed
of their opinions; nor thofe fedlaries influenced by new to fuch cruel opprelfions, that they were forced to fly
opinions, that are fo frequent among the common from their firft afylum, and feek refuge in another,
people. There were among them feveral perfons of They found one on the fame continent ; and as New
high rank, who, having embraced Puritanifm, had ta- England had been firft founded by perfecution, its li¬
ken the precaution to fecure themfelves an afylum in mits were extended by it.
thefe diftant regions. They had caufed houfes to be Tins intemperate religious zeal extended itfelf to
built, and lands to be cleared, with a view of retiring matters in themielves of the greateft indifference. A
there, if their endeavours in the caufe of civil and reli- proof of this is tound in the following public declara-
gious liberty /hould prove abortive. tion, tranfcribed from theregifters of the colony.
^ ^ The inhabitants of New England lived peaceably “It is a circumftance univerfally acknowledged, 4
Htyoryof f°r along time, without any regular form of policy. “ that the cuftom of wearing long hair, after the Lawaeninfl::
Zwofean Their charter had indeed authorized them to eftablilh “ manner of immoral perfons and of the favage In-
Settlements, any mode of government they might choofe; but thefe “ dians, can have been introduced into England only °ns air’
enthufiafts were not agreed among themfelves upon the “ in facrilegious contempt of the exprefs command of
plan of their republic and government did not pay “ God, who declares that it is a /hameful practice for
fufficient attention to them to urge them to fecure “ any man who has the lea/t care for his foul to wear
their own tranquillity. At length they grew fenfible “ long hair. As this abomination excites the indig-
of the necefiity of a regular legiflation ; and this great “ nation of all pious perfons ; we, tire magiftrates, in
work, which virtue and genius united have never at- “ our zeal for the purity of the faith, do exprefsly
tempted but with diffidence, was boldly undertaken by “ and authentically declare, that we condemn the im-
“ pious *■
ENG [ 662 1 ENG
New “ pious cuftom of letting the hair grow ; a cuftom
. England, << whlch we look upon to be very indecent and diflio-
- * “ neft, which horribly difguifes men, and is offenfive
“ to modeft and fober perions, in as much as it cor-
“ rupts good manners. We therefore, being juftly
“ incenfed againft this fcandalous cuftom, do defire,
“ advife, and earneftly requeft all the elders of our
“ continent, zealoufly to fhow their averfion for this
“ odious pradfice, to exert all their power to put a
“ ftop to it, and efpecially to take care that the mem-
“ bers of their churches be not infefted with it; inor-
“ der that thofe perfons who, notwithftanding thefe
rigorous prohibitions, and the means of corredtion
“ that ftiall be ufed on this account, ftiall ftill perfift in
4‘ this cuftom, ftiall have both God and man at the fame
41 time againft them.”
This feverity foon exerted itfelf againft the Quakers.
They were whipped, baniftied, and imprifoned. The
behaviour of thefe new enthufiafts, who in the midft of
tortures and ignominy praifed God, and called for blef-
iings upon men, infpired a reverence for their perfons
and opinions, and gained them a number of profelytes.
This circumftance exafperated their perfecutors, and
hurried them on to the moft atrocious afts of vio¬
lence ; and they caufed five of them, who had return¬
ed clandeftinely from banilhment, to be hanged. This
fpirit of perfecution was, however, at laft fupprefs-
ed by the interpofition of the mother-country, from
whence it had been brought. CharlesII. moved with
the fufferings of the Quakers, put a ftop to them by a
proclamation in 1661 ; but he was never able totally
to extinguilh the fpirit of perfecution that prevailed in
America.
The colony had placed at their head Henry Vane,
the fon of that Sir Henry Vane who had fuch a re¬
markable fhare in the difturbances of his country. This
obftinate and enthufiaftic young man had contrived to
revive the queftions of grace and free-will. The dif-
putes upon thefe points ran very high ; and would
probably have plunged the colony into a civil war, if
feveral of the favage nations united had not happened
at that very time to fall upon the plantations of the
difputants, and to maflacre great numbers of them.
The colonifts, heated with their theological contefts,
paid at firft very little attention to this confiderable
lofs. But the danger at length became fo urgent and
fo general, that all took up arms. As foon as the
enemy was repulfed, the colony refumed its former
diflentions; and the phrenzy which they excited
broke out in 1692 in a war, marked with as many
atrocious inftances of violence as any ever recorded in
5 hiftory.
Extraordi- There lived in a town of New England, called Sa-
Sn of6' lem’ two young women who were fubje& to convul-
witches. fions, accompanied with extraordinary fymptons. Their
father, minifter of the church, thought that they were
bewitched; and having in confequence call his fufpi-
cions upon an Indian girl who lived in his houfe, he
compelled her by harlh treatment to confefs that Ihe
was a witch. Other women, upon hearing this, im¬
mediately believed, that the convulfions, which pro¬
ceeded only from the nature of their fex, were owing
to the fame caufe. Three citizens, cafually named,
were immediatelyLthrown into prifon, accufed of witch¬
craft, hanged, and their bodies left expofed to wild
bealls and birds of prey. A few days after, 16 other New
perfons, together with a counfellor, who, becaufe he Englan(l. ^
refufed to plead againft them, was fuppofed to lhare ' ” ^
in their guilt, fuffered in the fame manner. From this
inftant, the imagination of the multitude was inflamed
with thefe horrid and gloomy feenes. Children of ten
years of age were put to death, young girls were (trip¬
ped naked, and the marks of witchcraft fearched for
upon their bodies with the moft indecent curiofity; and
thofe fpots of the feurvy which age impreffes upon the
bodies of old men, were taken for evident figns of the
infernal power. In default of thefe, torments were
employed to extort confeffions diftated by the execu¬
tioners themfelves. If the magiftrates, tired out with
executions, refufed to punifh, they were themfelves ac¬
cufed of the crimes they tolerated ; the very minifters
of religion raifed falfe witneffes againft them, who
made them forfeit with their lives the tardy remorfe
excited in them by humanity. Dreams, apparitions,
terror, and confternation of every kind, increafed thefe
prodigies of folly and horror. The prifons were fill¬
ed, the gibbets left Handing, and all the citizens in¬
volved in gloomy apprehenlions. The moft prudent
quitted the country ftained wuth the blood of its inha¬
bitants ; and nothing lefs than the total and immediate
fubverfion of the colony was expeded, when, on a hid¬
den, all eyes were opened at once, and the excefs of the
evil awakened the minds which it had firft ftupilied.
Bitter and painful remorfe was the immediate confe¬
quence; the mercy of God was implored by a general
faft, and public prayers were offered up to afk forgive-
nefsfor the prefumption of having fuppofed that heaven
could have been pleafed with facrifices with which it
could only have been offended.
Pofterity will, probably, never know exadly what
was the caufe or remedy of this dreadful diforder. It
had, perhaps, its firft origin in the melancholy which
thofe perfecuted enthufiafts had brought with them
from their own country, which had increafed with the
feurvy they had contracted at fea, and had gathered
freftt ftrength from the inconveniences and hardlhips
infeparable from a change of climate and manner of li¬
ving. The contagion, however, ceafed like all other
epidemical diftempers, exhaufted by its very commu¬
nication. A perfeft calm fucceeded this agitation ;
and the Puritans of New England have never fincc
been feized with fo gloomy a fit of enthufiafm.
But though the colony has renounced the perfecu-*-
ting fpirit which hath ftained all religious feCts with
blood, it has preferred fome remains, if not of intolera¬
tion, at leaft of feverity, which remind us of thofe
melancholy days in which it took its rife. Some of its
laws are ftill too fevere.
New England had, however, fome remedy againft
bad laws, in the conftitution of its mother-country,
where the people who have the legiflative power in their
own hands are at liberty to correft abufes; and it has
others derived from its fituation, which open a vaft
field to induftry and population. g
The clearing of the lands in this colony is not di-Manner ot
re&ed by chance as in the other provinces. This mat- fettlement
ter from the firft was fubjeCted to laws which are ftill j^t!lis co“
religioufly obferved. No citizen whatever has the li- ‘-
berty of fettling even upon unoccupied land. The go¬
vernment, defirous of preferving all its members from
5 the
ENG
New the inroads of the favages, and of placing them in a
igland. condition to fhare in the protection of a well-regulated
fociety, hath ordered that whole villages fhould be
formed at once. As foon as 60 families offer to build
a church, maintain a clergyman, and pay a fchool-
mafter, the general affembly allot them a fituation, and
permit them to have two reprefentatives in the legifla-
tive body of the colony. The dilfrid: affigned them
always borders upon the lands already cleared, and ge¬
nerally contains 60,000 fquare acres. Thefe new people
choofe the fituation moft convenient for their habita¬
tion, which is ufually of a fquare figure. The church
is placed in the centre ; the coloniils divide the land
among themfelves, and each inclofes his property with
a hedge. Some woods are referred for a common ;
and thus New England is conftantly enlarging its terri¬
tory, though it ftill continues to make one complete
and well conftituted province.
The country was divided into four Hates, which at
firft had no conne&ion with one another. The necef-
fity of maintaining an armed force againfl the favages,
obliged them to form aconfederafcy in 1643, when they
took the name of the United Colonies. In confequence
of this league, two deputies from each eftablifhment
t 663 ]
ENG
Between thefe ridges flow the great rivers in maje-
ilic meanders, receiving the innumerable rivulets and
larger ftreams which proceed from the mountains on
each fide. To a fpeftator on the top of a neighbour¬
ing mountain, the vales between the ridges, while in a
ftate of nature, exhibit a romantic appearance. They
feem an ocean of woods, fwelled and deprefled in its
furface like that of the great ocean itfelf. A richer
though lefs romantic view is prefented, when the val¬
leys, by induftrious hufbandmen, have been cleared of
their natural growth ; and the fruit of their labour ap¬
pears in loaded orchards, extenfive meadows, covered
with large herds of fheep and neat cattle, and rich
fields of flax, corn, and the various kinds of grain.
Thefe valleys, which have received the expreflive name
of interval lands, are of various breadths, from 2 to
20 miles ; and by the annual inundations of the rivers
which flow through them, there is frequently an accu¬
mulation of rich, fat foil, left upon their furface when
the waters retire.
There are four principal ranges of mountains, paf-
fing nearly from north-eaft to fouth-well through
New-England. Thefe confift of a multitude of paral¬
lel ridges, each having many fpurs, deviating from the
ufed to meet in a Hated place to deliberate upon the courfe of the general range; which fpurs are again
common affairs of New England, according to the in- v,rntpn Intn irrpornlar billv land. Thp main n'fWa.
ftruflions they had received from the affembly by
which they were fent. This affociation laid no con-
Hraint upon the right of every individual to a£k entire¬
ly as he pleafed, without either the permiflion or ap¬
probation of the mother-country. All the fubmiflion
required of thefe provinces was merely to acknowledge
the kings of England for their fovereigns. Charles II.
wifhed to make them more dependent. The province
©f Maflachufet’s bay, which, though the fmalleff, was
the richeH and the moll populous of the four, being
guilty of fome mifdemeanour againff government, the
king feized that opportunity of taking away its char¬
ter in 1684: and it remained without one till the re¬
volution ; when it received another, which, however,
did not anfwer its claims or expe&ations. The crown
referved to itfelf the right of nominating the governor,
broken into irregular hilly land. The main ridges
terminate, fometimes in high bluff heads, near the
fea-coaff, and fometimes by a gradual defeent in the
interior part of the country. One of the main ranges
runs between Connefticut and Hudfon’s rivers. This
range branches and bounds the vales through which
flows the Houfatonick river. The moff eaffern ridge
of this range terminates in a bluff head at Meriden ;
a fecond ends in like manner at Willingford, and a
third at New Haven. In Lyme, on the eaff fide of
Connecticut river, another range of mountains com¬
mences, forming, the eaffern boundary of Connecticut
vale. This range trends northerly, at the diffance,
generally, of about 10 or 12 miles eaff from the ri¬
ver, and paffes through Maffachufets, where the range
takes the name of Chickabee Mountain ; thence crofiing
: ato New Hampfhire, at thediftance of about 20 miles
and appointing to all military employments, and to all from the Maffachufets line, it runs up into a very
principal polls in the civil and juridical departments :
it allowed the people of the colony their legillative
power, and gave the governor a negative voice and the
command of the troops, which fecured him a fufficient
high peak, called Alonadnich, which terminates this
ridge of the range; A weftern ridge continues, and
in about latitude 430 20 runs up into Sunipee moun¬
tains. About 5,0 miles further, in the fame ridge, is
influence to enable him to maintain the prerogative of Moofcoog, mountain, A third range begins near Sto-
the mother-country in all its force. The provinces of
ConneClicut and Rhode-Mand, by timely fubmiflion,
prevented the punilhment which that of Maffachufets
had incurred, and retained their original charter. That
of New-Hamplhire had been always regulated by the
fame mode of adminiftration as the province of Maf¬
fachufets bay. The fame governor prefided over the
whole colony, but with regulations adapted to the
conftitution of each province. To the above ftates,
another has been added fince the late revolution, vizi.
Vermont. Thefe ftates are fubdivided into counties,
and the counties into townlhips.
Face of the New England is a high, hilly, and in fome parts a
country, mountainous country, formed by nature to be inhabi-
1 mountains, ttd by a hardy race of free, independent republicans.
—The mountains are comparatively fmall, running
nearly northand fouth in ridges parallel to each other.
nington in Connecticut. It takes its courfe north-eaff-
erly, and is fometimes broken and difeontinued ; it
then rifes again, and ranges in. the fame direction in¬
to New Hamplhire, where, in latitude 43 0 25:, it runs
up into a high peak called Cowfawq/kog, The fourth
range has a humble beginning about Hopkinton in
Maffachufets. The eaftern ridge of this range runs
north by Watertown and Concord, and crofles Mer¬
rimack river at Pantucket Falls. In New Hampfhire,.
it rifes into feveral high peaks, of which the White
mountains is the principal. From thefe White moun¬
tains a range continues north eaff, crofling the tail
boundary of New Hampfhire, in latitude 44°30', and
forms the height of land between Kennebek and
Chaudierc rivers. Thefe ranges of mountains are full
of lakes, ponds, and fprings of water, that give rife to
munberlefs ftreams of various fizes, which, interlock-
ing;
I;
ENG [ 664 ] ENG
New ;ng each othef in every direction, and falling over the
, England. rocks jn romantic cafcades, flow meandering into the
rivers below. No country on the globe is better wa¬
tered than New England.
On the fea-coaft the land is low, and in many parts
level and fandy. In the valleys, between the foremen-
tioned ranges of mountains, the land is generally bro¬
ken, and in many places rocky, but of a ftrong rich
foil, capable of being cultivated to good advantage,
which alfo is the cafe with many fpots even on the tops
of the mountains.
The principal river in New England is Conne&icut.
9 See Connecticut.
Soil, pro- The foil, as may be collected from what has been
dudaons, mufl. very various. Each traft of different
foil is diftinguiihed by its peculiar vegetation, and is
pronounced good, middling, or bad, from the fpecies of
trees which it produces ; and from one fpecies generally
predominating in each foil, has originated the deferip-
tive names of oak land, birch, beech, and chefnut lands,
pine, barren, maple, afh, and cedar fwamps, as each
fpecies happensto predominate. Intermingled withthofe
predominating fpecies are walnut, firs, elm, hemlock,
magnolia, moofe wood, faffafras, &c. &c. Thebeftlands
produce walnut and chefnut; the next, beech and oak;
lands of the third quality produce fir and pitch pine;
the next, whortleberry and barberry bufhes; and the
pooreft produce nothing but marfhy imperfeft fhrubs.
Among the flowering trees and fhrubs in the forefts,
are the red-flowering maple, the faffafras, the locufl-
tree, the tulip-tree, honeyfuckle, wild rofe, dogwood,
elm, leather-tree, laurel, hawthorn, &c. which in the
fpring of the year give the woods a moft beautiful
appearance, and fill them with a delicious fragrance.
Among the fruits which grow wild, are the feveral
kinds of grapes; which are fmall, four, and thick
fkinned. The vines on which they grow are very
luxuriant, often overfpreading the higheft trees in
the forefts; and without doubt, might be greatly
meliorated by proper cultivation. Befides thefe, are
the wild cherries, white and red mulberries, cranber¬
ries, walnuts, hazelnuts, chefnuts, butter nuts, beech
nuts, wild plums and pears, whortle-berries, bilberries,
goofeberries, ftrawberries, &c.
The foil in the interior country Is calculated for the
culture of Indian corn, rye, oats, barely, flax, and
hemp (for which the foil and climate are peculiarly
proper), buck-wheat, beans, peas, &c In many of
the inland parts wheat is raifed in large quantities; but
on the fea-coaft.it has never been cultivated with fuc-
cefs, being fubjeftto blafts. The fruits which the coun¬
try yields from culture,are,apples in the greateft plenty;
of thefe cyder is made, which conftitutes the principal
drink of the inhabitants ; alfo, pears of various forts,
quinces, peaches (from which is made peach brandy,)
plums, cherries, apricots, &c. The culinary plants are
fuch as have already been enumerated. New England is
a fine grazing country ; the valleys between the hills
are generally interfered with brooks of water, the
banks of which are lined with a traft of rich meadow
or interval land. The high and rocky ground is, in
many parts, covered with honeyfuckle, and generally
affords the fineft of pafture. It will not be a matter
of wonder, therefore, that New England boafts of
raifing fome of the fineft cattle in the world; nor will
N° 1 x 7.
(he be envied, when the labour of raifing them is taken Nor
into view. Two months of the hotteft feafon in the £n«l»nd-
year the farmers are employed in procuring food for ’l_
their cattle 5 and the cold winter is fpent in dealing
it out to them. The pleafure and profit of doing this,
is however a fatisfying compenfation to the honeft and IQ (
induftrious farmer. Population
New England is the moft populous part of the U-mannenM
nited States. It contains at leaft 823,000 fouls. Onecu^0,m3.’.|?c
fifth of thefe are fencible men. New England then^^
(hould any great and fudden emergency require it, *
could furnifli an army of 164,600 men. The great
body of thefe are land-holders and cultivators of the ]1
foil. The former attaches them to their country; the ]
latter, by making them ftrong and healthy, enables
them to defend it. The boys are early taught the ufe
of arms, and make the beft of foldiers. Few countries
on earth, of equal extent and population, can furnifli p'
a more formidable army than this part of the union.
New England may, with propriety, be called a nur-
fery of men, whence are annually tranfplanted, into
other parts of the United States, thoufands of its na¬
tives. The State of Vermont, which is but of yef-
terday, and contains about 100,000 fouls, has re* .ji
ceived more inhabitants from Connefticut than from
any other ftate ; and yet between the years 1774
and 1782, notwithftanding her numerous emigrations
to Vermont, Sufquehannah, and other places, and the
depopulation occafioned by a feven years bloody war,
it is found, from an adlual cenfus of the inhabitants in a I
the years before-mentioned, that they have increafed 11
from 197,856, their number in 1774, to 290,150, their 11
number in 1782. Vaft numbers of the New England¬
ers, fince the war, have emigrated into the northern
parts of New York, into Kentucky and the Weftern
Territory, and into Georgia ; and fome are fcattered
into every State, and every town of note in the union.
The New Englanders are generally tall, flout, and
well built. They glory, and perhaps with juftice, in
poffefiing that fpirit of freedom which induced their
anceftors to leave their native country, and to brave the
dangers of the ocean and the hardfliips of fettling a
wildernefs. Their education, laws, and fituation, ferve
to infpire them with high notions of liberty. Their Mjl
jealoufy is awakened at the firft notion toward an in-
vafion of their rights. They are indeed often jealous
to excefs; a circumftance which is a fruitful fource of
imaginary grievances, and of innumerable groundlefs
fufpicions and unjuft complaints againft government.
A law, refpe&ing the defeent of eftates which are
generally held in fee Ample, which for fubftance is jri
the fame in all the New England ftates, is the chief jfs
foundation and prote&ion of this liberty. By this
law, the peffeflions of the father are to be equally di- f q
vided among all the children, excepting the eldeft fon,
who has a double portion. In this way is preferved ,
that happy mediocrity among the people, which, by
inducing economy and induftry, removes from them
temptations to luxury, and forms them to habits of ,
fobriety and temperance. At the fame time, their ;
induftry and frugality exempt them from want, and
from the neceflity of fubmitting to any encroachment «jjfl
on their liberties.
In New England, learning is more generally diffu-
fed aimong all tanks of people than in almoft any
other I
; ENG [ 665 1 ENG
c”, of tJ1<; ?,obe.5 arifinS from the excellent miliation, are enumerated. In autumn, after harveft, New
lI,! — ' euabhmment of fchools in every townihip. Another that gladfome era in the huibandm'an's life, the gover- Englantlv
1 fource of information to the people is the newfpapers, nors again iffue their proclamations appointing a day 
of which not lefs than 30,000 are printed every week of public thankfgiving, enumerating the public blef-
in New England, and circulated in almoft every town fings received in the courfe of the foregoing year,
and village in the country. A perfon of mature age, This pious cuftom originated with their venerable
i vvho cannot both read and write, is rarely to be found, anceftors, the firft fettlers of New England ; and has
By means of this general eftablifhment of fchools, the been handed down as facred through the fucceflive ge-
extenfive circulation of newfpapers, and the confe- nerations of their pofterity. A cuftom fo rational, and
queht fpread of learning, every townihjp throughout fo happily calculated to cherifh in the minds of the
the country is furniflud with men capable of conduc- people a fenfe of their dependence on the great Bene-
ting the affairs of their town with judgment and dif- fa&or of the world for all their bleflings, it is hoped
cretion. Thefe men are the channels of political in- will ever be facredly preferved.
formation to the lower clafs of people ; if fuch a clafs The people of New England generally obtain their
may be.faid to exift in New England, where every eftates by hard and perfevering labour: Theyofconfe-
man thinks himfelf at leal! as good as his neighbour, quence know their value, and fpend with frugality.
I and believes that all mankind are, or ought to be, equal. Yet in no country do the indigent and unfortunate fare
The people from their childhood form habits of can- better. Their laws oblige every town to provide a
vaffing public affairs, and commence politicians. This competent maintenance for their poor; and the necef-
naturally leads them to be very inquifitive. This de- fitous ftranger is prote&ed and relieved from their hu-
H fwe after knowledge, in a greater or lefs degree, pre- mane inllitutions. It may in truth be faid, that in no
vails throughout all claffes of people in New England: part of the world are the people happier, better fur-
and from their various modes of expreffing it, fome of nifhed with the neceffaries and conveniences of life, or
which are blunt and familiar, bordering on imperii- more independent than the farmers in New England.
I nence, ftrangers have been induced to mention imper- As the great body of the people are hardy indepen-
tinent inquifitivenefs as a diftinguilhing charaftenftic dent freeholders, their manners are, as they ought to
![ of New England people.—Each man alfo has his in- be, congenial to their employment, plain, fimple, and
dependent fyftem of politics ; and eich affumes a die- unpoliflied. Strangers are received and entertained a-
tatorial office. Hence originates that reftlefs, litigious, mong them with a great deal of artlefs fmcerity and
complaining fpirit, which forms a dark fhade in the friendly unformal hofpitality. Their children, thofe
character of New Englandmen, imitative creatures, to whofe education particular at-
Before the late war, which introduced into New tention is paid, early imbibe the manners and habits of
I England a flood of corruptions, with many improve- thofe around them;; and the ftranger, with pleafure,
ments, the Sabbath was obferved with great ftriftnefs ; notices the honed and decent refpeft that is paid him
no unneceffary travelling, no fecular bufinefs, no vifit- by the children as he paffeS through the country,
ing, no diverfrons were permitted on that facred day. As the people, by reprefentation, make their own
They confidered it as confecrated to divine worfliip, laws and appoint their own officers, they cannot be op-
and were generally punctual and ferious in their at- preffed; and living under governments which have
tendance upon it. Their laws were ftrift in guarding few lucrative places, they have few motives to bribery,
the Sabbath againft every innovation. The fuppofed corrupt canvaffings, or intrigue. Real abilities and a
feverity with which thefe laws werecompofed and exe- moral chara&er unblemifhed are the qualifications re-
cuted, together with fome other traits in their religi- quifite in the view of mod people for offices of public
ous charafter, have acquired, for the New Englanders, truft. The expreffion of a wifti to be promoted is the
the name of a fuperftitious bigotted people. But fu- direft way to be difappointed.
perdition and bigotry are fo indefinite in their fignifica- The inhabitants of New England are generally fond
tions, and fo varioufly applied by perfons of different of the arts, and have cultivated them with great fuc-
principles and educations, that it is not eafy to deter- cefs. Their colleges have flouriftied beyond any others
5 mine how far they deferved that charafter. Lea- in the United States. The illuftrious charafters they
ving every perfon to enjoy his own opinion in regard have produced, who have didinguiftied themfelves in
W this matter, we will only obferve, that, fince the politics, law, divinity, the mathematics and philofophy,
war, a catholic tolerant fpirit, occafioned by a more natural and civil hidory, and in the fine arts, particu-
enlarged intercourfe with mankind, has greatly increa- kwly in poetry, evince the truth of thefe obfervations.
fed, and is becoming univerfal; and if they do not Many of the women in New England are handfome.
break the proper bound, and liberalize away all true re- They generally have fair, frefh, and healthful counter
ligion, of which there is much danger, they will coun- nances, mingled with much female foftnefs and deli-
teraft that ftrong propenfity in human nature, which cacy Thofe who have had the advantages of a good
leads men to vibrate from one extreme to its oppofite. education (and they are confiderably numerous), are
There is one diftinguirtung charafteriftic in the reli- genteel, eafy, and agreeable in their manners, and are
gious charafter of this people, which we muft not omit fprightly and fenfible in converfation. They are early
to mention; and that is. the cuftom of annually cele- taught to manage domeftic concerns with neatnefs and
brating fafts and thankfgivings. In the fpring, the fe- economy. Ladies of the firft: rank and fortune make
veral governors iffue their proclamations, appointing a it a part of their daily bufinefs to fuperintend the af-
day to be religioufly obferved in falling, humiliation, fairs of the family. Employment at the needle, in
and prayer, throughout their refpe&ive ftates, in which cookery, and at the fpinning-wheel, with them is ho-
the predominating vices, that particularly call for hu- nourable. Idlenefs, even in thofe of independent for-
Voi.VI. Part II. 4 P tunes, •
£ M G [ 666 ] ENG
Ho-w tunes, is univerfally difreputable. The women in the
’ country manufacture the greateft part of the clothing
■ ^ of their families. Their linen and woollen cloths are
ftrong and decent. Their butter and cheefe is not infe¬
rior to any in the world.
Dancing is the principal and favourite amufement in
New England ; and of this the young people of both
fexes are extremely fond. Gaming is praftifed by none
but thofe who cannot or rather will not find a reputable
employment. The gamefter, the horfe-jockey, and
the knave, are equally ddpifed, and their company is
avoided by all who would fultain fair and irreproach¬
able characters. The odious and inhuman practices of
duelling, gouging, cock-fighting, and horfe-racing,
are fcarcely known here.—The athletic and healthy di-
verfibns of cricket, football, quoits, wreftling, jump¬
ing, foot-races, &c. are univerfally praCtifed in the
country, and fome of them in the mod populous
places, and by people of almoll all ranks. Squirrel-
hunting is a noted diverfion in country places, where
this kind of game is plenty. Some divert themfelves
with fox-hunting, and others with the more profit¬
able fports of filhing and duck-hunting; and in the
frontier fettlements where deer and fur game abound,
the inhabitants make a lucrative fport of hunting them.
In the winter feafon, while the ground is covered
with fnow, which is commonly two or three months,
fleighing is the general diverfion. A great part of the
families throughout the country are furnilhed with
If horfes and fleighs.
Trade. New England has no one ftaple commodity. The
ocean and the forefts afford the two principal articles of
export. Codfifh, mackarel, fhad, falmon, and other
fiflr—whale oil and whale bone—mails, boards, fcant-
ling, (laves, hoops, and fhingles, have been and are flill
exported in large quantities. The annual amount of
cod and other fifh for foreign exportation, including
the profits arifing from the whale-fifhery, is ellimated at
upwards of half a million.—Befides the articles enu¬
merated, they export from the various parts of New
England (hips built for fale, horfes, mules, live flock
—pickled beef and pork, potafh, pearl-afh, flax, feed,
butter and cheefe, rum, &c. The balance of trade,
as far as imperfe<S calculations will enable us to judge,
has generally been againtl New England ; not from any
unavoidable neceflity, but from her extravagant impor¬
tations. From a view of the annual imports into New
England, it appears that the greatefl part of them con-
fiils of the luxuries, or at bell the difpenfable conveni¬
ences of life ; the country affords the neceffaries in great
abundance.
ENGLISH, or the English Tongue, the language
fpoken by the people of England, and, with fome va¬
riation, by thofe of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland,
and the reft of the Britifh dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the fame with the Gallic, or French;
this ifland, in all probability, having been firft peopled
from Gallia, as both Csefar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many ftrong and conclufive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, cuftoms, and the nearnefs of
their fituation. But now we have very fmall remains
bf the ancient Britifh tongue, except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the iflands and Highlands of Scotland, part of
Ireland, and fome provinces of France ; which will not
appear ftrange, when what follows is confidered.
Julius Csefar, fome time before the birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a defcent upon Britain, though he may
be faid rather to have difcovered than conquered it ;
but about the year of Chrifl 45, in the time of Clau¬
dius, Aulus Plautius was fent over with fome Roman
forces, by whom two kings of the Britons, Togodum-
nus and Caradftacus, were both overcome in battle :
whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Malden in
Effex, and the fouihern parts of the ifland were redu¬
ced to the form of a Roman province : after that, the
ifland was conquered as far north as the friths of Dun¬
barton and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of"
Domitian ; whereupon a great number of the Britons,
in the conquered part of the ifland, retired to the well
part called Wales, carrying their language with them.
The greateft part of Britain being thus become a
Roman province, the Roman legions, who refided in
Britain for above 200 years, undoubtedly diffeminated
the Latin tongue ; and the people being afterwards
governed by laws written in Latin, muft neceffarily
make a mixture of languages. This feems to have
been the firit mutation the language of Britain fuffer- .
ed.
Thus the Bi-itifh tongue continued, for fome time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman le¬
gions being called home, the Scots and Pitfts took the
opportunity to attack and harafs England: upon
which, K. Vortigern, about the year 440, called the
Saxons to hia affiftanee ; who came over with feveral
of their neighbours, and having repulfed the Scots
and Pidts, were rewarded for their fervices with the ifle
of Thanet and the whole county of Kent; but grow¬
ing too powerful, and not being contented with their
allotment, dlfpofTefTed the inhabitants of all the coun¬
try on this fide of the Severn * : thus the Britifh tongue • gee '
was in a great meafure ddlroyed,, and the Saxon in- land. \\° 13,.
troduced in its ftead. —41.
What the Saxon tongue was long before the con-
queft, about the year 700, we may obferve in the moft
ancient manufeript of that language, which is a glofs
on the Evangelifts, by bifhop Edfrid, in which the three
firft articles of the Lord’s prayer run thus :
“ Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, fie gehalgud thin
noma, fo eymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa fue is heof-
has, and in eortho,” &c.
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England ; and getting a footing in the northern ,
and eaftern parts of the country, their power gradually
increafed, and they became foie mafters of it in about
200 years. By this means the ancient Britiffi obtain¬
ed a tindlure of the Danifh language ; but their go¬
vernment being of no long continuance, did not make
fo great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon as the next
revolution, when the whole land, A. D. 1067, was
fubdued by William the conqueror, Duke of Norman¬
dy in France : for the Normans, as a monument of
their conqueft, endeavoured to make their language as
generally received as their commands, and thereby
rendered the Britiffi language an entire medley.
About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an¬
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus:
“ Thue ur fader the cart on heofenum, fi thin nama
gehalgod j
ENG [ 667 ] ENG
JEngKfh. gehalgod ; eume thin rice fi thin willa on eorthan fwa,
fvvo on heofcnum,” See.
About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was ren¬
dered thus by Pope Adrian, an Engiifhrnan, in rhyme :
“ Ure fader in heaven rich,
' “ Thv mme he halynd ever lich,
“ Thou bring: us thy michel bliffe:
“ A!s hit in heaven y doe,
“ livar in yearth been it alfo,” &c.
IDr Hicks gives us an extraordinary fpecimen of the
Engli/h, as fpoken in the year 13B5, upon the very
fubjedt of the Eng’ifn tongue.
“ As it is knowe how meny maner peple bceth in
this lond ; ther beeth alfo fo many dyvers longages and
tonges. Nothelefs Walfchemen and Scots that beeth
nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel nyh hir
firile longage and fpeche; but yif the Scottes, that
were fometime confederate and woned with the Pifles,
drawe fomewhat after hir fpeche ; but the Flemynges,
that woneth on the weft fide of Wales, haveth loft her
ftrange fpech, and fpeketh Sexonliche now. Alfo Eng-
lifiiemen, they had from the bygynnynge thre maner
fpeche ; northerne, foutherne, and nfiddel fpeche in the
middel of the lond, as they come of thre maner of
peple of Germania: nothelefs by commyxtion and
mellynge firft with Danes, and afterwards with Nor¬
mans, in meny the contrary longage is apayred fcor~
rupted.)
“ This apayrynge of the burth of the tunge is by-
caufe of tweie things ; oon is for children in fcole agenft
the ufuage and maner of all other nations, beeth com¬
pelled for to leve hir own longage, and for to conftrue
hir kffons and here thinges in Frenfche, -and fo they
haveth fethe Normans come firft into Engelond. Alfo
gentlemen children beeth taught to fpeke Frenfche
from the tyme that they beeth roked in here cradel,
and kunneth fpeke and play with a childe’s broche; and
uplondiflche men will lykne hymfelf to gentilmen, and
fondeth with great befyneffe for to fpeak Frenfche to
be told of.—Hit feemeth a .greet wonder how Eng-
lifchemen and hir own longage and tonge is fo dyverfe
of fown in this oon iland : and the longage of Norman¬
die is comlynge of another lond, and hath oon maner
foun amonge alle men that fpeketh hit arigt in Enge¬
lond. Alfo of the fotefaid Saxon tonge that is deled
(dividedJ a three, and is abide fcarceliche with fewe
uplondilfche men, is greet wonder. For men of the eft,
with men of the weft', is, as it were, undir the fame
partie of hevene accordeth more in fownynge of fpeche,
than men of the north with men of the fouth. There¬
fore it is that Mercii, that beeth men of myddel Enge¬
lond, as it were, parteners of the endes, underftondeth
bettre the fide longes northerne and foutherne, than
northerne and foutherne underftondeth either other.
—All the longage of the Northumbers-and fpechial-
liche at York, is fo fcharp,, flitting and frotynge, and
unfehape, that^we foutherne men may that longage
unnethe underftdnde,’* &c.
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer was printed as
follows : “ O oure father which arte in heven, hallow¬
ed be thy name : let thy kingdome come, thy will be
fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven ; geve us this
! daye in dayly bred,” &c. Where it may be obferved,
that the diftion is brought almoft to the prefent ftand-
ard, the chief variations being only in the orthography.
By thefe inuances, and many others that might be gi- Erglifli
ven, it appears, that the Englifh Saxon language, of II .
which' the Normans defpoiled us in a great meafure, Enoravi:ig.
had its beauties, was fignificant and emphatical, and v" "*
preferable to what they impofed on us. “ Great,
verily (fays Cambden), was the glory of our tongue
before the Norman conqueft, in this, that the old Eng-
bfli could exprefs moft aptly, all the conceptions of
the mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from
any.” Of this he gives feveral examples.
Having thus flrovvn how the ancient Britiih language
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes,
and Saxons, and fucceeded by the Saxon, and after
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we
fliall now mention two other caufes of change in the
language. The firft of thefe is owing to the Britons
having been a long time a trading nation, whereby
offices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic,
are introduced, which we take with the wares from the
perfons of whom we have them, and fonn them anew,
according to the genius of our own tongue ; and be-
fides this change in the language, arifing from com¬
merce, Britain’s having been a confiderable time fub-
je& to the fee of Rome, in ecclefiaftical affairs, mufl
unavoidably have introduced fome Italian words among
us. Secondly, As to the particular properties of a
language, our tongue has undergone no imall mutation,
or rather has received no fmall improvement upon that
account : for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned
have, together with the arts and fciences now rendered
familiar among us, introduced abundance ; nay, almofl
all the terms of art in the mathematics, philofophy,
phyfic, and anatomy; and vve have entertained many-
more from the Latin, French, See. for the fake of
neatnefs and elegancy ; fo that, at this day, our lan¬
guage, which, about 1800 years ago, was the ancient
Britifh, or Welfh, &c. is now a mixture of Saxon,
Teutonic, Dutch,Danifh, Norman,and modern French,
embellilhed with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in
the opinion of fome, is fo far from being a difadvan-
tage to the Englifh tongue as now fpoken (for all
languages have undergone changes, and do continually
participate with each other), that it has fo enriched
it, as now to render it the mofl copious, fignificant,
fluent, courteous, and mafeuline language in Europe,
if not in the world.
ENGRAFTING, in gardening. See Grafting.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in heraldry, a term
derived from the French“hail;” and fignifying
a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off the ed¬
ges, leaving them ragged, or with half-rounds, or fe-
micircles, ftruck out of their edges.
ENGRAVING, the ait of cutting metals and pre¬
cious ftones, and reprefenting thereon figures, letters,
or whatever device or defign the artilt fancies.
Engraving, properly a branch of fculpture, is divi¬
ded into feveral other branches, according to the mat¬
ter whereon it is employed, and the manner of perform¬
ing it. For the rudeft branch, that of -
Engraving on Wood. See Cutting in Wood.
Engraving on Copper, the making, correfpondently
to fome delineated figure or defign, i'uch concave lines
on a fmooth furface of copper, either by cutting or
corrofion, as render it capable, when charged properly
with any coloured fluid, of imparting by comprefiion
4 P 3 an
ENG [668
?• an exaft reprefentation of the figure or defign to paper
J or parchment.
Whether we confider the art of engraving, with re¬
gard to the utility and pleafure it affords, or the diffi¬
culty that attends its execution, we cannot but confefs,
that on every account it deferves a diftinguifhed rank
among the polite arts f. It is by means of this art
> that the cabinets of the curious are adorned with the
portraits of the greatett men of all ages and all na¬
tions ; that their memories, their moll remarkable and
moft glorious adfions, are tranfmitted to the lateft po-
llerity. It is by this art alfo, that the paintings of the
greateft mafters are multiplied to a boundlefs number;
and that the lovers of the polite arts, diffufed over the
face of the whole earth, are enabled to enjoy thofe beau¬
ties from which their diftant fituations feemed to have
for ever debarred them ; and perfons of moderate for¬
tune are hereby enabled to become poffefTed of all the
fpirit, and all the poetry, that are contained in thofe
miracles of art, which feemed to have been referved for
the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of princes. When
we reflecf, moreover, that the engraver, befide the
beauties of poetic compofition, and the artful ordi-
] ENG
the dry point, performed by a little hammer called Engraving.
opus mallei, or the work of the hammer, as praftifed by
Lutma and others.
In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark barb
or ground being raifed uniformly upon the plate with
a toothed tool. The defign being traced upon the
plate, the light parts are fcraped off by inftruments
for that purpofe, in proportion as the effeft requires.
In aquatinta, a newly invented method of engraving.
The outline is firfl etched, and afterwards a fort of
waffi is laid by the aquafortis upon the plate, refem-
bling drawings in Indian ink, bifter, &c.
On wood, performed with a fingle block, on which
the defign is traced with a pen, and thofe parts which
ffiould be white carefully hollowed out; and this block
is afterwards printed by the letter-prefs printers, in
the fame manner as they print a book.
On wood, performed with two, three, or more
blocks ; the firft having the outlines cut upon it; the
fecond is referved for the darker ffiadows; and the
third for the ffiadows which terminate upon the lights ;
and thefe are fubftituted in their turn, each print re¬
ceiving an impreffion from every block. This mode of
nance of defign, is to exprefs, merely by the means of engraving is called chlaro fcuro, and was defigned to
light and ffiade, all the various tints of colours and clair reprefent the drawings of the old mailers.
obfeure ; to give a relief to each figure, and a truth to
each objeft; that he is now to paint a iky ferene and
bright, and then loaded with dark clouds; now the
pure tranquil ftream, and then the foaming, raging
fea ; that here he is to exprefs the chara&er of the
On wood and on copper: in thefe the outline is en¬
graved in a bold dark ftyle upon the copper; and two
or more blocks of wood are fubftituted to produce the
darker and lighter ffiadows, as before.
Of all thefe modes of engraving, the moft ancient is
man, ftrongly marked in his countenance, and there that on wood; or, to fpeak more properly, the firft
the minuteft ornament of his drefs ; in a word, that he nnpreffions on paper were taken from carved wooden
is to reprefent all even the moft difficult objects in na¬
ture ; we cannot fufficiently admire the vaft improve¬
ments in this art, and that degree of perfedtion to
which it is at this day arrived. See the article Prints.
Engraving is an art, for the greateft part, of mo¬
dern invention ; having its rife no earlier than the
middle of the 15th century. The ancients, it is true,
prafiifed engraving on precious ftones and cryftals
blocks. For this invention it appears that we are in-,
debted to the brief-malers or makers of playing-cards,
who pradlifed the art in Germany about the beginning
of the 15th century. From tire fame fource may
perhaps be traced the firft idea of moveable types,
which appeared not many years after; for thefe brief-
malers did not entirely confine themfelves to the print-
^ u _ ing and painting of cards, but produced alfo fubjedls
with very good fuccefs; and there are ftill many of of a more devout nature ; many of which, taken from
their works remaining equal to any produclion of the holy writ, are ftill preferved in different libraries in
later ages. But the art of engraving on plates and Germany, with the explanatory text facing the figures;
blocks of wood, to afford prints or impreflions, was not the whole engraved in wood. In this manner they
known till after the invention of painting in oil. even formed a fpecies of books ; fuch as, Hifloria
The different modes of engraving are the following: fancli Johannis, ejufque Vifiones Apocalyptic<e; Hiftoria
In ftrokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon the Veteris & Novi Tejlamenti, known by the name of the
copper, with a point, and thefe ftrokes bitten or cor¬
roded into the copper with aquafortis. This is called
etching.
In ttrokes with the graver alone, unaffifted by aqua¬
fortis. In this inftance, the defign is traced with a
lharp tool, called a dry point, upon the plate ; and the
ftrokes are cut or ploughed upon the copper with an
inftrument diftinguifhed by the name of a graver.
In ftrokes firft etched and afterwards finiffied with
the graver: by this expedient the two former methods
are united.
In dots without ftrokes, which are executed with
the point upon the wax or ground, bitten in with the
aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized with the graver,
by the means of which inftrument fmall dots are made;
©r with the graver alone, as in the fleffi and finer parts,
unaffifted with the point.
In, dots firft. etched and afterwards harmonized with
Poor Man's Bible. Thefe ffiort mementos were print¬
ed only on one fide; and two of them being pafted
together, had the appearance of a fingle leaf. The
earlieft date on any of thefe wooden cuts is 1423.
The fubjeft is St Chriflopher carrying the Infant Jefus
over the Sea, preferved in a convent at Buxheim near
Menningen. It is of a folio fize, illuminated in the
fame manner as the playing cards; and at the bottom
is this infeription, Cri/loferi faciem die quacunque tueris.
Ilia nempe die morte mala non morieris. Millefmo CCCC9
XX° tertio.
Upon the invention of moveable types, that branch -
of the brief-malers bufinefs, fo far as it regarded the Hifl. ofEt
making of books, was gradually difeontinued; but thzgraving.
art itfelf of engraving on' wood continued in an im¬
proving ftate; and towards the end of the 15th and
beginning of the 16th century, it became cuftomary
for almoft every one of the German engravers on.
copper
ENG
♦Engraving, copper to engrave on wood alfo. The works of Al-
y—. kert Durer in this ftyle of engraving are juftiy held
in the higheft efteem. Italy, France, and Holland,
have produced many capital artifts of this kind; but
for boldnefs and fpirit, we muft fee the prints of Chri-
| ftopher Jegher, who worked under the dire&ion of Ru¬
bens, and was without doubt affifted by that great mafter.
The invention of that fpecies of engraving diftin-
guifhed by the appellation of chiaro-fcuro, fee ms alfo
to be juftiy claimed by the Germans, and firft prac-
tifed by Mair; one of whofe prints of this kind is dated
1499. Many excellent works in chiaro-fcuro have
been produced in France ; and in Italy it was honour¬
ed with the performances of Titian and Parmegiano ;
but the attempts of Jackfon, Kirkall, and others in
England, have not been equally fuccefsful. A fet of
excellent prints in this way have lately been publiftied
by J. Skippe, Efq; a connoifleur and dillettante.
In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from en¬
graved copper firft made their appearance. The ear-
lieft date of a copperplate print is indeed only 1461;
but however faulty this print may be with refpe6f to
the drawing, or defeftive in point of tafte, the mecha¬
nical part of the execution of it has by no meafls the
appearance of being one of the firft produ&ions of the
Strutt's graver. We have alfo feveral other engravings, evi-
K'fl of En- (jgntly rhe work ©f the fame mafter ; in which the
gravwg. ij^pj-gflions are f0 neatly taken from the plates, and the
engravings fo clearly printed in every part, that, ac¬
cording to all appearance, they could not be executed
in a much better manner in the prefent day, with all
the conveniences which the copperplate printers now
pofiefs, and the additional knowledge they muft ne-
ceflarily have acquired in the courfe of more than three
centuries. Hence we may fairly conclude, that if
they were not the firft fpecimens of the engravers work-
manlhip, they were much lefs the firft efforts of the
copperplate printer’s ability. It is likewife to be ob-
ferved, that Martin Schoen, who is faid, with great
appearance of truth, to have worked from 1460 to
i486, was apparently the fcholarof Stoltzhirs; for he
followed his ftyle of engraving, and copied from him
a fet of prints, reprefenting the paffion of our Saviour.
Now, allowing Stoltzhirs to have preceded his difciple
only ten years, this carries the era of the art back to
1450, as wras faid above. There is no ground to fup-
pofe that it was known to the Italians till at leaft ten
years afterwards. The earlieft prints that are known
to be theirs are a fet of the feven planets, and an al¬
manack by way of frontifpiece ; on which are direc¬
tions for finding Eafter from the year 1465 to 1517 in-
clufive: and we may be well affured, that the engravings
were not antedated, for the almanack of courfe became
lefs and lefs valuable every year. In all probability,
therefore, thefe prints muft have been executed in the
year 1464, which is only four years later than the Ita¬
lians themfelves lay any claim to. The three earlieft
Italian engravers are, Finiguerra, Boticelli, and Bal-
dini. If we are to refer thefe prints to any of the
three, we fhall naturally conclude them to be the work
of Finiguerra or Baldini; for they are not equal either
in drawing or compofition to thofe afcribed to Boticelli,
which we know at leaft were defigned by him; and as
Baldini is exprefsly faid to have worked from the de-
ENG
figns of Botieelli, it will appear moft probable that Enarar
they belong to Finiguerra. ^
With refpeft to the invention of etching, it feems to
be not well known to whom it is to be afcribed. One
of the moft early fpecimens is that print by Albert
Durer, known by the name of the Cannon, dated 1518,
and thought by fome, with little foundation, to have
been worked on a plate of iron. Another etching by
the fame artift is Mofes receiving the Tables of the
Law, dated 1524. It was alfo pradtifed in Italy foon
after this by Parmegiano, in whofe etchings we dif-
cover the hand of the artift working out a fyftem as
it were from his own imagination, and ftriving to pro¬
duce the forms he wanted to exprefs. We fee the dif¬
ficulty he laboured under; and cannot doubt, from the
examination of the mechanical part of the execution
of his works, that he had no inftruftion ; and that it
was fomething entirely new to him. If the ftory is
true, that he kept an engraver by profeffion in his
houfe, the novelty of the art is rendered fo much the
more probable. He died in 1540.
As to that fpecies of engraving in which the modes
of etching and cutting with the graver are united, it
muft have been found neceffary immediately upon the
invention of etching ; it was, however, firft carried to
perfection by G. Audran, and is now almoft univer-
fally pradtifed, whether the work is in ftrokes or ia
dots.
Engraving in dots, the prefent fafhionable method,
is a very old invention, and the only mode difeovered
by the Italians. Agoftino de Mufis, commonly called
Augujline of Venice, a pupil of Marc Antonio, ufed it
in feveral of his earlieft works, but confined it to the
flefti, as in the undated print of An Old Man feated
upon a Bank, with a Cottage in the back ground. He
flouriflied from 1509 to 1536. We alfo find it in a
print of “ A Angle Figure Handing, holding a Cup and
looking upwards,” by Giulio Campagnola, who engra¬
ved about the year 15x6. The back ground is exe¬
cuted with round dots, made apparently with a dry
point. The figure is outlined with a ftroke deeply
engraved, and finilhed with dots, in a manner greatly
refembling thofe prints which Demarteau engraved at
Paris in imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard
are expreffed by ftrokes. Stephen de Laulne, a native
of Germany, followed the fteps of Campagnola; and
many of his flight works are executed in dots only.
John Boulanger, a French artift, who flouriflied in the
middle of the laft century, and his contemporary Ni¬
cholas Van Plattenberg, improved greatly on this me¬
thod, and praCtifed it with much fuccefs. It is only,,
however, of late, that it has been confidered as an ob¬
ject worthy of general imitation. John Lutma exe¬
cuted this kind of work with a hammer and a final!
punch orchiffel.
The method of engraving in mezzotinto was invent¬
ed about the middle of the 17th century; and the
invention has generally been attributed to Prince Ru¬
pert, though it has alfo been afferted that he learnt the
fecret from another. See Mezzotinto.
Engraving in arpmtinta is quite a recent invention^
and feems at once to have been carried to- perfection:
by Sandby and other living artifts. See Aq^atinta.
En>
[ ]
ENG [6;
Engraving. Engraving with the tool was the kind originally
' praftifed, and it is yet retained for many purpofes. For
though the manoeuvre of etching be more eafy, and
other advantages attend it; yet where great regularity
and exaftnefs of the ftroke or lines are required, the
working with the graver is much more effectual: on
which account it is more fuitable to the precifxon ne-
ceffary in the execution of portraits ; as there every
thing the moft minute muff be made out and expref-
fed, according to the original fubjeft, without any li-
cenfe to the fancy of the defigner in deviating from it,
or varying the effedl either by that mallerly negligence
and fimplicity in fome parts, orthofe bold fallies of the
imagination and hand in ethers, which give fpirit and
force to hiftory-painting.
The principal inftruments ufed in engraving with
the tool are, gravers, ferapers, a burnidrer, an oil-ftone,
and a culhion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in feveral forms with refpeft to the
points, fome being fquare, others lozenge ; the fquare
graver for cutting broad and deep, and the lozenge
tor more delicate and fine ffrokes and hatches. La
Boffe recommends, as the moff generally ufefnl, fuch
as are of a form betwixt the fquare and lozenge: and
he advifes, that they (hould be of a good length; fmall
towards the. point, but ftronger upwards, that they
may have ftrength enough to bear any ffrefs there may
be qccafion today upon them : for if they be too fmall
and mounted high, they will bend; which frequently
caufes their breaking, efpecially if they be not em¬
ployed for very fmall fubjecls.
The burnilher is ufed to aflift in the engraving on
fome occafions, as well as to poliflr the plates. It is
feven inches in length, and made of fine fteel well po-
liffied. The burnifher is formed at one end, and a
feraper on the other, each about an inch and a half
long from the point: betwixt them, about four inches
of the inftrument is made round, and ferves as a
handle; and is thicker in the .middle than at the necks,
where the burnilher and feraper begin, which necks
are only one quarter of am inch in diameter. The
principal application of it in engraving, befides its ufe
in polilhing the plates, is to take out any fcratches or
accidental defacings that may happen to the plates
during the engraving ; or to leffen the effeft of any
parts that may be too ftrongly marked in. the work,
and require to be taken down.
A culhion, as it is called, is likewife generally ufed
for fupporting the plate in fuch a manner, that it may
be turned eveiy way with eafe. It is a bag of leather
filled with fand, which {hould be of the lize that will
beft fuff the plates it is intended to bear. They arc
round, and about nine inches over, and three inches in
thicknefs.
The culhion, made as above dire&ed, being laid
on the table, the plate muff be put upon it; and
the graver being held in the hand in a proper man¬
ner, the point muff be applied to the plate, and
moved in the proper diredtion for producing the
figures of the lines intended: obferving, in forming
Itraight lines, to hold the plate fteady on the culhion ;
and where they are to be finer, to prefs more lightly,
uling greater force where they are to be broader and
deeper. In making circular or other curve lines, hold
your hand and graver fteadily; and as you work, turn’
-O ] ENG
your plate upon the culhion againft your graver, other- Engr
wile it will be impoffible for you to make any circular
or curved line with that neatnefs and command of
hand you by this means may. After part of the work
is engraved, it is neceffary to ferape it with the feraper
or graver, palled in the moft level dire&ion over the
plate to take off the roughnefs formed by the cutting
of the graver ; but great care muff be taken not to in¬
cline the edge ox the feraper or tool ufed, in fuch a
manner that it may take the leaft hold of the copper,
as it would otherwife produce falfe ftrokts or fcratches
in the engraving : and that the engraved, work may be
rendered more vifible, it may afterwards be rubbed
over with a roll of felt dipped in oil. In ufing the
graver, it is neceffary to carry it as level as pofiible with
the furface of the plate ; for otherwife, if the fingers
flip betwixt them, the line that will be produced, whe¬
ther curve or ftraight, will become deeper and deeper
in the progrefs of its formation; which entirely pre¬
vents ftrokes being made at one cut, that will be fine
at their extremities, and larger in the middle ; and oc¬
cafions the neceffity of retouching to bring them to
that Hate. For this reafon, it is very necefiary for
thofe who would learn to engrave in perfedion, to
endeavour, by frequent trials, to acquire the habit of
making fuch ftrokes both ftraight. and curving, by
lightening or finking the graver with the hand, ac¬
cording to the occafion. If, after finilhing the defign,
any fcratches appear, or any part of the engraving be
falfely executed, fuch fcratches, or faulty parts, muff
be taken out by the burnilher, and further polilhed, if
neceffary, by the above mentioned roll.
The plate being thus engraved, it is proper to round
off the edges, by ufing firft a rough file, and after¬
wards a fmoother ; and to blunt the corners a little by
the fame means : after which, the burnilher Ihould be
palled over the edges to give it a farther poliih.
The dry point, or needle, which has been of late
much ufed in engraving, is a tool like an etching point,
which being drawn hard on the copper, cuts a Itroke,
and raifesa burr; the burr is feraped off, and there re¬
mains a ftroke more foft and delicate than can be pro¬
duced in any other way.
In the condutt of the graver and dry point confiffs
all the art; for which there are no rules to be given ;
ail depending on the habitude, difpoiition, and genius,
of the artiff. Flowever, befides the explanations al¬
ready [given, fome general obfervations and diredions
may not be improper. As the principles of engraving
are the fame with thofe of painting, a perfon cannot
exped to attain any confiderable degree of perfedion
in this art who is not a good mailer of delign ; and
therefore he ought to be well acquainted both with
perfpedive and architedure: for the former, by the
proper gradations of ftrong and faint colours, will
enable him to throw backwards the figures and other
objeds of the pidure or defign which he propofes to
imitate ; and the latter will teach him to prderve the
due proportion of its feveral orders, which the painter
often eutrufts to the diferetion of the engraver. In
order to preferve equality and union in his works, the
engraver Ihould always Iketch out the principal objeds
of his piece before he undertakes to finilh them. In
working, the ftrokes of the graver (hould never be
croffed too much in a lozenge manner, particularly in
ENG [ 671 ] ENG
wpg'raving. the- reprcftntatio r> of flefh, becaufe fliarp angles pro-
'*§~^  duce the unpleafin-g effett of lattice-work, and take
from the eye the repofe which is agreeable to it in all
kinds of pifiturefque defigns: we ihould except the
cafe of clouds, tempefts, waves of the fea, the Heins of
hairy animals, or the leaves of trees, where this method
of croffing may be admitted. But in avoiding the lo¬
zenge, it is not proper to get entirely into the fquare,
which would give too much of the hardnefs of itone.
In conducing the ftrokes, the a&ion of the figures,
and of all their parts, fhould be confidered ; and it
fnould be obferved how they advance towards, or re¬
cede from the eye ; and the graver fhould be guided
according to the rifings or cavities of the mufcles or
folds, making the ftrokes wider and fainter in the
light, and clofer and-firmer in the fhades. Thus the
figures will not appear jagged; and the hand fhould
be lightened inXuch a manner, that the outlines may
be formed and terminated without being cut too hard;
however, though the ftroke* break oft'where the muf-
cle begins, y-et they ought always to have a certain
connection with each other, lb that the firft ftroke may
often ferve by its return to make the fecond, which
will fhow the freedom of the engraver.
In engraving the flefh, the efleCl may be produced
in the lighter parts and middle tints by long pecks
of the graver, rather than by light lines; or by round
dots; or by dots a little lengthened by the graver ;
or, befl of all, by a judicious mixture of thtfe to¬
gether.
In engraving the hair and the beard, the engraver
fhould begin his work by lay ing the principal grounds,
and fketching the chief fhades in a carelefs manner, or
with a few ftrokes; and he may finifh it at leifure
with - finer and thinner ftrokes to the extremities.
When architecture or fculpture is to be reprefented,
except it be old and ruinous buildings, the work ought
not to be made very black; becaufe, as edifices are
commonly conftruCted either of ftone or white marble,
the colour, being reflected on all fides, does not pro¬
duce dark or brown fhades as in other fubftances.
White points muft not be put in the pupils of the
eyes of figures, as in engravings after paintings;
nor muft the hair or beard be reprefented as in na¬
ture, which makes the locks appear flowing in the
air; becaufe in fculpture there can be no fuch ap¬
pearances.
In engraving cloths of different kinds, linen fhould
be done with finer and clofer lines than other forts,
and be executed with Angle ftrokes. Woollen cloth
fljould be engraved wide, in proportion to the coarfe-
nefs orfinenefsof the fluff, and with only two ftrokes;
and when the ftrokes are croffed, the fecond fhould be
fmaller than the firft, and the third than the fecond.
Shining fluffs, which are generally of filk or fatin, and
which produce flat and broken folds, fhould be en¬
graved more hard and more ftraight than others, with
one or two ftrokes, as their colours are bright or
brown ; and between the firft ftrokes other fmaller
muft be joined, which is called interlining. Velvet
and plufh are exprefied in the fame manner, and fhould
always be interlined. Metals, as armour, &c. are alfo
reprefented by interlining, or by clear Angle ftrokes.
In architecture, the ftrokes which form the rounding
■objeCt fhould tend to the point of fight; and when
whole columns occur, it is proper to produce the effeCl Engraving.'
as much as poifible by perpendicular ftrokes. If a
grofs ftroke is put, it fhould be at right angles, and
wider and thinner than the firft ftroke. In engraving
mountains, the ftrokes ought to be frequently difcon-
tinued and broken, for fharp and craggy objeCls; and
they fhould be ftraight, in the lozenge manner, and ac¬
companied with long points or dots ; and rocks fhould
be reprefented by cvofs ftrokes more fquare and even.
ObjeCfs that are diftant towards the horizon fhould be
kept very tender, and flightly charged with black.
Waters that are calm and flill are beft reprefented by
ftrokes that are ftraight, and parallel to the horizon, in¬
terlined with thofe that are finer; omitting fuch places
as, in corvfequence of gleams of light, exhibit the
ihining appearance of water ; and the form of objeCls
reflected from the water, at a fmall dillance upon
it, or on the banks of the water, are expreffed by the
fame ftrokes, retouched more ftrongly or faintly as
-dccafion may require, and even by fume that are per¬
pendicular. For agitated waters, as the waves of the
fea, the firft ftrokes fhould follow the figure of the
waves, ‘and may be' interlined, and the crofs ftrokes
ought to be very lozenge. In cafcades, the ftrokes
fnoiiid follow the fall, and be interlined. In engraving,
clouds, the graver fhould fport when they appear thick
and agitated, in turning every way according to their
form and their agitation. If the clouds are dark, fo
that two ftrokes are neceffary, they fhould be croffed
more lozenge than the figures, and the fecond ftrokes
fhould be rather wider than the firft.. The flat clouds,
that are loft infenfibly in the clear Iky; fhould be made
by ftrokes parallel to the horizon, and a little waving ;
if ftcond ftrokes are required, they fhould be more or
lefs lozenge ; and when they are brought to the extre¬
mity, the hand fhould be fo lightened, that they may-
form no outline. The flat and clear fky is reprefented
by parallel and ftraight ftrokes, without the leaft turn¬
ing. In landfcapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and her¬
bage, fhould be etched as much as poffible ; nothing
fhould be left for the graver but perfecting, foftening,
and ftrengthening. The dry point produces an effeCl
more delicate than the graver can, and may be ufed to
great advantage in linen. Ikies, diflances, ice, and often
in water, efpecially in fmall engravings. In moil things
it is proper to etch the fhadows, only leaving the lighter-
tints for the dry point, graver, &c.
To imitate chalk-drawings, a mixture of varied and
irregular dots are ufed, made more or lefs loft, fo as
to refemble the grain produced by the chalks on pa¬
per. Every ftroke of the chalks on paper may be
confidered as an infinite number of adjoining points,
which are the fmall eminences of the grain of the
paper touched by the chalk in palling over it. When
the copper-plate has been polifhed and varnifhed, or
properly prepared, as in the common method of en¬
graving, the drawing to be imitated may be coun-
terproved on the varnifh of the plate. If this can¬
not be conveniently done, black lead pencil, or red
chalk, muft be-applied to varnifhed or oiled paper;
and by means of this chalk or pencil, all the tra¬
ces of the original will be tranfmitted to the var-
nifh. The outlines of the objeCi muft be formed in the
etching by points, whofe magnitude and diftance mult
be determined by the quality of the ftrokes in the ori-
ginal s
ENG [ 671 ] ENG
glnal drawing. The artift may be provided with
pointed inftruments or needles of various fizes with
fingle or double points. In forming the light and
(hade, he (hould diftinguifh between thofe hatches
which ferve to exprefs the perfpe&ive of the objedt
and thofe which form the ground of it. The princi¬
pal hatches fhould be more ftrongly marked ; the
middle tints, if etched, ftvould be marked lightly, or
they may be left till the varnilh is taken off, and be
perfedted with a greater degree of foftnefs, by
needles or the point of the graver, as the original may
require. There is nothing peculiar in the method of
applying the aquafortis in this kind of engraving ; but
it may be obferved, that it Ihould not be left fo long
as to corrode the lighter parts too much : if the light
parts are fufficiently corroded, they may be flopped
out with turpentine varnifh and lamp-black mixed
together, and the aquafortis may be applied again
to the flronger parts ; for it will be no detriment to
them, if the points which compofe the fhade burfl into
one another, provided the extreme be avoided. When
the work of the aquafortis is finifhed, and the var¬
nifh taken off the copper, it will be neceffary in the
foftefl parts, fuch as the flefh, &c. to interflipple with
proper points ; as an effedl will be thus produced
more delicate than it is poffible to attain with the
aquafortis only ; and the flrongeft fhades will require
additional flrength to be given them with fmall flrokes
of the graver. Drawings made with chalks of differ¬
ent colours may be imitated in this manner, if a plate
be provided for every colour.—This method of engra¬
ving is intended to form a kind of deception, fo that the
connoiffeur may not be able, on the firfl infpe&ion, to
diftinguifh between the original drawing and the en¬
graving made in imitation of it; and it is extremely
ufeful, as it ferves to multiply copies of drawings left
by thofe matters who excelled in the ufe of chalks,
and thus to form and improve young artifts, who could
pot have, accefs to the originals in the practice of
drawing.
Engraving upon Glafs. See Chemistry, 2d N0857.
Engraving on Precious Stones, is the reprefenting
of figures, or devices, in relievo or indented, on divers
kinds of hard polifhed ftones.
The art of engraving on precious ftones is one of
thofe wherein the ancients excelled; there being divers
antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which furpafs
any thing of that kind the moderns have produced.
Pyrgoteles among the Greeks, and Diofcorides under
the firft emperors of Rome, are the moft eminent en¬
gravers we read of: the former was fo efteemed by A-
lexander, that he forbad any body elfe to engrave his
Read ; and Auguftus’s head, engraven by the latter,
was deemed fo beautiful, that the fucceeding emperors
’ chofe it for their feal.
All the polite arts having been buried under the
ruins of the Roman empire, the art of engraving on
ftones met with the fame fate. It was retrieved in I-
taly at the beginning of the 15th century, when one
John of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan,
performed works of this kind no way to be defpifed.
From that time, fuch fculptures became common e-
nough in Europe, and particularly in Germany, whence
great numbers were fent into other countries: but they
came fhort of the beauty of thofe of the ancients, efpe-
N° 117.
cially thofe on precious ftones ; for, as to thofe on Engraving
cryftal, the Germans, and, after their example, the —-y——
French, &c. have fucceeded well enough.
In this branch of engraving, they make ufe either
of the diamond or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardeft of all ftones,
is only cut by itfelf, or with its own matter. The
firft thing to be done in this branch of engraving is,
to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two
flicks big enough to hold them fteady in the hand, and
to rub or grind them againft each other till they be
brought to the form defired. The dull or powder
that is rubbed off ferves afterwards to polilh them,
which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a
wheel of foft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brafs
dilh ; and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with
diamond dull, mixed up with oil of olives; and when
the diamond is to be cut facet-wife, they apply firft
one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, fap-
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed the fame way
on a copper wheel, and polilhed with tripoli diluted
in water. As to agates, amethyfts, emeralds, hya¬
cinths, granites, rubies, and others of the fofter
ftones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moiftened with
emery and water, and polifhed with tripoli on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &c. are polifhed on a
wooden wheel. To fafhion and engrave vafes of a-
gate, cryftal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make ufe
of a kind of lathe, like that ufed by pewterers, to hold
the veffels, which are to be wrought with proper
tools: that of the engraver generally holds the tools,
which are turned by a wheel; and the veffel is held to
them to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or o-
therwife ; the tools being moiftened from time to time
with diamond dull and oil, or at leaft emery and wa¬
ter. To engrave figures or devices on any of thefe
ftones, when polifhed, fuch as medals, feals, See. they
ufe a little iron wheel, the ends of whofe axis are re¬
ceived within two pieces of iron, placed upright, as
in the turner’s lathe; and to be brought clofer, or fet
further apart, at pleafure ; at one end of the axis are
fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a ferew.
Laftly, The wheel is turned by the foot, and the ftone
applied by the hand to the tool, and is fhifted and con¬
duced as occafion requires.
The tools are generally of iron, and fometimes of
brafs; their form is various, but it generally bears
fome refemblance to chifels, gouges, &c. Some have
fmall round heads, like buttons, others like ferrels, to
take the pieces out, and others flat, &c. When the
ftone has been engraven, it is polifhed on wheels of
hair-brufhes and tripoli.
Engraving on Steel is chiefly employed in cutting
feals, punches, matrices, and dyes, proper for ftriking
coins, medals, and counters. The method of engra¬
ving with the inftruments, &c. is the fame for coins as
for medals and counters : All the difference confifts in
their greater or lefs relievo ; the relievo of coins being
much lefs confiderable than that of medals, and that
of counters Hill lefs than that of coins.
Engravers in fteel commonly begin with punches,
which are in relievo, and ferve for making the creux
or cavities of the matrices and dyes: though fome¬
times they begin with the creux or hollownefs; but
then it is only when the intended work is to be cut
very
E N I [ 673 ] E N O
!ngafthe very (hallow. The firft thing done, is that of defign-
ing the figures ; the next is the moulding them in wax,
Efll^unt , of the fize and depth they are to lie, and from this
wax the punch is engraven. When the punch is finhh-
ed, they give it a very high temper, that it may the
better bear the blows of the hammer with which it is
ftruck to give the impreffion to the matrice.
The fteel is made hot to foften it, that it may the
more readily take the impreffion of the punch ; and af¬
ter ftriking the punch on it in this ftate, they proceed
to touch up or finiffi the ftrokes and lines, where by
reafon of their finenefs or the too great relievo they
are any thing defective, with fteel gravers of different
kinds, chifels, flatters, &c. being the principal inftru-
ments ufed in graving on fteel.
The figure being thus finiftied, they proceed to en¬
grave the reft of the medal, as the mouldings of the
border, the engrailed ring, letters^ &c. with little fteel
punches, well tempered, and very (harp.
ENGUICHE', in heraldry, is faid of the great
mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a diffe-
Irent colour from that of the horn itfelf.
ENHARMONIC, in mufic. The Greeks had
three different fpecies of mufic ; the diatonic, the chro¬
matic, and the enharmonic. This laft was efteemed by
much the moft agreeable and powerful of the three;
but the difficulty of its execution rendered its duration
Ihort, and latter artifts were upbraided for having fa-
crificed it to their indolence. It proceeded upon Idler
intervals than either the diatonic or chromatic ; and as
the chromatic femitone is ftill lefs than the diatonic,
Bthe 'enharmonic intervals muft have confifted of that fe¬
mitone divided into parts more minute. In Rouffeau’s
Mufical Dictionary (at the word Enharmonique), the
reader may fee how that interval was found in the te-
trachords of the ancients. It is by no means eafy for
modern ears, inured to intervals fo widely different, to
imagine how a piece of mufic, whofe tranfitions were
formed either chiefly or folely upon fuch minute divi-
fions, could have fuch wonderful effe&s ; yet the me¬
lody of fpeech, which rifes or falls by intervals ftill
more minute than the enharmonic, when properly mo¬
dulated and applied with tafte, has an aftonilhing
power over the foul. As to the modern enharmonic fy-
iiem, we may likewife refer the reader to the fame
work for an account of its nature and ufe ; though he
will find it accurately and clearly explained by D’A¬
lembert, in the Treatife of Music given in the prefent
work, (art. 144. 145. 146.)
ENHYDRUS, in natural hiftory, a genus of fide-
rochita or cruftated ferruginous bodies, formed in large
and in great part empty cafes, inclofing a fmall quanti¬
ty of an aqueous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two fpecies: 1. The
thick-(hellpd enhydrus, with black, reddiih-brown,
and yellow crufts. ■ 2. The thinner-fhelled kind, with
yellowilh-brown and purple crufts; neither of which fer¬
ments with aquafortis or gives fire with fteel.
ENIGMA. See ./Enigma.
EN1XUM, among chemifts, a kind of natural fait,
generated of an acid and an alkali.
The fal enixum of Paracelfus, is the caput mortuum
of fpirits of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains
in the retort after the diftillatioo of this fpirit; being
qf a white colour, and plealing acid tafte.
Vol.VI. Part II.
ENMANCHE', in heraldry, is when lines are Enmanehe
drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the chief i! _
to the fides, to about half the breadth of the chief; En‘,t:iT' ,
fignifying fleeved, or refembling a fleeve, from the v -
French manche.
ENNA, (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, fituated
on an eminence to the foutb of the Chryfas; call¬
ed the centre of Sicily. It was famous for a facred
grove, in which the rape. of Proferpina happened;
for a temple of Ceres, thence furnamed Ennaa,
and Ennenfis ; and for fine fprings, whence the name
(Bochart.)
ENNEAGON, in geometry, a polygon with nine
fides. See Polygon.
ENNEAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory', a genus of
columnar, cryftalliform, anddouble-pointed fpars, com-
pofed of a trigonal column, terminated at each end by
a trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, diftinguifhed
by the length or flrortnefs of the column and pyramids,
none of which give fire with fteel, but all of them fer¬
ment with aquafortis. See Spar.
ENNEANDRIA, in botany (from svvf« nine, and
a man or hujband), the name of the ninth clafs
in Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem, confiding of plants which
have hermaphrodite flowers with nine (lamina or male
organs.' See Botany, p. 430. the Scheme.
ENNIUS (Quintus), an ancient Latin poet, born
at Rudii, a town in Calabria. He came firft to Rome
when M. Porcius Cato was queftor, whom he had in-
ftrudled in the Greek language in Sardinia ; and by
his genius and behaviour he gained the efteem of the
moft eminent perfons in the city. According to Ho¬
race, Ennius never applied himfelf to writing till he
had drank freely of wine. .Hence he contrafted the
gout, of which he died nine years B. C. He was
interred in Scipio’s fepulchre; who had a great efteem
and friendlhip for him, and caufed a ftatue to be erec¬
ted to him upon his monument. He endeavoured to
introduce the treafures of the Greek tongue among
the Latins, and was the firft among the Romans who
made ufe’lof heroic verfes. He wrote the Annals of
Rome ; he tranflated feveral tragedies from the Greek,
and wrote others, befide feveral comedies. We have
only fome fragments of his works, which were firft col-
le&ed by the two Stephens, and afterwards publifh-
ed at Naples, with a learned commentary', by Je-
rom Columna, in quarto, 1590; and reprinted at
Amfterdam in 1707, in quarto, with additions by
Heffelius.
ENOCH, the fon of Cain (Gen. iv. 17.), in ho¬
nour of whom the firft city taken notice of in ferip-
ture was called Enoch by his father Cain, who built
it. It was fituated to the call of the province of
Eden.
Enoch, the fon of Jared and father of Methu-
felah, was born in the year of the world 622. At
the age of 65 he begat Methufelah, and lived 300
years after, and had feveral fons and daughters. E-
noch walked with God; and after that he had lived in
all 365 years, “ he was not, for God took him.’*
Some conftrue thefe laft words, as if they intimated
that Enoch died a natural death, becaufe in reality he
lived not near fo long as the other patriarchs of thofe
times; as if God, to fecure him from corruption, had
4 been
END [ 674 ] E N S
Enr.ch been pleafed to take him early out of this world. But
il the generality of the fathers and commentators afi'ert
Ii0S' that he died not, but was tranflated out of the fight of
men, in like manner as Elijah was. The apoftle Paul
(Heb. xi. 5.) fhews very clearly that Enoch was tranf¬
lated, and did not fee death.
The apollle Jude (ver. 14, 15.) cites a palfage from
the book of Enoch, which has very much exercifed in¬
terpreters. The queftion is, whether the apoiile took
this paffage out of any particular book written by E-
noch, which might be extent in the firft ages of the
church ? whether he received it by tradition ? or laftly,
by feme particular revelation ? It is thought probable,
that he read it in the book w^e have been fpeaking of,
which, tho’ apocryphal, might contain feveral truths
that St Jude, who wras favoured with a fupernatural
degree of underftanding, might make ufe of to the edi¬
fication of the faithful.
The ancients greatly efteemed the prophecy of E-
noch. Tertullian cxpreiTes his concern, that it was not
generally received in the world. That father, on the
authority-of this book, deduces the original of idola¬
try, aftrology, and unlawful arts, from the revolted
angels, who married wuth the daughters of men. St
Augullin allows indeed that Enoch wrote fomething
divine, becaufe he is cited by St Jude ; but he fays it
was not without rcafon that this book w'as not infert-
ed in the canon which was preferved in the temple at
Jerufalem. This father fufficiently infinuates, that the
authority of this book is doubtful, and that it cannot
be proved that it w-as really written by Enoch. In¬
deed the account it gives of giants engendered by an¬
gels, and not by men, has manifellly the air of a fable,
and the moll judicious critics believe it ought not to be
aferibed to Enoch.
This apocryphal book lay a long time buried in
darknefs, till the learned Jofeph Scaliger recovered a
part of it. Scaliger, Voffius, and other learned men,
attribute this work to one of thofe Jews who lived be¬
tween the time of the Babylonilh captivity and that of
Jefus Chrift. Others are of opinion, that it was writ¬
ten after the rife and dlablifhment of Chriftianity, by
one of thofe fanatics with whom the primitive church
was filled, who made a ridiculous mixture, of the Pla¬
tonic philofophy and the Chriftian divinity.
The eallern people, who call Enoch by the name
©f Edris, believe that he received from God the gift of
wifdom and knowledge ; and that God fent him 30
volumes from heaven, filled with all the Ifecrets of the
moil myfterious fciences. The Rabbins maintain, that
when Enoch was tranfiated to heaven, he was admitted
into the number of the angels, and is the perfon gene¬
rally known by the name of Michael.
ENORMOUS, fomething exceffive or monftrous,
efpecially in bulk.—The word is formed of the priva¬
tive e, and norma, “ rule q. d. “ void of, or contrary
to, rule or meafure contra normam. In the corrupt a-
ges of Latinity, they ufed imormis, and inormis.
In the French jurifprudenc*, lafw cnormis, “ enor¬
mous damage,” is that which exceeds half the value
of the thing fold.
ENOS, the fon of Seth and father of Cainan, was
born in the year of the world 235. Mofes tells us
(Gen. iv. 26.), that then “ men began to call upon
the name of the Lord or, as others tranflate it,
that “ Enos began to call upon the name of the
Lord that is to fay, that he was the inven- Ens -■
tor of religious rites and ceremonies in the exter- II
nal worfbip which was paid to God. This worlhip EUign.
was kept up and preferved in Enos’s family, while
Cain’s family was plunged in all manner of irregulari¬
ties and impieties. Several Jews are of opinion, -that
idolatry was at firft introduced into the work! in the
time of Enos. They tranflate the Hebrew thus,
“ Then men began to profane the name of the Lord.”
Good men, to diftinguifn themfclves from the wicked,
began to take upon them the quality of forts or fervants
of God; for which reafon, Moles (Gen. vi. 1, 2.) fays,
that the Jons of God (that is to fay, the defeendants of
Enos,who had hitherto preierved the true religion),fee¬
ing the daughters of men, that they were fair, took
them wives of all which they chofe. Enos died at the
age of 905 years, in the year of the world 1140.
ENS, among metaphylicians, denotes entity, being,
or exiftence: this the fchools call ens reale, and ens po-
Jitivum to diftinguilh it from their ens rationis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exifts but in the ima¬
gination.
Ens, among chemifts, imports the power, virtue,
and efficacy, which certain lubilances exert upon our
bodies.
Ens, in geography, a city of Germany, fituated at
the confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
80 miles fouth of Vienna. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
48. 16.
ENSATiE, in botany (from en/fj, “ a fword”);
the name of the fixth order in Linnaeus’s natural me¬
thod, confifting of plants with fword-lhaped leaves *. * See ifo- ;
It contains-the following genera, vix. Antholyza, Cal-^’’P'
lifia, Commelina, Crocus, Eviocaulon, Ferraria, Gla¬
diolus, Iris,. Ixia, Morsea, Pontaederia, Sifyrinchium,
Tradefcantia, Wachendorffa, Xyris.
ENSEELED, in falconry, is faid of a hawk that
has a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and
made fall under her beak, to take away the fight.
ENSEMBLE, a French term, fometinyss ufed in
our language ; literally fignifying together, or one with
another:—being formed from the Latin in andfimul.
In architecture, we fay the enfemhle, ar tout enfemhle,
of a building; meaning the whole work, or compofi-
tion, confidered together, and not in parts; and fome-
times alfo, the relative proportion of the parts to the
whole.—“ AH thofe pieces of building make a fine
enfemble.',,
To judge well of a work, a ftatue, or other piece of
fculpture, one mull firft examine whether the enfemble
be good. The tout enfemble of a painting, is that har¬
mony which refults from the diftribution of the feveral
objects or figures whereof it is compofed.—“ This
pifture is good, taking the parts feparately; but the
tout enfemble is bad.”
ENSIFORMIS cartilago. See Xjphoides.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours
under which foldiers are ranged, according to the dif¬
ferent companies or parties they belong to. See Flag,
Colours, Standard, &c.
The Turkilh enfigns are horfes tails ; thofe of the
Europeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures, co¬
lours, arms, and devices thereon. Xenophon tells us,
that the enfign bore by the Perfians was a golden eagle
on a white flag; the Corinthians bore the winged
horfe, or Pegafus, in theirs ; the Athenians, an owl;
ENT [ 675 1 ENT
Enfiga the Meffenians, the Greek letter M; the Lacedasmo-
|| mans, the The Romans had a great diverfity of
Erne, enfigns; the wolf, minotaur, horfe, boar, and at length
    the eagle, where they flopped : this was firft aflumed
Ste Eagle in the fecond year of the confulate of Marius f. A
military enfign on a medal of a Roman colony, denotes
it a colony peopled with old foldiers.
Ensign is alfo the officer that carries the colours,
being the loweft commifiioned officer in a company of
foot, fubordinate to the captain and lieutenant. It is
a very honourable and proper poft for a young gentle¬
man at his firft coming into the army : he is to carry
the colours both in aflault, day of battle, &c. and
fhould not quit them but with his life : he is always
to carry them himfelf on his left fhoulder: only on a
march he may have them carried by a foldier. If the
enfign is killed, the captain is to carry the colours in
his flead.
Naval Ensign, a large ftandard or banner hoifted on
a long pole eredted over the poop, and called the en-
JignJlaff.—The enfign is ufed todiftinguifh the-fliipsof
different nations from each other, as alfo to chara&erife
the different fquadrons of the navy. The Britifh enfign
in fhips of war is known by a double crofs, viz. that of
'St George and St Andrew, formed upan a field which
is either red, white, or blue.
ENSISHEIM, a town of France, in Upper Al-
face. It is a pretty little place, well built, and confifts
of about zco houfes. E. Long. 7. 41. N. Lat. 47. 49.
ENT (Sir George), an emirtent Englifh phyfician,
born at Sandwich in Kent in 1604. He was educa¬
ted at Sidney college, Cambridge; and, afterwards
travelling into foreign countries, received the degree
of doftor of phyfic at Padua. After- his return he ob¬
tained great practice, was made ptefident of the col¬
lege of phyficians in London, and at length received
the honour of knighthood from King Charles II. He
was extremely intimate with Do&or Harvey ; whom
he learnedly defended in a piece intitled, Apologia
pro Circulations Sanguinis, contra JEm'dium Parifa-
tium. He alfo publilhed, Animadverfiones in Ma¬
lachite Thnifimi; and fome obfervations in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfa£tions. Gianville, fpeaking of his
Plus Ultra of the modern improvements in anatomy,
numbers Sir George Ent, Dodtor Gliffon, and Doctor
Wallis, with the moft celebrated difcoverers in that
fcience. The two former were among the firft mem¬
bers of the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in
Odtober 16S9.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in archi-
tedture, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capital, and comprehends the architrave, frieze,
and corniche. See Architecture, chap i.
ENTABLER, in the manege, the fault of a horfe
whofe croupe goes before his fhoulders in working
upon volts; which may be prevented by taking hold
of the right rein, keeping your right leg near, and
removing your left leg as far from the horfe’s ftioulder
as poffible.
This is always accompanied with another fault called
aculer. See Aculer.
ENTAIL, in law, fignifies feetail, or fee entailed;
that is, abridged, curtailed, or limited, to certain con¬
ditions. See Fee, and Tail.
ENTE', in heraldry, a method of marffialling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and fignifying ’grafted Enterocele
or ingrafted. II
We have, indeed, one inftance of ente in the
fourth grand quarter of his majefty’s royal enfign, —-y—J
whofe blazon is Brunfwick and Lunenburg impaled
with ancient ente en pointe, “ grafted in point.”
5NTEROCELE, in furgery, a tumor formed by
a prolapfion of the inteftines through the rings of the
abdomen and proceffes of the peritonaeum, into the
ferotum. See Surgery.
ENTHUSIASM, an eeftafy of the mind, where¬
by it is led to think and imagine things in a fublime,
furprifing, yet probable manner. This is the enthu-
fiafm felt in poetry, oratory, mufic, painting, fculp-
ture, &c.
Enthusiasm, in a religious fenfe, implies a tranf-
port of the mind, whereby it fancies itfelf infpirei
with fome revelation, impulfe, &c. from heaven. Mr
Locke gives the following defeription of enthufiafm.
“ In ah ages, men in whom melancholy has mixed
with devotion, or whofe conceit of themfelves has railed
them into an opinion of a great familiarity with God,
and a nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded
to others, have often flattered themfelves with a per-
fuafion of an immediate intercourfe with the Deity,
and frequent communications from the Divine Spirit.
Their minds being thus prepared, whatever groundlefs
opinion comes to fettle itfelf ftrongly upon their fan¬
cies, is an illumination from the Spirit of God. And
whatfoever odd aeftion they‘find in themfelves a ftrong
inclination to do, that impulfe is concluded to be a
call or direction fn5m heaven, and muft be obeyed. It
is a commiffion from above, and they cannot err in ex¬
ecuting it. This I take to be properly enthufiafm,
which, though arifing from the conceit of a warm and
overweening brain, works, when it once gets footing,
more powerfully on the perfuafions and aftions of men)
than either reafon or revelation, or both together;
men being moft forwardly obedient to the impulfes they
receive from themfelves.” Devotion, when it does not
lie under the check of reafon, is apt to degenerate into
enthufiafm. When the mind finds itfelf inflamed with
devotion, it is apt to think that it is not of its own
kindling, but blown up with fomething divine within
it. If the mind indulges this thought too far, and
humours the growing paffion, it at laft flings itfelf in¬
to imaginary raptures and eeftafies ; and when once it
fancies itfelf under the influence of a divine impulfe, no
wonder if it flights human ordinances, and refufes* to
comply with the eftabliftied form of religion, as think¬
ing itfelf dire&ed by a much fuperior guide.
ENTHUSIAST, a perfon poffeffed with enthu¬
fiafm. See the preceding article.
ENTHYMEME, in logic and rhetoric, an argu¬
ment confrfting only of two propofitions, an antece¬
dent, and a confequent deduced from it. The word
is Greek, formed of the verb "Gufitnalx,, « to
think, conceive,” a compound of i. and “ mind.”
The enthymeme is the moft Ample and ’elegant of
all argumentations; being what a man, in arguing
clofcly, commonly makes, without attending at all to
the form. Thus, that verfe remaining of Ovid’s tra<re-
dy, intitled Medea, contains an enthymemeServare
potui, perdere anpojfum rogas : “ I was able to fave you;
confequently to have deftroyed you.” All the beauty
4 Q. 2 would
EN T [ 676 ]
wosld Lave been loft, had all the propofitions been ex-
preffed ; the mind is difpleafed with a rehearfal ofwhat
is? no ways neceffary.
Sometimes, alio, the two pvopofitions of an enthy-
meme are both included in a lingte propofition, which
ENT
Ariftotle calls an enthymematicalfentence, and gives this
inftance thereof: Mortal, do not bear an immortal ha¬
tred. The whole enthymeme would be, Thou art mor¬
tal; let not, therefore, thy haired be immortal.
ENTITY, the fame with Exs.
JLwxilj.
ENTOMOLOGY;
THE fcience hf infefts, or that part of zoology
which treats of infers.
By fome natural hiftorians, this clafs of animals is
confidered as the moft imperfect of any, while others
prefer them to the larger animals. One mark of their
imperfection is faid to be, that many of them can live
a long time, though deprived of thofe organs which
are neceffary to life in the higher ranks of nature.
Many of them are furnilhed with lungs and an heart,
like the nobler animals; yet the caterpillar continues
to live, though its heart and lungs, which is often the
cafe, are entirely eaten away.—It is not, however,
from their conformation alone that infefts are inferior
to other animals, but from their inftinfts alfo. It is
true, that the ant and the bee prefent us with ftri-
king inftances of affiduity ; yet even thefe are inferior
to the marks of fagacity difplayed by the larger ani¬
mals. A bee taken from the fwarm is totally help-
lefs and inaClive, incapable of giving the fmalleft va¬
riations to its inftin&s. It has but one fingle me¬
thod of operating; and if put from that, it can turn
to no other. In the purfuits of the hound, there is
fomething like choice ; but in the labours of the bee,
the whole appears like neceflity and compulfion.—
All other animals are capable of fome degree of edu¬
cation ; their inftinfts may be fuppreffed or altered;
the dog may be taught to fetch and carry, the bird to
whiftle a tune, and the ferpent to dance : but the in-
fe<ft has only one invariable method of operating ; no
arts can turn it from its inftinfts; and indeed its life
is too ftiort for inftruCtion, as a fingle feafon often ter¬
minates its exiftence.—Their amazing number is alfo
an imperfeftion. It is a rule that obtains through all
nature, that the nobler animals are flowly produced,
■ and that nature afts with a kind of dignified economy;
but the meaner births are lavilhed in profufion, and
thoufands are brought forth merely to fupply the ne-
cefiities of the more favourite part of the creation. Of
all productions in nature, infeCts are by far the moft
numerous. The vegetables which cover the furface of
the earth bear no proportion to the multitudes of in¬
feCts ; and though, at firft fight, herbs of the field
feem to be the parts of organized nature produced in
the greateft abundance, yet, upon more minute in-
fpeCtion, we find every plant fupporting a mixture of
fcarce perceptible creatures, that fill up the compafs of
youth, vigour, and age, in the fpace of a few days
exiftence.—In Lapland, and fome parts of America,
the infeCts are fo numerous, that if a candle is lighted
they fwarm about it in fuch multitudes, that it is in-
ftantly extinguifhed by them; and in thefe parts of the
world, the miferable inhabitants are forced to fmear
their bodies and faces with tar, or fome other unftuous
compofition; to proteCt them from the flings of their
minute enemies.
On the other hand, Swammerdam argues for the
perfection of infeCts in the following manner. “ After
an attentive examination (fays he) of the nature and
anatomy of the fmalleft as well as the largeft animals,
I cannot help allowing the leail an equal, or perhaps
a fuperior, degree of dignity. If, while we dilfeCt
with care the larger animals, we are filled with won¬
der at the elegant difpofitiou of their parts, to what
an height is our aftonilhment raifed, when we difcover
all thefe parts arranged, in the leaft, in the fame re*
gular manner ! Notwithftanding the fmallnefs of ants,
nothing hinders our preferring them to the largeft ani¬
mals, if we confider either their unwearied diligence,
their wonderful ftrength, or their inimitable propenfity
to labour. Their amazing love to their young is ftill
more unparalleled among the larger clafles. They not
only daily carry them to fuch places as may afford
them food; but if by accident they are killed, and
even cut into pieces, they will with the utmoft tender-
nefs carry them away piecemeal in their arms. Who
can fhow fuch an example among the larger animals
which are dignified with the title of perfeEt ? Who can
find an inftance in any other creature that can come in
competition with this?”
On this difpute it is only neceffary to obfer've, that
the wifdom of the Creator is fo confpicuous in all his.
works, and fuch furprifing art is difcovered in the me-
chanifm of the body of every creature, that it is very
difficult, if not impoffible, to fay where it is moft, and
where it is leaft, to be obferved.
Whoever is defirous of attaining a fyftematic know¬
ledge of infeCts, ought primarily to be folicitous about
acquiring the terms made ufe of in the fcience, that fo
he may be able rightly to denominate every part of an
infeft. The ftudent is firft to know what an infeCf is,
left he miftake hippocampi, and other amphibious ani¬
mals, for them, as was formerly done ; or confound
them with the vermes, which Linnseus firft diftinguifh-
ed.from infeCts, and which differ as effentially from
them as the clafs mammalia do from birds. Every in-
feCt is furnilhed with a head, antenna, and feet, of all
which the vermes are deftitute. All infeCts have fix
or more feet; they refpire through pores placed on the-
fides of their bodies, and which are termed fpiracula : ,
their Ikin is extremely hard, and ferves them inftead of
bones, of which they have internally none. From this
definition, the acus marina is evidently no infeCt. But
the antenna placed on the fore-part of the head, con-
ftitute the principal diftinCtion. Thefe are jointed and
moveable in every part, in which they differ from the
horns of other animals : they are organs conveying
fome kind of fenfe; but we have no more idea of
what this kind of fenfe is, than a man has, who, with¬
out eyes, attempts to determine the particular aCtion
of the rays of light on the retina of the eye, or to ex¬
plain the changes which from thence take place in the
human mind. That they are the organs of fome kind
C97?i/'^M<2(r, <>r /rtuM Tlate C JjXXXII .
fArotrfec/$ •
ENTOMOLOGY.
r.
of tfenfc, Is apparent from their perpetually moving
them forward ; yet the hard cruft with which they are
invefted, and their fhortnefs in flies and other infefts,
would induce one to believe them not to be the organs
of tfmch : Mr Barbut fuppofes them to conftitute or
to contain the organs of hearing. That they are tu¬
bular, and filled with air, and fome kind of humour,
appears frorr the antennse of butterflies imnlerfed in
water. — To come now to the terms of the art. A
knowledge of the external parts of the body is firft to
be eftablifned ; which, after the method of anatomifts,
v/e divide into head, trunk, abdomen, and extremities.
Sect. I. External Parts of the Body-
I. CAPUT, the Head. This part in infe&s with-
Funiamenta out brain. The difference between the brain and fpi-
Eniomolo nal marrow confifts in the former being a medullary
J part organized. We do not deny the exiftence of a
Bladh, A- thread in the heads of infects, but we never
msen. acaa. • , • , , i . •
n0n3. could diicover it to be organized; hence the hippo-
bofea equina, or horfe fly, will live, run, nay even co¬
pulate, after being deprived cf its head; to fay nothing
of many others which are capable of living a long while
in the fame fituation.
As they are not apparently furnifhed with ears, they
have been apprehended incapable of hearing ; as we
can no more conceive that fenfe tp exift without ears
than vifion without eyes. That they are neverthelefs
fu.ceptible of any flrrill or loud noife, as well as fifties,
is indifputable; but it has been fuppofed to be in a
manner different from that of hearing. Mr Barbut,
however, fuppofes them to pofl’efs this fenfe in a very
diftinft manner. Many infects; he obferves, are well
known to be endowed, with the power of uttering
founds, fueh as large beetles, the bee, wafp, common
fly, gnat, &e. The fphinx atropos fqueaks, when
hurt, nearly as loud as a moufe. Now,, if infedts are
endowed with the power of uttering founds, it cer¬
tainly mull be for fome purpofe. As they vary their
cry occafionally, it muft certainly be defigned either
to give notice of pleafure or pain, or fome affedtion in,
the creature who pofTcfl'es it. “ The knowledge of
their founds (fays our author) is undoubtedly confined
to their tribe, and is a language intelligible to them
only ; faving when violence obliges the animal to ex-.
Iert the voice of nature in diftrefs, craving compaffion ;
then all animals underftand the doleful cry. For in-
fiance, attack a bee or wafp near the hive or neft, or
a few of them: the confequence of that affault v/ill
be, the animal or animals, by a different tone of voice,
will exprefs his or their difapprobation or pain ; that
found is known to the hive to be plaintive, and that
their brother or brethren require their affiftance ; and
the offending party feldom efcapes with impunity.
Now, if they had not the fenfe of hearing, they could
not have known the danger their brother or brethren
were in by the alteration of their tone.”
Another proof, which he reckons ftill more deci-
five, was taken from an obfervation made by himfelf
on a large fpider in. St James’s Park. This creature had
made a very large web on a wooden railing; and was,
at the time of obfervation; on one of the rails at a
confiderable diflance from the place where a large fly
entangled itfelf. Neverthelefs, the moment the fly
4
was entangled, the fpider became fenfible of it; tho’, Organs of
from the fituation of the rail, he could not poflibly hearing»&c
have feen it. In this, however, Mr Barbut might v ^
poflibly be deceived ; becaufe the fpider was perhaps
alarmed by the tremulous motion of the threads, oc-
caiioned by the fluttering of the fly ; which he might
well know how to diftinguifh from their vibration by
the wind. The organ of hearing', in our author’s o-
.pinion, is fituated in the antennas; both from their fi¬
tuation in the part of the head moft favourable to fuch
organs, their inward ftrudture being moveable, the ears
of moft. inferior animals being fo. Fie has never con-
fidered the antennae as either offenfive or defenfive, but
has obferved them to be endowed with an exquifite
fenfe of feeling ; that the animal appeared to be in
agony when its antennae were pinched; and that it
takes care to avoid the touching any hard fubftance
with them roughly. “ This tendernefs in the organ
of Fearing (fays he) is common to all animals; and
infe&s feem to be particularly tender in thefe parts by
quickly withdrawing them from the touch.”
Our author further obferves, that the antennae of alf
infefts are compofed of joints varying in fize, form,
and number. Thofe who are chiefly confined to live
under water have their antennae in general flrorter than
thofe who live on land. Some who roam at large in*
the air, have them long and flender. They are all hol¬
low, and are rendered flexible by the joints, which ara*
very viftble in the horns of the crab and lobfter. This
hollownefs, in our author’s opinion, is to receive the
found communicated to the extremities of the antennae
by the repercuftion of the air affected by any noife,
and convey it, by means of the joints, from one to an- •
other, till it arrives in that leffened degree of tone heft
fuited to the timid nature of the animal. In this cir-
cumftance there may be many variations in point of
perfeftion in thofe organs ; the flrength, utility, and
degree of power in receiving found being proportioned
to. the neceflities of the animals, different in their na¬
ture and requifites. In moft animals, the entrance to
the auricular organ is patulous; but in this cafe the
animal would fuffer great inconvenience from fuch an
organization, as the organ would often be clogged with
dirt, &c.
It has alfo appeared dubious if they have the fenfe
of fmell, no organ being found in them adapted to
that purpofe : and although it was evident they had
a perception of agreeable and fetid effluvia, it was -
thought to be in a manner altogether unknown to us.
Mr Barbut is of opinion that the organs of fmell re-
fide in the palpi or feelers. Many infefts have four
and fome fix, two of which are in general cheliform,
in order to affift the infeft in conveying its food to its
mouth. It may be likewife obferved, that the palpi
are in continual motion ; the animal thrufting them in¬
to every kind of putrid or other matter, as a hog would
do his nofe, fmelling and fearching after food. Infedis
which apparently do not poffefs palpi or fpiral tongues,
have undoubtedly fome organ concealed within the
mouth analogous to them in fun&ion and utility; the
flefhy probofeis of the fly is thruft into every fubftance
in which the animal expedis to find food ; and when
it is extended, nearly in the middle are fituated, in
our author’s opinion,; two upright palpi, which, no
E N T O M
An- doubt, perform in their turn fome office, perhaps that
&c- offmell.
Manjr infers have no tongue, nor make any found
with their mouth; but for this purpofe fome uie their
feet, others their wings, and others fome elaftic inftru-
ment with which they are naturally furniffied.
Eyes. Moil infefts have two; but the gyrinus has
four, the fcorpion fix, the fpider eight, and the fco
lopendra three. They have no eye-brows, but the ex¬
ternal tunic of their eyes is hard and tranfparent like
a watch-glafs; their eyes have no external motion,
unlefs it be in the crab. They confift for the moil part
of one lens only ; but in thofe of the butterfly, dipte-
rse, and many of the beetles, they are more numerous.
Pugett difcovercd 17,325 lenfes in the cornea of a but¬
terfly, and Lieuwenhoek 800 in a fly.
Ant eknje- Ofthefe there are in general two (unlefs
four are allowed to fome kind of crabs), and placed on
the fore-part of the head: they are peculiar to infefts;
and are plainly diftinguiffiable from the tentaculae of
the vermes, in being cruftaceous; and from the palpi of
infefls, which are more numerous, placed near the
mouth, and are fometimes wanting. As the antennae
are of great moment in diftinguifhing the various kinds
of infects, we ffiall enumerate and explain the feveral
different forms of them.
Sctacea, are thofe which grow gradually taper to¬
wards the extremity.
Filiformesy fuch as are of the fame thicknefs through¬
out.
Monilifarmes, are filiform, like the preceding, but
confift of a feries of round knobs, like a necklace of
beads.
Clavate, fuch as gradually increafe in fize toward the
extremity.
Capitata, are clavatx, but have the extremity fome-
what round.
Fi(files, are capitate; but have the capitulum, or
knob, divided longitudinally into three or four parts,
or laminae, as in the fcarabaei.
Perfoliate^ are alfo capitate; but have the capiuflum
horizontally divided, as in the dermeftes.s
PeBinata, fo called from their fimilitude to a comb,
though they more properly refemble a feather, as in
the moths and elateres. This is moft obvious in the
male.
Arijlata:, fuch as have a lateral hair, which is ei¬
ther naked or furnifhed with leffer hairs, as in the 11 y ;
Brevinces, thofe which are ftiorter tha-n the body; lon-
giores, thofe which are longer than the body; medio-
cres, thofe which are of the fame length with the body;
all three of which varieties are di'linguilhable in the ce-
rambyces.
Palpi, or Feelers, refemble filiform, articulated,
moveable antennae. They are moft commonly four in
number, fometimes fix; they are fufficiently diftin-
guifhed from antennae, in being naked, Ihort, and al¬
ways placed at the mouth.
Os, the Mouth, is generally placed in the anterior
part of the head, extending fomewhat downwards. In
fome infe&s, it is placed under the bread, as in the
chermes, coccus, cancer (crab), and curculio.
Rostrum, or Probofcis, is the mouth drawn out to
rigid poh,i : in many of the hemiptera clafs it is
bent downward toward the bread and belly, as in the
O L O G Y. Sea.
cicada, nepa, notoue&a, cimex (bug), aphis, and re- Tong
markably fo in fome curculiones. Legs,
Maxillje, the jfa'tvs, are two in number, fometimes
four, and at other times more; they are placed ho¬
rizontally ; the inner edge of them in fome infedts is
ferrated or furnifhed with little teeth.
Lingua, the Tongue, in fome infe&s is taper and
fpiral, as in the butterfly ; in others it is flelhy, re-
fembling a probofcis, and tubular, as in the fly.
Labium fuperius, the tipper Lip, is fituated above
the jaws; as in the fcarabasus and gryllus.
Stemmata, or Crown, are three fmooth hemifphe-
ric dots, placed generally on the top of the head; as
in moft of the hymenoptera, and others.
II. TRUNCUS, the Trunk, is that part which
comprehends the breaft or thorax : it is fituated be¬
tween the head and abdomen ; and has the legs in-
ferted into it, that its parts may be diftindily de¬
termined. It is divided into thorax, fcatellum, and Jler-
num.
Thorax, the Thorax, is the back part of the breaft;
and is very various in its fhap'e. It is called dentatus,
when its fides are armed with points ; fpinofus, when
its back is furniftied with them, as in the cerambyx ;
and margirmtus, when its margin is laterally dilated, as
in the Alpha and caffida.
Scutellum, or Efcutcheon, is the pofterior part of
the thorax : it is frequently triangulai'; and appears
to be divided from the thorax by an intervening future,
as in moft of the coleoptera.
Sternum, the Sternum, is fituated on the inferior
part of the thorax; it is pointed behind in the elateres,
and bifid in fome of the dytifei.
III. ABDOMEN, the Abdomen is in moft in-
fedts diflindf from the thorax ; it is the pofterior part
of the body of the infedl; and is compofed of a num¬
ber of annular fegments, which ferve occafionally to
lengthen or fhoiten it, and to coatain the organs of
chylification, &c.
Spiracula, are little holes or pores, placed fingly
on each fide of every fegment of the abdomen : thro’
thefe the infedl breathes; and if oil be applied fo as
to flop them up, it proves fatal to moft of them.
Tergum, the Back, is the fuperior part of the ab¬
domen.
Venter, the Belly, is the inferior part.
Anus, is the pofterior part of the abdomen, per¬
forated for the evacuation of the excrement. This
part alfo frequently contains the organs of genera¬
tion.
IV. ARTUS, the Limbs orExTREMiTits, are the
various inftruments of motion.
Pedes, the Legs, arc generally fix. There is an ex¬
ception to this, however, in the clafs Aptera, many of
which have eight; as acari (mites), phalangii, moft
of the aranei (fpiders), fcorpiones (fcorpions), and
cancri (crabs). The onifeus has 14, and the iuli and
fcolopendri ft ill more.
The fir ft joint of the leg, which is generally thick-
eft, is called femur; the fecond, which is generally of
the fame fize throughout, tibia ; the third, which is
jointed, is diftinguiflied by the name of tarfus •, and
E N T O M
the laft, v»h!ch in moft infefts is double, by that of
unguis. The legs of infers, in general, are named
from the various motions they produce : Curforii,
from that of running, which are the mod numerous ;
faltatorii, from that of leaping; rtatatorii, from that
of fwimming, &c.— In the faltatorii, the thighs are
remarkably large, by which means they are able to
leap to a ccnfiderable diftance, as in the gryllua,
grafshopper, &c. In thofe of the Natatorii, the
feet are flat, and edged with hairs, which anfwer the
purpofe of oars in afilfting them to fwim, as in the
dytifcus.—Mutici', are fuch feet as have no claws.
— Chela, or claws, are the fore-feet enlarged towards
their extremities, each of which is furnifhed with two
leffer claws, which aft like a thumb and finger ; as in
the crabi
Al^e, Wings, the indmruments which enable the
to fly. Thefe are membranous and undivided, except
in the inftnee of the phalaencea alucitae, in which they
are in part divided. Moft infefts have four; the dip-
tera-clafs, and the coccus, however, have two only.
The wing is divided into its fuperior and inferior
furfaces : its anterior part in a butterfly, is that to1-
wards the anterior margin, or next to the head ; its
pofterior part, that towards the anus; its exterior part,
that towards the outer edge ; and the interior, that
next the abdomen.
They are called pllcatiks, when they are folded at
the time the infeft is at rell, as in the wafp ; oppofite
to thefe are \\xt plana, which are incapable'of being
folded.
ErcEla, fuch as have their fuperior furfaces brought
in contaft when the infeft is at reft ; as in the ephe¬
mera, libellula puella and virgo, and papiliones (but-
erflies.)
Patentes, which remain horizontally extended when
the infeft is at reft ; as in the phalasnae geometry, and
moft of the libellulas.
Incumbentes, fuch as cover horizontally the fuperior
part of the abdomen when the infeft is at reft.
Dejlexa, are incumbentes, but not horizontally, the
outer edges declining toward the fides.
Reverfse, are deflexae, with this addition, that the
edge of the inferior wings projefts from under the an¬
terior part of the fuperior ones.
Dentala, in which the edge is ferrated, or fcol-
loped.
Caudata, in which one or more projeftions in the
hinder wings are extended into proceffes.
Reticulata, when the veffels of tire wings put on the
appearance of network, as in the hemerobius perla
the two anterior wings generally become fuperior, and
the pofterior ones inferior, in moths, when their wings
are clofed ; but the anterior wings are called primary,
and the inferior ones fecondary, in butterflies, as they
cannot with propriety be called inferior when the wings
are ereft.
Colores, the colours, thefe are felf-apparent: but
according to their feveral lhapes, they take the diffe¬
rent names of punSa, dots; macula, fpots; fafeia,
bands, which frequently run acrofs and fometimes
furround the edge of the wings; Jlriga, ftreaks, which
are very (lender fafeias ; and linea, lines, which are
longitudinally extended,
o l o g y. 679
Ocellus, is a round fpot, containing a leffer fpot of a Wings of,
different colour in its centre. Infeft?.
Stigmata, another term lately introduced by Lin- v
naeus, fignifies the fpot, or anaftamoils, in the middle
of the wing neat the anterior margin ; it is confpicu-
ous in molt of the hymenoptera and neuroptera, and
even in the coleoptera. The Angle or double kidney-
(haped fpot; fituated in the fame part of the anterior
wings, and frequently occurring in the phalsnas pa-
game, is diftinguifhed likevvife by the name oijligma.
Elytra (in the Angular number elytron). The upper
wings, which are of a hard fubftance, in fome degree
refembling leather, and which in moft infefts are of a
very bard texture, but in others flexible, are called
elytra ; their fuperior furface is generally convex, their
inferior one concave. When the infeft flies, they are
extended ; and flint when it refts, clofing together, and
forming a longitudinaTfuture down the middle of the
back, as in the cokoptera.
They are of various Ihapes. Mlreviata, when fliort-
er than the abdomen. Truncaia, when (horter than
the abdomen, and terminating in a tranfverfe' line.
Fafiigiata, when of equal or greater length than the
abdomen, and terminating in a tranfverfe line. Ser~
rata, when the exterior margin towards the apex is,
notched or ferrated, as in fome of the bupreftes. Spi-
nofa, when their furface is covered vuth (harp points
or prickles. Scalra, when their furface is fo uneven
as to grate againft the fingers. Striata, when mark¬
ed with (lender longitudinal furrows. Porcata, when
with elevated longitudinal fulci or ridges. Sulcata,
when thefe ridges are concave. Hemelytra, when the
fuperior wings are of a middle fubftance betwixt lea¬
ther and membrane ; either totally fo, as in the gryl-
li ; or partially fo, as in the cimices, nepa;,- and noto-
neftse: Thefe are commonly diftingniJhed by the name
hemiptera.
Halteres, poifers, (a term alfo introduced by Lin¬
naeus), are little heads placed on a (talk.or peduncle*
moft frequently under a little arched feale. They are
found only in the clafs diptera, and appear to be no¬
thing more than the rudiments of the hinder wings.
Cauda, the Tail, in moft infefts is,
Simplex, Ample, capable of being extended, and
again drawn back at pleafure. In the crab and fcor-
pion, however, it is
Elongata, elongated, or lengthened out.
Setacea, briftle-ftiaped, or taper ; as in the raphidea.
Trifeta, confifthg of three bridles ; as in the ephe¬
mera.
Furcata, being forked, as in the podura.
Forcipata, refembling a pair of forceps; as in the
forAcula.
Foliofa, refembling a leaf; as in the blatta, grylli,
and fome fpecies of cancri.
Telfera, fuch as are armed with a dart or (ling; as
in the fcorpion and panorpa.
Aculeus, an inftrument with which they wound, and
at the fame time inftil a poifon; with fuch,the bee*
wafp, fcorpion, &c. are furnilhed.
Explanation it/-Plate CLXXXII.
Fig. I. Antennpe pectinate, or feathered; as in
the phalana, moths.
a.. Ah*
E N T O M i
Antekn;e ferfoliatje, or perfoliated ; as in
the dermejles and dytifcus.
 fissiles, or iiffile, divided into la-
minx at the extremity, as in the fcarabtei,
beetles.
   clavat^e, or club-ihaped, as in
the papilio, butterfly.
 moniliformes, like a necklace of
beads ; as in the chryfomela.
 setaceve, fetaceous, or briftlesha¬
ped ; as in many of the phalanx.
—  aristatas, furniflred with a late¬
ral hair, as in thejfy.
9. a Caput, the head.
b Palpi, or feelers.
c Antennae, or horns.
d Oculi, the eyes.
e Thorax.
/ Scutellum, or efcutcheon.
g Pe&us, or bread.
h Sternum, or breaft-bone.
* Abdomen, and its fegments.
k Anus.
/ Elytra, or (hells,
m Membranous wings.
n Pedes, or feet, which are natatorii.
10. 0 Femur, or thigh.
p Tibia, or leg.
q Tarfus, or foot.
r Unguis, or claw.
i\. a The anterior part of the wing.
b The pofterior part.
c The exterior part.
d The interior part.
e The margin.
/The dilk, or middle.
g Oculus, or eye.
12, 13, 14, 15, Reprefent the infeft in its egg,
caterpillar, pupa, and perfeft
Hate.
Sect. II. Of the Sexes of Infcfts.
The fame difference of fex exifts in infers as in o-
ther animals, and they even appear more difpofed to
increafe their fpecies than other animals; many of
them, when become perfeft, feeming to be created
for no other purpofe but to propagate their fpecies.
Thus the filk-worm, when it arrives at its perfeA or
moth-date, is incapable of eating, and can hardly fly :
it endeavours only to propagate its fpecies ; after
which the male immediately dies, and the female as
foon as (he has depofited her eggs.
In many infers, the male and female are with dif¬
ficulty diilinguifhed ; and in fome they differ fo wide¬
ly, that an unfkilful perfon might eafily take the male
and female of the fame infedt for different fpecies; as
for indance, in the phalaena humuli, piniaria, ruflula ;
each fex of which differs in colour. This unlikenefs is
dill more apparent in fome infefts, m which the male
has wings and the female none ; as in the coccus, 1am-
pyris, phalsena antiqua, brumata, lichenella. And as
mod infers remain a long while in copulation, as we
may fee in the tipula and filk-worm, the winged
males fly with the winglefs females, and carry them
ftbout from one place to another; as in the phalama an-
N0 x 17.
3 L O G Y. Sea.1]
tiqua. It is, however, no certain rule, that when one Propag*
infedt of the fame fpecies is found to have wings, and don, &c.
the other to be without, the former mud neceflarily be 'r~“
the male, and the latter the female. The aphides, for
indance, are an exception ; and befides thefe, indivi¬
duals of both fexes, and of the fame fpecies, are fou^d
without wings, as the carabi majores, tenebriones, me-
loes, cimices. The gryllus pededris is likewife defli-
tute of wings ; and might have paffed for a gryllus in
its pupa date, had it not been feen in copulation ; tor
it is well known that no infedl can propagate its fpe¬
cies till it arrives at its lad or perfeft date.
“ Pleraque infeftorum genitalia fua intra anum ha-
bent abfcondita, et penes folitarios, fed nonnuila penem
habent bifidum: Cancri autem et Aranei geminos,
quemadmodum nonnulla amphibia, et quod mirandura
in loco alieno, ut Cancer, fub bafi caudx. Araneus
mas palpos habet clavatos, qui penes funt, juxta os u-
trinque unicum, quas clavae fexum nec fpeciem didin-
guunt; et fcemina vulvas fuas habet in abdomine juxta
peftus. Heic vero fi unquam vere dixeris, “ Res ple¬
na tlmorh amor: ft enim procus in aufpicato acceffe-
rit, fcemina ipfum devorat; quod etiam fit, fi non fla-
tim fe retraxerit. Libellula fcemina genitale fuum fub
apice gerit caudas, et mas fub peftore ; adeo ut cura
mas collum fceminse forcipe caudas arripit, ilia caudam
fub peftore ejus adplicit, ficque peculiari ratione con-
nexae volitent.”
Befides thofe of the male and female, a third fex
exids in fome infefts which we call neuter: As thefe
|iave not the didinguifhing parts of either fex, they
may be confidered as eunuchs or infertile.
We know of no indance of this kind in any other
clafs of animals, nor in vegetables, except in the*clafs
Syngenefiae, and in the Opulus. This kind of fex is
only found among thofe infefts which form themfelves
into focieties, as bees, wafps, and ants : and here thefe
kind of eunuchs are real flaves, as on them lies the
whole bufinefs of the economy; while thofe of the other
fex are idle, only employing themfclves in the increafe
of the family. Each family of Bees has one female
only (called the queen), many males, and an almofl in¬
numerable quantity of neuters. Of thofe, the neuters
(whofe antennae have 1 j joints) do the working part;
they extraft and colleft honey and wax, build up the
cells, keep watch, and do a variety of other things.
The males, whofe antennae confifl of 15 joints, do no
work ; they ferve the female once, and that at the ex¬
pence of their lives ; they may be confidered in the
light of a fet of parafites, or cecifoei ; but as foon as
their bufinefs of impregnation is over, they are expel¬
led by their fervants the neuters, who now (hake off
the yoke, but yet pay all due refpeft to their common
mother the queen. The fame economy nearly takes
place in Wafps, where the young females, which are
impregnated in the autumn, live through the winter,
and in the fpring propagate their fpecies; but the
queen, together with all the males, perifh in the winter.
Among Ants, the neuters form a hill in the ihape of
a cone, that the water may run off it, and place thofe
which are in the pupa flate on that fide of it which is
leaft expofed to the heat of the fun. At a confider-
able diftance from thefe are found the habitations of
the males and females, to whom the moft ready obe¬
dience is yielded by the neuters, till a new offspring
fuc-
5ea. III. ENTOMOLOGY. 681
Changes offucceeds, and then they oblige them to quit their ha-
tnfcdts. bitations. But thofe ants which live entirely under
” ' ground, provide better for themfelves in this refpeft:
for a little before their nuptials, they quit their habi¬
tation of their own accord, and after fwarming in the
manner of bees, they copulate in the air; and each re¬
tiring to fome new habitation, founds a new family.
No hermaphrodites have as yet been difcovered
among infects. There is fomething very lingular,
however, in the propagation of the aphides. A female
aphis once impregnated,’can produce young, which
will continue to produce others without any frefh im¬
pregnation, even to the fifth progeny; afterwards a
-new impregnation muft take place. See Aphis.
The male infefts, like male hawks, are always fmal-
ler than the females.
In the propagation of their fpecies they are re¬
markably careful; fo that it is with the greateft dif¬
ficulty the flies are kept from depofiting their eggs
on frelh meat, the cabbage butterfly from laying
them on cabbage, and other infetfs from depofiting
them in the feveral places peculiar to each. The
fcarabseus pilularius and carnifex, are deferving of our
attention, as they afford a mutual affiftance to each
other: for when the female has laid her eggs in a little
ball of dung, the males with their feet, which are axi-
form, aflift the female to roll it to fome fuitable place;
as Ariflotle and Pliny formerly, and Loefling has late¬
ly, obferved.
It is very wonderful to obferve, that in the coccus
and onifcus, the female has no fooner brought forth
her young, than fhe is devoured by it; and that the
fphex fhould be able fo readily to kill the caterpillar of
a moth, then bury it in the earth, and there depofit
her eggs in it. Nor can we without admiration behold
the fame fpecies of aphis, which was viviparous in the
fummer, become oviparous in the autumn.
Almoft innumerable examples might be brought of
the Angularities in the eggs of infe&s: we (hall, how¬
ever, only mention thofe of the hemerobius, which are
depofited on a footftalk ; thofe of the phalsena neuftria,
which are placed regularly in a ring round the branch
of fome tree ; and the compound eggs of the blatta.
Sect. III. Metamorphofes of Infefts.
There are no infefts, except thofe of the aptera
clafs, but what are continually undergoing fome tranf-
formation. Infers change firft from the (ovum) egg,
into the (larva) caterpillar or maggot; then into the
(pupa) chryfalis; and laftly into the (imago) fly or
perfedt ftate. During each of thofe changes, their ap¬
pearance differs as much as night and day.
The infedt, as foon as it came out of the egg, was
by former entomologifts called eruca ; but as this is
Tynonymous with the botanic name Jifymbrium, it was
changed by Linnaeus for the term
Larva; a name expreffive of the infedl’s being, in
this ftate, as it were mafked, having its true appear¬
ance concealed. Under this mafk or (kin the entire
infedt, fuch as it afterwards appears when perfedt,
lies concealed, inveloped only in its tender wings,
and putting on a foft and pulpy appearance ; info-
much that Swammerdam was able to demonftrate
the butterfly with its wings to exift in a caterpillar,
Vol. VI. Part II.
though it bore but a faint refemblance to its future Changes of
perfedtion. The infedt, therefore, in this ftate, un-
dergoesmo other alteration but the change of its flcin. ~ ' <
The larvae are, for the moil part, larger than the in¬
fedt, when perfedt, and are very voracious. The cater¬
pillar of the cabbage-butterfly eats double what it
would feem to require from its fize; but its growth is
not adequate to its voracity.
Pupa. The inftdt in this ftate was formerly called
chryfalis, or aurelia : but as the appearance of gilding is
confined to a few butterflies only, the term of pupa has
been adopted in its ftead ; becaufe the lepidoptera, efpe-
cially, refemble an infant in fwaddling clothes ; and in
this ftate all, except thofe of the hemiptera clafs, take
no nourifhment.
Imago, is the third ftate. This name is given by
Linnreus to this third change, in which the infedt ap¬
pears in its proper fhape and colours; and as it under¬
goes no more transformations, it is called In
this ftate it flies, is capable of propagating its fpecies,
and receives true antennae ; which before, in moft in-
fedts, were fcarce apparent.
As the fhape of the pupa is different in different
claffes of infedts, it affumes different names; thus it is
called
Coardata, when it is round, and as it were turned,
without the leaft refemblance of the ftrudture of the
infedt; as in the diptera.
OlteSa, when it confifts as it were of two parts, one
of which furrounds the head and thorax, and the other
the abdomen.
Incompleta, when they have wings and feet, but are
not capable of moving them ; as in moft of the hyme-
noptera.
Semicompleta, in which they walk or run, but have
only the rudiments of wings.
Completa, in which they immediately obtain the per¬
fedt form of the infedt, without undergoing any more
change : as in thofe of the aptera clafs, except only the
flea. The bed-bug alfo belongs to this clafs.
The fpider undergoes frequent transformations,
though only in the colour of its flcin. The cruftaceous
infedts, as crabs, lobfters, &c. yearly caft their ftiells,
as their growth would otherwife be impeded.
The fcolopendri, when young, have fewer feet than
when they are full grown.
All infedts, as foon as they undergo the third change,
are arrived at their full growth ; nor do we find any
difference in the fize of the fame fpecies of infedt in
the fame countries, unlefs, during its caterpillar ftate,
it has not had a fufficiency of proper food.
Sect IV. Clarification of Inf ells.
As infedts are endowed with the various powers of
creeping, flying, and fwimming, there is fcarce any
place, however remote and obfeure, in which they are
not to be found. The great confufion which appeared
to the ancients to arife from their number, made them
never dream of reducing them to any fyftem. Swam¬
merdam, that indefatigable inquirer into nature, ob¬
ferved that their metamorphofes were divided by na¬
ture into feveral Hates or orders. Their external ap¬
pearance alfo carried with it fome mark of diftindlion :
fo that entomologitts called all thofe of the coleoptera
4 R cla&
682
ENTOMOLOGY
tiorfon' C^a^S Scaraleti (beetles) ; thofe of the lepidoptera
n" PapMones; and thofe of the gymnoptera clafs that had
y-o—' two wings only, Mufca (flies); thofe of the fame clafs
that had four wings, were called sipes (bees). No
farther progrefs was made in the fyftematic part of
this fcience till the time of Linnaeus. He was the firft
that undertook to determine the genera, and affign
them their proper chara&ers, in the Sy/tema Nature;
and thus reduced this fcience to a fyltematic form.
This fyflem, in fubfequent editions, was confiderably
enriched and amendedbyhim, infomuch that the fcicnce
of infeils now fhines forth in its full lullre. ' He it was
who firft inftituted natural orders, and reduced them
into genera by expreffive names; determined an infi¬
nite number of fpecies in the Fauna Suecica and Mu-
feum Rtgirnz ; colleAed with incredible pains the fyno-
nymous names of the various authors who had written
on them ; and laftly, added their deferiptions, and the
places in which they were to be found. So that the
fyftem of this illuftrious author will lead any perfon,.
without the afilftance of a mafter, for the moft part,
eafily to afeertain the name of any infedt he may meet,
with. Before his time fcarce any more than 200 in¬
fers were known ; whereas, in the laft edition of his-
fyftem, he has determined the names of nearly 3000,
diftinft fpecies ; though this is not the fixth part of
the number that is now known.
Orders. The clafs of infers is divided by Linnaeus
into feven orders.
Plate 1. The Cokoptera (from ajheath, and a
eLXXXll.^-^), are fucg infers as have cruftaceous elytra or
ftiells, which fhut together, and form a longitudinal fu¬
ture down the back of the infe& ; as the beetle [bu-
prejlris ignita), fig. 16.
2. Hemiptera (from half, and ■altfo* a vuing),
have their upper wings ufually half cruftaceous and half
membranaceous, not divided by a longitudinal future,
but incumbent on each other; as the cimex, fig. 17.
3. Lepidoptera {from a fcale, and a wing),
are infedls having four wings, covered with fine feales
in the form of powder or meal; as in the butterfly
(papilio antiopa,) fig. 18.
4. Neuroptera, from veu^ov. a nerve, and a wing,)
have four membranous tranfparent naked wings, gene¬
rally like network ; as in the panorpa coa, fig. 19.
5. Hymenoptera (from a membrane, and a
wing), are infedb with four membranous wings, tail
furnilhed with a fling ; as in the tenthredo, fig. 2C.
6. Diptera (from ^ two, and a wing), are
fuch as have only two wings, and poifers; as in the fly
{mufea), fig. 21.
7. vlptera (from « without, and a wing), in¬
fers having no wings. This laft divifion contains
fcorpions, fpiders, crabs, lobfters, &c. See Aranea,
Ganger, &c.
Genera. To infert here the charadiets of all the
different genera which may be found in Linnseus’s
Syft. Nat would be unneceffary. It will be fufficient
to enumerate fome new genera mentioned by fub¬
fequent fyftematic writers, that, by being acquainted
wi‘h the fubtile diftindtions on which they are built,
the ftudent may avoid running into confuiion. It is
among the moderns only that genera of this kind are
to be met with, and new names given them. To re¬
move this difficulty, we ffiall.firft enumerate the names
Sea. IV
of thofe authors which are fynomymous with thofe of Claffifk
Linnaeus. . ln
New Genera of authors fynonymous with tlofe of
Linnaas.
Linnaus’s Names.
Lucanus
Hiller
Byrrhus
Mylabris
Attelabus
Silpha
Bruchus
Ptinus
Chryfomela
Hifpa
Cantharis
Bupreftis
Carabus
Myrmeleon
Sirex
Names ef other Authors.
Platyceros
Attelabus
Anthrenus cijlela
Laria Scop.
Clerus
Peltis
Mylalris
Byrrhus
Galericula
Crioferis
Cicindela
Cucujus
Bupre/lis
Fonnica-ko.
Uroceros.
New genera of authors,
Copris. Scarabaeus abfque fcutello
Boflricius. Dermelutes capecinus
Ctjlela. Byrrhus pilula
Rhinomancer. Attelabus roftro produdto fere curl,
culionis.
Anthribus. Silpha
Bruchus, Ptinus Fur ob fpinas thoracis
Melolontha, Chryfomela cylindrica
Altica.   faltatoria
Diaperis.  fungorum
Pyrochora. Gantharis
Telephorus. Cantharis
Cantharis. Meloe alata
Cerocoma. Meloe ftrafferi
Not axis. Meloe monoceros
Prionus. Cerambyx thoracis margine denticulato
Stenocoris. Leptura thorace fpinofa
Hydrophilus. L)ytifcus antennis clavatis
Myiabris. Necydalis minor
Acridium. Gryllus muticus
Loaijla.   tettigonia
Tettigonia. Gicada
Corixa. Notone dla
Naucoceris. Nepa
Perla. Hemerobius cauda bifefla
Libelluloides. Myrmeleon antennis capitatis..
Grabro. Tenthredo antennis clavatis
Pterophorus. Phalasna alucita
Bibio. Tipula thorace fpinofo
Stomoxoides. Afilus bucca inflata
Strationymus. Mufea
Nemotelus. Mufea.
Volucella. Mufea.
■ Thefe genera appear to be in a great meafurt like
thofe which were introduced into botany by the fol¬
lowers of Rivinus. Paying too little regard to nature,
they dlfunited natural genera, on account of the molt
trifling diftindlions. This made their continuance in
the fcience of very fliort duration ; our bufinefs here
is not to fuppofe, but to examine, what nature will al¬
low of, and what Ihe will not. Knowledge of this
kind, built on opinion only, will not Hand. We are
therefore to look into the fcience with great accuracy;
and the larva of the infedt, its manner of changing, and
other
eel. IV. E N T O M
aflifica- other things of moment, are to be known, before we
a,°f In Pre^ume to f°rm a new genus.
Coining of new names, and changing of one bid one
for another, has been the fource of the greateft confu-
fion. Thus, in order to reduce the cicindela and cara-
bus to the fame genus, buprejlis has been adopted for
the generic name ; but as that genus had long ago re¬
ceived a very different application, it was changed for
that of cucujus.
Again, that the officinal cantharides might be rang¬
ed among the cerambyces, the cantharides have been
removed from the genus of meloe (to which they
naturally belong), and referred to the genus of ci¬
cindela, obtaining thus a new name. And fo of many
others.
Thus alfo, to mention no more, how needlefs and
rafh was it to feparate the acridium and locufta from
the genus of gryllus, the crabro from the tenthredines,
and the mylabris from the necydalis !
Trivial Names. The trivial names placed under
their refpeftive genera will occafion little or no contro-
verfy ; they are current like money, and of the fame
utility as the proper names of men, Peter or Paul, &c.
Infebis living on vegetables fhould receive their names
from the particular plants on which they moftly feed,
as they are preferable to all others. Thus the names
of the phalana mori, &c. are excellent; and when we
are able to give fuch to infe&s, the old ones are to be
eifearded. But we are to be cautious of not being too
hafty in our judgment in this refpebl; as infefts, when
they cannot get their favourite food, will often eat
other plants. Thus the filk-worm, for want of mul¬
berry leaves, will eat thofe of lettuce, though it will
not thrive fo well on them.
Many other inftances of the invention of trivial
names will be met with in the Sjflcma Natura, parti¬
cularly among the butterflies and moths. To prevent
confufion from the great number of fpecies which con-
ftitute the genus of phalaena, they are diftributed into
feftions, and diftinguifhed by the terms of bombyces,
reflux, geometrx, tortrices, pyrabides, tinea, and alucita.
The bombyces and nodfuae, which are fo much alike,
that the females of the bombyces are with great diffi¬
culty diftinguifhed from the nocluse, are named pro-
mifcuoufly.
All thofe of the geometric have their names termi¬
nating in aria and ata, according as their antennae are
Cetaceous or peftinated. The tortrices, in aria ; the
pyralides, in alls; the tineae, in ella; and the alucitae,
in daflyla: fo that it is evident from the termination
itfelf to what ftflion the infeft is to be referred.
It were to be wifhed that fimilar inftitutions could
O L O G Y. 683
be formed throughout the whole feience, as here theClaffinca-
name itfelf ferves to diftinguifh the infe&. of ,n*
Butterflies are divided into fedtions, by the names of e s'
Equites, Heliconii, Danai, Nymphaks, and Pleleii.
In fuch a multitude of butterflies, the greateft part
of which are foreign and extra European, and to whofe
food and manner of life we are utter ftrangers, it was
impoffible to give fignificant trivial names. Linnasus,
therefore, by way of fimile, has taken the names of
the Equites from the Trojan hiftory. Thefe confift,
as it were, of two troops or bodies; of which one
contains the fable, and as it rvere mourning nobles,
having red or bloody fpots at the fcafis of their wings.
Thefe receive names from the Trojan nobles; and as
Priam was king of Troy, the moft fplendid among
thefe bear his name. The other body, ornamented
with a variety of gay colours, are diftingui/hed by the
names of the Grecian heroes ; and as in both armies
there were kings as well as officers of an inferior rank,
thofe elegant butterflies, whofe hinder wings refembled
tails, were diilinguiftied by fome royal name. Thus
when Paris is mentioned (knowing from hiftory that
he was a Trojan, and of royal blood), we find him
among thofe of the firft fe&ion ; that is, thofe of a
fable colour, fpotted in the breaft with red, and ha¬
ving their hinder-wings refembling tails. When A-
gamemnon is named, we remember him to be a noble
Greek, and find him among thofe nobles which have
variegated and fwallow-tailed wings. But when Ne-
reus is fpoken of, we readily know him to belong to
the laft fedlion, with wings having no tails.
The fecond clafs, which contains the Heliconii, de¬
rive their names from the mufes, as Urania. The
names of the fons and daughters of Danaus are be-
ftowed on the third fe&ion. And as thefe fpecies are
fubdivided into two other fe&ions, viz. the white and
parti-coloured, the metaphor is fo conduced, that the
white ones preferve the names of the daughters of Da¬
naus, and the parti-coloured ones thofe of the fons of
Egyptus: fo that it is evident from the name itfelf to
what fedlion the butterfly is to be referred.
The names of the fourth fe&ion, Nymphales, are
taken from various nymphs of antiquity; and thofe of
the fifth feftion, Plebeii, are felefted from different men
among the ancients whofe names are worthy of remem¬
brance : fo that by this means a knowledge of the an¬
cients may be interfperfed, and thia agreeable fcience
be made doubly pleafing.
Thofe, therefore, who fhall find new lepidoptera,
and give them new names, will do well to follow this
method, unlefs it be apparent what food the infedl
chiefly fubfifts on.
ENT
ntr-pao, ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or
mrr tr. going, that is neither walk nor trot, but has fomewhat
v of an amble.
This is a pace or gait of fuch horfes as have no reins
or back, and go upon their ftioulders; or, of fuch as
are fpoiled in their limbs.
ENTRING-ladders, in a fliip, are of two forts;
one ufed by the veffel’s fides, in a harbour, or in fair
weather, for perfons to go in and out of the fhip: the
■other is made of ropes, with fmall ftaves forceps; and
ENT
is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or to EntrocJuu.
come aboard the ftlip, when the fea runs fo high that  
they durtt not bring the boat to the ftiip’s fide for fear
of Having it.
EN PROCHUS, in natural hiftory, a genus of ex¬
traneous foffils, ufually of about an inch in length, and
made up of a number of round joints, which, when fe¬
parate and loofe, are called trochita: they are compo-
fed of the fame kind of plated fpar with the foffiUhells
of the echini, which is ufually of a bluiffi-grey colour,
4 K 2 and
E N V [ 684 ] E P A
Entry and very bright where frefh-broken ; they are all ftri-
it ated from the centre to the circumference, and have a
n^°y' cavity in the middle. See Plate CLXXXII.
The entrochi are found of all hzes, from that of a
pin’s head'to a finger’s length, and the thicknefs of
one’s middle finger; and are plainly of marine origin,
having often fea-(hells adhering to them. They feem
to be the petrified arms of that Angular fpecies of the
fea llar-fifh, called Jlella arborefcem.
They are efteemed very powerful diuretics, and
prefcribed in nephritic cafes with good fuccefs; the
dofe being as much of the powder as will lie on a
fhilling.
ENTRY, in law, fignifies taking pofleffion of lands
or tenements, where a perfon has a right fo do.
Entrt of an Heir, in Scots law, that form of law by
which an heir veils in himfelf a proper title to his pre-
decelfor’s eftate.
Bill of Entry, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is ufual for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the fame
fhip in one bill, though fometimes they may happen to
be upwards of 20 ieveral kinds: and in cafe the goods
are fhort entered, additional or poll entries are now
allowed; though formerly the goods, fo entered, were
forfeited. As to bills of entry outwards, or including
goods to be exported, upon delivering them, and pay¬
ing the culloms, you will receive a fmall piece of parch¬
ment called a rorie/, which tellifies your payment there¬
of, and all duties for fuch goods.
If feveral forts of goods are exported at once, of
which feme are free, and others pay culloms; the ex¬
porter mull have two cockets, and therefore mull make
two entries; one for the goods that pay, and the other
for the goods that do not pay cuftom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
mull likewife contain the name of the Ihip in which the
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time
of entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an
oath taken that the culloms for thofe goods were paid
as the law directs, you mull carry it to the collector
and comptroller, or their deputies; who, after exami¬
ning their books, will grant warrant, which mull be
given to the furveyor, fearcher, or land-waiter, for them
to certify the quantity of goods ; after which the cer¬
tificate mull be brought back to the colle£tor and
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the
faid goods are really dripped, and not landed again in
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth,
fometimes in form of a fimple parapet, and at others
like a fmall rampart with a parapet: it is raifed fome¬
times on the ditch, and fometimes beyond it.
ENVIRONNE', in heraldry, fignifies furrounded
with other things: thus, they fay, a lion enveronne
with fo many bezants. See Bezant.
ENUMERATION, an account of feveral things,
in which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in rhetoric, a part of peroration; in
which the orator, colle&ing the fcattered heads of what
has been delivered throughout the whole, makes a brief
and artful relation or recapitulation thereof.
ENVOY, a perfon deputed te negociate fome affair
with any foreign prince or Hate. Thofe fent from the
courts of Britain, France, Spain, &c. to any petty
prince or ftate, fuch as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go in quality of err- Envy
yoys, not ambalfadors; and fuch a character only do II
thofe perfons bear, who go from any of the principal EPa^ts»
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they go "
upon is not very folemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as ambaffa-
dors; they are equally under the protedlion of the
law of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of ambaf-
fadors; only differing from them in this, that the fame
ceremonies are not performed to them.
ENVY, in ethics; pain felt, and malignity con¬
ceived, at the fight of excellence or happinefs in an¬
other. See Emulation.
EON, or iEoN. SeeiEox.
EONlANS, in church hillory, the followers of Eon,
a wild fanatic of the province of Bretagne, in the 12 th
century, whofe-brain was difordered. He concluded
from the refemblance between eum, in the form for
cxercifing malignant fpirits, viz. Per eum, qui venturus
ejl judicare ’vivos & mortuos, and his own name Eon,
that he was the fon of God, and ordained to judge
the quick and dead. Eon, however, was folemnly con¬
demned by the council at Rheims in 1148, at which
■Pope Eugeuius III. prefided, and ended his days in a
miferable prifon. He left behind him a number of
followers and adherents, whom perfecution and death
fo weakly and cruelly employed, could not perfuade to;
abandon his caufe, or to renounce an abfurdity which,
fays Mofiieim, one would think could never have gain¬
ed credit but in fuch a place as Bedlam.
EORIA, in mythology, a feall celebrated by the
Athenians in honour of Erigonus, who, by way of pu~
nifiiment, for their not avenging the death of his fa¬
ther Icarus, engaged the gods to inflidt the curfe ore
their daughters, that they Ihould love men who never
returned their paffion. The feaft was inftituted by the
order of Apollo,
EOST11E, in mythology, a Saxon goddefs to whom,
they facrificed in the month of April, called the month
of Eojlra; and thence the name Eafler, which the
Saxons retained after their converfion to Chriftianity,.
applying it to the feilival celebrated in commemoration
of our Saviour’s refurredtion.
EPACRIS, in botany:. A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentan dria clafs of plants. The
calyx is a five-parted perianthium; the corolla mono-
petalous and tubular ; the ftamina five very fhort fiia*
ments; the pericarpium a roundifh, depreffed, quin-
quelocular, quinquevalvular, gaping capfule; the feeds
are numerous and very fmall.
EPAGTS, in chronology, the exceffes of the folar
month above the lunar fynodical month, and of the
folar year above the lunar year of twelve fynodical
months ; or of fcveral folar months above as many fy¬
nodical months, and feveral folar years aboyp as many
dozen of fy nodical months.
The epadls, then, are either £«««<?/ or menjirual.
Menflrual epadls are the exceffes of the civil or ks-
lendar month above the lunar month. Suppofe, e-. gr,
it were new-moon on the firil day of January; fince
the lunar month is 29 days izh. 44 3", and the month
of Janualy contains 31 days, the, menilrual epadl is 1
day 11 h. 15' 57".
Annual epadts are the exceffes of the folar year
above the lunar. Hence, as the Julian folar year ia
365 days 6h. and the Julian lunar year 354 days 8h.
E P A [ 685 ] E P H
Upaifts, ^8' 38", the annual epad will be 10 days 21 h. 1X' 22";
paminon-tjiat jS} nearly u days. Confequently the epad of 2
as‘ _ years is 22 days; of 3 years, 33 days; or rather 3,
fince 30 days make an embolifmic or intercalary month.
Thus the epad of 4 years is 14 days, and fo of the
reft ; and thus, every 19th year, the epad becomes 30
or o; confequently the 20th year the epad is 11 again ;
and fo the cycle of epads expires with the golden num¬
ber, or lunar cycle of 19 years, and begins with the
fame, as in the following table:
Numb. Numb. ^ . Nml'EPaa8
XI
XXII
III
XIV
XXV
VI
XVII
XXVIII
IX
XX
XII
XXIII
IV
XV
XXVI
VIII
XIX
XXX
Again, as the new moons are the fame, that is, as
they fall on the fame day every 19 years, fo the dif¬
ference between the lunar _and folar years is the fame
every 19 years. And becaufe the faid difference is al¬
ways to be added to the lunar year, in order to adjuft
or make it equal to the folar year; hence the faid dif¬
ference refpedively belonging to each year of the
moon’s cycle is called the epaci of the /aid year, that is,
the number to be added to the faid year, to make it
equal to the folar year ; the word being formed from
the Greek induco, intercalo.
Upon this mutual refped between the cycle of the
moon and the cycle of the epads, is founded this rule
for finding the Julian epad, belonging to any year of
the moon’s cycle. Multiply the year given of the
moon’s cycle into 1 x ; and if the produd be lefs than
30, it is the epad fought; if the produd be greater
than 30, divide it by 30, and the remainder of the di¬
vidend is the epad. For inftance, I would know the
epad for the year 1712, which is the third year of the
moon’s cycle. Wherefore 3 is the epad for 1712 ;
for 11X3 = 33, and 33 being divided by 30, there is
left 3 of the dividend for the epad. But the difference
of the Julian and Gregorian years being equal to the
excefs of the folar above the lunar year, or 11 days,
it happens that the Gregorian epad for one year is the
fame with the Julian epad for the preceding year.
EPAM1NONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the fon
of Polymnus, and one of the greateft captains of anti¬
quity. He learned philofophy and mufic under Ly-
fis, a Pythagorean philofopher; and was from his in¬
fancy inured to all the exercifes of body ^ and mind.
He was learned, generous, well-fkilled in war, brave,
modeft, and prudent; and had fuch a regard for truth,
that he would not tell a falfehood even in jell. He fer-
ved firft under the Lacedemonians; faved the life of
Pelopidas their chief, who received in~a battle feven or
eight wounds; and contra&ed a ftri£t friendfhip with
that general, which lafted till his death. At his per^
fuafions, Pelopidas delivered the city of Thebes from
the yoke of the Spartans, who had rendered themfelves
mafters of Cadmea, which occafioned a bloody war be¬
tween the two nations. Epaminondas was made ge¬
neral of the Thebans ; on which he gained the cele¬
brated battle of Leuilra, in which Cleombrotus, the Epmalepfis
valiant king of Sparta, was killed. He then ravaged , j!
the enemy’s country, and caufed the city of Mefiina
to be rebuilt and peopled. At length, the command
of the army was given to another, becaufe Epaminon¬
das had kept his troops in the field four months longer
than he had been ordered by the people r but, initead
of retiring in difguft, he now ferved as a common fol-
dier, and diftinguifned himfelf by fo many brave ac¬
tions, that the 'Thebans, aihamed of having deprived
him of the command, reftored him to his poll, in order
to carry the war 'into Theffaly* where his arms were
always vidlorious. A war breaking out between the
Elians and the inhabitants of Mantinea, the Thebans
took the part of the former. Epaminondas then refol-
ved to endeavour to furprife Sparta and Mantinea; but
not fuccteding, he gave the enemy battle, in which
he received a mortal wound with a javelin, the bearded
iron remaining in the wound. Knowing that it could
not be drawn out without occalioning immediate deaths
lie would not fufi'er it to be touched, but continued to
give his orders: and on his being told, that the enemy
were entirely defeated, “ I have lived long enough (he
cried), fince I die without being conquered ;” and at
the fame time he plucked the javelin from his wound,
and expired, 363 B. C.
EPANALEPSIS. See Oratory. n0 73.
EPANODOS. /hid. n° 75.
EPANORTHOSIS. /hid. no 86.
EPARER, in the manege, figqifies the flinging
of a horfe, or his yerking and linking with his hind-
legs.
EPAULEMENT, in fortification, a work railed to
cover fidewife, is either of earth, gabions, or fafcines
• loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fafcines mixed with earth.
EPAULETTES, are a kind of Ihouldei-knots
chofen for the foldiers, which are to be of the colour
of the facing, with a narrow yellow or white tape
round it, and worfted fringe : thofe for the officers are
made of gold or filver lace, with a rich fringe; they
are badges of diftin&ion worn on one or both Ihoulders.
Thofe of the dragoon-guards, horfe, and dragoons,,
are worn on the left Ihoulder: the light dragoons, and
officers of grenadiers,, have one on each Ihoulder:
thofe of the battalion wear one on the right Ihoulder
only, which is to be made of embroidery or lace
with a gold or filver fringe. Thofe of the royal regi¬
ment of artillery are to be gold and embroidery, with
gold fringe on icarlet cloth, and worn on the right
Ihoulder.
EPENTHESIS, in grammar, the interpofition or
infertion of a letter or fyllable in the middle of a word;
as alituum, for alitum ; relligio, for relig\o ; ir.duperator,
for imperator, &c.
EPEUS, of the line of Endymion, the inventor of
the battering ram, an engine of great fervice in fieges
to make a breath. He is thought to have built the
Trojan horfe, and to have founded the cky Metapon-
tum.
EPHA, or Ephah, in Jewiflx antiquity, a meafure
for things dry, equal to 3 pecks and 3 pints.
EPHEB2EUM, in antiquity, the place where the
ephebi or youth exercifed; or, as fome fay, where thofe
who
Barhut's
lnf£ls.
Plate
CLXXX
E P H [ 686 ] E P H
who defigned to exercife met, and agreed what kind after the fetting of the fun, towards the middle of Eplrctrfe- j
of exerciie they fhould contend in, and what fhould be Auguft. They are feen fluttering and fporting on the rides,
' the vigor’s reward. ~ brink of their tomb. The glare of light attratfts them,
EPHEBI, among the Athenians, a defignation gi- round which they perform a thoufand circles with a-
ven to their young men when they arrived at 18 years mazing regularity. Their coming together for the
of age, at which lime they had their names entered in purpofe of generation can only be furmifed, the flrort-
a public regifter. nefs of their life requiring that all its funftions Ihould
EPHEDRA, in botany, a genus of the monodel- be proportionable to their duration. Some naturalills
phia order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ; have been of opinion, that the males impregnated the
and in the natural method ranking under the 51ft or- eggs after the manner of fifhes. The females, by the
der, Conifer#. The male calyx is bifid; there is no help of the threads of their tail and the flapping of
corolla, but feven llamina ; four antherae inferior ; their wings, fupport themfelves on the furface of the
three fuperior. The female calyx is bipartite, and five- water, and in that almofl upright fituation drop their
fold, one upon another ; there iis no corolla ; there are eggs in clutters. One Angle female will lay 700 or
two piftils, and two feeds covered by the calyx, refem- 800 eggs, which fink to the bottom. The larvae that
Hing a berry. efcape from the voracioufnefs of the fifties, fet about
EPHEMERA, from “ a day a diary fe- the conftru&ion of habitations to {belter them from
ver, or a fever of one day’s continuance only. In this every kind of danger. When the flies have propaga-
cafe, fuch a heat as attends an excefs of wine, a pulfe ted, they are feen to die and fall by heaps. The land
fomewhat full and quick, but foft and regular, a flight and water are ftrewed with them to a confidetable
Eeadach, a naufea, and reftleflhefs, are all the fymp- thicknefs. 1 he fiftiermen confider thefe multitudes of
toms, and which terminate without any fenfible eva- deftroyed infedts as manna for the fifties,
cuation. If it continue unto the third day, it is not a EPHEMERIDES, in aftronomy, tables calculated
diary fever ; and if the conftitution is very dry, an by aftronomers, {bowing the prefent Hate of the hea-
he&ic is to be dreaded. yens for every day at noon ; that is, the places where-
Ephemera, the Day-fly, in zoology, a genus be- in all the planets are found at that time. It is from
longing to the order of neuroptera. It has no teeth thefe tables that the eclipfes, conjundlions, and afpe&s
or palpae; there are two large protuberances above the of the planets, are determined ; horofcopes or celeftial
eyes; the wings are ere<ft, the two hind ones being fehemes conltrudted, &c. We have ephemerides of
largeft ; and the tail is briftly. Thefe flies, who take Origan, Kepler, Argoli, Heckerus, Mezzaracchis,
their name from the ftiortnefs of their life, are diftin- Wing, De la Hire, Parker, &c. S. Caffini has cal-
guiftied into feveral fpecies. Some live feveral days, culated ephemerides of the fidera medicaea or fatellites
others do not take flight till the fetting of the fun, of Jupiter, which are of good ufe in determining the
and live not to fee the rifing of that luminary. Some longitude.
exift but one hour, others but half that time; in which In England, the Nautical Almanac, or Aftronomi-
fhort period they comply with the call of nature, cal Ephemeris, publiihed annually by anticipation, un-
With refpecl to thofe who live feveral days, there is a der the dire<ftion of the commilfioners of longitude, is
peculiarity obferved, incident to themfelves alone, the moll confiderable. In France, celeftial epheme-
They have to call off one (lough more, an operation rides have been publiftied by M. Defplaces every ten
which fometimes takes 24 hours to complete. To years, from 1715 to 1745: they were afterwards con-
bring this about, they cling faft to a tree. The ephe- tinued by the Abbe Caille, with many additions ; of
merae, before they flutter in air, have in fome manner which an account may be feen in the Hiftory of the
been fifhes. They remain in the ftates of larva and Academy of Sciences for 1743. The Academy of
chryfalis for one, two, or three years. The chryfalis Sciences have likewife publiftied annually, from the
only differs from the larva by there being obfervable beginning of the prefent century, a kind of ephemeris,
II.on its back cafes for wings. Both have on their fides under the title of Comoiffance des Terns.
fmall fringes of hair, which, when put into motion, EPHESUS, a city of antiquity, much celebrated
ferve them as fins. Nothing can be more curious than on account of its temple of Diana, and for being
the plying of thofe little oars in the water. Their ab- the moft famous mart or ftaple town of Hither Afia.
domen is terminated, as well as in their ftate of flies, Ephefus was in ancient times the metropolis of all
by three threads. Thefe larvae fcoop themfelves out Alia. Stephenus gives it the title of Epiphanejlate, or
dwellings in the banks of rivers; and they are fmall mojl illnjlrious i and Pliny ftyles it the ornament of
tubes made like fiphons, the one ferving for an en- Afia. The ancient city itood about 50 miles fouth of
trance, the other affording them an outlet. The Smyrna, near the mouth of the river Cayfter, and the
banks of fome rivers are often perforated with them, ftiore of the Icarian fea, which is a bay of the iEgsean;
When the waters decreafe, they dig frefti holes lower but as it has been fo often deftroyed and rebuilt, it
down, in order to enjoy their element the water. The is no eafy matter to determine the precife place. Moft
feafon and hour when the chryfalids of the different of our modern travellers are of opinion, that the an-
fpecies of the ephemerae turn into flies, maintain a cient city flood more to the fouth than the prefent;
kind of regulaiity. The heat, the rife or fall of the which they argue from the ruins that ftill remain. E-
waters, accelerate, however, or poftpone their final phefus was, in ancient times, known by the names of
difplay. The ephemerae of the Rhine appear in the Alopes, Ortygia, Morges, Smyrna, Tracheca, Samornion,
air two hours before funfet. Thefe flies are hatched and Ptela. It was called Ephefus, according to He-
almoft all at the fame inftant in fuch numbers as to raclides, from the Greek word ephefus, fignifyingper-
darken the air. The moft early of thofe on the Marne miffon; becaufe Hercules (fays he) permitted theCima-
aad Seine in France do not begin to fly till two hours zons to live and build a city in that place. Others tell
E P H [ 687 ] E P H
us, that Ephefus was the name of the Amazon that
founded the city; for Pliny, Juftin, and Orofius, una-
nimoufly affirm that it was built by an Amazon ;
while others beftow this honour upon Androclus, the
fon of Codrus, king of Athena, who was the chief of
the lonians that fettled in Alia. But in matters of fo
early a date, it isimpoffible to come at the truth, and
therefore not worth our while to dwell on fuch fruit-
lefs inquiries. What we know for certain is, that
the city, which in the Roman times was the metro¬
polis of all Afia, acknowledged Lyfimachus for its
founder; for that prince, having caufed the ancient
city to be entirely demolilhed, rebuilt, at a vail ex¬
pence, a new one, in a place more convenient, and
nearer the temple. Strabo tells us, that, as the inha¬
bitants Ihowed a great reludtance to quit their an¬
cient habitations, Lyfimachus caufed all the drains
that conveyed the water into the neighbouring
fens and the Cayller to be privately Hopped up ;
whereby the city being on the firft violent rains in
great part laid under water, and many of the inhabi¬
tants drowned, they were glad to abandon the ancient
and retire to the new city. This new Ephefus was
grervy damaged by an earthquake in the reign of Ti¬
berius, but by that emperor repaired and adorned with
feveral ftately buildings, of which there are now but
few ruins to be feen, and fcarce any thing worthy of
ancient Ephefus. The aqueduft, part of which is Hill
Handing, is generally believed to have been the work
of the Greek emperors; the pillars which fupport the
arches are of fine marble, and higher or lower as the
level of the water required. This aqueducl ferved to
convey water into the city from the fpring of Halitee,
mentioned by Paufanias. The gate; now called by
the inhabitants, for what reafon we know not, the
Gate of Perfecution, is remarkable for three bas-reliefs
on the mould of an exquifite tafie. The port, of which
fo many medals have been ftruck, is at prefent but an
open road, and not much frequented. The Cay Her was
formerly navigable, and afforded a fafe place forffiips
to ride in, but is now almoH choked up withi fand.
But the chief ornament of Ephefus was the temple
of Diana, built at the common charge of all the Hates
in Afia, and for its Hru&ure, fize, and furniture, ac¬
counted among the wonders of the world. This great
edifice was fituated at the foot of a mountain, and at
the head of a marffi ; which place they chofe, if we
believe Pliny, as the leafi fubjeft to earthquakes. This
fite doubled the charges ; for they were obliged to be
at a vafi expence in making drains to convey the wa¬
ter that came down the hill into the morafs and the
Gayffer. Philo Byzantius tells us, that in this work
they ufed fuch a quantity of Hone, as almoH exhaufled:
all the quarries in the country; and thefe drains or
vaults are what the prefent inhabitant^ take for a laby¬
rinth. To fecure the foundations of the Conduits or
fewers, which were to bear a building qf fuch a prodi¬
gious weight, they laid beds of charcoal, fays Pliny,,
well rammed, and upon them others of wool. Two
hundred and twenty years, Pliny fays 400, were fpent
in building this wonderful temple by all Afia. It was.
425 feet in length, and 200 in breadth, fupported by
127 matble pillais, 70 feet high, of which 27 were
mofi curioufly carved, and the refi poliffied. Thefe
pillars were the works, of fo many kings, and the bas-
reliefs of one were done by Scopas, the mofi famous
fculptor of antiquity ; the altar was almoft wholly the
work of Praxiteles. Cheiromocrates, who built the
city of Alexandria, and offered to form Mount Athos
into a llatue of Alexander, was the architedl employ¬
ed on this occafion. The temple enjoyed the privilege
of anafylum, which at firfi extended to a furlong, was
afterwards enlarged by Mithridates to a bow-ffiot, and
doubled by Marc Antony, fo that it took in part of
the city : but Tiberius, to put a flop to the many abu-
fes and diforders that attend privileges of this kind, re¬
voked them all, and declared that no man guilty of
any wicked or difhonefl aflion fliould efcape jufiice,
though he fled to the altar itfelf.
The priefis who officiated in this temple were held
in great efleem, and trufled with the care of facred
virgins, or priefteffes, but not till they were made eu¬
nuchs. They were called EJliatores and Efferue, had a<.
particular diet, and were not allowed by their confli-
tutions to go into any private houfe, They were
maintained with the profits accruing from the lake Se-
linufius, and another that fell into it, which mufihave
been very confiderable, fince they erefted a golden fla-
tue to one Artemidorus, who being fent to Rome, re¬
covered them after they had been feized by the farm¬
ers of the public revenues. All the lonians reforted
yearly to Ephefus, with their wives and children,
where they folmnized the feflival of Diana with great
pomp and magnificence, making on that occafion rich
offerings to the goddefs, and valuable prefents to her
priefls. The affiarchse, mentioned by St Luke, were,
according toBeza, thofe prieffs whofe peculiar province
it was to regulate the public fports that were annually
performed at Ephefus in honour of Diana : they were
maintained with the collettions made during the fports;
for all Afia flocked to fee them. The great Diana of-
the Ephefians, as Hie was fly led by her blind adorers,
was, according to Pliny, a fmall flatue of ebony, made
by one Canitia, though commonly believed to have been
fent down from heaven by Jupiter. This Hatue was
firfl placed in a nich, which, as we are told, the Ama¬
zons caufed to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such
was the firfl rife of the veneration that was paid to
Diana in this place. In procefs of time the venera¬
tion for the goddefs daily increafing among the inha¬
bitants of Afia, a mofl Hatelyand magnificent temple
was built near the place where the elm Hood, and the
Hatue of the goddefs placed in it. This was the firfi,
temple ; but not quite fo fumptuous as that which we
have deferibed, though reckoned, as well as the fecond,.
among the wonders of the world. The fecond, being
that above deferibed, was remaining in Pliny’s time,
and in Strabo’s ; and is fuppofed to have been deftroy-
ed in the reign of Conflantine, purfuant to the edict
by which that emperor commanded all the temples of:
the heathens to be thrown down and demolilhed : the
former was burnt the fame day that Alexander was
born, by one Eroftratus, who owned on the rack, that
the only thing which had prompted him to deflroy fo ex¬
cellent a work, was the delire of tranfmitting his name
to future ages. Whereupon the common council of Afia
made a decree, forbidding any one to name him ; but
this prohibition ferved only to make his name more me¬
morable, fuch a remarkable extravagance, or rather
madnefs, being taken notice of by all the hiflorians
5, who*
Ephefus.
.El'hefus.
E P H [ 688 ] E P H
who have written of thofe times. Alexander offered
to rebuild the temple at his own expence, provided the
Ephefians would agree to put his name on the front;
but they rejefted his offer in fuch a manner as prevent¬
ed the refentment of that vain prince, telling him, that
“ it was not fit one god fhould build a temple to ano¬
ther.” The pillars, and other materials that had been
faved cut of the flames, were fold, and alfo the jewels
of the Ephefian women, who on that occafion wil¬
lingly parted with them ; and the fum raifed from
thence ferved for the carrying on of the work till Other
contributions came in, which, in a fhort time, amount¬
ed to an immenfe treafure. This is the temple which
Strabo, Pliny, and other Roman writers fpeak of. It
flood between the city and the port, and was built, or
rather finifhed, as Livy tells us, in the reign of king
Servius. Of this wonderful ftrufture there is nothing
at prefent remaining but fome ruins, and a few bro¬
ken pillars.
The lonians firft fettled at Ephefus under the con-
du£t of Androclus, who drove out the Carians and Le-
•leges, by whom thofe places were poffeffed at his ar¬
rival. The city, whither built by him, as Strabo af¬
firms, or by one Croefus or Ephefus, long before the
Ionic migration, as others maintain, became foon the
metropolis of Ionia. It was at firft governed by An¬
droclus, and his defeendants, who affumed the royal
title, and exercifed the regal authority over the new
colony : whence, even in Strabo’s time, the pofterity
of Androclus were ftyled kings, and allowed to wear
a fcarlet robe, with a feeptre. and all the enfigns of
the royal dignity. In procefs of time, a new form of
government was introduced, and a fenate eftablifhed; but
•when, or on what occafion, this change happened, we
know not. This kind of government continued till the
time of Pythagoras, who lived before Cyrus the Great,
and was one of the moft cruel and inhuman tyrants we
read of in hiftory ; for, having driven out the fenate,
and taken all the power into his own hands, he filled
the city with blood and rapine, not fparing even thofe
who fled to the temple of Diana for flicker. Pytha¬
goras was fucceeded by Pindarus, who bore the fame
fway in the city ; but treated the citizens with more
humanity. In his time Ephefus being befieged by
.Croefus king of Lydia, he advifed the inhabitants to
devote their city to Diana, and fatten the wall, by a
•rope, to the pillars of her temple. They followed his
advice, and were, from reverence to the goddefs, not
only treated with great kindnefs by Crcefus, but re-
ftored to their former liberty. Pindarus being obli¬
ged to refign his power, retired to Peloponnefus. He
was, according to JElian, grandfon to Alyattes king
of Lydia, and Croefus’s nephew. The other tyrants
of Ephefus mentioned in hiftory are, Athenagoras,
Comas, Ariftarchus, and Hegefias; of whom the
la ft was expelled by Alexander, who, coming to E-
phefus, after having defeated the Perfians on the
banks of the Granicus, beftowed upon Diana all the
tributes which the Ephefians had paid to the Per-
lians, and eftabliftied a democracy in the city. In
the war between Mithridates and the Romans, they
fided with the former, and, by his direftion, maf-
Jfacred all the Romans that refided in their city; for
which barbarity they were feverely fined, and reduced
almoft to beggary by Sylla, but afterwards treated
kindly, and fuffered to live according to their own laws,
as is plain from feveral ancient inferiptions and medals.
The Ephefians were much addi&ed • to fuperftition,
forcery, and curious arts, as the feripture ftyles them ;
whence came the proverb “ Ephefian letters,” fignify-
ing all forts of fpells or charms.
in the time of the apoftle Paul,Ephefusretained a great
deal of its ancient grandeur. But it was a ruinous
place, when the emperor Juftinian filled Conftantinople
with its ftatues, and raifed his church of St Sophia
upon its columns. Since then it has been almoft quite
exhaufted. Towards the end of the nth century, a
Turkilh pirate, named Tangripermes, fettled there.
But the Greek admiral, John Ducas, defeated him in
a bloody battle, and purfued the flying Turks up the
Masander. In 1306, it was among the places which
fuffered from the exactions of the grand-duke Roger ;
and two years after, it furrendered to fultan Sayfan,
who, to prevent future infurredtions, removed moft of
the inhabitants to Tyriaeum, where they were maffa-
cred. Ephefus appears to have fubfifted as an incon-
fiderable place for fome time. But now, the Ephe¬
fians are only a few Greek peafants, living in extreme
wretchednefs, dependence, and infenfibility; the fepre-
fentatives of an illuilrious people, and inhabiting the
wreck of their greatnefs ; fome, the fubftruclions of
the glorious edifices which they raifed ; fome, beneath
the vaults of the Stadium, once the crowded feene of
their diverfions; and fome, by the abrupt precipice,
in the fepulchres which received their allies.
EPHETfE (from “ I fend forth”), in antiqui¬
ty, a fort of magiftrates among the Athenians, inftituted
by kfhg Demophoon, to take cognizance of murder,
man-(laughter, and chance-medley.
Their number was 100, whereof 50 were Atheni¬
ans, and 50 Argians : they were not admitted to the
poll till upwards of 50 years of age. Dra@o new mo¬
delled it, excluded the Argians out of it, and made it
to confift of 51 Athenians, each above 50 years of age:
Ubbo Emmius de Rep. Athen. fays, he transferred to
them part of the jurifdi&ion of the Areopagites. See
Areopagus.
EPHOD, in Jewilh antiquity, one part of the prieft-
ly habit; being a kind of girdle, which, brought from
behind the neck over the two Ihoulders, and hanging
down before, was put acrofs the ftomach, then carried
round the waift, and made ufe of as a girdle to the tu¬
nic.—-There were two Xorts of ephods, one of plain li¬
nen for the priefts, and the other embroidered for the
high prieft.
EPHORI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates efla-
hliflied in ancient Sparta to balancS the regal power.
The authority of the ephori was very great. They
fometimes expelled and even put to death the kings,
and abolilhed or fufpended the power of the other ma¬
giftrates, calling them to account at pleafure. There
were five of them, others fay nine. They prefided in
the public (hows and feftivals. They were entrufted
with the public treafure ; made war and peace; and
were fo abfolute, that Ariftotle makes thtir government
equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They were
eftabl tihed by Lycurgus, accorcing to the generality
of authors : though this is denied by others, who date
1 their
Ephetss
J1
Ephori.
J-
E P I [ 689 J E P I
[JfcjSpliorus tbeir origin 130 years after the time of that legifla-
I , II tor. Thus Plutarch, in his Life of Cleomenes, a-
^ate- fcr;bes their inftitution to Theopompus king of Spar-
. —^ ta ; which is alfo confirmed by the authority of Ari-
ftotle.
EPHORUS, an orator and hiftorian of Cumx in
iEolia, about 352 years befbre Chrift. He was dif-
ciple to Ifocrates, by whofe advice he wrote an hiftory
which gave an account of all the adlions and battles
that had happened between the Greeks and barbarians
for 750 years. It was greatly efteemed by the ancients;
but is now loft.
EPHRAIM (anc.geog.), one of the divifions of
Paleftine by tribes: Ephraim and the half tribe of Ma-
naffeh are blended together by the facred writer ; and
it only appears that Ephraim occupied the more foiith-
ern, and the half tribe of Manafleh the more northern
parts, but both feem to have extended from the Jor¬
dan to the fea. Ephraim alfo denotes a kingdom, on
the reparation of the 10 tribes from the houfe of
David, called alfo the kingdom of Ifrael and of Sa-
I maria.
EPHRATA, a fmall town of Pennfylvania in Ame¬
rica, and the principal fettlement of thereligious fed.call¬
ed Dunkards or Tankers. See Tunkers.
EPHREM (Syrus), an ancient Chriftian writer, in
the fourth century, deacon of Edeffa, was born at Ni-
fibe, in Syria. He was greatly efteemed by St Bafil,
St Gregory, Nyffen, and other great men. He wrote
| againft the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, Apollonarius,
• • the Manichees, &c. and acquired fuch reputation by
his virtue and his works, that he was called the doBor
and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 378. The
Left editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 1708,
in folio, and that of Rome, from 1732 to 1736, in
Syriac, Greek, and Latin, 6 vols folio.
EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an officer in the Athe¬
nian courts of juftice, who was to provide the plaintiff
and defendant with equal water hour-glafles. When
the glafs was run out, they were not permitted to
fpeak any farther; and, therefore, we find them very
careful not to lofe or mifpend one drop of their water.
[' Whilft the laws quoted by them were reciting, or if
any other bufinefs happened to intervene, they gave or¬
ders that the glafs fhoald be flopped.
EP1BAT.5L, E«iCa1«i, among the Greeks, marines
or foldiers who ferved on board the fhips of war. They
were armed in the fame manner as the land-forces, only
that more of them wore full or heavy armour.
EPIBATERION, a poetical compofition, in ufe
among the ancient Greeks. When any perfon of con¬
dition and quality returned home after a long abfence
or journey into another country, he called together
his friends and fellow-citizens, and made them a fpeech,
or rehearfed them a copy of verfes, wherein he return¬
ed folemn thanks to the immortal gods for his happy
return ; and ended with an addrefs by way of compli-
1 ment to his fellow-citizens.—Thefe verfes made what
the Greeks call caiSaTtfitov, ep'ibaterium, of ‘‘ I
go abroad”. At going away they had another, called
apobaterium.
EP1BATERIUM, in botany : A genus of the
hexandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants. In the male flowers the calyx is a double
Vol.VI. Part II.
-
perianthium, the outward one with fix leaves, very Epic
fmall; the inner one three-leaved, and three times lar- II
ger than the former, with egg-fhaped leaves. The. pic”nii‘.
corolla has fix petals fmaller than the interior calyx and
roundifh. The ftamina are fix capillary filaments, crook¬
ed, and as long as the petals; the antheras are roundifh.
The female flowers are on the fame plant. The calyx
and corolla are as in the male. The pericarpium con-
fifts of three roundifh, monofpermous plums; the
feed a kidney-fhaped compreffed nut, fomewhat fur¬
rowed.
EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem expreffed in nar¬
ration, formed upon a ftory partly real and partly
feigned ; reprefenting, in a fublime ftyle, fome fignal
and fortunate action, diftinguifhed by a variety of great
events, to form the morals, and affeft the mind with
the love of heroic virtue.
We may diftinguifh three parts of the definition,
namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The mat¬
ter includes the a&ion of the fable, under which are
ranged the incidents, epifodes, chara&ers, morals, and
machinery. The form comprehends the way or man¬
ner of the narration, whether by the poet himfelf, or
by any perfons introduced, whofe difcourfes are related:
to this branch likewife belong the moving of the paf-
fions, the defcriptions, difcourfes, fentiments, thoughts,
ftyle, and verfification ; and befides thefe, the fimilies,
tropes, figures, and, in fhort, all the ornaments and
decorations of the poem. The end is to improve
our morals and increafe our virtue. See Poetry.
EPICEDION (formed of ew< upon, and fu¬
neral), in the Greek and Latin poetry, a poem, or
poetical compofition, on the death of a perfon.—At
the obfequies of any man of figure, there were three
kinds of difcourfes ufually made ; that rehearfed at his
bujlum or funeral pile, was called nema ; that engraven
on his tomb, epitaph; and that fpoken in the ceremony
of his funeral, epicedion. We have two beautiful epice-
dions in Virgil, that of Euryalus and that of Pallas.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehear¬
fed during the funeral folemnity of perfons of diftinc-
tion.
EPICHARMUS, an ancient poet and philofopher,
born in Sicily, was a fcholar of Pythagoras. He is
faid to have introduced comedy at Syracufe in the
reign of Hiero. Horace commends Plautus for imi¬
tating him, in following the chace of the intrigue fo
clofely as not to give the readers or fpe&ators time
to trouble themfelves with doubts concerning the dif-
covery. He wrote likewife treatifes concerning phi-
lofophy and medicine; but none of his works have
been preferved. He died aged 90, according to La¬
ertius, who has preferved four verfes infcribed on his
ftatue.
EPICHIROTONIA, among the Athenians. It
was ordained by Solon, that once every year the laws
fliould be carefully revifed and examined ; and if any
of them were found unfuitable to the prefent ftate
of affairs, they (hould be repealed. This was called
tzsiX_upoVma. t«i» vou-um, from the manner of giving their
fuffrages by holding up their hands. See a farther ac¬
count of this cuftom in Pott. Afchaeol. Grace, lib. 1.
cap. 26. tom. i. p. 142.
EPICOENE, in grammar, a term applied to nouns,
4 S which,
JEpiifletus,
Epicurean.
E P I
which, under the fame gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female fpecies. Such in La¬
tin is aqu'ila, vefpertilio, &c. which fignify equally a
male or female eagle or bat.
■ Grammarians diftinguilh between epicene and com¬
mon A noun is faid to be common of two kinds,
when it may be joined either with a mafculine or a fe¬
minine article; and epiccene, when it is always joined to
fome of the two articles, and yet fignifies both genders.
EPIC FETUS, a celebrated Stoic philofopher, born
at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in the firft century, was the
Have of Epaphroditus, a freedman and one of Nero’s
guard. Domitian banifhing all philofophers from
Rome, about the year 94, Epi&etus retired to Nico-
polis in Epirus, where he died in a very advanced age ;
and after his death, the earthen lamp he made ufe of fold
for 3000 drachmas. He was a man of great modefty ;
which was eminent in his own practice, as well as in his
recommendation to others: hence he ufed to fay, “ That
there is no need of adorning a man’s houfe with rich
hangings or paintings, fmce the molt graceful furniture
is temperance and modefty, which are lafting ornaments,
and will never be the worfe for wearing.” Of all the
ancient philofophers, he feems to have made the near-
eft approaches to the Chriftian morality, and to have
had the moft juft ideas of God and providence. He
always poffelfed a cool and ferene mind, unruffled by
paflion ; and was ufed to fay, that the whole of mo¬
ral philofophy was included in thefe words, and
abjlain. One day, his mafter Epaphroditus drove in
a frolic to wrench his leg ; when Epi&etus faid, with
a fmile, and free from any emotion, “ If yougo on, you
will certainly break my legbut the former redoubling
his effort, and finking it with all his ftrength, he at laft
broke the bone; when all the return Epidtetus made was,
“ Did not I tell you, Sir, that you would break my
leg i” No man was more expert at reducing the rigour
of the maxims of the Stoics into practice. He con¬
formed himfelf ftridtly, both in his difcourfe and be¬
haviour, to the manners of Socrates and Zeno. He
waged continual war with fancy and fortune ; and it is
an excellence peculiar to himfelf, that he admitted all
the feverity of the Stoics without their fournefs, and
reformed Stoieifm as well as profeffed it; and befides
his vindicating the immortality of the foul as ftrenu-
oufly as Socrates or any Stoic of them all, he declared
openly againft felf- murder, the lawfulnefs of which was
maintained by the reft of the fedt. Arrian, his difciple,
wrote a large account of his life and death, which is
loft; and preferved four books of his difcourfes and
his Enchiridion, of which there have been feveral edi¬
tions in Greek and Latin ; and, in 1758, a tranflation
of them into Englifh was publifhed by the learned and
ingenious Mifs Carter.
EPICUREAN philosophy, the dodtrine or fy-
ftem of philofophy maintained by Epicurus and his
followers.
His philofophy confifted of three parts; canonical,
phyfical, and ethereal. The firft was about the canons
or rules of judging. The cenfure which Tully paffes
upon him for his defpifing logic, will hold true only
with regard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could
uot approve of, as being too full of nicety and quirk.
Epicurus was not acquainted with the analytical method
of divifion and argumentation, nor was he fo curious
in modes and formation as the Stoics. Soundnefs and
E P I
fimplicity of fenfe, affifted with fome natural reflec-Ephurrai?
tions, was all his art. Plis feareh after truth proceed- EP:i;urus
ed only by the fenfes; to the evidence of which he gave
fo great a certainty, that he confidered them as an in¬
fallible rule of truth, and termed them the JirJl natural
light of mankind.
In the fecond part of this philofophy he laid down
atoms, fpace, and gravity, as the firft principles of all
things: he did not deny the exifteuce of God, but
thought it beneath his majefty to concern himfelf witlv
human affairs; he held him a bltffed immortal Being,
having no affairs of his own to take care of, and above¬
meddling with thofe of others.
As to his ethics, he made the fupreme good of mart
to confift in pleafure, and confequently fupreme evil in
pain- Nature itfelf, fays he, teaches us this truth ; and
prompts us from our birth to procure whatever gives
us pleafure, and avoid what gives us pain. To this end
he propofes a remedy againft the fharpnefs of pain :
this was to divert the mind from it, by turning our
whole attention upon the pleafures we have formerly
enjoyed. He held that the wife man muft be happy, as
long as he is wife : the pain, not depriving him of his
wifdom, cannot deprive him of his happinefs.
There is nothing that has a fairer fhow of honefty
than the moral doftrine of Epicurus. Gaffendus pre¬
tends, that the pleafure in which this philofopher has
fixed the fovereign good, was nothing elfe but the high-
eft tranquillity of mind, in conjunction with the moft
perfedt health of body : but Tully, Horace, and Plu¬
tarch, as well as almoft all the fathers of the church,
give us a very different reprefentation : indeed the na.
ture of this pleafure, jn which the chief happinefs is
fuppofed to be feated, is a grand problem in the mo¬
rals of Epicurus. Hence there were two kinds of E-
picureans, the rigid and the remifs: the firft were thofe
who underftoed Epicurus’s notion of pleafure in the
belt fenfe, and placed all their happinefs in the pure
pleafures of the mind, refulting from the pradtice of
virtue: the loofe or remifs Epicureans, taking the words
of that philofopher in a grofs fenfe, placed all their hap¬
pinefs in bodily pleafures or debauchery.
Epicurus, the greateft philofopher of his age, was
born at Gargettium in Attica, about 340 B. C. in the ,
109th Olympiad. He fettled at Athens in a fine garden
he had bought; where he lived with his friends in great
tranquillity, and educated a great number of difciples.
They lived all in common with their mailer. The re*
fped which his followers paid to his memory is admi¬
rable : his fchool was never divided, but his dodlrine
was followed as an oracle. His birth-day was Hill
kept in Pliny’s time ; the month he was born ,in was
obferved as a continued feftival; and they placed his
pi&ure every where. He wrote a great many books,
and valued himfelf upon making no quotations. He
raifed the atomical fyftem to a great reputation,
though he was not the inventor of it, hut had only
made fome change in that of Democritus. As to
his dodtrine concerning the fupreme good or happi¬
nefs, it was very liable to be mifreprefented, and fome
ill effedls proceeded from thence, which diferedited his
fedl. He was charged with perverting the worfhip of
the gods, and inciting men to debauchery; but he did
not forget himfelf on this occafion : he publifhed his
opinions to the whole world ; he wrote fome books of
devotion} recommended the veneration of the gods, fo-
4 briety,
l ]
E P I [ figt ] E P I
ritfEpicycle briety, and chadity; and it is certain that he lived in an ed vviih a portico, and a fountain remarkable for its roof Spidaurna,
B _ li exemplary manner, and conformably to the rules of and decorations. The bath of vEfculapius was one of the Ep-'leniia^
tpidam-us philofophical wifdom and frugality. Timocrites, a de- benefaflions of AntoninusPius, while aRoman fenator ; ^
^ ferter of his fe£, fpoke very fcandalouny of him. Gaf- as was alfo a houfe for the reception of pregnant women
■fendus has given us all he could collect from the an- and dying perfons, who before were removed out of
cients concerning the perfon and-doftrine of this phi- the inclofure, to be delivered or to expire in the
lofopher ; who died of a fuppreffion of urine, aged open air. The remains are heaps of ftones, pieces of
!72. brick wall, and fcattered fragments of marble ; befides
EPICYCLE, in the ancient aftronomy, a little fome churches or rather piles of rubbifh mif-called,
circle whofe centre is in the circumference of a greater being deftitute of doors, roofs, or any kind of orna-
circle: or it is a fmall orb or fphere, which being fix- ment. The ftatue of iEfculapius was half as big as
ed in the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it; that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. It was made of
and yet. by his own peculiar motion, carries the pla- ivory and gold, and, as the infcription proved, by
net faftened to it round its proper centre. Thrafymedes fon of Arignotus of Paros. He was re-
It was by means of epicycles that Ptolemy and his prefented fitting, holding his ftaff, with one hand on
followers folved the various phenomena of the planets, the head of a ferpent, and a dog lying by him. Two
but more efpecially their itations and retrogradations. Argive heroes, Bellerophon combating with the mon-
EPICYCLOID, in geometry, a curve generated fter Chimsera, and Perfeus fevering the head of Medufa,
by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, along were carved on the throne. Many tablets defcribed
the convex or concave fide of the periphery of another the cures performed by the deity, yet he had not e-
circle. leaped contumely and robbery. Dionyfius deprived
EPICYEMA, among phyficians, denotes a fuper- him of his golden beard, affirming it was very unfeem-
fetation; being a falfe conception or mole happening ly in him to appear in that manner when his father
after the birth of a regular fetus. Apollo was always feen with his face fmooth. Sylla
EPIDAURUM,EpiDAURUS,or EpiTAURUM,(anc. amaffed the precious offerings belonging to him and to
geog.), a town of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, built the Apollo and Jupiter at Delphi and Olympia, to pay
j fame year, as is faid, with Dyrrachium, 430 years af- his army before Athens. The marks in the walls tef-
ter the deftruftion of Troy : A confiderable town for- tified that a great number had been plucked down,
merly, but now reduced to a fmall village, called Ra- A few fragments of white marble exquititely carved
gufi Vecchio ; diftant fix miles from the modern Ragufi. occur in the heap of the temple. The inclofure of
E. Long. 190. Lat. 420, 20'. the temple once abounded in inferiptions. In the fe-
EPIDAURUS (anc. geog.), a town of Argolis, cond century fix marbles remained, on which were
in Pdoponnefus, on the Saronic bay, to the fouth of written in the Doric dialed! the names of men and
the promontory Spiraum ; called facred, becaufe of the women who had been patients of the god, with the
religious veneration paid to Aifculapius, whofe temple diilemper each had laboured under, and the remedies
flood at the diftance of five miles from the town. The he had diredted. Dr Chandler found only a couple
Romans, during a peftilence, being advifed to convey of votive inferiptions, and two pedeftals of ftatues, one
the god to Rome, fent a fhip, with a folemn embaffy, of which reprefented a Roman, and was eredtedby the
for his conveyance: but while the^Epidaurians were city of the Epidaurians. The Stadium was near the
in fufpenfe to part with him, a huge ferpent failed temple. It was of earth, as moft in Greece were. At
to the ftiip; and, being taken for the god, was the upper end are feats of ftone, but thefe w'ere conti-
carried to Rome in great folemnity. Epidaurus flood nued along the fides only a few yards. A vaulted
in a recefs of the bay, fronting the eaft ; and was for- paffage leading underneath into the area, now choked
tified by nature, being inclofed by high mountains up, was a private way by which the Agonothetae or pre¬
reaching to the fea, and rendering it difficult of accefs. fidentswith thepriefls and perfonsof diftindtion entered.
It had feveral temples, and in the acropolis or citadel Two large cifferns or refervoirs remain, made by An-
was a remarkable flatue of Minerva. The fite is now ' toninus for the reception of rain-water. Beyond them
called Epi-thavro. The traces are indiftindl, and it is a dry water-courfe ; and in the mountain-fide on
has probably been long deferted. The harbour of the right-hand are the marble feats of the theatre,
Epidaurus is long. Its periplus or circuit was 15 overgrown with buflres. The fprings and wells by the
jlajia or near two miles. The entrance is between ruins are now fuppofed to poffefs many excellent pro¬
mountains, and on a fmall rocky peninfula on the left perties. To thefe and a good air. Dr Chandler thinks,
hand are ruins of a modern fortrefs. This, it feems, with the recreations of the theatre and of the fladium,
was the point on which a temple of Juno flood. It is and to the medicinal knowledge and experience of the
frequented by veffels for wood or corn. The grove priefts, may be attributed both the recovery of the
of iEfculapius was inclofed by mountains, within fick and the reputation of Aifculapius.
which all the facrifices as well of the Epidaurians as Epidaurus, with the furnameZrWr^, todiftinguiflr
of ftrangers were confumed. One was called Titthion; it from the Epidaurus of Argolis; called fo, either from
and on this the god when an infant was faid to have been its meadows or its commodious harbours ( Stephanus,
expofed, and to have been fuckled by a ffie-goat. He Apollodorus): a town of Laconica,on thelonian fea,to
was a great phyfician, and his temple was always crow’d- the fouth of the Sinus Argolicus, fituated where now
ed with fick perfons. Beyond it was the dormitory Molvafia ftands, in the Morea. E. Long. 23. 3.0. Lat.
of the fuppliants; and near it, a circular edifice called 35. 40.
the Eholus, built by Polycletus, of white marble, worth EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, feftivals kept,
feeing. The grove, befides other temples, was adorn- in honour of Apollo and Diana, at the ftated feafons
4 S 2 when
E P I [ 692 J E P I
Epidemic when thofe deities, who could not be prefent every¬
where, were fuppofed to vifit different places, in order
to rec^ve the vows of their adorers.
EPIDEMIC, among phyficians, an epithet of dif-
eafes which at certain times are popular, attacking
great numbers at or near the fame time.
EPIDENDRUM, in botany : A genus of the di-
andria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the feventh
order, OrchuLne. The neftarium is turbinated, oblique,
and reflexed. This is the plant which produces the
fruit called vanilla, and which is ufed in the making
of chocolate. It is a native of Mexico, and alfo of
feme parts of the Eaft Indies. It is a parafkic plant;
the leaves of which greatly refemble the vine, and are
about 18 inches long and three inches broad. The
flowers are of a white colour intermixed with ftripes
of red and yellow. When thefe fall off, they are
quickly fucceeded by the pods, which at firft are green,
but afterwards, as they ripen, become yellow, and are
gathered for ufe. The pods of the beft vanilla are
long, {lender, and well filled with feeds. If opened
when frefb, the cavity of the pod is found to contain
a humid fubflance that is black, oily, and balfamic, of
1'uch a ftrong fmell, that it frequently caufes headache,
and even a fort of temporary intoxication. The fea-
fon for gathering the pods begins about the latter end
of September, and lafts till the end of December.
They are dried in the fliade; and when dry and fit
for keeping, they are rubbed externally with a little *
oil of cocoa or calba, to render them fupple, or pre-
ferve them the better, and to prevent them from be¬
coming too dry or brittle. The ufe of this fruit is on¬
ly for perfuming chocolate. In New Spain it is reck¬
oned unwholefome ; and therefore never ufed: but in
England and other countries of Europe, it is a con-
flant ingredient; and perhaps its noxious qualities may
be cor re (ft ed by the fea-air. In thofe countries where
they grow', the plants are very eafily propagated by
cuttings. In this country they require to be kept in
a ftove, and alfo to be placed near fome American tree,
round which they may climb for their fupport.
EPIDERMIS, in anatomy, the cuticle or fcarf-
fkin. See Anatomy, n° 74. |The word is formed
•of the Greek !T‘> on, over ; and
EPIDICASIA, among the Athenians. Daugh¬
ters inheriting their parents eftate, were obliged to
tnarry their neareft relation ; which gave occafion to
perfons of the fame family to go to law with one
another, each pretending to be more nearly allied to the
heirefs than the reft. The fuit was called tvoWo-m?
•• and the virgin, about whom the relations conteft-
€d,
EPIDIDYMIS, in anatomy, a little round body,
on the back of each tefticle ; called alfo parajlata. See
Anatomy, p. 738, col. 1.
EPIG^EA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 18th order,
'Bicornes.
EPIDOTjE, certain deities who preflded over the
growth of children. They were worfhipped by the
Lacedaemonians, and chiefly invoked by thofe who
were perfecuted by the ghofts of the dead, &c.
EPIGASTRIC region, a part or fub'ditlfion of Epigaftrie
the abdomen. See Anatomy, n° 88. .11
EPIGLOTTIS, in anatomy, one of the cartilages Eplgram'
of the larynx or wind-pipe. See Anatomy, n° 104, v
par. 3. and n0 116.
EPIGONI, the fons and defendants of the Greciaift
heroes who were killed in the firft Theban war. The
war of the Epigoni is famous in ancient hiftory. It
was undertaken ten years after the firft. The fons of
thofe that had perifhed in the firft war, refolved to a-
venge the death of their fathers, and marched againft
Thebes, under the command of Therfander ; or, ac¬
cording to others, of Alcmson the fon of Amphiaraus,
about 1307 years before Chrift. The Argives werb
affifted by the Corinthians, the people of Meffenia,
Arcadia, and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all
their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one common
caufe. Thefe two hoftile armies r» t and engaged ou
the banks of the Gliffas. The fight was obftinate and
bloody, but victory declared forthe Epigoni, and fome
of the Thebans fled to Ulyricum with Leodamas theiV
general, while others retired into Thebes, where they
were foon befieged, and forced to furrender. In this
war iEgialeus was the only one who was killed, and
his father Adraftus was the only one who efcaped alive
in the firft war. This whole war, as Paufanias ob-
ferves, was written in verfe ; and Callinus, who quotes
fome of the verfes, aferibes them to Homer, which o-
pinion has been adopted by many writers. “ For my
part (continues the geographer), I own, that next to
the Iliad and Odyffey of Homer, I have never feen a
finer poem.” The defeendants of the veteran Mace¬
donians, who ferved under Alexander the Great, and
who had children by Afiatic women, were alfo called
Efgoni, (Juflin.).
IiPIGRAM, in poetry, a fliortpoem in verfe, treat¬
ing only of one thing, and ending with fome lively,
ingenious, and natural thought or point. The word
is formed of infeription, of to inferibt
or write upon.
Epigrams then, originally, fignify inferiptions, and
they derive their origin from thofe inferiptions placed
by the ancients on their tombs, ftatues, temples, trium¬
phal arches, Sec. Thefe, at firft, were only Ample mo¬
nograms : afterwards, increafing their length, they
made them in verfe, to be the more eafily retained :
Herodotus, and others, have tranfmitted to us feveral
of them. Such little poems retained the name of epi¬
grams, even after the defign of their firft inftitution
was varied, and people began to ufe them for the rela¬
tion of little fads and accidents, the charaderizing of
perfons, &c. The point or turn is a quality much in¬
filled on by the critics, who require the epigram con-
ftantly to clofe with fomething poignant and unexpec¬
ted, to which all the reft of the compofition is only
preparatory; while others, on the contrary, exclude
the point, and require the thought to be equally dif-
fufed throughout the poem, without laying the whole
tirefs on the clofe: the former is ufually Martial’s-
pradice, and the latter that of Catullus.
The Greek epigrams have fcarce any thing of the
point or brifknefs of the Latin ones: thofe colleded.
in the Anthology, have moft of them a remarkable air
of eafe and fimplicity, attended with fomething juft and
witty 3
E P I [ 69.5 ] E P I
e witty ; fuch as we find in a fenfible peafant, or a child
that has wit. They have nothing that bites, but
fomething that tickles. Though they want the fait
. of Martial, yet to a good tafte they are not infipid;
except a few of them, which are quite flat and fpirit-
lefs. However, the general faintnefs and delicacy of
the pleafantry in them, has given occafion for a Greek
epigram, or epigram a la Greque, to denote, among the
French, an epigram void of fait or fharpnefs. ‘
The epigram admits of great variety of fubje&s:
feme are made to praife, and others to fatirize ; which
lalt are much the eafieft, ill-nature ferving inftead of
point and wit. Boileau’s epigrams are all fatires on
one or another; thofe of des Reaux are all made in
honour of his friends; and thofe of Mad. Scudery are
fo many eloges. The epigram being only a Angle
thought, it would be ridiculous to exprefs it in a great
number of verfes.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes the
infeription of a building, pointing out the time when,
the perfons by whom, the ufes, and the like, for which
it was erected.
EPILEPSY, in medicine, the feme with what is
otherwife called the faJl'&g-Jicknefs, from the patient’s
falling fuddenly to the ground. See Medicine-Index.
EPILOBIUM, the willow-herb, in botany: A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the odtan-
diia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Calycanthema. The calyx is
quadrifid ; the petals four ; the capfule oblong infe¬
rior ; the feeds pappous or downy. There are feven
fpecies, all of them natives of Britain'. They grow in
marflies, or under hedges in moill and lhady places;
having bloflbms generally of a red colour, and fome-
times of confiderable beauty. The mofl: remarkable
is the hirfutum, commonly called codlins and cream.
The top-fhoots of this plant have a very delicate fra-
grancy ; but fo tranfitory, that before they have been
gathered five minutes, it is no longer perceptible.
Horfes, fheep, and goats eat this plant; cows are not
fond of it; fwine refufe it. An infufion of the leaves
of another fpecies, the anguftifolium, or rofebay wil¬
low-herb, has an intoxicating quality, as the inhabitants
of Kamtfchatka have learned. Thefe people alfo eat
the white young fhoots which creep under the ground,
and have a fort of ale brewed from the dried pith of
it. The down of the feeds has been lately manufac¬
tured by mixing it with cotton or beaver’s hair.
EPILOGUE, in oratory, the end or conclufion of
a difeourfe, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of
the principal matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a fpeech addreffed
to the audience, after the play is over, by one of the
principal a&ors therein; ufually containing fome reflec¬
tions on certain incidents in the play, efpecially thofe
in the part of the perfon that fpeaks it ; and having
fomewhat of pleafantry, intended to compofe the paf-
fions raifed in the courfe of the reprefentation : A prac¬
tice which is ridiculed by the Spectator ; and compared
to a meny jigg upon the organ after a good fermon,
to wipe away any imprefiions that might have been
made thereby, and fend the people away juft as they
came.
EPIMEDIUM, barren-wort, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetran-
di-ia clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking Epimem-fe
under the 24th order, Corydales. There are fournec- (I .
taria, cup-ihaped, and lying on the petals. The co- P!P dni11^
rollu is tetrapetalous, the calyx dropping off. The feed- J
veffel is a pod. There is only one fpecies, vi%. the al-
pinum. It is a low herbaceous plant, with a creeping
root, having many ftalks about nine inches high, each
of which has three -flowers compofed of four leaves
placed in the fo-m of a crofs. They are of a reddifli
colour, with yellow ftripes on the border.
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philofopher,
was born at Gnoffus in Crete. Contrary to the cuftom
of his country, he always wore his hair long ; which,
according to fome, was becaufe he was alhamed of
being thought a Cretan : and indeed he does not feem
to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that
veife cited by St Paul be, as it is generally believed td
be, his; “ The Cretans are always liars, evil beafts,
flow bellies.” Many ftories are related of him, toa
wonderful to merit attention ; however, his reputation
w’as fo great over all Greece, that he was there elteem-
ed a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being af-
fli&ed with the plague, and commanded by the oracle
to make a folemn lultration of the city, fent Nicias*
the fon of Niceratus, with a Ihip to Crete, to defire
Epimenides to come to them. He accepted their in¬
vitation, accompanied the mtffengers to Athens, per¬
formed the luftration of the city, and the plague ceafedw-
Here he contra&ed an acquaintance with Solon, whom
he privately inftru&ed in the proper methods for the
regulation of the Athenian commonwealth. Having
finilhed his bufmefs at Athens,the citizens offered him
many valuable prefents and high honours, and appoint¬
ed a fliip to carry him back to Crete : but he return¬
ed their prefents, and would accept of nothing except
a little branch of the facred olive preferred in the ci¬
tadel ; and defired the Athenians to enter into an al¬
liance with the Gnoffians. Having obtained this, he
returned to Crete ; where he died foon after, aged
157 years; or as the Cretans, confiftently with their
chara&er, pretended, 299. He was a great poet, and
wrote 5000 verfes on “ the genealogy of the gods,”
6500 “ on the building of the fliip Argos and Jafon’s
expedition to Colchis;” and 4000 “ concerning Minos
and Rhadamanthus.” He wrote alfo in profe, “ Con¬
cerning facrifices and the commonwealth of Crete.”
St Jerom likewife mentions his “ book of oracles and
refponfes.” The Lacedemonians procured his body,
and preferred it among them by the advice of an ora¬
cle ; and Plutarch tells us, that he was reckoned the
feventh wife man by thofe who refufed to admit Peri-
ander into the number. _
EPIMETHEUS, a fon of Japetus and Clymene,
one of the Oceanides, who inconfiderately married
Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife of Deu¬
calion. He had the curjoftty to open the box which.
Pandora had brought with her, and from thence iflued
a train of evils, which from that moment have never
ceafed to afllidf the human race. Hope was the only
one which remained at the bottom of the box, not
having a fufficient time to efcape, and it is fee alone
which comforts men under misfortunes. Epimetheus.
was changed into a monkey by the gods, and fent into
the ifland Pithecufe.
EPIPHANIUS (St), an ancient father of the
church;
E P I 1 694 ] E P I
‘ E'i 'i r."tiy church, bom at Befanducan, a village in Paleftine,
E i locele a^ou’; t^ie year 3.'I2, foun(^e<i a monaftery near
^ ^ , the place of his birth, and prefided over it. He was
afterwards elefted bilhop of Salamis; when he fided
with Paulinos againft Meletius, and ordained in Pale-
ftine, Paulinian the brother of St Jerom ; on which a
conteft arofe between him and John biihop of Jerufa-
km. He afterwards called a council in the Hand of
Cyprus, in which he procured a prohibition of the
reading of Origen’s writings; and made ufe of all his
endeavours to prevail on Theophilus bifhop of Alex¬
andria to engage St Chryfoftom to declare in favour
of that decree : but not meeting with fuccefs, he went
Tiimfelf to Conflantinople, where he would not have
any converfation with St Chryfoftom; and formed the
defign of entering the church of the apoftles, to publifii
his condemnation of Origen ; but being informed of
the danger to which he would be expofed, he refolved
to return to Cyprus ; but died at fea, in the year 403.
His works were printed in Greek, at Bafil, 1544, in
folio; and wereafterwardstranfiated into Latin,in which
language they have been often reprinted. Petavius re-
vifed and corre<3:ed the Greek text by two manufcripts,
and publifhed it together with a new tranflation at Pa¬
ris in 1622. This edition was reprinted at Cologne in
1682.
EPIPHANY, a Chriftian feftival, otherwife called
the Manifejiation of Chrtjl to the Gentiles^ obferved on
the fixth of January, in honour of the appearance of our
Saviour to the three magi or wife men, who came to
adore him and bring him prefents. The feaft of epi¬
phany was not originally a diftindi feftival; but made a
part of that of the nativity of Chrift, which being cele¬
brated 12 days, the firft and laft of which were high
or chief days of folemnity, either of thefe might pro¬
perly be called epiphany, as that word fignilies the ap¬
pearance of Chrift in the world.
The word in the original Greek, fignifies
appearance or apparition ; and was applied, as fome cri¬
tics will have it, to this feaft, on account of the ftar
which appeared to the magi.— St Jerom and St Chry¬
foftom take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour’s
baptifm, when he was declared to men by the voice,
Hie ejl flius mens dileSus, in quo mihi complacui: “ This
is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleafed.” And
accordingly it is ftill obferved by theCophtas and Ethi¬
opians in that view. Others contend, that the feaft of
Chriftmas, or the nativity of our Saviour, was held in
divers churches on this day; which had the deno¬
mination epiphany, or appearance, by reafon of our Savi¬
our’s firft appearance on earth at that time. And it
muft be allowed, that the word is ufed among the an¬
cient Greek fathers, not for the appearance of the ftar
to the magi, But for that of our Saviour to the world :
In which fenfe, St Paul ufes the word epiphania, in His
fecond epiftle to Timothy, i. 10.
EPIPHONEMA. See Oratory, n° 96.
EPIPHORA, in medicine, a preternatural defluxion
of the eyes, when they continually difeharge a ftiarp
ferous humour, which excoriates the cheeks.
EPIPHYSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 677.
col. 2.
EPIPLOCEI E. in mvcicine, is a kind of hernia
or rupture, in which the omentum fubfides into the
ibrotum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in medicine, an hernia Epipinni*
umbilicalis, proceeding from the omentum falling into
the region of the upibilicus or navel. f •il
EPIPLOON. See Omentum. .
EPIRUS, a diftribt of ancient Greece, bounded
on the eaft by Etolia, on the weft by the Adriatic,, on
the north by Theflaly and Macedon, and on the fouth
by the Ionian fea. This country was anciently go¬
verned by its own princes, in which ftate it made a
very confiderable figure. • The country, according to
Jofephus, was firft peopled by Dodanim the fon of
Javan and grandfon of Japhet. The people were very
warlike: but they continued in their favage ftate
long after their neighbours were civilized; whence the
Iflanders ufed to threaten their offenders with tranfpor- i
tation to Epirus. Their horfes were in great requeft
among the ancients, as well as the dogs produced in
one of the divifions called Moloffus •, and hence thefe
dogs were called by the Romans Molojfi.
The hiftory of Epirus commences with the reign of
Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles by Deidamia the daughter
of Lycorpedes kingof Scyros. Heis faid to have behaved
with great bravery at the fiege of Troy; but it would ap¬
pear that he behaved with no lefs barbarity. After the
city was taken, he is faid to have killed old king Priam
with his own hand ; to have thrown Aftyanax the fon
of Heftor and Andromache headlong from an high
tower; and facrificed Polyxena the daughter of Priam
on the tomb of his father. He carried Andromache
with him into Epirus, where he fettled by the advice - J
of the famous foothfayer Helenus, one of Priam’s fons,
who had ferved during the Trojan war both under his
father and himfelf. The only remarkable period of
the hiftory of Epirus is the reign of Pyrrhus II. who
made war upon the Romans. He was invited into
Italy by the Tarentines ; and embarked about 280
B. C. After having efcaped many dangers by fea, he
landed in that country, and with great difficulty gain¬
ed a viftory over the Romans ; but he was afterwards
utterly defeated by them f, and obliged to return ^ gce
into his own country. To retrieve his honour, he
then undertook an expedition againft Macedon;
where he overthrew Antigonus, and at laft made him¬
felf mafter of the whole kingdom. He then formed a
defign of fubduing all the other Grecian ftates; but
met with fuch an obftinate refiftance at Lacedsemon,
that he was obliged to drop the enterprize; and was
foon after killed at the fiege of Argos jby a woman,
who from the wall threw a tile upon his head. Dei*
damia, the grand-daughte.- of Pyrrhus, was the laft
that fat on the throne of Epirus. She is faid to have
been murdered after a fhort reign ; upon which the
Epirots formed themfelves into a republic.
Under the new form of government Epirus never
made any confiderable figure, but feems rather to have }
been dependent on the kingdom of Macedon. The
Romans having conquered Philip king ofthat country,
reftored the Epirots to their ancient liberty; but they,
forgetful of this favour, foon after took up arms in fa¬
vour of Perfeus. As a punilhment for this ingratitude*
the Romans gave orders to Paulus Emilius, after the
redudlion of Macedon, to plunder the cities of Epirus,
and level them with the ground. This was punctual¬
ly executed throughout the whole country on the lame
day and at the fame hour. The booty was fold, and
each
E P I E 695 ] E P I
■inis, eacfi foot-foldier had ioo denarii, that is, fix pounds
Itopacy. njne {hillings an(l two pence, and each of the horfe
the double of this fum. An hundred and fifty thou-
fand men were made Haves, and fold to the bed bid¬
der for the benefit of the republic. Nor did the ven¬
geance of Rome Hop here ; all the cities of Epirus, to
the number of 70, were difmantled, and the chief men
of the country carried to Rome, where they were tried,
and moft of them condemned to perpetual imprifon-
ment. After this terrible blow, Epirus never recover¬
ed its ancient fplendor. Upon the dilfolution of the
Achcean league, it was made part of the province of
Macedon ; but when Macedon became a diocefe, E-
pirus was made a province of itfelf, called the province
of Old Epirus, to diftinguilh it from New Epirus, an¬
other province lying to the eaft of it. On the divifion
of the empire, it fell to the empex-ors of the eaft, and
continued under them till the taking of Conftantinople
by the Latins, when Michael Angelus, a prince near¬
ly related to the Greek emperor, feized on Etolia and
Epirus, of which he declared himfelf defpot or prince;
and. was fucceededby his brother Theodorus, who took
feveral towns from the Latins, and fo far enlarged his
dominions, that, difdaining the title of defpot-, he af-
fumed that of emperor, and was crowned by Deme¬
trius archbilhop of Bulgaria. Charles, the lafl: prince
of this family, dying without lawful, iflue, bequeathed
Epirus and Acarnania to his natural fons, who were
driven out by Amurath the fecond. Great part of
Epirus was afterwards held by the noble family of the
Caftriots ; who, though they were mailers of all Alba¬
nia, yet ftyled themfelves princes of Epirus. Upon the
death of the famous- George Callriot, furnamed Scan-
derbeg, Epirus fell to the Venetians, who were foon
difpoirdFed of it by the Turks; in whofe hands it Hill
continues, being now known by the name of Albania,
which comptehends the Albania of the ancients, all
Epirus, and that part of Dalmatia which is fubjeCt to
the Turks.
EPISCOPACY, that form of church-government,
in which diocefarx bilhops areeftablifixed as diftincl from
and fuperior to prieits or prefix) ters. We have already
obferved, that it is a long time fince the minifters
of religion have been diftinguifixed into different orders,
and that it has been much controverted whether the
diftindlion be of divine or human right ; whether it was
fettled in the apoftolic age or afterwards. (See Bi¬
shop.) This controverfy commenced foon after the
-n^Reformaticxx; and has been agitated with great warmth
>pa! con- between the Epifcopalians on the one fide, and the Pref-
overfy. byterians and Independents on the other. Among the
proteftant churches abroad, thofe which were reformed
by Luther and his affoeiates are in general epifcopal;
wh.ilft fuch as. follow the dodtrines of Calvin have for
the moft; part thrown off the order of bilhops as one of
the corruptions of-popery. Inhowever, the
controverfy has been confidered as of-greater import¬
ance than on the Continent: for it has there been ftre-
nuoufly maintained by one party, that dot epifcopal order
iseffential to the conftitution of the church; and by
others, that it is a pernicious encroachment on the
rights of men, for which there is no authority in fcrip-
ture. Though the queftion has for fome time lain al-
moft dormant, and though we have no defix-e to revive
it ; yet as a work,of.this kind might perhaps be deem¬
ed defedlive, did it contain no account whatever of a Eplfcopacy.
controverfy which has employed fome of the ableft y—"-
writers of the pail aadprefent centuries, we ftiall given
fair though ftxort view of the chief arguments, by which
the advocates of each contending party have endeavour¬
ed to fupport their pwn caufe, leaving our readers to
judge for thenxfelves where the truth lies. See Inde¬
pendents and Presbyterians. 3
The Independent maintains, that under the gofpelTHc Inde-
difpenfation there is nothing which beats the fmalleft
refemblance to an exclufive priefthood ; that Chrill andlc eme‘
hfs apoftles conilituted no permanent order of minifters
in the church ; but that any man who has a firm be¬
lief in revelation, a principle of fincere and unaffehled
piety, a capacity for leading devotion and communica¬
ting inftru£tion, and a ferious inclination to engage in
the important employment of promoting the everlafting
falvation of mankind ; is to all intents and purpofes a
regular minifter of the New Teftament, efpecially if he
have an invitation to the paftoral office from fome par¬
ticular fociety of Chriftians.
Againft this fcheme, which fuppofes the rights of
Chrillians all equal and common, and acknowledges no
authority in the church except what may be derived
from the ele&ion of her members, the Proteftant Epif-
copalian reafons in the following manner. He admits, Epifcopal
as an undoubted truth, that our bleffed Lord gave to arguments
none of his immediate followers authority or jurifdidtion3^3111^ i1-
of fuch a nature as could interfere with the rights of
the civil magillrate, for all fuch authority was difclaim-
ed by himfelf: “ My kingdom (faid he to Pilate) is
not of this world and to a certain perfon who alked
him to decide a queftion of property between him and
his brother, he replied, “ Man, who made me a judge or
a divider over your” But when it is confidered, that
Chrift came into this world to “ turn men from darknefs
to light, and from the power of Satan to the living
God.; that he gave himfelf for us, that he might redeem
us from all iniquity, and purify to himfelf a peculiar
people zealous of good worksthat of thefe works
many are fuch as unregenerate humanity has no incli¬
nation to perform, and that the doftrines which he re¬
vealed are fuch as human reafon could never have difco-
vered ; the advocate for epifcopacy thinks it was ex¬
tremely expedient, if not abfolutdy neceffary,.. that,
when he afcended into heaven, he ftxould eftabliftx upon
earth fome authority to illuftrate the revelation which
he had given, and to enforce obedience to the laws
which he had ena&ed. There is nothing, continues
he, more ftridly required of Chriftians, than that they
live together in unity, profeffing the fame faith, join¬
ing in. the fame worftxip, and pra&ifing the fame vir¬
tues. But as men have very different paffions, preju¬
dices, and purfuits, fuch unity would be impoffible,
were they not linked together in one fociety under the Chriftians -
government of perfons authorifed to watch over the linked to-
purity of the fai.h, to prefcribe the forms of public gether .in
worftxip, and to explain the nature and inculcate theonu clfty
neceffity of the feveral virtues. The fociety .of Chri-rw/the
ftians, in x efpefl of its unity and -‘organization, is com-Pngdom of
pared to the human body: for “ as we have many aild ■
members in one body, and all members have not '
fame office ; fo we being many are one body in Chrift, 0 * ’
and every one members one of another,” (Rom. xii.
4, 5.) It it called the church, the kingdom of heaven,
and
E P I
[ 696 ]
E P I
>pacy. and the kingdom of God; and its affairs, like thofe of
every other kingdom, are adminiftered by proper offi¬
cers in fubordination to the one Lord, who, “ when
he afcended up on high, and led captivity captive, gave
fome apoftles, and fome prophets, and fome pallors
and teachers, for the perfecting of the faints, for the
miflion of the fovereign which gives force fo the judge-Ep'ifcopaqJj
ment of the court; it is the commifiion of Chrift
work of the miniftry, for the edifying of the body of inftitution.
which gives validity to baptifm. The fame reafoning
is applicable to the Lord’s fupper, which, if it be not
adminiltered by thofe who have authority for fuch ad-
miniilration, cannot be deemed a facrament of Chriil’s
Chrift (Ephef. iv. 8—13.) That thofe various or¬
ders of minifters were veiled with real authority in the
church, might be inferred from principles of reafon as
well as from the diftates of revelation. A fociety
without fome fort of government, government without
5 laws, or laws without an executive power, is a direCt
The church abfurdity. Where there are laws, fome muff, govern,
and others be governed; fome muff command, and
c^ficers^ others obey; fome .mull direft, and others fubmit to
direClion. This is the voice of nature ; it is likevvife
the language of feripture. “ Obey them (fays the in-
fpired author of the epillle to the Hebrews) who have
the rule over you, and fubmit yourfelves: for they
watch for your fouls as they that muft give account.”
A text which Ihows that the authority of the minitlers
of religion was diftind from that of the civil magi-
flrate, whofe duty is to watch, not for the fouls, but for
the lives and properties, of his fubjeCls.
Of the fociety thus conllituted, it was not, as of a
() philofophical fed, left to every man’s choice whether or
All Chri- not he would become a member. All who embrace
Thefe two rites are the external badges of our pro-
feflion. By the one, we are incorporated into that fo¬
ciety of which our Redeemer is the head and fove¬
reign : in the celebration of the other, we have a right
to join, whilft of that fociety we continue members.
But if by an open and fcandalous difregard of the pre¬
cepts of the gofpel, we Ihould prove ourfelves unworthy
of its privileges, the fame perfons who are authorifed
to admit us into the church, are likewife veiled with
authority to call us out of it; for to them were given
“ the keys of the kingdom of heaven (or the church),
with aflurance, that whatfoever they Ihould bind on
earth, Ihould be bound in heaven ; and whatfoever they
Ihould loofe on earth, Ihould be loofed in heaven,”
(Mat.xviii. 18.) As baptifm is to be adminillered folong
as there lhall be perfons to be enlilled under the ban¬
ners of Chrill, and the Lord’s Supper to be celebrated
fo long as it lhall be the duty of foldiers to adhere to
the llandard of their leader and their head; and as it is
likewife to be feared that there will never come a time
when all Chriftians (hall “ walk worthy of the voca-
ftians re- the faith of the Redeemer of the world are required to tion wherewith they are called;” it follows, that this „
be'mem0 ^>e hapiixed, under the pain of forfeiting the benefits of power of the keys which was originally given to the a- C,lr‘,ftia,ns
■s of the redemption : but one great purpofe for which baptifm
chcrch. was inllitutcd, is to be the rite of initiation into the
church of Chrill; “for by one fpirit are we all bapti¬
zed into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles,
* « - # w « w as a body
poftles, mull continue in the church through all ages, cannot
even unto the end of the world. But as we have feen, transfer to
that it was not at firll intrufted to all the difciples in
common, as one of the privileges infeparable from their j
whether we be bond or free,” (( Cor. xii. 13.) Of profeffion, and as no body of men can pofiibly to*w.r/er which they:
baptifm, whatever be the importance, it is evident, an authority of which they themfelves were neverpof-
31
that to receive it, is not, like the pradtice of jullice, or the fejfed; it is certain, that even now it cannot, by the
veneration of the Supreme Being, a duty refulting from
the relations of man to his Creator and fellow-crea¬
tures ; that its wdiole efficacy, which in feripture is faid from the apollles, who
eledtion of one clafs of Chriftians, be delegated to ano¬
ther, but mull, by fome mode of fucceffion, be derived
fcnt by Chrill as he
to be nothing lefs than the remiffion of fins, is derived was fent by his Father. To argue from the origin of
from po/itive inflitution ; and therefore, that the external civil to that of ecclefiaflical government, although not
All Chri-
authorifed
be of no avail, but when it is adminiftered
in the manner preferibed, and by a perfon authorifed to
adminifter it. That all Chriftians are not veiled with
this authority, as one of the common privileges of the
faith, appears from the commiffion which our Savi¬
our after his refurredlion gave to his apoftles. At
that period, we are allured that the number of his fol-
lu admini- ^owers was not ^ t^aa fa- hundred; yet we find, that
Her the fa- to the eleven difciples only did “ he come and fpeak, fay-
craments. ing. All power is given unto me in heaven and in
earth ; go ye, therefore, and teach all nations, bapti¬
zing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghoft.”
Of the 500 difciples there is furely no reafon to be¬
lieve that there were not many well qualified to inftrudl
either a Jew or a Gentile in the dodtrines of the gof¬
pel ; and it is certain, that any one of them could have
walked his convert with water in the name of the Holy
Trinity as well as St Peter or St John : but fuch an
unauthorifed waffling would not have been Chrillian
baptifm, nor of equal validity with it, any more than
the opinion of a lawyer at the bar is the judgment of a
court of jullice, or of equal obligation. It is the com-
N° nb.
very uncommon, the Epifcopalian deems extremely fal¬
lacious. Of the various nations of the world, many of
the fovereigns may indeed derive their authority from
the fuffrages of their fubjedls ; becaufe in a Hate of na¬
ture, every man has an inherent right to defend his life,
liberty, and property; and what he pofieffes in his own
perfon, he may for the good of fociety transfer to ano¬
ther : but no man is by nature, or can make himfelf, a . - .
member of the Chriftian church ; and therefore autho-10 g0VerT^
rity to govern that fociety can be derived only from the church
him by whom it was founded, and who died that he can be de¬
might “ gather together in one all the children of"^^1!
God.”
Againft fuch reafoning as this it hath been urged,
that to make inllitutions, which like baptifm and the
Lord’s fupper are generally neceffary to the falvation
of all Chri Ilians, depend for their efficacy upon the au¬
thority or commiffion of a particular order, appears in- ^
confident with the wifdom and goodnefs of God; as An
by fuch an economy an intolerable domination would tion an-
be eltabliftied over the fouls of men, and the purpofe fwered.
for which the Saviour of the world died might be in
fome degree defeated by the caprice of an ignorant and
6 arbi-
E P I [ 697 ] E P I
cop icy. arbitrary prielthood. The objection is certainly plau-
fible; but the Epifcopalian affirms, that either it has no
weight, or militates with equal force againft all reli¬
gion, natural as well as revealed, and even againft the
wifdom of Providence in the government of this world.
—In every thing, he obferves, relating to their tem¬
poral and to their fpiritual interefts, mankind are all
fubjefted to mutual dependence. The rich depend up¬
on the poor, and the poor upon the rich. An infant
neglefted from the birth, would barely cry and ceafe
to live ; nor is it eafily to be conceived, that in the
more rigid climates of the earth, a full grown man
could provide even the neceflaries of mere animal life.
Of religion, it is certain that in fuch a ftate nothing could
I be known; for there is not the fmalleft reafon to imagine
that any individual of the human race— an Ariftotle, a
J Bacon, or a Newton, had he been left alone from his in-
| fancy, without culture and without education,— could
ever, by the native vigour of his own mind, have dif-
covered the exiftence of a God, or that fuch fpecula-
tions as lead to that difcovery would have employed
any portion of his time or his thoughts. Even in civi¬
lized fociety it would be impoffible, in the prefent age,
for any man, without the affiftance of others, to un-
derftand the very firft principles of our common Chri-
ftianity ; for the fcriptures, which alone contain thofe
I principles, are written in languages which are now
no where vernacular. In the fidelity of tranflators,
therefore, every illiterate difciple of Jefus mujl confide,
for the truth of thofe do&rines which conftitute the
foundation of all his hopes; and as no man ever pre¬
tended that the Chriftian facraments are more ncceflary
to falvation than the Chriftian faith, the Epifcopalian
fees no impropriety or inconfiftency in making thofe per-
fons receive baptifm and the Lord’s fupper by the mi-
niftration of others, who by fuch miniftration mull of
ix neceffity receive the truths of the gofpel.
rma By fuch arguments as thefe does the Epifcopalian
order endeavour to prove that Chrift conftituted fome per-
inillersmanent order of minj/lers in the church, to whom in the
hril^ externa^s rdigion the great body of Chriftians are
commanded to pay obedienceand thus far the
Prefbyterian agrees with him: but here their agreement
ends. They hand in hand attack the Independent with
the fame weapons, and then proceed to attack each other.
The o«<? maintains, that originally the officers of the
Chriftian church were all prefbyters or elders of one order,
and veiled with equal powers; whilft the other holds,
that Chrift and his apoftles appointed divers orders of
mini tiers in the church ; that of thefe orders the high-
eft alone w‘as empowered to ordain others; and that
therefore obedience, as to thofe who watch for our
fouls, can be due only to fuch as are epifcopally. or-
t dained.
pref. In behalf of the Prefbyterian plea it is urged, that
fan the titles of Ifhop and prefbyter, being in the New Teita-
( ment indifferently given to the fame perfons, cannot
be the titles of diilintft ecclefiaftical officers ; which
appears dill more evident from the dhlination of Timo-
i thy, who, although he was the firft bijhop of Ephefus,
received his epifcopal chara&er by the impofition of the
!' hands of the prefbytery.—That one and the fame man
is, in the New Teflament, ftyled fometimes a bi/hop and
fometimes a prefbyter, cannot be denied ; but although
every apoftolic bifhop was therefore undoubtedly a
¥ol. VI. Part II.
prefbyter, it does not of courfe follow, fays the Epif- Epifcopacy.
copalian, that every prefbyter was likewife a bifhop. ’ v-*—*
In the Old Teftament, Aaron and his fons are without
anydifcrimination of order frequently-ftyled priefls ; and
in the New, both St Peter and St John call themfelves
prefbyters, as St Paul, upon one occafion, ftyles him-
felf a deacon— flaxovoc, (Eph. iii. 7.): yet no man ever
fuppofed thofe apoftles to have been fuch ecclefiaftical
officers as modern prefbyters and deacons; and it is
univerfally known that in the Jewifh priefthood there
were different orders, and that Aaron was of an or¬
der fuperior to his fons. This being the cafe, the
prefbyters, by the laying on of whofe hands Timothy ,_T'3
was made a bifhop, may have been of the fame order ^uments
with St Peter and St John ; and if fo, it follows that aAinft it.
his ordination was epifcopal. At all events, we are
certain, continues the advocate for Epifcopacy, that it
was not, in the modern fenfe of the word, Prefbyterian ;
for the gift, which in the firft epiille is faid to have
been “ given by prophecy with the laying on of the
hands of the prefbytery,” is in the fecond faid to have
been “ in him by the putting on of the hands of St
Paul.” And here it is worthy of obfervation, that
the prepofition ufed in the former cafe is which ,fig-
concurrence rather than inflrumentality; but that
in the latter is which, as every Greek fcholar
knows, is prefixed to the injlrumental caufe by which .
any thing is effected : fo that whatever may have been
the order of the prefbyters who concurred, St Paul ap¬
pears to h; ve been the foie ordainer. But by the con-
feffion of all parties, St Paid was a bifhop in the highefl
fenfe in which that word is ever ufed ; and the pow’ers
of the epifcopate not being parcelled out among various
partners, of whom each poffeffes only a fhare, the im¬
pofition of his hands was fufficient for every purpofe
which could have been effedted by the hands of the
whole college of apoftles.
It appears, therefore,that from the promifcuousufe of
the titles bifhop and prefbyter, and from thc ordination of
Timothy, nothing can with certainty be concluded on
either fide of this celebrated queftion. But if, inflead
of refting in mere words, which, when taken alone and
without regard to the context, are almoft all of am¬
biguous fignification, we attend to fome important
fails recorded in the New Teftament, the Epifcopalian
thinks we fhall in them difcover fufficient evidence
that the goverment of the primitive church was pre-
latical.
During our Saviour’s flay upon earth, it is undeni¬
able that he had under him two diftindl orders of mi-
nifters—the twelve, and the feventy; and after his
afcenfion, immediately before which he had enlarged
the powers of the eleven, we read of apoflles, prefbyters,
and deacons, in the church. That the prefbyters were 14
fuperior to the deacons, and the apoftles fuperior to TLee or»
both, is univerfally acknowledged ; but it has been plrs II?
faid that in fcripture we find no intimation that the minifters
apoftolic order was defigned for continuance. A during our
Quaker fays the fame thing of water-baptifm; and Saviour’s
the Epifcopalian obferves, that it would be difficult ^ay uPon
to point out by what paffage of fcripture, or what fikew^af-
mode of reafoning, thofe who, upon this plea, rejeft ter his a
the apoftolic order of Chriftian m'inifters, could over- henfion in¬
throw the principles upon which the difciples of Georgeto heaven.
Fox reject the ufe of that rite which our Saviour inili-.
4 T tuted
E P I [ 6q3 1 E P I
Bpifcopftcy. tutedi for the initiation of mankind into his church.
* ' They were the tlevm alone to whom Chrift faid, “ Go
ye therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them in
the name of the lather, and of the fcon, and of the
Holy Ghoft:” and therefore, although we frequently
find prefoyters and deacons adminiftering the facra-
ment of baptifm, vve mull conclude, that as n.judge ad-
minifters juftice by authority derived from his fowreign,
fo thole inferior officers of the church adminillet ed bap¬
tifm by authority derived from the apojlles. Indeed,
had they pretended to adl by any other authority, it
is not eafily to be conceived how their baptifm could
have been the baptifm inflituted by Chrift ; for it was
not with the external avajhing by whomfoever perform¬
ed, but with the eleven and their fucceffors, that he
promifed to be “ always, even unto the end of the
world.”
That the eleven did not confider this promife, or the
commiffion with which it was given, as terminating
with their lives, is evident from their admitting others
into their own order ; for which they had competent
x j authority, as having been fent by Chrift as he was fent
The apo- by his Father. When St Paul, to magnify his office
ftolic or and procure to it from the Galatians due reverence,
°r' ftyles himfelf, an apoftle not of men, neither by man,
be^n" hut by Jefus Chrift and God the Father,” he muft
permanent, have known fome who derived their apoftolic miffion
by man; othe.rwife he could with no propriety have
claimed particular refpect, as he evidently does, from
what was in his own apoftlelhip no particular diftinc-
tion. At that very early period, therefore, there muft
have been in the church fecondary apoftles, if they may
be fo called, upon whom, by impolltion of hands, or
by fome other fignificant ceremony, the eleven had
conferred that authority which was given to them by
their Divine Mailer. Such were Matthias and Bar¬
nabas ; fuch likewife were Timothy, Titus, and the an¬
gels of the feven churches in Alia, with many others
whofe names and offices are mentioned in the New
Tellament.
That Matthias and Barnabas were of the apoftolic
order, has never been controverted ; and that Timothy
and Titus were fuperior to modern prefbytets, is evi-
Matthias dent fiom the offices affigned them. Timothy was,
Barnabas by St Paul, empowered to preftcle over the prefbyters
Tin.othy, Qf Epbefus, to receive accufations againft them, to ex-
Titus, and to cliarge, and even to rebuke them ; and Titus
If the feven was, by the fame apoftle, left in Crete for the exprefs
churches in purpofe of fetting things in order, and ordaining pref-
Afu,hjlops. foytefs in every city. To exhort, to charge, and with
authority to rebuke one’s equal, is certainly incongru¬
ous ; and therefore the Epifcopalian thinks the powers
conferred on Timothy altogether inconfiftent with that
parity of order and of office for which his antagonifts
fo ftrenuoufly plead. Even the commiffion given to
Titus appears in his eyes by much too extenfive for a
Prefbyterian minifter, who, after having ordained in
ere city, could not have proceeded to ordain in another
without the confent and affiftance of his brother and
fellow-labourer. With refpect to the angels of the A-
fiatic churches, he obferves, that ip the Old Teftament
the title oi angel is fometimes given to the Je<wi/h high-
priejl.. and particularly by the prophet Malachi, who
calls him “ the mejfenger (av^xor) of the Lord of
Holts i” and that the angels of the churches mention¬
ed by St John, were Chri/lian high.prifls, or lijhrjps?^-o^\
prefiding over more than one congregation, as it is af-  v—
firmed by all the ancient writers, cannot, he thinks, be
■denied by any man who will take the trouble to com¬
pare feripture with feripture. We read (A£ts xix. j
IO, and 20.), that “ in the fpace of two years all they /
wTho dwrelt in Afia heard from St Paul the word of the
Lord Jefus, both Jews and Greeks; and that there the !
word of God grew mightily and prevailed but with
what truth or propriety could this have been faid, if
at the time of St John’s writing the Apocalypfe,
which was 30 years after St Paul’s death, all the
Chriftians of Proconfular Afia were comprifed in feven
congregations, which affembled, each with its proper
paftor, to perform, in one place, the duties of public
worfhip ? In a word, the advocate for epifcopacy in¬
fills, that no man, who reads without prejudice the
adls of the apoftles, the epiftles of St Paul, and the
Apocalypfe of St John, can feripufty believe that Ti¬
mothy, Titus, Epaphroditus, Sojlhenes, and Silvanus, with
the angels of the feven churches in Afia, were mere
prefbyters, or that the government of the church was,
in thofe days, by a college of elders.
When from the infpired penmen of the New Telia-
ment he proceeds to examine the fucceeding writers of
the Chrift ian church, the Epifcopalian finds fuch mul¬
tiplied and concurring evidence of the apoftolic infti-
tution of epifcopacy, as he thinks, it impoffible to re¬
fill without denying the truth of all ancient hiftory,
and even (baking the pillars, of revelation itfelf; for J
“ in the noble army of martyrs,” the witneffes of
the epifcopal government of the church are earlier,
and by far more numerous, than thofe who teftify that
the gofpel of St Matthew was written by that apoftle,
or that the book of the Apocalypfe is canonical ferip¬
ture. The authority of the fathers indeed is at pre-
fent very low; but Ihould they be allowed to be as
fanciful divines and as bad critics as their world ene¬
mies are pleafed to reprefent them, this would detract
nothing from their evidence when they bear witnefs
to the conftitution of the church in their own times ; i
for of their integrity there can be no doubt : and what
the Epifcopalian wants of them is only their teftimony
to matters of fa£l which fell under the cognizance of
their own fenfes, and about which therefore they could
not be deceived. It is here indeed chidly that he
triumphs over his antagonifts. In the fecond and
third centuries there was no general council, nor any ,7 ;
Chriftian fovereign. A prelacy therefore, he urges. The divi
could not have been an/wr/c/fy introduced, during that r',.^u of|
period, either by a concert among the clergy, or by*” coPacl
the authority of the civil magiftrate. Yet that even then
there was no church under heaven, of which the go¬
vernment was not epifcopal, has been confefled by fome
of the moll learned writers among, the Prelbyterians;
themfelves ; whence he concludes that epifcopacy is
of divine inftitution.
Thecandid Epifcopalian,however, allbws,that in the
apoftolic age there may' have been fome churches
which at firft had only biftiops and deacons to perform
the offices of religion ; for when the number of di£-
ciples in any place was fo fmall that they could all meet
in one afiembly, there was no neceffity for any other
order of miniftets : but it appears that, from the very
beginning, bifhops,prejbyters, and deacons, .were fettled in
1 all
E P I [ 699 ] E P I
pifcopacr all the larger cities of the Roman empire ; and it was
■'~'v in thofe days an allowed maxim, that without a bifhop
there could be no church. The better to underftand the
original ftate and inftitution df epifcopacy,itis necefiary
to obferve, that the empire, which contained almoft
all the known part of the Chriltian world, was by Au-
■guftus Caefar divided into provinces, fubjefted each to
(the authority df one chief magittrate, who was com¬
monly a preetor or proconful, and who refided in the
metropolis or chief city of the province. A province
comprehended the cities of a whole region; and in the
age of the apoftles, each city was under the immediate
government of certain magiftrates within its owm bo¬
dy, known by the name of /3oua.», or fenatus, ordo and
curia, “ the ftates and court of the city.” Thofe magi¬
ftrates were fubordinate to the prut or or proconful: but
among them there was one fuperior to the reft, called
fometimes diSator, and fometimes defenfor civil at is,
whofe jurifdi&ion extended not only over the city it-
felf, but likewife over all the adjacent territory. That
territory was denominated rpoxa-'iuu, or the fuburbs, and
often reached to the diftance of 10 or 12 miles round
the city, and fometimes much farther, containing
-within it many villages and fmall towns Under the go-
18 vernment of the city magiftrates. From fome paffages
he origin jn (he New Teftament, and from the concurring evi-
uioce e8-gence 0f tiie earlieft writers of the church, it appears
to have been the purpofe of the apoftles to fettle a bi-
fhop in every city where jthere was a civil magiftracy:
but as they could not be perfonall^prefent in all places
at one?, it was natural for them to enter upon the great
■$vork of converting the nations, by Jhfl preaching the
gofpel in that city of each province wdiich was the or¬
dinary refidence of the governor ; becaufe to it there
muft have been the greateft refert of people, who
■would carry the glad tidings with them into the coun¬
try when they returned. Accordingly, having difper-
fed themfelves over the empire, and made numbers of
profelytes in the principal cities, they fixed in each,
where they faw it neceffary, a hi/hop, with a college of
prejbyters and deacons ; and gave to thofe bilhops, who
were at firft called apojlles, a commiffion, as the other
cities of the province fliould be converted, to fix in
them bifhops alfo.
In fome of the fmaller cities, it is extremely probable
I that a bifliop and a deacon were for a Ihort time the
only ecclefiaftical officers, till the number of Chriftians
increafed fo much as to make it impoffible for them
all to affemble in one houfe for the purpofes of public
worfhip. The biihop then ordained prejbyters to of¬
ficiate in thofe congregations where he himfelf could
not be prefent, and to affift him in other parts of his
paftoral office ; but in all their miniftrations the pref-
byters were fubordinate to him, who was the chief
pallor within the city, who compofed the prayers which
were offered up in public, and to whom all the other
minifters of religion were accountable for their cou-
du6l. So long as the number of the faithful was con¬
fined within the walls of the city, it appears that the
biihop with his prefbyters and deacons lived together
|j as in a college ; that divine fervice was every Lord’s-
day, or oftener, performed in what was afterwards call¬
ed the cathedral or mother-church, by the bifhop him-
I felf, affifted by fome of his clergy ; and that the congre¬
gations which met in other churches, having no Jixcd
pallors, were fupplied by fuch prelbyters as the biftiop Eplfcopacy.
chofe to fend to them from his own church. Whilft  v' ■ '
matters continued in this Hate, the clergy had no other
revenues than what arofe from the voluntary oblations
of the people ; which were indeed fo large as not only
to fupport them with decency, but likewife to anfvver
other ends of charity and munificence. They were
commonly divided into four equal parts; of which one
was allotted to the biihop, a fecond to the inferior
clergy, a third to the poor, and a fourth to keep the
churches in repair ; and it was confidered as part of
the bilhop’s duty to talie care that the offerings ftiould
be faithfully applied to thefe purpofes.
When converts increafed in number, and churches The origin
were built in the fuburbs, each of thofe churches had of paniheS,
a fixed pallor fimilar to a parifu-prieft among us ; but
Hill thofe pallors, as well as the city-clergy, minillered
in fubordination to the biihop, whofe authority ex¬
tended as far as the civil authority of the Roman ma-
giftrate, within which diftridt or diocefe it was fupreme
over all orders of Chriftians. This every man knows
who is acquainted with ecclefiallical hiltory ; for thd
biihop alone could ordainpriejls and deacons, adminifter
the rite of confirmation, abfolve penitents who were under
church-cenfure, and exclude from communion heretics and
notorious offenddFs ; and from his fentence there lay no
appeal but to a fynod of comprovincial bilhops.
Such fynods were in each province convened by the
biihop of the chief city ; for the apoftles having been
careful to place in thofe cities men of the moll emi¬
nent gifts and abilities, the other bilhops of the pro¬
vinces applied to them for advice upon every emergen¬
cy, and paid a particular deference to them upon every
occaiion. So that though all bilhops were of equal
authority as bijhops, yet when they met to confecrate a
new bilhop, or to deliberate upon the affairs of the
church, they yielded a precedency to the biihop of the
metropolis, who called them together, and who fat as
prefident or moderator of the fynod. Hence the origin ao
of metropolitans or archbijhops; whofe authority was fo The origin
confiderable, that though there is not a doubt but the metroP°'
eleSion of bilhops was anciently placed in the clergy atchbifliops.
and people of the vacant diocefe, yet the biihop elett
could not be confecrated without the confent of the
archbilhop of the province.
In confequence of the extenfive powers with which
the primitive bilhops were veiled, they are commonly
ftyled in the writings of thofe times prefidents, provojls,
or inJpeQors of the church, chief priejls, princes of the
clergy, and even princes of the people; but their autho¬
rity was wholly fpiritual. Thofe prelates, imitatin r
the example of their Divine Mailer when on earth,
neither poffeffcd nor affumed to themfelves any jurif-
diction over the properties or civil rights of men. In
confequence of St Paul’s having reprimanded the Co¬
rinthians for going to la.v before the unbelievers, they
were indeed often chofen as arbiters of fuch civil dif-
putes as arofe between individuals under their epifeo-
pal government; but on thefe occafions they could not
act unlefs the fubmiffion was voluntarily made by both
the contending parties, and then their decifion was fi¬
nal. When the empire became Chriftian, this privi¬
lege was confirmed to them by law ; for any civil
caufe depending before a court of juftice could be
withdrawn, and by the mucual confent of parties be
4 T 3 fubmitted
E P I [ 700 ]
Epifcopacy. fubmitted to the arbitration of the bifhop, whofe a- In this (hort
E P I
of cpifcopacy, it has been our en- Epifcnpa<
ward, which in former times could be enforced only deavour to do jultice to the fubjeft, without fuffering ll .
by the terror of church-cenfures, was then enforced by ourfelves to be influenced by partiality or prejudice. c<)^
 T" -1 —r~~ -1-  *l - As we are not ourfelves epifcopalians, we have advanr
ced nothing of our own ; but have feledfed from Eng-
the fecular magiftrate. In criminal caufes, where the
trial might be for life or death, they were prohibited
both by the canons of the church and by the laws of lifh writers, who have at different times undertaken to
the ftate from adting as judges; and therefore they
never fuffered fuch caufes to come before them, except
when it was neceffary that the perfon accufed, if found
guilty, fhould be excluded from the communion of the
faithful. But they had fo many civil caufes flowing
in upon them, that they were foon obliged to devolve
2I part of that care upon other perfons in whofe know-
The proba-ledge, prudence, and integrity, they could fully con-
’ anc^ as l^e Per^ons employed to adt in the bi¬
courts. fhop’s ftead were often laymen, it has been conjedtured
that they gave rife to the office of lay-chancellor in the
church, and to all that train of fpiritual judges and
fpiritual courts againft which fuch numbers are dif-
pofed to clamour.
Be this as it may, it is certain that, through the
piety and munificence of the Chriitian emperors, the
bifhops enjoyed large revenues and many valuable pri¬
vileges ; but it does not appear that they had any rank
or authority, as barons or temporal princes, till the Go-
defend the divine right of epifcopacy, fuch fadts and
arguments as to us appear to be of the moft import¬
ance, or to have the greateft weight, without remark¬
ing upon them, or offering any anfwer. The reafon-
ing employed to prove that the order of bifhops was in-
flituted by the apoftles, is taken from a work prepared
for the prefs by Dr Berkeley prebendary of Canter¬
bury, and fon of the celebrated bifhop of Cloyne. For
the refi: of the detail, we are indebted chiefly to Bing¬
ham’s Origines Ecclefiajlicte; a performance in great efti-
mation with thofe Englifh divines who are commonly
known by the appellation of high churchmen. As edi¬
tors of a work of this kind, it is not our bufinefs to be
of any party, or to fupport, in oppofition to all others,
a particular church, though that church fhould be our
own : We fhall therefore treat independency and pre/byr
tery as we have treated epifcopacy, by employing fome
able writer of each fociety to plead his own caufe.
Mean while, we fhall conclude this article with a few
Bilbo
ip* had nations, which fubverted the Roman empire, had refledtions, which, though they come from the pen of
   embraced the Chriftian faith. As Chriflianity incapa-
rank till af-citated the leaders of thofe tribes from officiating as
ter the fub-c}j;ef pr;efts at- the religious rites which were ufually
the 'Roman n^krated at the opening of their public affemblies,
empire and the bifhops came naturally to difeharge that duty on
the conver-fuch occafions, when they muft have fhared in the rank
fion of the by ffiaring in the fundtions of the chief. The fitua-
an obfeure author, deferve to be engraved deep in the
memory of every controvertift of every communion. ,
“ On complicated queftions (fays a late apologift Modi
for the epifcopal church in Scotland), men will always in cor.tro-
differ in opinion ; but confcious each of the weaknefs vtr!v
of his own underflanding, and fenfible of the bias ^mn
which the flrongeft minds are apt to receive from
tion in which they thus appeared at the opening of all thinking long in the fame track, they ought to differ
political conventions, would enable them to join with
much effedt in the deliberations which enfued; and
their fuperior knowledge, their facred charadter, and
their influence with the people, would foon acquire
them power equal to their rank. They muft therefore
with charity and meeknefs. Since unhappily there are
ftill fo many fubjedts of debate among thofe who name
the name of Chrift ; it is doubtlefs every man’s duty,
after divefting himfelf as much as poffible of prejudice,
to inveftigate thofe fubjedts with accuracy, and to ad-
have been w7ell intitled to demand admiffion into that here to that fide of each difputed queftion wdiich, after
council which was formed by the king and the lay- fuch inveftigation, appears to him to be the truth : but
chiefs at the national affemblies: and as they balanced he tranfgreffes the favourite precept of his divine
the authority of thofe chiefs, we cannot doubt that the Mafter, when he cafts injurious refledfions, or denoun-
king w'ould be difpofed to give the utmoft effedf to
their claim. Accordingly, we find the dignified cler¬
gy, who received large grants of land to be held on
the fame tenures with the lands of the lay magiftrates,
anathemas, upon thofe who, with equal fincerity,
may view the matter in a different light; and by his
want of charity does more harm to the religion of the
Prince of Peace, than he could poffibly do good, were
prefiding along with thofe magiftrates in the provincial he able to conve'rt all mankind to his own orthodox
affemblies of every degree in all the Gothic nations, opinions.”
and enjoying every advantage in point of rank and au¬
thority in their national diets. Hence the bifhop of
Rome, and feveral bifhops in Germany, have, like the
EPISCOPAL, fomething belonging to Bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church-hiftory, an appel¬
lation given to thofe who prefer the epifcopal gpvern-
dukes and marquifes of that empire, been for a long ment and difeipline to all others. See Episcopacy.
^! f ^ V.o KIAv/awo r\f T\vr fafQ- rtr\r\e> Knb frrtrtrtl 1 aDQ. nr mpmKp
time fovereign princes ; and hence too the bifhops of
England and Ireland have always fat, and have an
equal right with the lay-peers to fit, in the upper houfe office civil or military.
_ 17  1!   A T* ^ s XT •/-v 11 O 4'lvo*' fo *• TT P T .Q f'’T T f .Q
By the teft a£t, none but Epifcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
of parliament. It is however obvious, that, fo far EPISCOPIUS (Simon), one of the moft learned
as epifcopacy is of apofolical inftitution, thofe peers men of the 17th century, and the chief fupporter of the
and* princes'pofiefs not the original charadter in any
higher degree than the bifhops in America, who are
barely tolerated, or than thofe ii
enjoy that privilege ; and that confirmation admini-
ftered, or holy orders conferred, by a peri'ecuted pre¬
late, muft be as effedtual to the purpofts of religion, as
if given by a German prince or an Englifh peer.
Arminian fedt, was born at Amfterdam in 1583. In
1.612, he was chofen divinity profeflbr at Leyden, in
Scotland who do not the room of Gomarus, who refigned ; and the func¬
tions of his office, with his private ftudies, were light
burdens to him, compared with the difficulites he fuf-
tained on account of-the Arminian controverfy: which,
though it began in the univerfities, foon flew to the
pulpits^
E P I [ 701 ] E P X
Ejifcopus pulpits, from whence it fpread and inflamed the peo- latter, all the Sundays from Trinity to Advent. Du- Epiftolary
J! pie. The ftates of Holland having invited EpifcOpius ring the firft of thefe feafons, the epiftles and gofpels ^
t pi^ e to take his place at the fynod of Dort, he went thither are calculated to raife in us a grateful fenfe of what our mium.
accompanied by fome remonftrant minifters ; but the Saviour did and fuffered for us, and fet before our eyes . _ —> >
fynod would not allow them to fit as judges, nor to his nativity, circumcilion, and manifellation to the
appear in any other capacity than as perfons fummon-
ed before them: they fubmitted, were depofed from
their functions, and baniflied the territories of the
commonwealth. Epifcopius and his perfecuted bre¬
thren retired to Antwerp ; but the times growing more
favourable, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was
made minifter of the church of the Remonftrants at
Rotterdam : in 1634, he was chofen retlor of the col¬
lege founded by his fecit at Amflerdam, where he fpent
the remainder of his days. He died ia 1643, of the
fame diforder which had'killed his wife before, a re¬
tention of urine ; having loft his fight fome weeks
previous to his end. The learned have beftowed great
eulogiums on Epifcopius ; but he did not always write
with that moderation which might have been wiftied.
His works make two volumes in folio, of which the fe-
cond confifts of pofthumous publications.
EPISCOPUS, the fame with biftiop. See Bishop
and Episcopacy.
EPISODE, in poetry, a feparate incident, ftory,
or aftion, which a poet invents, and connedls with his
Gentiles; his doctrines and miracles; his baptifm,
faffing, and temptation ; his agony and bloody fweat;
his crofs and paffion ; his death, burial, refurreftion,
and afcenfion ; and his million of the Holy Ghoft.
During the fecond feafon of the year, the epiftles and
gofpels tend to inftrudf us in the true paths of Chrifti-
anity. See Collects.
EPISTOLARY, fomething belonging to an epiftle.
See Epistle.
Epistolary Compoftiion. See Letter. ; and the
article Poetry.
EPISTROPHE. See Oratory, nc yr.
EPISTYLE, in the ancient architecture, a term
ufed by the Greeks for what we call architrave, viz. a
a maflive piece of ftone or wood, laid immediately over
the capital of a column.
EPI TAPH (from upon, and rapor fepulchre), a
monumental infeription, in honour or memory of a
perfon deceafed. It has been difputed whether the
ancient Jews inferibed epitaphs on the monuments of
the dead; but be this as it will, epitaphs it is cer-
principal a&ion, that his work may abound with a tain, of very ancient date, are found amongft them.—
greater diverfity of events ; though, in a more limited
fenfe, all the particular incidents whereof the aCfion or
narration is compounded, are called epifodes. See
Poetry.
EPISPASTIC, in medicine, a topical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, attradls
the humours to that part.
EPISTATES, in the Athenian government, was
the prefident of the proedri. See Proedri.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancientGreekchurch,
an officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of cenfor. His
office anfwered pretty nearly to that of mafter of the
facred palace at Rome.
EPISTLE, denotes the fame with a miffive letter;
but is now chiefly ufed in fpeaking of ancient writings.
The Athenians, by way of epitaph, put only the name
of the dead, with the epithet fignifying “ good,”
or “ hero,” and the word xa‘e£> fignifying their
good willies : The name of the deceafed’s father and
his tribe were frequently added.—The Lacedemonians
allowed epitaphs to none but thofe who had died in
battle. The Romans inferibed their epitaphs to the
manes, dus manibus; and frequently introduced the
dead by way of profopopoeia, fpeaking to the living;
of which we have a fine inftance, worthy the Augultan
age, wherein the dead wife thus befpeaks her furvivi^g
hulband :
Immature, pert; fed tujclkior, anno,
Five tuos, conjux optime, vive mcos.
The epitaphs of the prefent day are generally cram--
med with fulfome compliments which were never me-
as the epiftles of St Paul, epiftles of Cicero, epiftles of rited, charadters which human nature in its beft ftate
Pliny, &c. v could fcarce lay claim to, and expreffions of refpedt
Epistles and Gofpels, in the liturgy of the church which were never paid in the life-time of the deceafed •
ef England, are feleft portions of feripture, taken out Hence the proverb with great propriety took its rife,
of the writings of the evangelifts and apoftles, and ap- “ He lies like an epitaph.”
pointed to be read, in the eommunion-fervice, on Sun¬
days and holidays. They are thought to have been fe-
ledted by St Jerom, and by him put into the ledfion-
ary. It is certain, they were very anciently appro¬
priated to the days whereon we now read them, fince
they are not only of general ufe throughout the weftern
church, but are alfo commented upon in the homilies
of feveral ancient fathers, which are faid to have been
preached upon thofe very days to which thefe portions
of feripture are now affixed.
The epiftles and gofpels are placed in an admirable
order and method, and bear a fpecial relation to the
feveral days whereon they are read. The year is di-
flinguiftied into two parts; the firft being defigned to
commemorate Chrift’s living among us, the other to in-
itrudl us to live after his example. The former takes
in the wholetimefrom Advent to Trinity-Sunday ; the
Epitaph, is alfo applied to certain eloges, either ia.
profe or in verfe, compofed without any intent to be
engraven on tombs; as, That of Alexander,
SuJJjcit huic tumulusy cut non fujjiceret orbis j
and that of Newton,
Ifiacum Newton,
%uem immortcilem
Tejtantur Tempus, Nature, Cxlum,
Niortalem hoc marmor
JFatetur.
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the fecond part or
divifion of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, enter¬
ed upon in the firft part or protajis, was carried on,,
heightened, and worked.up, till it arrived at its ftate
or height, called catajlafis.
Epitasis, in medicine, the increafe of a difeafe or
beginning of a paroxyfm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in poetry, a nuptial fong or
5 compofitioa*
E P O
I Vo2 1
E P 'U
E-pitliein compofition in praife of the bride and bridegroom, kind foever they be : and in this fenfe, a pentameter Epopoeta
E ode Pray'ng f°r their profperity, for a happy offspring, &c. ' J-   ' " "J J   , l " s
» ‘ ^ - Epithalamia were fang amongft the Jews, at the
door of the bride, by her friends and companions, the
evening before the marriage. Pfalm xlv. rs an epitha-
lamium. Among the Greeks the epithalamium was
fang as foon as the married couple were gone to bed,
and attended with (bouts and flamping of the feet to
drown the cries of the bride. They returned in the
morning, and with the fame fong, a little altered, fa-
luted them again. The evening fong was called
xafiia Kai/zvIixK, the morning fahlte was called
fiix lyigrixec. This was the praftice amongft the Ro¬
mans alfo, but their epithalamia were often obfcene.
EPITHEM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomentation,
or remedy of a fpirituous or aromatic kind, applied ex¬
ternally to the regions of the heart, liver, &c. to
ftrengdien and comfort the fame, or to corredl fome
intemperature thereof.
EPITHET, in poetry and rhetoric, an adjeftive
cxpreffing fome quality of a fubftantive to which it is
joined; or fuch an adjeftive as is annexed to fubftan-
tives by way of ornament and illuftration, not to make
up an effential part of the defcription. Nothing, fays
Aritlotle, tires the reader more than too great a re¬
dundancy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly ;
and yet nothing is fo efiential in poetry as a proper ufe
of them. The writings of the heft poets are full of them.
EPITOME, in literary hiftory, the fame with A-
fcfUDGEMENT.
EPITRITUS, in profody, a foot confifting of three
long fyllables and one (hort. Of thefe, grammarians
is an epode after an hexameter. And as every little
verfe, which, being put after another, clofes tha period, ~t-~—
is called epode; hence the iixth book of Horace’s odes
is intitled Viler epodon, “ book of epodes,” becaufe the
verfes are all alternately long and Ihort, and the (host
ones generally, though not always, clofe the fenfe of
the long one.
EPOPOEIA, in poetry, the hiftory, a&ion, or
fable, which makes the fubjedl of an epic poem. The
word is derived from the Greek carmen, “ verfe
and ra-o/su facio, “ I make.”
In the common ufe of the word, however, epopala
is the fame with epos, or epic poem itfelf. See the ar¬
ticle Poetry.
EPOPS, or Hoopoe. See Upupa.
EPSOM, a town of Surry, about 16 miles fouth-
weft from London, long famous for its mineral wa¬
ters. Thefe were difcovered in 1618 ; and though
not in fuch repute as formerly, yet they are not
impaired in virtue, and the fait * made from them is * See Che-
famous all over Europe, for gently deanfing and^O',mJe*
cooling the body. The hall, galleries, and other pub¬
lic apartments, are now run to decay; and there re¬
mains only one houfe on the fpot, which is inhabited
by a countryman and his wife, who carry the waters
in bottles to the adjacent places, and fupply the de¬
mands of dealers in London. On the neighbouring
downs are annually horfe-races 5 but the inns, (hops,
and bowling-greens are not near fo much frequented
as formerly. The market is on Friday ; fair, July 25.
The town is about one mile and an half in femicircle,
reckon four kinds: the firft confifting of an iambus from the church to the palace at Durdans, which was
and fpondee, as falutantes ; the fecond, of a trocheus
and fpondee, as cdncitatl; the third, of a fpondee
and an iambus, as communicans; and the fourth, of a
fpondee und trocheus, as Tncantare. See the articles
^Spondeus, Trocheus, &c.
EPITROPE. See Oratory, n° 83.
EPITROPUS, a kind of judge, or rather an arbi¬
trator, wrhich the Greek Chriftians under the domi¬
nion of the Turks ele£t in the feveral cities, to ter¬
minate the differences that arife among them, and avoid
carrrying them before the Turkilh magiftrates. See
Arbitrator.
Anciently the Greeks ufed the term in the
lame fenfe as the Latins did procurator, viz. for a com-
miflioner or intendant. Thus the commiffioners of pro-
viiions in the Perfian army are called by Herodotus and
Xenophon epitropi. In the Ntw Teftament, E*i7po»«f
denotes the fteward of a houftiold, rendered in the
vulgate procurator.
EPIZEUXIS. See Oratory, n° 68.
EPOC HA, in chronology, a term or fixed point
of time whence the fucceeding years are numbered or
counted. See jEra.
burnt down fome years iince, but has been rebuilt. It
was once inhabited by his prefent majefty s father.
In Hudfon’s-Lane here was Epfom-Court, an ancient
Saxon feat, long fince converted into a farm. Here
are fo many fields, meadows, orchards, gardens, and
the like, that a (hanger would be at a lofs to know
whether this was a town built in a wood, or a wood
furrounded by a town.
Epfom water is eafily imitated by art; i. e-. by only
diffolving half an ounce of Epfom fait in a quart of
pure water, made fomewhat bride or quick by a few
drops of fpirit of vitriol and oil of tartar, fo as to let
the alkali prevail.
EPULARES, in antiquity, an epithet given to
tho/e who were admitted to the facred epulte or enter¬
tainments, it being unlawful for any to be prefent at
them who were not pure and chafte.
EPULO, in antiquity, the name of a minifter of fa-
crifice among the Romans.
The pontifices, not being able to attend all the fa-
crifices performed at Rome to fo many gods as were
adored by that people, appointed three minifters, whom
they called epulonef, becaufe they conferred on them
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or laft part of the care and management of the epula feafts in the
the ode, the ancient ode being divided into ftrophe,
antiftrophe, and epode. See Odf, &c.
The epode was fung by the priefts, (landing dill be¬
fore the altar, after all the turns and returns of the
llrophe and antiftrophe, and was not confined to any
precife number or kind of verfes.
The epode is now a general name for all kinds of
folemn games and feftivals. To them belonged the
ordering and ferving the facred banquet, offered on
fuch occafions to Jupiter, &c. They wore a gown
bordered with purple like the pontifices. Their num¬
ber was at length augmented from three to feven, and
afterwards by Carfar to ten. Their firft eftablifhment
the year of Rome 558, under the confulaie of
little verfes that follow one or more great ones, of what L. Furius Purpureo, and M. Claudius MarceHus.
EPULUM,
E U [ 703 3 E Q U
IEpnlum EPULUM, in antiquity, a holy feaft prepared for
1 ]' the gods in times of public danger. The feaft was
1 Equery. fomptuous, and the gods were formally invited and
- * attended ; for the ftatues were brought on rich beds
furnifhed with foft pillows, called pulv'inaria : Thus ac¬
commodated, their godfhips were placedon theircouches
at the moft honourable part of the table. The care
of the cpula belonged to the epulones, and the gods were
plentifully ferved with the richeft dainties, as if they
were able to eat; but the epulones performed that func¬
tion for them, and doubtlefs were competent proxies!
No wonder that Pliny folicited Trajan to be admitted
of their order.
Epulum is alfoufed to fignify any folemn feaft ; fo
we meet with epulum ferale, “ a funeral entertain¬
ment ”
EQUABLE, an appellation given to fuch motions
as always continue the fame in degree of velocity, with¬
out being either accelerated or retarded.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more
things of the fame magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians fpeak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, folids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal.
EQUANIMITY, in ethics, denotes that even and
calm frame of mind and temper, under good or bad
fortune, whereby a man appears to be neither puffed up
nor overjoyed with profperity, nor difpirited, foured,
or rendered uneafy by adverfity.
EQUATIONS, in algebra. See Algebra, chap. iii.
Equation of Time, in aftronomy and chronology,
the reduftion of the apparent time or motion of the
fun, to equable, mean, or true time. See Astro¬
nomy, n° 383.
EQdJATOR, oriEQUATOR, in aftronomy and geo¬
graphy, a great circle of the fphere, equally diftant
from the two poles of the world, or having the fame
poles with thofe of the world. It is called the equator,
becaufe when the fun is in it the days and nights are
equal; whence alfo it is called the equinoctial; and when
drawn on maps and planifphtres,. the equinoctial line, or
Amply the line. Every point of the equator is a qua¬
drant’s diftance from the poles of the world ; whence
it follows, that the equator divides the fphere into
two hemifpheres, in one of which is the northern, and
in the other the fouthern pole.
EQUATORIAL instrument. See Astrono¬
my, n- 499,^04.
EQUERY, or Ecury, a grand liable or lodge for
horfes, furniflied with all the conveniences thereof;
as ftalls, manger, rack, &c. The word is formed from
the French efcitrie, which fignifies the fame thing.
Some again derive efcurie from the Latin /curia, which
not only denotes a place for beafts to be put up in,
but alfo a grange or barn. But a more probable de¬
rivation is from equile “ a liable for* horfes,” of equus .
<f hbrfe.” Some hold that the word Jlable, in pro¬
priety, relates only to bullocks, cows, Iheep, hogs, &e..
and equery, to horfes, mules, &c.
A Jhnple equery is that provided for one row of
horfes ; a double equery that provided for two, with a
palfage in the middle, or two paffages; the horfes be¬
ing placed head to head, as in the little equery at Ver-
jailles*.
Under equery are fometime* alfo comprehended the Hqaeriw
lodgings and apartments of the equerries, grooms, jl .
pages, &c. ^um. 1"
EquiRY (efeuyer), is alfo an officer who has the 1 y *
care and management of the horfes of a king or prince.
EQUERIES, or Equerries, popularly called .^rr-
ries, are particularly ufed among us for officers of the
king’s llables, under the mailer of the horfe, feveh in
number, who, when his majeily gees abroad, ride irt
the leading coach, are in waiting one at a time month¬
ly, and have a table with the gentlemen-ulhers during
the time, and a falary of L.300 a-year each. They
ufed to ride on horfeback. by the coach-fide when the
king travelled; but that being more expenfive to
them than neceffary to the fovereign, it has been dif-
continued.
Equeries of the Crown Stable have that appellation,
as being employed in managing and breaking the
faddle-horfes, and preparing them for the king’s riding.
Thefe are two in number; the firll having an annual
falary of L.256, and the fecond L. 200, whereof one
is, or always ihould be, in clofe waiting at court; and
when his majefty rides, holds the ftirrup, w.hile the
mailer of the horfe, or one of the equeries in his ab-
fence, affifts in mounting him ; and when his majefty
rides, they ufually attend him.
EQUES, in antiquity. See Equestrian Order,.
and Equites.
Eques Auratus, is ufed to fignify a knight-bachelor,
called auratus, q. d. gilt, becaufe anciently none but
knights might gild or beautify their armour or other
habiliments of war with gold. In law this term is
not ufed, but inftead of it miles, and fometimes cheva¬
lier.
EQUESTRIA, among the Romans, a place in the
theatre where the equites or knights fat.
EQESTRIAN (Equeflris), a term chiefly ufed in
the phrafe equejlrianjlatue, which fignifies a ftatue repre-
fenting a perfon mounted on horfeback. The word is
formed of the Latin eques, “ knight, horfeman,” of
equus, “ horfe.”
Eqi’estrian Games, among the Romans, horfe-races,
of which there were five kinds. Khz prodromus or plain
horfe-race, the chariot-race, the decurfory-race about fu¬
neral piles, the ludi fevirates, and the ludi neptunales.
Equestrian Order, among the Romans, fignified
their knights or equites ; as alfo their troopers or
horfemen in the field; the firft of which- orders Hood
in contradill indlion to the fenators; as the laft did to
the foot, military, or infantry. Each of thefe dillinc-
tions was introduced into the Hate by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in geometry, an epithet given
to figures whofe angles are ail equal: fuch are a fquare,
an equilateral triangle, See.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things
placed at equal dillances from fome fixed point or place
to which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL,.ingeneral, fometliing that hath.
equal lides; as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in mechanics, is when the two
ends of a lever or balance hang fo exactly even and
level, that neither doth afeend or. defeend, but both
keep in a pofition parallel to the horizon; which is
occafioned by their being both charged with an equal-
weight..
EQUIMULTIPLES^,
Equimulti¬
ple*
Equites.
E CL U [ 704 ] E CL u
EQUIMULTIPLES, in arithmetic and geometry^ bufinefs of fitting a Ihip for fea, or arming her for EquipnJ.
are numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the, war. lence
fame number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are EQUIPOLLENCE, in logic, is when there is an
. always in the fame ratio to each other as the fimple equivalence between any two or more terms or propo-
quantities before multiplication: thus, if 6 and 8 are fitions; i. when they fignify one and the fame thing,
multiplied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 32 will be though they exprefs it differently. Such propofitions,
to each other as 6 to 8. &c. are faid to oe equipollent.
EQUINOCTIAL, or ./Equinoctial, in aftrono- EQUIRIA, in antiquity, a feftival inftituted by
my, a great and immoveable circle of the fphere, un- Romulus, and celebrated on the 27th of February, in
der which the equator moves in its diurnal motion. honour of Mars, at which there were horfe-races.
The equino&ial or equino&ral line, is ordinarily con- EQUISETUM, Horsk-tail: A genus of the or-
founded with the equator: but there is a difference ; der of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
the equator being moveable, and the equino&ial im- plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
moveable ; and the equator being drawn about the 51ft order, Conifera. There is a fpike of peltated or
convex furface of the fphere, but the equino&ial on fhielded fru&ifications opening at the bafe. There are
the concave furface of the magnus orbis. feven fpecies; of which the mod remarkable are, i.The
Whenever'the fun in his progrefs through the eclip- fylvaticum, or wood horfe-tail. It grows in woods
tic comes to this circle, it makes equal days and nights and moifl fhady places in many parts of England and
all around the globe; as then rifing due eaft and fet- Scotland. The ftalk rifes from 12 to 18 inches high,
ting due weft, which he never does at any other time angular, and rough to the touch ; the angles being
of the year. And hence the denomination from aquus edged with fharp fpicultcy fcarce vifible without a mi-
and nox, “ night,” quianquat diem nodi. crofcope. The leaves.grow verticillate, 12 or more in
The equino&ial then is the circle which the fun de- a whorl, and thefe whorls are about an inch diftant
feribes, or appears td deferibe, at the time of the equi- from one another. The leaves are very'flender, near-
noxes; that is, when the length of the day is every ly quadrangular, about five inches long, pendent, and
■where equal to that of night, which happens twice a- befet with feveral other fecondary whorls, fo that it
year. See Equinox. refembles a pine-tree in miniature. Horfes are very
Equinoctial, in geography. See Equator. fond of this plant, and in fome parts of Sweden it is
The fhadows of thofe who live under this circle are colle&ed to ferve them as winter food. 2. The ar¬
ea!!: to the fouthwardof them for one half of the year, venfe, common or corn horfe-tail, grows in wet mea-
and to the northward of them during the other half; dows and corn-fields. The moil remarkable property
and twice in a year, vi%. at the equinoxes, the fun at of this is, that its feeds, when viewed by a microfcope,
noon calls no fiiadow, being in their zenith. are feen to leap about as if they were animated. It
From this circle is the declination or latitude of has a very ailringent and diuretic quality, and has been
places accounted in the degrees of the meridian. elleemed ferviceable in the huematuria and gonorrhoea.
Equinoctial Points, are the two points wherein the but is difregarded by the prefenf pradtice. It is a
equator and ecliptic interfedl each other : the one be- troublefome plant in paftures ; and difagreeable to
ing in the firft point of Aries, is called the vernal point cows, being never touched by them unlefs they are
or equinox; and the other in the firft: point of Libra, compelled by hunger, and then it brings on an incu-
the autumnal point ox equinox. rable diarrhoea. It does not feem to affe 61 horfes or
Equinoctial Dial, is that whofe plane lies parallel iheep. 3. The paluftre, marih horfe-tail, or paddock
to the equino&ial. See Dial. P'Pe> is frequent in marihes and ditches. It is not fo
EQUINOX, or JEquinox, in aftronomy, the time rough as the former, but is likewife prejudicial to
when the fun enters one of the equinodlial points. cattle. 4. The fluviatile, or great river horfe-tail, is
The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the equi- frequent in ihady marfhes, and on the brinks of ftag-
noftial circle ; when of confequence the days are equal nant waters. It is thelargeft of all the fpecies, grow-
to the nights throughout the world, which is the cafe ing fometimes to the height of a yard, and near an
twice a year, viz., about the 20th of March and the inch in diameter. Haller tells us, that this kind of
23d of September, the firil of which is the vernal and equifetum was eaten by the Romans ; and Linnseus
the fecond the autumnal equinox. affirms, that oxen and rein-deer are fond of it, but that
It is found by obfervation, that the equinodlial horfes refufe it. 5. The hyemale, rough horfe-tail,.
points, and all the ,6ther points of the ecliptic, are fhave-grafs, or Dutch nifties. This is much ufed by
continually moving backward, or/«that is., the whitefmiths and cabinet-makers, under the name
weftward. This retrograde motion of the equino6lial of Dutch rujhes, for polifliing their metals and wood,
points, is that famous and difficult phenomenon call- All the other fpecies will anfwer this purpofe in fome
ed the precejfion of the equinoxes. See Astronomy, degree, but the laft better than any of the reft. In
ji° 348, 349. Northumberland the dairy-maids fcour and clean their
EQUIPAGE, in the military art, denotes all forts milk-pails with it. Some imagine, that if cows are
of utenfils, artillery, &c. neceflary for commencing and fed with this fpecies, their teeth will fall out.
profecuting with eafe and fuccefs any military opera- EQUI I’ES, amongil the Romans, were perfons of
tions. Camp and field equipage confifts of tents, the fecond degree of nobility, immediately lucceeding
kitchen-furniture, faddle-horfes, baggage, waggons, the fenators in point of rank. The equites or knights
bat-horfes, &c. were required to be poffeffed of 400 fejlerlia before they
To EQUIP, in naval language, a term borrowed could be admitted into that order; and when the
from the French marine, and frequently applied to the knights were fo reduced as to fall finoi t of the pre-
N° 118. feribed
E Q U [ n§ 1 £ CL U
fcribe^ ferrule, they were eicpuftged out of the eejue-
liiivaietit.ftt.Jati Uft, The equtftrian revenue juft mentioned a-
 mounted to about lo,OOo crowns.
Part of the ceremony whereby the hohour of knight¬
hood Was Conferred amougft the Romans was the
giving of a horfe; for every egucs or knight had a
horfe ke^)t at the public charge, he received alfo the
ftipend of an horfeman to ferve in the wars, and wore
a ting which was given him by the ftatC. The equites
compofed a large body of men, and conftituted the
Roman Cavalry; for there was always a fufficient num-
'i her of them in the city, and nothing but a review was
requifite to fit them for fetvice.
The knights at laft grew too powerful, were a ba¬
lance for the fenate and people, fleglefted the exer-
cifes of war, and betook themfelves to civil employ¬
ments. The equites were liable to be punifhed by the
cenfors, and to fuffer degradation. They were degra-
|J ded by taking from them the horfe which was kept
for each of them at the public charge ; this was called
■ equum aciimere.
EQUITY, in a general fenfe, the virtue of treating
$11 other men according to reafon and jufticc, or as we
would gladly be treated ourfelves when we underftand
aright what is our due. See Justice.
Equity, in jurisprudence, is defined a correftioipor
1 -qualification of the law, generally made in that part
| wherein it faileth or is too fevere. It likewife figni-
fies the extenfion of the words of the law to cafes un-
exprefied, yet having the fame reafon ; fo that where
|i one thing is ena&ed by ftatute, all other things are
enafted that are of the like degree. For example, the
ftatute of Glouc, gives action of wafte againft him that
holds lands for life or years; and by the equity there¬
of, a man (hall have aftion of wafte againft a tenant
that holds but for one year, or one half-year, which is
without the words of the aft, but within the meaning
of it ; and the words that enaft the one, by equity
enaft the other. So that equity is of two kinds.
The one abridges and takes from the letter of the law:
the other enlarges and adds to it; and ftatutes may be
conftrued according to equity, efpecially where they
!| give remedy for wrong, or are for expedition of juftice.
Equity feems to be the interpofing law of reafon, ex-
ercifed by the lord chancellor in extraordinary matters
to do equal juftice ; and by fupplying the defefts of
the law, gives remedy in all cafes. See Chancery-
Equity, in mythology, fometimes confounded with
'Juftice, a goddefs among the Greeks and Romans, re-
prefented with a fword in one hand and a balance in
the other.
EQUIVALENT, is underftood of fomething that
is equal in value, force, or effeft, to another.
Equivalence is of various kinds, in propofitions, in
terms, and in things.
EstyirALBur Propofitions. See Equipollence.
EoyiVALENT Terms are where feveral words that
differ in found have yet one and the fame fignification;
as every body was there, and nobody was abftnt, nihil non,
and omne.
Equivalent Things, are either moral, phyftcal, orft-a*
ideal. Moral, as when we fay that the commanding or
idvifing a murder is a guilt equivalent to that of the
murderer. Ph\ftcal, as when a mku who has the ftrength
Vol.VL PattIL
Of two men is laid to be equivalent to two men. Sta- Equivocal
Ileal, whereby a lefs weight becomes of equal force 11
with a greater, by having its diftauce from the centre tr.ms.
increafed.
EQUIVOCAL terms or words, among logicians,
are thofe which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulnefs and un¬
certainty of words has its caufe more in the ideas them¬
felves, than in any incapacity of the words to fignify
them; and might be avoided, would people always ufe
the fame term to denote the fame idea or colleftion of
ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find a difeourfe on
any fubjeft where this is the cafe; a praftice which can
only be imputed to folly or great difhonefty; fince k
man, in making up his accounts, might with as much
fairnefs ufe the numeral charafters fometimes for one
fometimes for another colleftion of units.
Equivocal Generation, the produftion of animals
without the intercourfe between the fexes, by the in^
fluence of the fun or ftars, &e.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by
the learned.
EQUIVOCATION, the ufing a term or ex-
prefiion that has a double fignification. Equivoca¬
tions are expedients to fave telling the truth, and yet
without telling a falfity. The fathers are great pa¬
trons of equivocations and mental refervations, holding
that the ufe of fuch ftiifts and ambiguities is in many
cafes allowable.
EQUULEUS, or EccuuEus.in antiquity, a kind
of rack ufed for extorting a confelfion, at fiift chiefly
praftifed on flaves, but afterwards made ufe of againft
the Chriftians. -
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain diftances, with a ferew, by which the criminal
was ftretched to the third, fometimes to the fourth, or
fifth holes, his arms and legs being faftened on the
equuleus with cords ; and thus was hoifted aloft, and
extended in fuch a manner, that all his bones were dif-
located. In this ftate red-hot plates were applied to
his body, and he was goaded in the fides with an in-
ftrument called ungula.
Equuleus, Equichlus, and Equvs Minor, the
horfe’s head, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the
northern hemifphere, whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s cata¬
logue are 4, in Tycho’s 4, in Hevelius’s 6, and in
Mr Flamfteed’s 10.
EQUUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be- Plate
longing to the order of belluae. This genus compre-CLXXXIIt*
bends the horfe, the mule, the afs, the zebra, and the
quagga: they have fix ereft and parallel fore-teeth in
the upper jaw, and fix fomewhat prominent ones in the
under jaw; the dog-teeth are folitary, and at a con-
fiderable diftance from the reft ; and the feet confift
of an undivided hoof.
1. The caballus, or Horse, has along flowing mane,
and the tail covered on all parts with long hairs.
The horfe, in a domeftic ftate, is a bold and fiery
animal; equally intrepid as his matter, he faces danger H/-
and death with ardour and magnanimity. He delights/®’" Nata-*
in the noife and tumult of arms, and feems to feel the ’e!lc'
glory of viftory: he exults in the chafe; his eyes fparkle
with emulation in the courfe. But though bold and
intrepid, he is docile and traftable ; he knows how to
4 U govern
E U [ 706 ] E U
govern and check the natural vivacity and fire of his of other quadrupeds: his eyes are open and lively;
temper. He not only yields to the hand, but feems to his ears are, handfome, and of a proper height;
confult the inclination of his rider. Conftantlyxibedient
to the impreffions he receives, his motions are entirely
regulated by the will of his mailer. He in fome mea-
manfe adorns his neck, and gives him the appearance of
ftrength and boldnefs.
At the age of two years, or two years and a half,
fure refigns his very exiftence to the pleafure of man. the horfe is in a condition to propagate; and the mare,
He delivers up his whole powers; he referves nothings like moll other females, is ready to receive him Hill
he will rather die than difobey. Who could endure to fooner.
fee a charafter fo noble abufed! who could be guilty braces
of fuch grofs barbarity!
This charafter, though natural to the animal,
But the foals produced by fuch early em-
generally ill-made and weakly. The horfe
Ihould never be admitted to the mare till he is four or
four and a half; this is only meant with regard to
fome meafure the effect of education. His education draught-horfes. Fine horfes Ihould not be admitted t»
commences with the lofs of liberty, and is finifhed by the mare before they be fix years old; and Spanilh ftal-
conftraint. The flavery of the horfe is fo ancient and lions not till feven. The mares are generally in feafon
fo univerfal, that he is but rarely feen in a natural Hate, from the beginning of April to the end of June ; but
Several ancient writers talk of wild horfes,. and even their chief ardour for the horfe lalts but about 15 or 20
mention the places where they were to be found. He- days, and this critical feafon Ihould always be embra-
rodotus takes notice of white favage horfes in Scythia; ced. The (lallion ought to be found, well made, vi-
Ariltotle fays they are to be found in Syria ; Pliny, gorous, and of a good breed. For fine faddle-horfes,
in the northern regions; and Strabo, in Spain and the foreign ftallions, as Arabians, Turks, Barbs, and An-
Alps. Among the moderns, Cardan fays, that wild dalufians, are preferable to all others. Next to thefe,
horfes are to be found in the Highlands of Scotland Britifh ftallions are the bell ; becaufe they originally
and the Orkney ifles; Olaus, in Mufcovy; Dapper, in fprang from thofe above-mentioned, and are very little
the ifland of Cyprus; Leo and Marmol, in Arabia and degenerated. The ftallions of Italy, and efpecially
Africa, See. But as Europe is almoft equally inhabit- the Neapolitans, are very good. The bell ftallions for
ed, wild horfes are not to be met with in any part of draught or carriage horfes, are thofe of Naples, Den¬
it : and thofe of America were originally tranfported mark, Holftein, and Freezeland. The ftallions for fad-
from Europe by the Spaniards; for this fpecies of ani- dle-horfes ftiould be from 14 to iy hands high, and for
mals did not exilt in the new world. The Spaniards draught horfes at lead ry hands. Neither ought the
carried over a great number of horfes, left them in dif- colour of ftallions to be overlooked ; as a fine black,
ferent iflands, &c. with a view to propagate that ufe- grey, bay, forrel, &c. Befides thefe external qualities,
fill animal in their colonies. Thefe have multiplied in- a ftallion ought to have courage, traftability, fpirit.
credibly in the vaft defarts of thofe thinly peopled coun¬
tries, where they roam at large, without any reftraint.
M. de Salle relates, that he faw, in the year i68y,
horfes feeding in the meadows of North America, near
the bay of St Louis, which were fo ferocious that no¬
body durft come near them. Oexmelin fays, that he
gility, a fenfible mouth, fure limbs, &c. Thefe precau¬
tions in the choice of a ftallion are the more neceflary,
becaufe he has been found by experience to communi¬
cate to his offspring almoft all his good or bad quali¬
ties, whether natural or acquired.
The mare contributes lefs to the beauty of her oft-
has feen large troops of them in St Domingo running fpring than the ftallion ; but (he contributes perhaps
in the valleys : that when any perfon approached, more to their conttitution and ftature: for thefe rea-
they all flopped; and one of them would advance till fons, it is neceflary that the mares for breed be per-
within a certain diftance, then fnort with his nofe, take feftly found, and make good nUrfes. For elegant horfes,
to his heels, and the whole troop after him. Every the Spaniih and Italian mares are bed; but for draught-
author who takes notice of thefe horfes of America, horfes, thofe of Britain and Normandy are preferable,
a'rree that they are fmaller and lefs handfome than However, when the ftallions are good, the mares of any
thofe of Europe- Thefe relations fufficiently prove, country will produce fine horfes, provided they be well
that the horfe, when at full liberty, though not a fierce made and of a good breed.
or dangerous animal, has no.inclination to affociate with
mankind; that all the foftnefs and du&ility of his tem¬
per proceeds entirely from the culture and polifti he
fure commences as foon as he is brought forth.
Mares go with young 11 months and fome days.
They bring forth Handing ; contrary to the courfe of
mod other quadrupeds, who lie during this operation.
receives in his domeilic education, which in fome mea- They continue to bring forth till the age of 16 or 18
years ; and both horfes and mares live between 25 and
The motions of the horfe are chiefly regulated by 30 years. Horfes call their hair once a-year, general-
the bit and the fpur; the bit informs him how to diredl his ly in the fpring, but fometimes in the autumn. At this
courfe, and the fpur quickens his pace. The mouth of time they are weak, and-require to be better fed and
the horfe is endowed with an amazing fenfibility : the taken care of than at any other feafon.
flighted motion or preffure of the bit gives him warning, In Perfia, Arabia, and mod eaftern countries, they
and inftantly determines his courfe. - never geld their horfes, as is done in Europe and Chi-
The horfe has not only a grandeur in his general ap- na. This operation greatly diminilhes their ftrength,
pearance, but there is the greateft fymmetry and pro- courage, and fpirit; but it makes them good humour-
portion in the different parts of his body. The regu- ed, gentle, and tradlable. With regard to the time of
larity and proportion of the different parts of the head performing this operation, the pra&ice of different
gives him an air of lightnefs, which is well fupported countries is different: fome geld their horfes when a
by the ftrength and beauty of his cheft. He ere&s his year old, and others at 18 months. But the bell and
head, as if willing to exalt himfelf above the condition moft general practice is to delay the operation till they
. dye.:
E Q_ U
be two years old at lead: becaufe, when the gelding
is delayed for two years or more, the animals retain
more of the ftrength and other qualities which natu¬
rally belong to the male.
As the utility of horfes furpaffes that of all other
domeftic animals, it may be of ufe to fubjoin fome
marks by which the age and other properties of horfes
maybe diftinguiihed.
In old horfes, the eye-pits are generally deep; but
this is only an equivocal mark, being alfo found in
young horfes begot by old dallions. The mod cer¬
tain knowledge of the age is to be obtained from the
teeth. Of thefe a horfe has 40; 24 grinders or double-
teeth, four tufhes, and 12 fore-teeth: mares have no
tufhes, or at lead very drort ones. It is not from the
grinders that we know the age; it is difcovered firitby
the fore teeth, and afterwards by the tufhes. The 12
fore-teeth begin to fhoot within 12 days after the colt
is foaled. Thefe fird, or foal-teeth, are round, fhort,
not very folid, and are cad at different times, to be re¬
placed by others. At the age of two years and a half,
the four middle fore-teeth are cad, two in the upper
jaw, and two in the lower. In one year more, four
others drop out, one*on each fide of the former, which
are already replaced. When he is about four years
and a half old, he fheds four others, and always next
to thofe which have fallen out and been replaced.
Thefe four foal-teeth are replaced by four others, but
are far from growing fo fad as thofe which replaced
the eight former, and are called the corner teeth; they
replace the four lad foal-teeth, and by thefe the age
of a horfe is difcovered. They are eafily known, be¬
ing the third both above and below, counting from the
middle of the jaw. They are hollow, and have a black
mark in their cavity. When the horfe four years
and a half old, they are fcarce vidble above the gum,
and the cavity is very fenfible: at fix and a half, they
begin to fill; and the mark continually diminidies and
contra&s till feven or eight years, when the cavity is
quite filled up, and the black fpot effaced. After eight
years, thefe teeth ceafing to afford any knowledge of
the age, it is judged of by the tulhes: which are four
teeth adjoining to thofe lad mentioned ; and, like the
grinders, are not preceded by any other teeth. The
two in the lower jaw ufually begin to fhoot at three
years and a half, and thofe of the upper jaw at four;
continuing very fharp-pointed till fix. At so, the up¬
per feem blunted, worn out, and long, the gum con¬
trasting itfelf as its years increafe; the barer therefore
they are, the older is the horfe. From 10 to 13 or 14
years, little can be feen to indicate the age; but at
that time fome hairs of the eye brows begin to turn
grey. This mark, however, is equivocal, like that
drawn from the depth of the eye-pits; horfes from old
ftallions or mares, having grey hairs in the eye-brows
when they are not above nine or ten years old. In
fome horfes the teeth are of fuch a hardnefs as not to
wear; and in fuch the black mark always fubfids, be¬
ing never effaced by time : but the age of thefe horfes,
which are called leguts by the French, is eafily known;
the hollow of the tooth being filled up, and at the fame
time the tufhes very long. It has been farther obferved,
that this is more common in mares than in horfes. The
age of a horfe may be alfo known, though lefs accu-
l 7°7 I
E U
rately, by the bars in his mouth, which wrear away as Equu*.
he advances in years. v "
When the horfe is without blemifh, the legs and
thighs are clean, the knees llraight, the Ikin and fhank
thin, and the back-finew drong and well-braced. The
finews and the bones fhould be fo didinft, as to make
the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round.
The padern joints fhould never be large and round ;
nor mud there be any fwelling near the coronet. The
hock fhould be lean and dry, not puffed up with wind.
With regard to the hoof, the coronet fhould be equally
thick, and the horn fhining and greyifh. A white
horn is a fign of a bad foot, for it will wear out in a
fhort time ; and likewife when the horn is thin, it is
liable to be fpoiled in fhoeing, and by travelling hard
on dony grounds. This is bed known when the fhoe
is taken off; for then the verge all round the foie will
appear thin, and the horfe will wince at the lead touch
of the pincers.
A drong foot has the fibres of the hoof very didinft
running in a direft line from the coronet to the toe,
like the grain of wood. In this cafe, care mud be ta¬
ken to keep the foot moid and pliable. The greated
inconvenience attending a hard drong foot, is its be¬
ing fubjedl to rifts and fiffures, which cleave the hoof
quite through fometimes from the coronet down to the
bottom.
A narrow heel is likewife a defeft; and when it is
not above two fingers in breadth, the foot is bad. A
high heel caufes a horfe to trip and dumble often; and
the low one, with long yielding paderns, is very apt
to be worn quite away on a journey. Too large a foot
in proportion to the red of the body, renders a horfe
weak and heavy.
The head of a horfe fhould be fmall, and rather lean
than Befhy. The ears fhould be fmall, ere&, thin,
fprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, fhould
be neither too broad nor too fiat, and fhould have a
daror fnip thereon. The nofe fhould rife a little, and
the nodrils fhould be wide that he may breathe more
freely. The muzzle fhould be fmall, and the mouth
neither too deep nor too (hallow. The jaws fhould be
thin, and not approach too near together at the throat,
nor too high upwards towards the onfet, that the horfe
may have fufficient room to carry his'hcad in an eafy
graceful podure. The eyes fhould be of a middle
fize, bright, lively, and full of fire. The tongue fhould
be fmall, that it may not be too much preffed by the
bit ; and it is a good fign when his mouth is full of
white froth, for it (how's that he will not foon be over¬
heated.
The neck fhould be arched towards the middle,
growing fmaller by degrees from the bread and fhoul-
ders to the head. The hair of the main fhould be
long, fmall, and fine; and if it be a little frizzled, fo
much the better. The fhoulders fhould be pretty long;
the withers thin, and enlarge gradually from thence
downwards; but fo as to render his bread neither too
narrow nor too grofs. A thick-fhouldered horfe foon
tires, and trips and flumbles every minute; efpecially
if he has a thick large neck at the fame time. When
the bread is fo narrow that the fore-thighs almod
touch, they are never good for much. A horfe .. a
middle fize fhould have the didance of five or fix inches
4 U 2 be-
E C>_ U
Equus. between his fore-thighs, and there fliould be lefs di-
-~sr-~ Uance between his feet than his thighs near the (boul¬
ders when he (lands upright.
The body or carcafe of a horfe fhould be of a mid¬
dling fize in proportion to his bulk, and the back
(hould fink a little below the withers ; but the other
parts (hould be ftraight, and no higher behind than
before. He (hould alfo be home- ribbed ; but the (hort
ribs fhould not approach too near the haunches, and
then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a
horfe’s back is (hort in proportion to his bulk, and yet
otherwife well limbed, he will hold out a journey, tho’
he will travel (law. When he is tall, at the fame time
with very long legs, he is but of little value.
The wind (hould never be overlooked in the choice
of a horfe : and it may eafily be known by his flanks,
if he is broken-winded, when he (lands quiet in the
liable ; becaufe he always pinches them in with a very
flow motion, and drops them fuddenly. A thick-
winded horfe fetches his breath often, and fometimes
rattles and wheezes. This may be always difcovered
when he is put to brifk exercifes.
The temper of a horfe (hould always be obferved ;
a vicious horfe generally lays his ears clofe to his pole,
(hows the whites of his eyes, and looks fullen and dog¬
ged. An angry horfe may be known by his frowning
looks; and he generally feems to (land in a pofture of
defence. When he is very vicious, 1^ pays no regard
to the groom that feeds him : HowC 'er, force horfes
that are ticklifh will fay back their ears, and yet be of a
good difpofition. A fearful horfe is apt to dart, and
never leaves it off till he is old and ufelefs. A fret¬
ful horfe is very unfit for a journey ; and you may dif-
eover hfs temper as foon as he gets out of the ilable.
A dull, heavy, fluggifti horfe may be eafily known,
whatever tricks are ufed to roufe his fpirits.
With regard to the colour of a horfe, the bright
bay, and indeed all kinds of bays in general, are ac¬
counted good colours. The chefnut horfe is generally
preferable to the forrel, unlefs the former happens to
be bald, or party-coloured, with white legs. Brown
horfes have generally black manes and tads, and their
joints are of a rufty black. Thofe of this colour that
are dappled, are much handfomer than the reft. Hor¬
fes of a (hining black, and well marked without too
much white, are in high efteem for their beauty. A
flar, or blaze, or white muzzle, or one or more feet
tipped with white, are thought to be rather better tha»
thofe that are quite black.
Of greys, the dappled are accounted bed; though,
the filver grey make a more beautiful appearance, and
often prove good. The iron grey with white manes
and tails are thought not to be fo hardy. Greys of*
every kind will turn white fooner or later; but the
nutmeg grey, when the dappled parts incline to bay or
chefnut, are faid to be good hardy horfes. Roan hor¬
des have a diverfity of colours mixed together; but the
white is more predominant than the reft. They are all
generally hardy, and fit for the road; and fome are
exceeding good. Thofe of a flrawberry colour moll
referable the forrel, and they are often marked with
white on the face and legs. When the bay is blended
with it, he feems to be tinftured with claret; and fome
of thefe prove ta be. very good. Dun, fallow, and
E U
cream-coloured horfes have a lift down their backs; Eqtms.
and their manes and tails are black. Dun horfes are
feldom chofen by gentlemen, and yet they may be very
ufeful to the country farmers The fallow and cream-,
coloured are more efteemed, both fur beauty and ufe.
Thofe horfes that are finely fp.otted with gay colours
like leopards are a great rarity, and for that reafon are
only in the hands of great men.
There is fotn.e difference in harfes according to the
different countries where they are bred. For inftance,
in France, thofe of Bretagne are pretty ftrung made,
and have generally black hair, or brown bay; and they
have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a
head (hort and fteftty ; but in general they are pretty*
clumfy. The horfes of Franche Compte are faid to
have the legs of tigers, and the belly of a hind ; but
they are fhort and thick, and of a middle fize ; being
much more proper for drawing than riding. The
horfes of Gafcony are not unlike thofe of Spain ; but.
they are not fo handfome nor fo aftive, and therefore,
they are more proper to draw carriages. The Limo-.
fin horfes are very vicious, and are good for little till
they are fix years old. Their colour is generally bay, .
or a bay brown. The horfes of Normandy are much -
like thofe of Bretagne ; and thofe of Poitou have good
bodies, legs, feet, and eyes ; hut they are far from
being handfome.
The horfes of Germany are much better and more
handfome than thofe of the Low Countries. They
are of great ufe for carriages ; but much more for the
army, and for drawing the artillery. They have a great
deal of hair, efpecially about the legs. They are not
large, hut they are well fet; and yet they have tender
feet. The Hungarian horfes are excellent for the coach,
as well as far riding : but they are large, though well
proportioned; and they are of all colours, and in gene¬
ral very fwift.
The Danifh horfes are low, (hort, and fquare ; huts
they have a fine head, and (hort hair. The horfes of
the Low Countries are very fit for the coach, and they
are beft known by the name of Flanders-mares. The
Polifh horfes are like the Danifh ; only they have not
fo fine a fore-hand : their colour is generally a bright
bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion ; and
they are fiery and vicious. The horfes of Switzerland
are pretty much like-thofe of Germany; which is no.
wonder, finee the Germans purchafe a great number
of them. The horfes of Piedmont are fiery, of
middle fize, and of all forts of colours ; their legs are
good and handfome, their eyes fine, their ears fmall,
and their mouths good ; but they do not carry their
heads well.
The horfes of Naples and Italy are generally fll-
made and lean ; and yet they are good and ufeful, for
they are light and proper for racing, though not for
a longcour.fe ; they never do. well in a colder climate.
The Spanifh horfes are very well made and handfome,
as welt as very a<Slive and nimble ; they have good
eyes, handfome legs and heads, and are eafily mana¬
ged ; they are alfo good for racing, if they are well
kept: however, they are not fo good in northern cli¬
mates as in their own country. The Turkifh horfes are
of different (hapes ; but they are generally fwift, tho’
their mouth* are bad. Muft of them are white 5 tho*
there
t 7®8 1
Eqim.
I—  '
E U
there are other colours ; and they are large, hardy,
ftrong, and fit for the road.
The horfes of Barbary, commonly called larbs, have
ftrong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any
others whatever : fame have faid they never grow old,
beeaufe they preferve their vigour to the iait. They
are excellent ftallions; and fome of them ai-e ufed as
fueh in Britain : however, the Arabian horfes are not
quite £q good as the Barbary, though fome think they
are both of the fame kind; only thofe that are ufed to
the deferts of Arabia are always in aftion. The hor-
fies of the Gold-Coaft of Guinea are very few in num¬
ber, and in other parts of that coaft there are none at
all ; for many of the negroes, when they have been
firft brought over to our American plantations, have
oxprefied great admiration at the fight of a horfe, and
even beem afraid to come near one.
The horfes of the Cape of Good Hope were origi¬
nally brought from Perfia : and they are generally
fmall, and of a chefnut colour ; for tho-fe that are na¬
tives of that country are all wild, and could never yet
he tamed. The horfes of China are good, and more
particularly thofe in the province of Yun Nan ; for
they are very vigorous, though a little low. The hor¬
fes of the Eluth Tartars are good and full of fire; and
their fize is much the fame as the Polilh horfes : they
are afraid of nothing ; not even of lions and tigers:
but perhaps this may be owing to ufe. In the country
of the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all co¬
lours : they are generally of the middle fize, though
there are forhe as large and as handfome as thofe in
Europe. The wild horfes of Tartary differ very little
from the tame ; but they are fo fwift, that they avoid
the arrows of the moft fkilful hunters.
The breed of horfes in Great Britain is as mixed as
l 7°9 .1
E
CL u
of that country to the mod remote parts of the king-
doro, ufually carry a burden of 420 pounds ; and that *
indifferently over the higheft hills of the north, as well
as the moft level roads. But the moft remarkable proof
of the ftrength of our Britifh horfes, is to be drawn
from that of our mill horfes: fome of thefe will carry
at one load 13 meafures, which at a moderate computa¬
tion of 70 pounds each, will amount to 940 ; a weight
fuperior to that which the leffer fort of camels will
bear : this will appear lefs furpnfing, as thefe horfes are
by degrees accuftomed to the weight; and the diftance
they travel no greater than to and from the adjacent
hamlets.
Our cavalry, in the late campaigns (when they had
opportunity), (bowed over thofe of our allies, as well as
of the French, a great fuperiority both of ftrength and
a&ivity : the enemy was broken through by the impe¬
tuous charge of our fquadrons; while the German hor¬
fes, from their great weight and ina&ive make, were
unable to fecond our efforts; though thofe troops were
a&uated by the nobleft ardour.
The prefent cavalry of this ifland only fupports its
ancient glory. It was eminent in the earlieft times: our
feythed chariots, and the aAivity and good difeipline
of our harfes, even ftruek terror into Caefar’s legions :
and the Britons, as foon as they became civilized enough
to coin, took care to reprefenton their money the ani¬
mal for which they were fo celebrated. It is now im-
poffible to trace out this fpecies; for thofe which exiil
among the i/ulig na of Great Britain, fuch as the little
horfes of Wales and Cornwall, the hobbies of Ireland,
and the fhelt-ies of Scotland, though admirably well a-
dapted to the ufes of thofe countries, could never have
been equal to the work of war : but probably we had
even then a larger and ftrorfger breed in the more fer-
that of its inhabitants : the frequent introdu&ion of tile and luxuriant parts of the ifland. Thofe we
ploy for that purpofe, or for the draught,, are an off-
fpring of the German or Flemifli breed, meliorated by
our foil and a judicious culture,
The Engliffi were ever attentive tp an exaft culture
foreign horfes has given us a variety that no fingle
country can boaft of: mod other countries produce
only one kind ; while ours, by a judicious mixture
of the feveral fpecies, by the happy difference of
our foils, and by our fuperior Ikill in management, of thefe animals ; and in very early times fet a high va-
may triumph over the reft of Europe, in having hie on their breed. The elleem that our horfes were
brought each quality of this noble animal to the highelt held in by foreigners fo long ago as the reign of A-
perfedtion. thelftan, may he collected from a law of that monarch.
In the annals of Newmarket may be found inftan- prohibiting their exportation, except they were de-
ces of horfes that have literally outftripped the wind, figned as prefents. Thefe muft have been the native
as the celebrated M. Condamine has lately fhown in his kind, or the prohibition would have been needlefs ; for
remarks on thofe of Great Britain. Childers
mazing inftance of rapidity ; his fpfed having been
our commerce was at that time too limited to receive
Improvement from any hut the German kind, to which
more than once exerted equal to 82-y'feet in a feeond, country their own breed could be of no value. But
when our intereourfe with the other parts of Europe
was enlarged, we foon laid hold of the advantages this
gave of improving our breed. Roger de Belefme, earl
of Shrewfbury, is the firft that is on record ; he intro¬
duced the Spanifh ftallions into his e.ftate in Pow-ifland,
or near a mile in a minotei
The fpecies ufed in hunting, is a happy combination
of the former with others fuperior in ftrength, but in¬
ferior in point of fpeed and lineage : an union of both
is; neceffary ; for the fatigues of the chace muft be fup- _  
ported by the fpirit of the one, as well as by the vigour from which that part of Wales was for many ages ce-
uf the other. lebrated for a fwift and generous race of horfes. Gi-
No country can bring a parallel to the ftrength and
fize of our horfes deftiued for the draught; or to. the
activity-and ftrenglh united of thofe that form our ca¬
valry. In London, there are inftances of fingle horfes
that are able to. draw on a plain, for a fmall fpace, the
weight of three tuns; but could with eafe, and for a
continuance, draw half that weight. The pack-horfes
af Yorkfhire, employed in conveying the manufactures
raldua Cambrenfis,, who lived in the reign of Hen. IE
takes notice of it; and Michael Drayton, cotemporary
with Shakefpear, fings their excellence in the fixth part
of his Polyolbipn. This kind was probably deflined to
mount our gallant nobility, or courteous knights for
feats of chivalry, in the generous contefts of the tilt-
yard. Erom thefe fprung, to fpeak the language, of the.
times, the flower of couriers, whofe elegant form added ;
chatiaa -
E CL u [ 7*0 ] E CL u
TEquus. charms to the rider, and whofe a&ivity and managed fed of foft woolly hair, and extends quite to the (houl-
1 dexterity gained him the palm in that field of galian- ders: the hairs at the end of the tail are coarfe and -
try and romantic honour. about a fpan long. The colour of the hair in general
The increafe of our inhabitants, and the extent of is a filvery white ; the upper part of the face, the fides
our manufaftures, together with the former negieft of of the neck and body, are of a flaxen-colour • the hind
internal navigation to convey thofe manufaftures, mul- part of the thighs are the fame; the fore part divided
tiplied the number of our horfes: an excefs of wealth, from the flank by a white line, which extends round
before unknown in thefe iflands, increafed the luxury of the rump to the tail: the belly and legs are alfo white:
carriages, and added to the neceflity of an extraordi- along the very top of the back, from the mane quite to
nary culture of thefe animals : their high reputation the tail, runs a ftripe of bufhy waved hairs of a coffee-
abroad has alfo made them a branch of commerce, and colour, broadeft above the hind part, growing narrow-
proved another caufe of their vaft increafe. er again towards the tail; another of the fame colour
The a!l*wife Creator hath finely limited the feveral erodes it at the flioulders (of the males only), forming a
fervices of domeftic animals towards the human race ; mark, fuch as diffinguiflies the tame afles : the dorfai
and ordered that the parts of fuch, which in their lives band and the mane are bounded on each fide by a
have been the moft ufeful, (hould after death contri- beautiful line of white, well deferibed by Oppian, who
bute the lead to our benefit. The chief ufe that the gives an admirable account of the whole. Its winter
exuvi<s of the horfe can be applied to, is for collars, coat is very fine, foft, and filky, much undulated, and
traces, and other parts of the harnefs ; and thus, even liked to the hair of the camel: greafy to the touch :
after death, he preferves fome analogy with his former and the flaxen colour, during that feafon, more exqui-
employ. The hair of the mane is of ufe in making fitely bright. Its fummer coat is very fmooth, filky,
wigs ; of the tail, in making the bottoms of chairs, and even, with exception of certain fliaded rays that
floor-cloths, and chords; and to the angler in making mark the fides of the neck, pointing downwards,
lines. 1 hefe animals inhabit the dry and mountainous
Plat* Technical Description of the Parts of a Hov.*?.. parts of the deferts of Great Tartary, but not high-
QLxxxiii. The Fore Part, i. The forehead. 2. The temples, er than lat. 48. They are migratory, and arrive in
3. Cavity above the eye. 4. The jaw. 5. The lips, vail troops to feed, during the fummer, in the trails
6. The nodrils. 7. The tip of the nofe. 8. The chin, ead and north of lake Aral. About autumn they col-
9. The beard. 10 The neck. 11. The mane. 12. The leil in herds of hundreds, and even thoufands, and di-
fore-top. 13. The throat. 14. The withers. 15. The reil their courfe towards the north of India, to enjoy
flioulders. 16. The died. 17. The elbow. 18. The a warm retreat during wunter. But Perfia is their moll
arm. 19. The plate vein. 20. The chefnut. 21. The ufual place of retirement : where they are found in the
knee. 22. The (hank. 23. The main tendents. mountains of Calbin, fome even at all times of the
24. The fetlock joint. 25. The fetlock. 26. The year. If we can depend on Barboga, they penetrate
padern. 27. The coronet. 28. The hoof. 29. The even into the fouthern parts of India, to the mountains
of Malabar and Golconda. According to Leo Afri-
canus, wild affes of an alh-colour are found in the de¬
ferts of northern Africa. The Arabs take them in
fnares for the fake of their flelh. If frelh killed, it is
hot and unfavory : if kept two days after it is boiled,
45. The point of it becomes excellent meat. Thefe people, the Tar¬
tars and Romans, agreed in their preference of this to
28. The hoof.
quarters. 30. The toe. 31. The heel.—The Body.
32. The reins. 33. The fillets. 34. The ribs.
35. The belly. 36. The flanks.—Fhe Hind Part.
37. The rump. 38. The tail. 39. The buttocks,
40. The haunches. 41. The flifie. 42. The thighs.
43. The hock. 44. The kerb.
the hock. _ 4    
For the breeding, rearing, &c. of horfes, fee the any other food: the latter indeed chofe them young,
articles, Colt, Horse, and Stallion ; for the me- at a period of life in which it was called Aa/i/zo ; (vide
thod of training and managing them, fee Horse- Martial, xiii. 97.) The epicures of Rome preferred
manship ; and for their difeafes and cure, fee Far- thofe of Africa to all others. The grown onagri were
riery. introduced among the fpeftacles of the theatre; and
2. The Hfinus, or Hss, has long flouching ears, Ihort their combats were preferred even to thofe of the ele-
mane, tail covered with long hairs at the end. The phants.
body is ufually of an afh colour, with a black bar crofs The manners of the wild afsare very much the fame
the flioulders. with thofe of the wild horfe and the dfliikketei. They
The Koulan, or afs in a wild ftale (the onager of afiemble in troops under the condudl of a leader; and
the ancients), varies from the tame in feveral refpe&s, are very fliy. They will, however, flop in the midft of
and requires a more particular defeription. The fore- their courfe, and even fuffer the approach of maji at
head is very much arched: the ears are eredl, even that inftant, but will then dart away with the rapidity
when the animal is out of order ; Iharp-poinied, and of an arrow difmifled from the bow. This Herodotus
lined with whitifh curling hairs; the irides are of fpeaks to, in his account of thofe of Mefopotamia ; and
a livid brown ; the lips thick ; and the end of the Leo Africanus, in that of the African,
nofe Hoping fteeply down to the upper lip : the no- They are extremely wild. Holy writ is full of allu-
ftrils are large and oval. It is much higher on its fions to their favage nature. “ He fcorneth the mul-
limbs than the tame afs, and its legs are much fi- titude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of
ner, but it again refembles it in the narrownefs of the driver,” (Job xxxix. 7.). Yet they are not un¬
its cheft and body : it carries its head much high- tameable. The Perfians catch and break them for the
er; and its Ikull is of a furprifing thinnefs. The draught: they make pits, half-filled with plants to
jnane is duflty, about three or four inches long, compo- leflen the fall, and take them alive. They break, and
3 ’ hold
Eqnus.
E U [ 7t
hold them in great efleem, and fell them at a high
price. The famous breed of afies in the eaft is produ¬
ced from the koulan reclaimed from the favage ftate,
which highly improves the breed. The Romans rec¬
koned the breed of afles produced from the onager and
tame afs to excel all others. The Tartars, who kill
them only for the fake of the fleih and (kins, lie in am-
bufh and fhoot them. They have been,at all times ce¬
lebrated for their amazing fvviftnefs ; for w'hich reafon
the Hebreans called them Pere; as they ftyled them
Arod from their braying. Their food is the falteft
plants of the defects, fuch as the kalis, atriplex, cheno-
podium, &c.; and alfo the bitter milky tribe of herbs:
they alfo prefer fait-water to frelh. This is exactly
conformable to the hiftory given of this animal in the
book of Job ; for the words “ barren land”, expreffive
of its dwelling, ought, according to the learned Bo-
chart, to be rendered “ fait places.” The hunters lie in
wait for them near the ponds of brackilh water, to
which they refort to drink: but they are not of a
thirfty nature, and feldom have recourfe to water.
Thefe animals were anciently found in the Holy Land,
Syria, the land of Uz or Arabia Deferta, Mefopota-
mia, Phrygia, and Lycaonia. But at prefent they are
entirely confined to the countries above mentioned.
Chagrin, a word derived from the Tartar foghre, is
made of the (kin of thefe animals, which grows about
the rump, and alfo thofe of horfes, which is equally
good. There are great manufa&ures of it at Aftracan
and in all Perfia. it is a miftake to fuppofe it to be
naturally granulated, for its roughnefs is entirely the
effeft of art. The Perfians ufe the bile of the wild afs
as a remedy againft the dimnefs of fight : and the
fame people, and the Nogayan Tartars, have been
known to endeavour the moft infamous beftialities with
it, in order to free themfelves from the diforders of the
kidneys.
The tame or dmejlic afs, is a humble, patient, and
tranquil, animal. He fubmits with firmnefs to Itrokes
and chaftifement: he is temperate both as to the quan¬
tity and quality of his food ; he contents himfelf with
the rigid and difagreeable herbage which the horfe
and other animals leave to him and dildain to eat: he
is more delicate with regard to his drink, never ufing
water unlefs it be perfectly pure. As his mailer does
not take the trouble of combing him, he often rolls
himfelf on the turf among thiftles, ferns, &c. With¬
out regarding what he is carrying, he lies down to roll
as often as he can, feeming to reproach his mailer for
negledl and want of attention. When very young,
the afs is a gay, fprightly, nimble, and gentle animal.
But he foon lofes thefe qualities, probably by the bad
ufage he meets with ; and becomes lazy, untradlable,
and llubborn. When under the influence of love, he
becomes perfe&ly furious. The alfedlion of the fe¬
male for her young is llrong: Pliny alfures us, that
when an experiment was made to difcover the ftrength
of maternal affedlion in a fhe-afs, Ihe run through the
flames in order to come at her colt. Although the
afs be generally ill ufed, he difcovers a great attach¬
ment to his mailer; he fmells him at a dillance, fearches
the places and roads he ufed to frequent, and eafily
diltinguifhes him from the reft of mankind. The afs
lias a very fine eye, an excellent fcent, and a good ear.
Wlien overloaded, he hangs his head, and finks his
i ] E cl u
ears: when too much teazed or tormented, he opens
his mouth and retradls his lips in a difagreeable man¬
ner, which gives him an air of ridicule and derifion.
If you cover his eyes, he will not move another Hep ;
if you lay him on his fide, and place his head fo that one
eye refts on the ground, and cover the other with a cloth,
he will remain in this fituation without making any at¬
tempt to get up. He walks, trots, and gallops in the.
fame manner as the horfe; but all his motions are flower.
Whatever be the pace he is going at, if you pulh him,
he inllatrtly Hops.
The cry of the horfe is known by the name of neigh*
ing; that of the afs, by haying, which is a long, dif¬
agreeable noife, confifting of alternate difcords from
lharp to grave and from grave to lharp ; he feldom
dies but when prefled with hunger or love : the voice
of the female is clearer and more piercing than that of
the male.
The afs is lefs fubjedl to vermin than other animals
covered with hair ; he is never troubled with lice, pro¬
bably owing to the hardnefs and drynefs of his Ikin
and it is probably for the fame reafon that he is lefs
fenfible to the whip and fpur than the horfe. The
teeth of the afs fall out and grow at the fame age andr4
in the fame manner as thofe of the horfe; and he has~
nearly the fame marks in his mouth.
Affes are capable of propagating when two years
old. The females are in feafon during the months of
May and June. The milk appears in the dugs ten
months after impregnation ; ftie brings forth in the
twelfth month, and always one at a time. Seven days
after the birth, the feafon of the female returns, and
(he is again in a condition to receive the male. The
colt fhould be taken from her at the end of five or fix
months, that the growth and nourifhment of the fetus
may not be obftrudled. The ftallion or jack-afs fhould
be the largeft and flrongeft that can be found ; he fhonlft ,
be at leaft three years old, and never ought to exceed
ten. The afs, like the horfe, takes three or four years
in growing, and lives till he be 25 or 30.: he fieeps
lefs than the horfe, and never lies down to fleep but
when excefilvely fatigued. He is more robuft, and -
lefs fubjeft to difeafes, than the horfe.
Travellers inform us that there are two forts of afles
in Perfia ; one of which is ufed for burdens, they be¬
ing, flow and heavy: the other is kept like horfes
for the faddle ; for they have fmooth hair, carry their
head well, and are much quicker in their motion ; but
when they ride them, they fit nearer their buttocks
than when on a horfe : they are drefled like horfes,
and are taught to amble like them; but they gene¬
rally cleave their noftrils to give them more room
for breathing. Dr Ruflel likewife tells us they have
two forts in Syria; one of which is like ours; and
the other very large, with remarkable long ears; but
they are both put to the fame ufe, which is, to car¬
ry burdens.
In America there were originally no afles at all, nor
yet horfes : but they were carried thither long ago, at
firft by the Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations,
where they multiplied greatly; infomuch, that, in
fome places, there are whole droves of them that run
wild, and are very hard to be caught. Afles in gene¬
ral carry the heavieft burdens in proportion to their
bulk ; and, as their keeping colls little or nothing, jt:
13-
E CL U [ 7
is a gr«?at wonder that they are not -put to more ufes
than they generally are among us. The flcfli of the
common afs is never eaten in thefe parts of the world ;
though fome pretend their colts are tender, and not
difagreeable.
3. The Hemwnus of Pallas, or Witn Muti:, is of
the fize and appearance of the common mule ; with
a large head, flat forehead growing narrow toward the
nofe, eyes of a middle fize, the irides of an obfeure afh-
colour; 38 teeth in all, being two in number fewer than
in a common horfe ; ears much longer than thofe of a
horfe, quite ere&, lined with a thick whitifli curling
coat ; neck flender, compreffed ; mane upright, fliort,
foft, -of a greyifh colour ; in place of the foretop, a
fhort tuft of downy hair about an inch and three quar¬
ters long. The body is rather long, and the back very
little elevated ; the bread protuberant and (harp. The
limbs are long arid elegant; the thighs thin,as in a mule’s.
Within the fore-legs there is an oval callus ; in the hind
legs none. The hoofs are oblong, fmooth, and black ;
- the tail is like that of a cow, flender, and for half of
its length naked, the reft covered with long afli-
coloured hairs. Its winter coat grey at the tips, of a
brownifh afh-colour beneath ; about two inches long,
: in foftnefs like the hair of a camel, and undulated on
the back. Its fummer coat is much {hotter, of a
moft elegant fmoothnefs, and in all parts marked mod
beautifully with fmall vortexes. The end of the nofe
is white; from thence to the foretop inclining to
tawny. The buttr''1” are white 3 as are the infide of
the limbs and belly. From the mane a blackifli tefta-
ceous line extends along the top of the back to the
tail, broadeft on the lotus, and growing narrower to¬
wards the tail. The colour of the upper part of the
body is a light yellowifh grey, growing paler towards
the fides. The length, from the tip of the nofe to
the bafc of the tail, is fix feet feven inches; length of
the trunk of the tail one foot four 3 of the hairs be¬
yond the end, eight inches. The height of the ani¬
mal is three feet nine. This fpecies inhabits the de-
.ferts between the rivers Onon and Argun in the mod
fouthern part of Siberia, and extends over the vaft
lains and deferts of weftern Tartary, and the cele-
rated fandy defert of Gobi, which reaches even to
India. In Siberia they are feen only in fmall numbers,
as if detached from the numerous herds to the Couth of
the Ruffian dominions. In Tartary they are particu¬
larly converfant about Taricnoor, a fait lake at times
dried up. They- flum wooded trafts and lofty fnowy
mountains. They live in feparate herds, each con¬
fiding of a chief, a number of mares and colts, in all
to the number of about 20 ; but feldom fo many, for
commonly each male has but five and fometimes
fewer females. They copulate towards the middle or
end of Auguft ; and bring for the moft part but one
at a time, which by the third year attains its full
growth, form, and colour. The young males are then
driven away from their paternal herds, and keep at a
diftance till they can find mates of their own age which
have quitted their dams. Thefe animals always carry
their heads horizontally ; but when they take to flight>
bold them upright, and ereft their tail. Their neigh¬
ing is deeper and louder than that of a horfe. They
‘fight by biting and kicking, as iifual with the horfe :
Ibey are fierce and untameable ;^and even thofe which
•NJ118. -
12 1 E CL TJ
have been taken young, are fo intraftable as not to he Eqim*.
broken by any art which the wandering Tartars could
ufe. Yet was it polfible to bring them into fit places^
and to provide all the conveniencres known in Eu¬
rope, the talk might be effefted: but it is doubted
whether the fubdued animal would retain tbefwiftnefs
it is fo celebrated for in its date of nature. It ex¬
ceeds that of the antelope ; it is even proverbial 3 and
the inhabitants of Thebet, from the fame of its rapid
fpeed, mount on it Chammo their god of fire. ThC
Mongolians defpair of ever taking them by the chace 3
but lurk behind fome tomb, or in fome ditch, and
{hoot them when they come to drink or eat the fait of
the defert. They are excefiively fearful animals, and
provident againft danger. A male takes on him the
care of the herd, and always is on the watch. If they
fee a hunter, who by creeping along the ground has
got near them, the centinel takes a great circuit, and
goes round and round him, as difeovering fomewhat to
be apprehended. As foon as'the animal is fatisfied, it
rejoins the herd, which fets off with great precipita¬
tion. Sometimes its curiofity cods it its life 5 for it
approaches fo near as to give the hunter an opportuni¬
ty of {hooting it. But it is obferved, that in rainy of
in ftormy weather, thefe animals feem very dull, and
lefs fenfible of the approach of mankind. The Mon-
galians and Tungufi, according to Du Halden, kill
them for the fake of the flefli, which they prefer to,
that of horfes, and even to that of the wild boar*
efteeming it equally nourifliing and wholefome. The
{kin is alfo ufed for the making of boots. Their fenfes
of'hearing and fmelling are moft exquifite: fo that they
are approached with the utmoft difficulty. The Mori
galians call them djbikketaei, which fignifies “ the ear¬
ed the Chinefe, jp?{/e, or “mule.” In ancient
times the fpecies extended far to the fouth. It was
the hemionos or half afs of Aridotle, found in his
days in Syria, and which he celebrates for its amazing
fvviftnefs and its fecundity, a breeding mule being
thought a prodigy; and Pliny, from the report of
Theophradus, fpeaks of this fpecies being Found in
Cappadocia, but adds they were a particular kind.
The domeftic mules of prefent times (equus mulus
of Gefner and Linnaeus) are the offspring of the horfe
and the afs, or afs and mare ; are very hardy, and
have more the form and difpofition of the afs than
the horfe. The fined are bred in Spain 5 very large
ones in Savoy.
4. The Zebra. This animal has the figure and
gracefulnefs of the horfe, joined to the fwiftnefs of the
ftag. He is about feven feet long, from the point of
the muzzle to the origin of the tail, and about four
feet high. The colour of his {kin is beautiful and uni¬
form, confiding of alternate parallel rings of black
and white, difpofed in the mod regular manner, as re-
prefented in the plate. He is generally lefs than the
horfe and laVger than the afs. The zebra is found no
where but in the eaftern and fouthern provinces of
Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope, and
from the Cape of Good Hope to Congo. The Dutch
have been at great pains to tame and ufe them for da-
meftic purpoles, but with little fuccefs. He is hard-
mouthed, and kicks when any perfon attempts to
touch or come near him. He is reftlefs and obftinate
as a mule: but perhaps the wild horfe is naturally as
„2 am-
Eraftiaka
ERA [ 7i
untraftable as the zebra; for it is probable, if he
were early aceuftomed to obedience and a domeftic
life, he would become as docile as the horfe.
5. The quacha, or quagga, is itriped like the former
on the head and body, but with fewer lines. The flanks
are fpotted; the rump is plain; the ground colour
of the head, neck, body, and rump, a bright bay : the
belly, thighs,and legs are white, and free from all marks.
This fpecies till of late, has been fuppofed to be the
female of the zebra; but recent obfervations prove
that the male and female zebra are marked alike.
This differs likewife in being thicker and ftronger
made, and in being more tradable ; for inftance, one
had been fo far broken as to draw in a cart. The Hot¬
tentots alfo diftinguifh them from the former, by the
names of quagga and opeagha.
ERA, in chronology. See jEra.
ERANARCHA, a public officer among the an¬
cient Greeks, whofe bufirtefs was to prefide over and
t>ireft the alms and provifions made forthe poor. Cor¬
nelius Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, deferibes his
office thus : When any p'erfon was reduced to poverty,
taken, captive, or had a daughter to marry, which be
could not effedf for want of money, &c. the eranarcha
called an affembly of friends and neighbours, and taxed
each according to*his means and eftate, to contribute
towards his relief.
ERANTHEMUM, in botany : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is quin-
quefid, with the tube filiform; the antherae without
the tube ; the fligma fimple.
ERASISTRATUS, a celebrated phyfician, grand-
fon t6 the philofopher Ariftotle. He difeovered by the
motion of the pulfe the love which Antiochus had
conceived for his mother-in-law Stratonice, and was
rewarded with 100 talents for the cure by the father of
Antiochus. He was a great enemy to bleeding and
violent phyfic.
ERASMUS (Defiderius), born at Rotterdam in
1467. He loft his father and mother at 14 years of
age ; and was committed to the care of certain guar¬
dians, who would force him to be an ecclefiaftic, which
he refufed far a long time. However, he was obliged
to aflume the religious habit among the canons regular
in the monaftery of Stein near Tergou ; but afterwards
obtained a difpenfation from his vows. He was the
moft learned man of the age in which he lived ; and
contributed, ky his example and his writings, to the
reftoration of learning in the feveral countries in which
he occafionally refided, viz. Italy, Switzerland, Hol-
I md, Fiance, and England : with the laft, he was moll
fatisfied; and found the greateft encouragement from
Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More, and all the learned
Englilhmen of thofe days. He publilhed a great many
books; and died at Bafil in 1536. He was buried
honourably, and his memory is itill held in venera¬
tion. He had, however, many enemies; and as he
did not embrace the reformation, and yet cenfured
many things in popery, he hath been treated injuri-
oufly both by Catholics and Pr.o Hants. The works
of Erafums in 10 vols folio were pibliftied at Leyden
in 1-706, in a very handfome manner, under the care
Vol. VI. Part lit
3 ] E R E
of M. Le Clerc. Dr Jortin pubhlhed his life iri one
vol. 4to, 1758.
ERASTIANS, a religions fedt or fadlion which
arofe in England during the time of the civil wars in
1647, thus called from their leader Thomas Eraftus,
whofe diftinguifliing do&rine it was, that the church
had no right to difeipline, that is, no regular power to
excommunicate, exclude, cenfure, abfolve, decree, or
the like.
ERATO (from I love), in mythology, the
name of one of the nine mufes who prefided over love-
poetry. To this mufe fome have aferibed the inven¬
tion of the lyre and lute ; and ftie is reprefented with
a garland of myrtles and rofes, holding a lyre in one
hand and a bow in the other, and at her fide a Cu¬
pid with his torch. There is alfo a Nereid of the
fame name.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cyrentean philofopher, hi-
ftorian, and poet; called for his learning Plato Minor.
Fie was keeper of the famous library at Alexandria ;
and was greatly in favour with Ptolemy Euergetes, by
whofe order he wrote a hiftory of the Theban kings
of Egypt, which fucceffion was entirely omitted by
Manetbo. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and
his authority is by many preferred to that of Mane-
tho. He ,wrote many other things, a catalogue of
which is to be feen in Fabricius, Voffius, &c. but his
only piece now remaining entire is a defeription and
fabulous account of the ftars. He ftarved himfelf in
old age through grief for the dirhnefs of his fight, a-
bout the 10th of 12th year of Ptolemy Epiphanes,
194 B.C.
ERATOSTRATUS, an Ephefian who burnt the
famous temple of Diana the fame night that Alexan¬
der the Great was born, This burning, as fome wri¬
ters have obferved, was not prevented or feen by the
goddefs of the place, who was then prefent at the la¬
bours of Olympias, and at the birth of the conqueror of
Perfia. Eratoftratus did this villany merely to eter¬
nize his name by fo uncommon an adftion.
EREBUS (Epr&if, from my night), in mythology,
a term denoting darknefs. According to Hefiod, E-
rebus was the fon of Chaos and the night, and the fa¬
ther of the day. This was alfo the name of part of
the inferi among the ancients : they had a peculiar ex¬
piation for thofe who were detained in Erebus.
Erebus was properly the gloomy region, and diftin-
guifhed both from Tartarus the place of torment, and
Elyfium the region of blifs: according to the account
given of it by Virgil, it forms the third grand divifion
of the invifible woild beyond the Styx, and compre¬
hends feveral particular diftri&s, as the limbus infantum,
or receptacle for infants ; the limbus for thofe who
have been put to death without caufe ; that for thofe
who have deftroyed themfelves; the fields of mourning,
full of dark groves and woods, inhabited by thofe who
died for love ; and beyond thefe, an open champaign
country for departed warriors.
ERECTION, in a general fenfe, the art of raifing
or elevating any thing ; as the ere<ftion of a perpendi¬
cular, &c. It is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe ; as the
erection of a bilhopric, marquifate, &c.
Erection is particularly ufed by medical writers
for the ftate of the penis when fwelled and diftended
4 & by1
E R I [ 714 1 E R I
Erctnlt by the a ft! on of the mufcles called ercftores. See Ana-
11 TOMY, p. 739.
rnca- There is alfo an ereftion of the clitoris which is
* ' performed by mufcles for that purpofe.
EREMIT. See Hermit.
ERETRIA (anc. geog.), a town of Eubma, fitu-
ated on the Euripus, in the fouth-weft of the ifland.
A Yery ancient city, and the largeft of the ifland,
after Chela's. After being demoliflied by the Per-
iians, it was rtftored on an adjoining fpot, according
to Strabo, who mentions a fchool of Eretrian philofo-
-phers there. The Abantes of Homer were of Eu¬
boea.
ERFORT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia, and fubjeft
to the elector of Mentz. It is defended by good ram¬
parts ; and has a caftle on an eminence, which com¬
mands the town. Its inhabitants are almoft all Lu¬
therans, but its principal churches belong to the Ca¬
tholics. There are feveral handfome ftruftures, both
public and private ; but the houfes in general are
but indifferently built. E. Long. 11. 14. N. Lai. 50.
49-
ERG ASTULUM, among the Romans, was a pri-
fon, work-houfe, or houfe of correftion, where flaves
by the private authority of their mailers were confined
and kept for their offences to hard labour. The
Greeks had a place of confinement of this fort called
ERGOT, in farriery, is a ftub, like a piece of fofc
horn, about the bignefs of a chefnut, placed behind
and below the paftern-joint, and commonly hid under
the tuft of the fetlock.
ERICA, heath, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
18th order, Bicornes. The calyx is tetraphyllous; the
corolla quadrifid ; the filaments inferted into the re¬
ceptacle ; the antherse bifid ; the capfule quadrilocu-
lar. Of this there are four fpecies, natives of Britain;
which are fo well known, that no defeription needs be
given of them. In the Highlands of Scotland this
plant is made fubfervient to a great variety of purpofes.
The poorer inhabitants make walls for their cottages
with alternate layers of heath and a kind of mortar
made of black earth and ft raw. The woody roots of
the heath are placed in the centre ; the tops externally
and internally. They make their beds of it, by pla¬
cing the roots downwards; and the tops only being
uppermoft, they are fufficiently foft to fleep upon.
Cabbins are alfo thatched with it. In the ifland of
Bay, -ale is frequently made by brewing one part of
malt and two of the tops of young heath ; fomeu'mes
adding hops. Boethius relates, that this liquor was
much ufed by the Pifts. Woollen cloth boiled in alum
wafer, and afterwards in a ftrong decoftion of heath-
tops, comes out of a fine orange colour. The ftalks
and tops will tan leather. Befoms and faggots to burn
in ovens are alfo made of this plant. It is alfo ufed
for filling up drains that are to be covered over. Sheep
and goats will fometimes eat the tender fhoots, but
they are not fond of them. Cattk not accuftomed to
feed on heath, give bloody milk ; but they are foon
relieved by drinking plentifully of water. Horfes will
eat the tops. Bees extract a great deal of honey from
the flow-ers; and, where heath abounds, the,fyoney has Eridarmi
a reddifh call. There are many exotic fpecies with .H
which our green-houfe colleftions are enriched and r,ger''fc
adorned, as the triflora, tubiflora, auftralis, &c.
ERIE)ANUS (anc. geog.) a river of Attica, fall¬
ing into the Uiflus.—Another Eridanus, the more an¬
cient name of the Padus, an appellation aferibed by
Pliny to the Greeks ; followed in this by Virgil. It
rifes in mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Cottice, and di¬
viding the Cifalpine Gaul into theCifpadana and Tranf-
padana, and fwelled on each hand with no inconfider-
able rivers from the other Alps and the Apenninc,
falls at feven mouths into the Adriatic. Famous in
mythology, from the ftory of Phaeton ; whole fillers,
the Heliades, were here changed into poplars, accord¬
ing to Ovid.
Eridanus, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the
fouthern bemifphere, in form of a river.—The ftars in
the conftellation Eridanus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
34; in Tycho’s, 19; and in the Britifh Catalogue,
84.
ERIE, a vafl lake to the weft ward of Pennfy Ivan ia,
in North America, fituated between 8o° and 87° W.
Long, and between 41° and 42° N. Lat.
ERIGENA, or Scotus, (John), a famous fcho-
lallic divine, born about the beginning of the nintli
century; but where, is a matter of difpute among au¬
thors. Bale and Pits fay he was born at St David’a
in Wales ; Dempfter, Mackenzie, and Henry, that h*j
w-as born at Ayr in Scotland ; which they infer from
his names Erigina and Scotus, by the latter of which
he was generally diftinguilhed by his cotemporary wri¬
ters. But Du Pin and Sir James Ware affert that he
was by birth an Irifhman ; Ireland being in thofe days
called Scotia, and by the natives Erin. They agree,
however, in relating that he travelled to Athens, where
he acquired a competent knowledge of the Greek and
other oriental languages ; and that he afterwards re-
fided many years in the court of Charles the Bald*
king of France, who, on account of his Angular abili¬
ties, treated him as his intimate friend and companion.
Lie flept frequently in the royal apartment ; and was
conflantly admitted to the king’s table. “ We may
judge (fays a modern hiftoiian) of the freedom which,
he ufed with Charles, by the following repartee. As
the king and Scotus were fitting one day at table, op-
pofite to each other, after dinner, drinking a cheerful
glafs, the philofopber having faid fomething that was
not quite agreeable to the rules of French politenefs,
the king in a merry humour afked him, Pray what is
between a Scot and zfot? To which he anfwered, “ No¬
thing but the table.” See Henry's Hi/lory of Great
Britain, vol. I. p. 344. who quotes this flory from
Hovedeni Annul, ad an. 86. Qiier. What language
were they talking when this bon mot was uttered ?
During his refidence with Charles, he wrote feveral
books of fchclaftic divinity ; which, though abfurd
enough, were at that time not fufficiently fo to fecure
him from the imputation of heterodoxy; and ort that
account the pope commanded Charles the Bald to fend
him to Rome ; but the king bad too great a regard for
bis companion to truft him with his holinefs. One of
the chief controverfies in which Scotus was engaged*
and with which the pope was much offended, was Con¬
cerning the real prefence and blood of Chrift in the
wafer.
Etigena
II ,
Erigone.
E R I [71
wafer. His opinion of this weighty matter is.exprefs-
ed in thefe few words: “ What we receive corporally
is not the body of our Lord ; but that which feeds the
foul and is only perceived by faith.” He was alfo
engaged in two other controverfies of equal import¬
ance, but of a fomewhat lefs delicate nature. The
firlt was. Whether any part of the eucharift be evacua¬
ted by ftool? and the fecond, Whether Chrift was
born of the Virgin Mary aperta vulva; Pafchafius
was of opinion, that this could not be without fome
injury to her perpetual virginity ; and therefore belie¬
ved that Chrift came into the world per vulvam clan-
fam, as he came into the place where his difciples were
affembled, through the door and not through the wall,
without opening the door. Concerning the firft of
thefe delicate queftions, Scotus with feveral others de¬
clared, that part of the eucharift was certainly evacua¬
ted by ftool; for which they were honoured with the
appellation of Stercorijls. And as to the fecond que-
ftion, he faid, that the vulva claufa was a dangerous
opinion : for it would thence follow, that he was not
born, but iffued ; non ejl nafci, fed erumpi. See Mac¬
kenzie, vol. I. p. 55.
Whether this John Scotus returned to England, or
ended his days in France, is a matter of doubt. Some
of our hiftorians tell us, that he left France in the
year 864 ; and that, after refiding about three years
in Oxford, he retired to the abbey of Malmfbury, where
his fcholars ftabbed him with their pen-knives. There
is no foundation for this ftory. Probably he died
about the year 874; but whether in France or Eng¬
land, is uncertain, and of little importance. Some
have related, that he was invited to England by king
Alfred : but in this they confound him with John, ab¬
bot of Etheling, who was affaffinated in 895 ; and to
this miftake the various accounts concerning this au¬
thor are to be attributed. Regardlefs of his hiftory, he
appears from his writings to have been a man of parts,
and, in point of learning, fuperior to any of his co¬
temporaries. He wrote, 1. De divlftone naturee, lib. v.
2. De prtedejl'matione Dei. 3. Excerpia de dijftrentiis
Cf focietatilus Greed Latinique verli. 4. De corpore et
fanguine. Domini. 5. Ambigua S. Maximi feu fcholia
cjus in dijficiles locos S. Gregorii Nazianzeni, Latine
verfa. 6. Opera S. Dionyfii quatuor in Latinam ling,
converfa. All publiftied. 7. De viftone Dei, and fe¬
veral other works, i-n manufciTpt, preferved in different
libraries.
ERIGERON, flea-bane, in botany : A genus
of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking finder the 49th order, Compoftee. The recep¬
tacle is naked; the pappus hairy; the florets of the radius
are linear, and very narrow. There are five fpecies; of
which the mpft remarkable is the vifcofum, or male
flea-bane of Theophraftus, and greater flea-bane of
Diofcorides. It is a native of the fouth of France and
Italy ; and hath a perennial root, from whence arife
many upright ftalks near three feet high. The leaves
in warm weather fweat out a clammy juice ; the flowers
are produced Angle upon pretty long footftalks, are of
a yellow colour, and have an agreeable odour. The
plants are eafily propagated by feeds; and thrive belt
in a dry foil and funny expofure.
ERIGONE, in fabulous hiftory, daughter to lea-
5 1 E R I
rius, died of grief for her father’s death, was tranflated Erfuaceui.
into heaven, and makes the fign Virgo. —y—
ERINACEUS, or hedgehog, in zoology; a ge¬
nus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferae, the
char afters of whichare thefe : They have two fore-teeth pl:lte
in the upper jaw, at a confiderable diftance from oneCLXXXV,
another, and two in the under jaw, lefs diftant; and
they have two recumbent dog-teeth, one on each fide.
The hedge-hog has a very uncommon method of de¬
fending himfelf from the attacks of other animals :
being pofieffed of little ftrength or agility, he does not
attempt to fly from or affail his enemies ; but erefts his
briftles, and rolls himfelf up like a ball, expofing no
part of his body that is not furniftied with (harp wea¬
pons of defence ; he will not unfold himfelf, unlefs
thrown into water : the more he is frightened or ha-
raffed, the clofer he (huts himfelf up ; and frequently
difcharges his urine, which has a very fetid and loth-
fome fmell. While in this ftate, moft dogs, infteadof
biting him, ftand off and bark, not daring to feize
him ; or, if they attempt it once, their mouths are fi»
prickled with his briftles, that they cannot be prevail¬
ed upon to attempt it a fecond time. Both the male
and female are covered with briftles from the head to
the tail. Thefe briftles are of great ufe in defending
them from other animals; but muft be very inconve¬
nient when they incline to copulate. This operation
they cannot perform in the manner of other quadru¬
peds ; but do it face to face, either Handing on end,
or the female lying on her back. The females comer
in feafon in the fpring, and bring forth their young
in the beginning of fummer. They commonly bring
forth three or four, and fometimes five at a time.
The young ones are of a whitilh colour, and only the
points of the briftles appear above the fkin. It is im-
poflible to tame them : the mother and her young have
frequently been confined together, and furniftied with
plenty of provifions; but, in (lead of nouriftiing them,
fhe uniformly devoured them one after another. Males
and females have likewife been kept in one apartment,
where they lived, but never copulated. Hedge-hogs
feed upon fallen fruits, fome roots, and infefts : they
are very fond of flefh meat, whether raw or roafted.
They frequent woods, and live under the trunks of old
trees, in the chinks of rocks, or under large ftones.
Naturalifts allege, that they go into gardens, mount
the trees, and come down with pears, apples, or plums,
ftuck upon their briftles. But this is a miftake : al¬
though kept in a garden, they never attempt to climb
trees, or ftick even fallen fruit upon their briftles, but
lay hold of their food with their mouth. They never
come out of their holes in the day, but go about in
queft of food during the night. They eat but little,
and can live very long without taking any nourifti-
ment. They do not lay up any ftore' of provifions in
harveft ; fuch an inftinft would be ufelefs, as they
fleep all the winter. They lie under the undeferved
reproach of fucking cattle and hurting their udders}
but the fmallnefs of their mouth renders that impof-
fible. There are three fpecies, viz.
1. The europaeus, or common hedgehog, with
round ears, and crefted noftrils. It is about nine inches
long; the upper part of the body is totally coveted
with (harp prickles, and the under part is covered
with hair. The hedgehog, even when Handing on
4X2 his
E R I [7:
Eringo his legs, has a very ugly afpeft. His body is an ob-
H long mafsj convex above, terminated on the fore-part
Erivan. a very fhaj-p tnuz/le, and mounted on four fliort
'r~~ legs, of which nothing appears but the feet, and the
tail is not difcernible. His ears are broad, round, and
fhort; and his eyes are fmall and protuberant. The
length of his body, from the point of the muzzle to
the anus is about nine inches.—2. The inauris, or
white hedge-hog, has no external ears. It is a native
of America. 3. The malaccenfis has hanging ears,
and is a native of Afia.
ERINGO, in botany. See Eryngium.
ERINUS, in botany : A genus of the angiofpermia
order,,belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 40th order,
Perfonata. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the limb of
the corolla quinquefid and equal; with its lobes emargi-
nated, and the upper lip very fhort and reflexed ; the
capfule bilocular. There are fix fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain. They grow from two inches to
four feet in height, and are adorned with flowers of a
white or purple colour. They are propagated by feeds,
but in this country generally require to be kept in a Hove.
ERIOCAULON, in botany : A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with the fixth order,
Enfatx. The common calyx is an imbricated capitu-
lum or knob ; there are three equal petals; and the fta-
rnina are on the germen.
ERIOCEPHALUS, in botany: A genus of the
polygamia neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is
fomewhat villous ; there is no pappus; the calyx is de¬
caphyllous and equal; the radius has five florets.
ERIOPHORUM, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the third or¬
der, Calamaritz. The glumes are paleaceous and im¬
bricated all round ; there is no corolla ; and only one
feed furnifhed with a very long down.
ERITHAL1S, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is quinquepartite ;
the calyx urceolated or bladder-like, the berry decem-
locular inferior.
ERIVAN, a city of Perfia, in Afia, and capital
of Perfian Armenia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking
place, in which are no handfome buildings, the houfes
being very mean, and raifed with earth or mud ; but
it is full of gardens or vineyards. It is fituated in a
plain which is furrounded on all fides with mountains.
Two rivers pafs near it, the Zengui to the north-weft,
and the Queur Boulac to the fouth-weft. The fortrefs
may pafs for a town of itfelf; it is of an oval form,
and is four miles in circumference, containing about
800 houfes. It is inhabited by none but the native
Perfians. The Armenians have {hops in it, where they
work and trade in the day-time, but at night return
to their habitations in the city. The fortrefs is fur-
rounded with three walls, made with bricks dried in
the fun, which have battlements, and are flanked with
towers, and defended with ramparts. On the north-
4
6 ] E R M
eaft there Is a dreadful precipice, above 2Go' yards in E'i. hyls
depth, at the bottom of which the river runs. The ; II. |
garrifon ufually confifted of 2000 men ; but how many krmm* i
there are fince the revolution, is hard to fay. The pa- v 1
lace of the governor of the province is within the fort¬
refs. The city is about a cannon’s (hot diftant from the.
fortrefs, and the fpace between is full of faoufes and
markets. E. Long 44. 50, N. Let. 40. 20.
ERIPHYLE (fab. hilt.), a fitter of Adraftus king
of Argos, who married Amphiaraus. She was daugh¬
ter of Talaus and Litimache. When her hufband con¬
cealed himfelf that he might not accompany the Ar-
gives in their expedition againft Thebes, where he
knew he was to perifh, Eriphyle fuffered herfelf to be
bribed by Polynices with a golden necklace 'which had
been formerly given to Hermione by the goddefs Ve¬
nus, .and (he difeovered where Amphiaraus was. This
treachery of Eriphyle compelled him to go to the war;
but before He departed, he charged his fon Alcmseon
to murder his mother as foon as he yas informed of his
death. Amphiaraus periftied in the expedition; and
his death was no fooner known than his lalt injundtions
were obeyed, and Eriphyle was murdered by the hands
of her fon.
ERIS, the goddefs of difeord among the Greeks.
She is, the fame as the Difcordia of the Latins.
ERISICHTHON (fab. hill,), a Theffalian, fon of
Triops, who derided Ceres and cut down her groves.
This impiety irritated the goddefs, who affli&ed him
with continual hunger. He fquandered all his poflef-
fions to gratify the cravings of his appetite, and at laifc
he devoured his own limbs for want of food. Some
fay that his daughter had the power of transforming
herfelf into whatever animal file pleafed,*and that (he % |
made ufe of that artifice to maintain her father, who
fold her, after which flte affumed another lhape, and be¬
came again his property.
ERMIN, in zoology. See Mustela.
Ermin, or Ermine, in heraldry, denotes a white
field or fur, powdered or interfperfed with black fpots,
called poavdering. It is fuppofed to reprefent the Ikin
of an animal of the fame denomination (fee Muste¬
la). There is however no animal whofe fkin natu¬
rally correfponds to the herald’s ermin.
The animal is milk white ; and fo far is it from ha¬
ving fpots, that tradition reports, that it will rather die
or be taken than fully its whitenefs. Whence its fym
bolical ufe.
But white (kins having for many ages been ufed for
the linings of the robes of magiftrates and great men;
the furriers at length, to add to their beauty, ufed to
few bits of the black tails of thofe creatures upon the
white Heins, to render them the more confpicuous.
Which alteration was introduced into armoury.
The fable fpots in ermin are not of any determinate
number, but they may be more or lefs at the pleafure
of the painter or furrier.
Ermin, an order of knights, inftituted in 1450 by
Francis I. duke of Bretagne, and formerly fubfifting in
France. The collar of this order was of gold, compo-
fed of ears of corn in faltier; at the end of which hung
the ermin, with this infeription, a mu vie. But the
order expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was an¬
nexed to the crown of France.
Er-
frjnines
ERR [ •
'Ermines, in heraldry, the reverfe of'ermine, i. e.
white fpots on a black field.
ERMINITES, in heraldry, Ihould fignify little er¬
mines, but it is otherwife; for it fignifies a white field
powdered With black, only that every fuch fpot hath
a little red hair on each. —Erminites alfo fignify a yel¬
low field powdered with black, which the french ex-
prefs much better by or femie (Pennine de falle.
ERMlNOiS, in heraldry, fignifies the field or, and
the fpots black.
EROORO, in ornithology^. See Alcedo, of which
it is a fpecles.
EROS (of “ love”), in mythology, one of two
chiefs over ail the other Cupids, being the caufe oflovei
See Anteros.
EROTIA, a feftival in honour of Eros the god of
love. It was celebrated by the Thefpians every fifth
year with fports and games, when muficians and o-
thers contended. If any quarrels or feditions had ari-
fen among the people, it was then ufual to olfer facri-
fices and prayers to the god, that he would totally re¬
move them.
EROTIC (derived from “love;” whence */>»-
Totor), is applied to any thing which has a relation to the
palfion of love.
In medicine we find the phrafe delirium eroticum ufed
for a kind of melancholy contra&ed through excefs of
love.
EROSION, among phyfieians, denotes much the
fame with corrosion, only in a ftronger degree.
EROTESIS. See Oratory, n° 94.
ERPENlUS ( Thomas), in Dutch ’Thomas of
Erpe ; a celebrated profefi'or of the Arabic language.
Was born at Gorcum in Holland, in 1584, and edu¬
cated at Leyden. He applied himfelf to the orien¬
tal languages at the ptrfuafion of Jofeph Scaliger;
and afterwards travelled into England, France, Italy,
and Germany, and every where obtained the eileem
of the learned. On his return to Holland, he was
made profeffor of Arabic in the univerfity of Leyden,
and died there in 1624. He publilhed a great many
excellent works, which fpread his reputation through
the whole learned world. It is faid, that the king
of Morocco admired fo greatly the letters Erpenius
wrote to him in Arabic in the name of the United
Provinces, that he could not ceafe reading them, and
ftiowing them to thofe who fpoke that language na¬
turally.
ERRATIC, in general, fomething that wanders,
or is not regular: hence it is the planets are called frra-
tic Jlars.
ERRHINES, in pharmacy, medicines which when
fnuffed up the nofe promote a difcharge of mucus from
that part.
Among the milder kinds of the errhines we may rec¬
kon marjoram, bafilicon, thyme, hyffop, favory, ma-
rum fyriacum, the tops of origanum, flowers of lilies
of the valley, and gum benzoin, the refin of guaia-
cum, fine rafpings of aloes wood, dry volatile fait of
fal ammoniac perfumed with oil of marjoram, as alfo
white vitriol. On the contrary, violent errhines are,
euphorbium, the powder of white hellebojre, and, in
a milder degree, feveral forts of fnulfs, precipitate mer¬
cury, and pepper.
Errhines are more friendly to the conftitutxon and
-17 r ERR
nerves than flernutatories, by their fubtile, acrid, and
volatile fait gently ftimulating the pituitary membrane,
and drawing the mucid humour from it. They are alfo
much fafer than fternutatories in their effedts.
Errhines prepared of cephalic herbs are of fingular
fervice in oppreflive pains of the head, a hermicrania,
lethargic diforders, weakneffes of memory, ftuffings of
the head, and coryza,' mucous defluxions of the eyes,,
drowfinefs, vertigoes, and in cafes where the malignant
humours generated by the lues venerea are lodged in
the membranes of the noftrils.
ERROR, in philofophy, amiHakeof our judgment,
giving affent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the caufes of error to thefe four;
firlt, want of proofs; fecondly, want of ability to ufe
them ; thirdly, want of will to ufe them ; and, fourth¬
ly, wrong meafures of probability.
He obferves upon the firft of thefe caufes of error,
that the greatefl: kpart of mankind want conveniences-
and opportunities of making experiments and obferva-
tions themfelves, or of collecting the teftimony of o-
thers, being prevented by the neceffity of their condi¬
tion. Upon the fecond of thefe caufes, he obferves,
that there are many, who, from the ftate of their con¬
dition, might beftow time in collecting proofs, but yet
are not able to carry a train of confequences in their
heads, nor weigh exaCtly the preponderancy of con¬
trary proofs and teftimonies, merely from the diffe¬
rence in mens underftandings, apprehenfions, and rea-
fonings. Thirdly, he remarks, that though fome have
opportunities and leifure enough, and want neither
parts, learning, nor other helps, that they never come
to the knowledge of feveral truths within their reach,
either upon account of their attachment to pleafure or
bufinefs ; or otherwife becaufe of their lazinefs or a-
verfiqn to ftudy. The fourth caufe of error, viz. wrong;
meafures of probability, he imputes, !. To the prac¬
tice of-taking for principles propofitions that are not
in themfelves certain and evident, but, on the contrary,
doubtful and falfe. 2. To received hypothefes. 3. To
predominant paffions or inclinations. And, 4 To au¬
thority, or. the giving up our affent to the common re¬
ceived opinions either of our friends or party, neigh¬
bours or country.
The caufes of error in philofophy, or the reafons
why all former philofophers have through fo many ages
erred, according to Lord Bacon, are thefe following.
I. Want of time fuited to learning. 2. The little
labour beftowed upon natural philofophy. 3. Few en¬
tirely addifted to natural phiiofophy. 4. The end of
the fciences wrong fixed. 5. A wrong way chofen.
6. The negled of experiments. 7. Regard to anti¬
quity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in
ufe. 9* The artifice of teachers and writers in the
fciences. 10. Oftentatious promifes of the moderns.
II. Want of propofing worthy ta/ks. 12. Superfti-
tion and zeal being oppofite to natural philofophy, as
thinking philofophy dangerous, on account of the
fchool-theology ; from the opinion that deep natural
inquiries fhould fubvert religion. 13. Schools and aca¬
demies proving unfavourable to philofophy. 14. Want
of rewards. And, 15. Defpair, and the fuppofition of
impoffibility.
Error Loci. Boerhaave is faid to have introduced
the term, from the opinion that the veflels were of
dsfV-
E R U L 7*8 ] E R U
different fixes for the circulation of blood, ferurn, and
lymph ; and that when the larger-fized globules were
forced into the leffer veffels by an error of place,' they
were obftrufted. But this opinion does not feem well
grounded.
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
The caterpillar flate is that through which every
butterfly muff pafs before it arrives at its perfeftion
and beauty : and, in the fame manner, all the knoton
winged animals, except only the puceron, pafs through
a reptile flare ; none of them, except this, being pro¬
duced in their winged form. The change from cater¬
pillar to butterfly was long efteemed a fort of meta-
morphofis; a real change of one animal into another:
but this is by no means the cafe. The egg of a but¬
terfly produces a butterfly, with all lineaments of its
parent; only thefe are not difclofed at firft, but for
the greater part of the animal’s life they are covered
with a fort of cafe or mufcular coat, in which are legs
for walking, which only fnit it in this ftate ; but its
rhouth takes in nourilhment, which is conveyed to the
included animal; and after a proper time this covering is
thrown off, and the butterfly, which all the while might
be difcovered in it by an accurate obferver with the
help of a microfcope, appears in its proper form. Be¬
fore it paffes into this flate, however, there requires
a ftate of reft for the wings to harden, and the feveral
other parts to acquire their proper firmnefs; this is
tranfafted in a time of perfeA reft, when the animal
lies in what is called the nymph or chryfalis ftate, in ap¬
pearance only a lump of inanimate matter. There is a
fettled and determined time for each of thefe changes
in every fpecies; but, in the feveral different kinds,
the periods are very different.
There is no fign of fex in the animal while in the
caterpillar ftate : the propagation of the fpecies is the
bufinefs of the creature in its ultimate perfe&ion; and
till that, thefe parts are never excluded : one female
butterfly, when ftre has been impregnated by the male,
will produce 300 or 400 eggs, or even more.
There is no way of knowing the fexes of thefe little
creatures by viewing the parts ; but the whole figure
and manner of the animal makes the difference. The
females are always larger than the males; they are alfo
more flow in their motions; and fome of them have no
wings, or, at the moft, only very fmall ones. The
males, however, have a fort of beards, more beautiful
than the antenna; or horns of the females : the female
is much ftronger as well as bigger than the male ; and
not unfrequently, in cafe of danger or difturbance, Ihe
flies away with him in time of copulation.
On differing the female, her uterus affords an afto-
tiifhing fight. The number of eggs in the tubes is
amazing: but thefe have not all the fame figure; and,
in fome fpecies, as the filk-worm, &c. the eggs are of a
beautiful blue ; if any ycllowifli ones are leen among
them, they are judged to be defe&ive.
The care of all the butterfly tribe to lodge their eggs
in fafety is furprifing. Thofe whofe eggs are to be
hatched in a few weeks, and who are to live in the ca¬
terpillar ftate during part of the remaining fummer,
always lay them on the leaves of fuch plants as will
afford a proper nourifhment; but, on the contrary,
thofe whofe eggs are to remain unhatched till the fol¬
lowing fpring, always lay them on the branches of
trees and flmibs, and ufually are careful to feleft fuch
places as are leaft expofed to the rigour of the enfuing
feafon, and frequently cover them from it in an artful
manner. Some make a general coat of a hairy matter
over them, taking the hairs from their own bodies for
that purpofe ; others hide themfelves in hollow places
in trees, and in other flteltered cells, and there live in a
kind of torpid ftate during the whole winter, that they
may depofit their eggs in the fucceeding fpring, at a
time when there will be no feverities of weather for
them to combat. The day-butterflies only do this,
and of thefe but a very few fpecies; but the night ones,
orphalenae, all without exception, lay their eggs as foon
as they have been in copulation with the male, and die
immediately afterwards.
It is well known, that the common and natural food
of thefe creatures is the leaves and verdure of vege¬
tables ; yet, as weak and harmlefs as they feem, they
will many of them deftroy their fellows whenever they
get an opportunity. M. Reamur gives us an inftance
of this in 20 caterpillars of the oak, which he kept in
a box with a fufficient quantity of their natural food:
yet their numbers daily decreafed, till at laft there re¬
mained only one. This is, however, only the cafe in
fome few fpecies, the generality of thefe animals being
very peaceable, many fpecies living together in the
fame place without molefting one another. Thefe
fpecies, however, though freed from fuch dangers, are
expofed to others of a much more terrible kind ; the
worms or maggots of feyeral forts of flies are frequently
found about them, fome preying upon their outfide,
others lodged within them under the ikin, but both
kinds eating the poor defencelefs creature up alive.
Thofe which feed on the outfides are eafily difcovered,
the others are more hid; and frequently the caterpillar,
which feems very hearty and vigorous, and very flelhy,
fhall be found, upon opening, to be a mere (kin, the
internal parts being found to be all eaten away, and
all the food that he fwallows ferving only to feed a vaft
number of worms, or maggots, which crawl about at
liberty within him. Thefe devouring worms are of
many different fpecies ; fome being of the gregarious,
fome of the folitary kinds, and tome fpinning webs of
their own filk to transform themfelves in ; others un¬
dergoing that change without any fuch covering. The
beautiful cabbage-caterpillar is one of thofe unhappy
kinds which frequently are infefted with the grega¬
rious kinds, large numbers of which fpin themfelves
webs one after another, and afterwards come out in the
fhape of the parent-fly to whofe eggs they owed their
origin.
Thefe inteftine enemies are a fure prevention of the
butterfly’s appearing at its proper time ; and as many
of the former naturalifts, who knew what butterfly to
expeft from a peculiar fpecies of caterpillar which they
preferved, often faw a parcel of flies come out in the
place of it, they having no idea that the fly had laid
its eggs in the flefti of the poor creature, fuppofed that
this was one of its natural transformations, and that
certain fpecies of caterpillars fometimes produced but¬
terflies, fometimes fmall flies.
Thefe, and many other deftroyers, among which
the birds are to be reckoned in the principal place,
ferve a noble purpofe in preventing the too great num¬
ber of thefe mifehievous animals. Their ufual habita¬
tion
E R U [ 7
tlon beinsf the leaves and flowers of plants, they are, in
their feeding, much expofed to all thofe deftroyers:
yet nature has taken care to preferve a great number,
by making many of them fo exactly of the colour of
the leaves they feed on, that they are not eaftly diftin-
guifhed from them ; and by giving others a caution of
keeping on the under part of the leaves, and being by
that means out of fight. But fome fpecies are much
lefs expofed, and of much more mifchief to the plants
they feed on, by devouring more effential parts of them.
Of thefe fome eat the roots, and others the interior part
q[ the trunk, deftroying the veffeis that imbibe, and
tbofe that diftribute the juices. Thefe are different
from the common caterpillars, in that their ffcin is
much lefs rough and hard ; and thefe are fecure from
*>ur obfervation, and in general from their _great de-
firoyers the birds. They are not, however, abfolutely
fafe from the compion dangers of the other fpecies; for
there is a kind of worms that find their food and habi¬
tation even in the bodies of thefe.
The root-caterpillars, and thofe which live within
the branches of plants, are much more eafily found out.
The roots of fcrophularia, and the ftalks of lettuces,
and fome other plants, afford caterpillars which feem
all of the fame fpecies. Thofe found in the lettuces are
extremely plentiful fome years, and deftroy valt quanti¬
ties of that plant. Thefe ufually have their firlt habi¬
tation in the ftalk, near the root.
Nothing more furprifes us, in regard to infefls, than
their induftry ; and in this the caterpillars yield to
tio kind, not to mention their filk, the fpinning of
which is one great proof of it. The (heaths and cafes
which fome of thefe infefts build for the palling their
transformations under, are, by fome, made of the filk,
with their own hair, mixed with pieces of bark, leaves,
and other parts of trees, wu'th paper, and other mate¬
rials ; and the ftrufture of thefe is well worthy our at¬
tention.
There are others vvhofe workmanfhip, in this ar¬
ticle, far exceeds thefe. There is one which builds in
wood, and is able to give its cafe a hardnefs greater
than that of the wood itfelf in its natural (late. This is
the ftrange horned caterpillar of the willow, which is
one of thofe that eat their exuvia. This creature has
extremely (harp teeth, and with thefe it cuts the wood
into a number of fmall fragments: thefe fragments it
afterwards unites together into a cafe, of what (hape
it pleafes, by means of a peculiar filk; which is no o-
ther than a tough and vifcous juice, which hardens as
it dries, and is a ftrong and firm cement. The folidity
of the cafe being thus provided for, we are to confider,
that the caterpillar inclofed in it is to become a butter¬
fly ; and the wonder is, in what manner a creature of
this helplefs kind, which has neither legs to dig nor
teeth to gnaw with, is to make its way out of fo firm and
ftrong a lodgment as this is in which it is hatched. It
has been fuppofed by fome, that the butterfly, as foon
?s hatched, difcharged a liquor which foftened the vif¬
cous matter that holds the cafe together, and fo its fe-
veral fragments falling to pieces, the way out lies open.
This is evidently the truth of the cafe ; though thofe
who fuppofed it, did it by mere conjecture ; for, on a
ftridl examination, this liquor is always to be found in
*the animal, and is of the mod proper kind for fnch a
lemce. Reaumur judged, from the effects, that this li-
19 ] E R U
quor muff be of a Angular nature, and very different
from the generality of animal fluids : and in differing
this creature in the caterpillar date, there will always
be found near the mouth, and under the ocfophagus, a
bladder of the bignefs of a fmall pea, full of a limpid
liquor, of a very quick and penetrating fmell, and
which, upon divers trials, proves to be a very powerful
acid ; and among other properties, which it has in
common with other acids, it fenfibly foftens the glue of
the cafe, on a common application.
It is evident that this liquor, befides its ufe to the
caterpillar, remains with it in the chryfalis (late, and is
the very thing that gives it a power of diffblving the
ftru&ure of the cafe, and making its way through in a
proper manner at the neceffary time. Dr Boerhaave
has adopted the opinion, that there are no true acids in
animals, except in the domach or inteffines ; but this
familiar indance proves the error of that determination*
Phil. Tranf. abr. ix. p. 39, &c.
Another very curious and myderious artifice, is that,
by which fome fpecies of caterpillars, when the time of
their changing into the chryfalis (late is coming on,
make themfelves lodgments in the leaves of the trees,
by roiling them up in fuch a manner as to make thenv
ftlves a fort of hollow cylindric cafe, proportioned ta
the thicknefs of their body, well defended againd the
injuries of the air, and carefully fecured for their date
of tranquillity.
Befides thefe caterpillars, which in tin's manner roll
up the leaves of plants,, there are other fpecies which
only bend them once ; and others wh-ich, by means of
thin threads, connefl many leaves together to make
them a cafe. All this is. a very furprifing work, but
all much inferior to this method of rolling.
The different fpecies of caterpillars have different in¬
clinations, not only in their fpinning and their choice
of food, but even in their manners and behaviour one
to another. Some never part company from the time,
of their being hatched to their lall change ; but live and.
feed together, and undergo together their lad change
into the chryfalis date. Others feparate one from an¬
other as foon as able to crawl about, and each hunts
its fortune fingle ; and there are others which regu¬
larly live to a certain time of their lives in communi¬
ty, and then feparate each to fhift for itfelf, and never
to meet again in that (late. Reamur, li'ifl. InfeB. vol. it.
pajfm. ’
Caterpillars are very deffruflive and pernicious in.
gardens, particularly thofe of two fpecies. The onn
of thefe is that which afterwards becomes the common
white butterfly. This is of a yellowifh colour, fpot-
ted with black; and infefts the leaves of cabbages,
cauliflowers, and the Indian crefs, of which it eats off
all the tender parts, leaving only the fibres entire ; fi>
that whole plantations are often feen deflroyed by thenx
in autumn, efpecially fuch as are near large buildings,,
or are crowded with trees. There*is no remedy againfl:
this evil but the pulling the creatures off before they
are fpread from the r nefls, and watching the butter¬
flies, which are daily, in the hot weather, depofiting
their eggs on thefe plants. Thefe, however, feed prin¬
cipally on the outfide pf the leaves of the plants, ami
are therefore the eafier taken off; but the other kind
lies near the centre, and therefore is with much mors,
difficulty difeovered. This is much larger; and ths
Eruca.
E R U [ 720 ] E R U
fkin is very tough, and of a brown colour. It is call¬
ed by the gardeners a grub, and is extremely perni¬
cious. The eggs which produce it are ufually depofited
in the very heart or centre of the plant, particularly
in cabbages; and the creature, when formed, and
grown to fome fee, eats its way through all the
blades, and leaves its dung in great quantity behind
it, which fpoils the cabbage. This infedt alfo burrows
under the furface of the ground, and makes fad ha-
vock among young plants, by eating off their tender
fhanks, and drawing them into its holes.. This mif-
chief is chiefly done in the night; but wherever a plant
is feen thus deftroyed, if the earth be ftirred with a
finger an inch deep, the creature will be certainly
found, and this is the only way of deftroying them.
Miller.
When thefe animals attack fruit-trees, the beft me¬
thod of driving them off is to boil together a quantity
of rue, wormwood, and the common tobacco, of each
equal parts, in common water ; to make the liquor
very ftrong, and fprinkle it on the leaves and young
branches every night and morning, during the time
when the fruit is ripening. See alfo the article Ca¬
terpillar.
In Dr Hawkefworth’s Account of the Voyages to
the South Sea, vol. iii. p. 520. we have the follow¬
ing account of a kind of fmall green caterpillar, which
the voyagers found in great numbers on the true Weft
Indian mangroves. Their bodies were thick fet with
hairs, and they were ranging on the leaves fide by fide
like files of foldiers, to the number of 20 or 30 toge¬
ther. When they touched them, they found that the
hairs on their bodies had the quality of a nettle, and
gave them a much more acute though lefs durable
pain.
Erucje Aquatics, Water Caterpillars. It may feem
incredible, that there is any fuch thing as a caterpillar
whofe habitation is under water; but experience and
obfervation prove, that there are fuch, and that they
feed on the water-plants as regularly as the common
kinds do on thofe at land. Thefe are not named at
random like ntany of the aquatic animals of the lar¬
ger kinds, as the fea-wolf, the fea-horfe, &c. which
might as well be called any thing elfe as wolves and
horfes; but they are properly what they are called,
and do not refpire in the manner of the fifti-tribe,
but by their ftigmata as other caterpillars. M. Reau¬
mur, in his obfervations, met with two fpecies of
thefe ; the one upon the potamogiton or pond-weed,
the other upon the lenticula or duck-meat. Thefe
are both very induttrious animals; but the firft being
much the largeft, its operations are more eafily diftin-
guiftied.
This, though truly an aquatic animal, fwims but
badly, and does not at all love to wet itfelf. The pa¬
rent butterfly lays her egg on the leaf of a certain
plant; and as foon as the young-caterpillar is hatched,
it gnaws out a piece of the leaf, of a roundifti fliape.
This it carries to another part of the fame leaf, and
lays it in fuch a manner, that there may be a hollow
between, in which it may lodge. It then fattens down
this piece to the larger leaf with filk of its own fpin-
ning ; only leaving certain holes at which it can put
out its head, and get to gnaw any of the leaves that
are near. It eafily gets out, though the aperture be
N° 118.
naturally fmall, fince a little force from its body bends Eruca.
up the upper leaf and down the lower, both being
flexile; and when the creature is out, it has a fort
of down that defends it from being wetted, and the
natural elafticity of the leaves and of the filk joins the
aperture up again, fo that no water can get in. The
leaves of this kind of plant are alfo naturally very flip-
pery, and not eafily wetted by water. It foon happens
that this habitation becomes toofmallfor the animal,in
which cafe it makes juft fuch another ; and after that,
at times, feveral others ; each being only made fit for
it at the fize it is then of. The changes of this crea¬
ture into the chryfalis and butterfly itates are in ihe
common method. The butterfly gets out of a chryfalis
which was placed on the furface of the water; the
lightnefs of the animal eafily fuftains it on the water
till its wings are dried, and then it leaves that element,
never to return to it again.
Erucje Syhe/lris, Wood-caterpillars ; the name of a
fort of caterpillars which do not live, after the man¬
ner of others, on leaves of trees or plants, or open to
our obfervation ; but under the bark, in the trunk and
branches, and in the roots of trees, and fometimes in
the body of fruits.
Thefe are eafily diftinguifhed from thofe worms and
maggots which are found in roots and fruits, and owe
their origin to flies of another kind ; but are liable to
be confounded with a fort of animals, called by M.
Reaumur, falfe or lajlard caterpillars, which carry a
great refemblance in their figure to real caterpillars,
but which have more legs than any of the true ones
have, and are finally transformed into four-winged flies,
which are not true butterflies.
The butterflies which are the parents of thofe ca¬
terpillars that lie immured in trees or fruits, lay their
eggs on the furface ; and the young caterpillars, when
hatched, eat their way in. What appears fomething
furprifing, however, in this, is, that there ufually is
only one caterpillar in a fruit which is large enough to
afford food to a great number; and if there are fome¬
times found two creatures within, one is ufually a ca¬
terpillar, the other a worm of fome other kind. The
whole occafion of which is, that the operation of pe¬
netrating into the fruit is fo difficult to the young ani¬
mal, that it feldom fucceeds in it ; and tho’ the but¬
terfly depofits many eggs on each fruit, and thefe all
hatch, yet it is only here and there one on a fruit that
can find the way into it.
Thefe creatures, when once lodged in their prifon,
have nothing to do but to eat up the fubftances which
inclofe them, leaving the outer hard ftrell unhurtj
which {till ferves as a cafe for them. This is a very
frequent cafe in the grains of corns, where the farina¬
ceous fubftance ferves as aliment, and the hard outer
fldn becomes a firm hollow cafe afterwards for the ani¬
mal. The farinaceous fubftance in this cafe ufually
proves enough for the animal in its caterpillar flate;
but if it does not, the creature has recourfe to a very
Angular expedient: it eats -again its own excrements ;
and finds its now ftronger ftomach able to fepArate
nourifhment from that very matter which had before
paffed off from its weaker ftomach undigefted.
Of thefe fpecics of caterpillars, fome go out of their
prifon in order to change into their chryfalis, and
thence into their butter-fly ftate; but the greater num-
ber
E R U [ 721 ] E R Y
mdition ber remain there, and pafs through all their changes increafe the crop. Its grafs is laid to be very copious; Eryman-
11 within. Thefe caterpillars, like all the other kinds, it may be mowed many times in the year, and affords a thus
have certain Hefti-eating worms, whole parents are of healthy as well as an agreeable food to horfes, cows, E *|h
the fly-kind, for their terrible enemies anff deftroyers; and (heep : the milk of cows fed with it is faid te be ry“ ^
and it is not unfrequent, on opening one of thefe fpoil- very copious and good. Long and numerous pods ri-
ed fruits, inftead of the expedied caterpillar, to find a pen about the beginning of winter, which afford a new
flyjult ready to come out: this has been produced kind of legumen, to be eaten as common lentils: when
from the chryfalis of a worm, which had beforefound its frelh, it makes admirable peafe-foup ; dry, it is greedily
way into the fruit, and eat up the caterpillar, which eaten by the poultry. The dried herb is alfo a good
was the original poffeffor of the place.
ERUDITION, denotes learning or knowledge;
and chiefly that of hiftory and antiquity, of languages
refource for cattle in winter. It grows on any kind of
ground.
ERYMANTHUS, a mountain, river, and town of
and of books, which is the refult of hard ttudy and Arcadia, where Hercules killed a prodigious boar,
extenfive reading. The Scaligers were men of deep which he carried on his Ihoulders to Eutyrtheus; who
erudition : the writings of M. Launoy, a prieft of the was fo terrified at the fight, that he hid himfelf in a
Oratory, are full of erudition. brazen veffel.
Mr Locke fays, it is of more ufe to fill the head ERYNGIUM, sea-holly, or Eryngo: A genus
with reflexions than with points of erudition. If the of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
mind be not juft and right, ignorance is better than of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
erudition, which only produces confufion and obfcu- the 45th order, ZT/nW/ate. The flowers are collected in-
rity. M. Balzac calls a heap of ill chofen erudition to a round head, and the receptacle is paleaceous. There
the luggage of antiquity. are nine fpecies; moll of which are hardy herbaceous
ERUPTION, in medicine, a fudden and copious perennials, producing ereX ftalks from one to two or
excretion of humours, as pus or blood : it fignifies alfo three feet high ; with Ample, entire, or divided prickly
the fame with exanthema, any breaking out, as the leaves; and the llalks terminated by roundilli aggregate
puftules of the plague, fmall-pox,' mealies, &c. heads of quinquepetalous flowers, of white, blue, or
Eruption of Volcanoes. See jEtna, Etna, Ve- purple colours. They all flower moftly in July, and
the feeds ripen in September. They are propagated
by feeds fown in a bed or border, either in fpring or
autumn. The plants are to be removed the autumn af-
suvius, Volcano, &c,
ERVUM, the lentil: A genus of the decandria or¬
der, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ; and in ,   
the natural method ranking under the32d order, Papilio- ter they come up, into thofe places where they are de¬
nari. The calyx is quinquepartite, the length of the figned to remain. The leaves of one of the fpecies
corolla. There are fix fpecies; of which the moll re- (viz- the maritimum, which grows naturally on the fea-
markable is the lens, or common lentil. It is cultivated coalls of England and Scotland) are fweetilh, with a
in many parts of England, either as fodder for cattle, light aromatic warmth and pungency. The roots are
or for the feeds which are frequently ufed in meagre accounted aphrodifiac, and are ordered to be kept can-
foups. It is an annual plant, and rifes with weak ftalks died i» the Ihops. The young flowering ftioots eaten
about 18 inches high, garnilhed with winged leaves com- like afparagus are very grateful and nourilhing.
pofed of feveral pairs of narrow lobes, terminated by ERYSIMUM, hedge-mustard : A genus of the
a clafper or tendril, which fallens to any neighbour- filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
ing plant, and is thereby fupported : the flowers come plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
out three or four together, upon Ihort footftalks from 39lh order, Siliquefe. The filiqua is long, linear, and
the fide of the branches. They are fmall, of a pale cxaXly tetragonal; the calyx clofe. There are fix
purple colour, and are fucceeded by Ihort flat pods, fpecies; of which the moll remarkable is the offici¬
nale, hedge-muftard, or bank-creffes. It grows natu¬
rally in Britain under walls, by the fides of highways,
and among rubbilh. It is warm and acrid to the talle;
and when cultivated, is ufed as a vernal pot-herb. Birds
are fond of the feedsj ftuep and goats eat the herb ;
cows, horfes, and fwine refufe it. The feeds are faid
to promote expeXoration, excite urine and the other
fluid fecretions, and to attenuate and diffolve vifcid
in broadcaft : the drills Ihould be a foot and a half juices, &c. This they are fuppofed to perform by an
afunder, to allow room for the Dutch hoe to clean the acrimonious ftimulating quality; but the tafte difcovers
ground between them ; for if the weeds are permitted in them only an herbaceous foftnefs void of acrimony ;
to grow among them, they will get above the lentils the feeds indeed are confiderably pungent, and the roots
and ftarve them. in fome fmall degree.
There is another fort of lentil alfo cultivated in this ERYSIPELAS, in medicine, an eruption of ■<
containing two or three feeds which are flat, round,
and a little convex in the middle. The feeds of this
plant are mod commonly fown in the month of March,
where the land is dry; but in moift ground, the bell
time is April. The ufual quantity of feed allowed for
an acre of land is from one bufhel and a half to two
bulhels. If thefe are fown in drills in the fame man-
• as peafe, they will fucceed better than when fown
country Under the name of French lentil. It is twice
the fize of the former, both in plant and feed ; and is
much better worth cultivation than the other. It
ftiould be fown in March, after a Angle ploughing, in
the ground that bore corn the year before. Manure is
not abfolutely neceffary, though it will undoubtedly
Vol. VI. Part II.
fiery or acrid humour, from which no part of the bo¬
dy is exempted, though it chiefly attacks the face. See
Medici NE-/»r/«c.
ERYTHEA, or Erythia, an ifland adjoining, ac¬
cording to the ancients, either to or a part of Gades;
no where now to be found by the defcription given of
4 Y it
Erythrse
Erjtliro-
E R Y [72
it by ancient authors. The poets feign this to be the
habitation of the fabulous Geryon, difarmed by Her¬
cules, vho, drove away his cattle.
ERYTKRvfi (anc. geog.), a porttownofiEtolia, on
the Corinthian bay. Another Erythrae of Bceotia, near
Flatata and mount Cithaeron. A third Krythra:, a town
of Ionia in the Hither Afia, fituated in the peninfula,
at its extremity, with a cognomina! port. The Ery-
thrteans laid claim to the Sibyl Herophile, as their
country-woman, furnamed thence Erythraa. Ery-.
thrae was famous for an ancient temple of Hercules.
ERYTH’sjEA, a town, of Crete, fituated in the
fouth eaft of the illand, at the promontory Erythrseunl.
ERYTi 1 RYElJM mare, erroneoufly called Rubrum
by the Romans. Thus the ocean that wa(hes Arabia
and Perlia, and extends a great way farther, is denomi¬
nated. Hence it is, Herodotus fays, that the Euphrates
and Tigris fall into the M ire Erythraeum. He alfo
calls it the South Sea, on which the Perlians dwell. It
takes its name, not from its colour, the error of the
Romans, who tranilated Erythrmem, “ Rubrum;” blit
from Erythras, fon of Perfeus and Andromeda, whofe
kingdom lay on the confines of that fea; whence its
name Erythraum.
ERYTHRINA, coral-tree : A genus of thede-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
^ 2d order, Papuionacea. The calyx is bilabiate, the
one lip above, the other below ; the vexi^lum of the
corolla is very long and lanceolated. There are four fpe-
des, all of them fhrubby flowering exotics for the ftove,
adorned chiefly with trifoliate or three-lobed leaves,
and fcarlet fpikes of papilionaceous flowers. They are
all natives of the warm parts of Africa and America ;
and mult always be kept in pots, which are to remain
conftantly in ftoves in this country. They are propa¬
gated by feeds, which are annually imported hither
from Africa and America- They are to be fown half
an inch deep in pots of light rich earthy*vhioh are then
to be plunged in the bark-bed of the ftove ; and when
the plants are two inches high, they are to be fepara-
ted into fmall po.s, plunging them alfo in the Sark-
bed, giving them frequent waterings, and as they in-
creafe in growth Ihifting them into larger pots. The
inhabitants of Malabar make (heaths of the wood, for
fwords and knives. They ufe the fame, together with
the bark, in walking a fort of garments which they
call faraffas; and make of the flowers ;he confec¬
tion caryl. The leaves pul verified and boiled with the
mature cocoa-nut, confume venereal buboes, and eafe
pains in the bones; bruifed and applied to the temples,
they cure the cephalea and ulcers : mixed with the fu-
gar calledyayra, they mitigate pains in the belly, efpe-
cially in women ; and the fame effedl follows from the
ufe of the bark levigated with vinegar, or fwallowing
the kernel (tripped of its red pellicle. The juice of the
leaves taken with oil mitigates venereal pains ; drank
with an infulkm of rice, it flops fluxes; made into a ca-
taplafm with the leaves of betel, it deftroys worms in
old ulcers; and worked with oil, it cures the pfora and
itch.
ERYTHR1NUS, in ichthyology, a fpeeies of Spa-
si v s.
ERYTHROIDES, in anatomy, the firft of the pro¬
per tunics or coats which cover the teflicles.
ERYTHRONIUMjEog’s-tooth violet: Age-
2 ] e it z
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank-
king under the nth order, Sarmentacea. The corolla
is hexapetalous and campanula ted ; with a nefifarium
of two tubercles adhering to the inner bafe of every
other petal. 1 here is only one fpecies, which, how¬
ever, admits of feveral varieties in its flowers, as
white, purple, pale red, dark red, crimfon, and yel¬
low. The plants are low and herbaceous, with a pur¬
ple tlalk and hexapetalous flowers. All the varieties
are hardy and durable ; and may be planted in fmall
patches in borders, where they will make a good appear¬
ance. They rarely perfedt their feeds in this country,
but may be propagated by offsets. In Siberia, ac¬
cording to Gmelin, they dry and mix the root of this
plant with their foups. It grows there in great abun¬
dance ; and is called by the people of the country Rfs.
ERY 1'HROXYLON, in botany: A genus of the
trigynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants; and in thematural method ranking with thofie
the order of which is doubtful. The calyx is turbina¬
ted ; the petals of the corolla have each a ne&ariferouis
emarginated fcale at the bafe ; the ftamina are connec¬
ted at the bafe ; the fruit a bilocular plum.
ERYX, a fon of Butes and Venus, who relying up¬
on his ftre'ngth, chalianged all ftrangers to fight with
him in the combat of the ceftus. Hercules accepted
his challenge after many had yielded to his fuperior
dexterity; and Eryx was killed in the combat, and bu¬
ried on the mountain, where he had built a temple th
Venus. Virg. JEn. 5. v. 402. A mountain of Sicily
near Drepanurn, which received its name from Eryx,
who was buried there. This mountain wasfo deep, that
the houfes which were built upon it feemed every mo¬
ment ready to fall. Daedalus had enlarged the top,
and inclofed it with a ftrong wall. He alfo confecra-
ted there to Venus Erycina a golden heifer, which re-
fembled life fo much, that it feemed to exceed the power
of art.
ERZERUM, or Erzeron, a city of Turky in Alia,
and capital of Armenia, or Turkomania. It is a pretty
large town, five days journey from the Black Sea, and
ten from the frontiers of Perfia. It (lands in a delight¬
ful plain, at the foot of a chain of mountains, which
hinder the Frat, or Euphrates, from failing into the
Black Sea. A neighbouring hill fupplies very fine
fprings, which riot only water the fields, but the flreets
of the town. Erzerum is. furrounded with double
walls, defended by pentagonal towers ; but the ditches
are neither deep nor well kept up. The beglerbeg, or
balhaw of the province, lives in the feraglio, which is
very ill built. They reckon that there are 18,000 Turks
at Erzerum, 6eoo Armenians, and 10,000 Greeks.
The Armenians have a bilhop and two churches; and
the Greeks have alfo a bilhop, but the church is a mi-
ferable place. The laft are moflly braziers, inhabiting
the fuburbs, who work the copper brought from the
neighbouring mountains. They drive a great trade in
copper utenlils and furs, particularly martins (kins.
Five or-fix days journey from the town there are oaks
that produce plenty of gall-nuts, which are brought
hither. This place is the thoroughfare and refting
place of all the merchants trading to the Indies, efpe-
cially when the Arabs are watching for their prey
round Aleppo and Bagdad. E. Long, 40. 50. N. Lat,
29. 46.
Eryhrox!
ESAR-
Efirhiddon ESARHADDON, the fon of Sennacherib, and his
. !f fucceflbr in the kingdom of Afiyria. He is faid to
Efchara. reigned 29 years at Nineveh, from the year 3294
~ ^ to 3322; befides which he reigned 13 years at Baby¬
lon, in all 42 years. He died in the year of the world
3336, and was fucceeded by Saofduchinus. Efar-
haddon, in the ■ opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton, feems to
be the Sardanapalus who died, as Cle&archus fays, of
old age, after the revolt of Syria ; the name Sardana-
palus being derived from Jtjfcrhadon Pul.
ESCALADE, or Scalade, a furious attack of a
wall or a rampart; carried on with laders, to pafs the
ditch or mount the rampart; without proceeding in
form, breaking ground, or carrying on regular works
to fecure the men.
When the troops are prepared to pafs the ditch,
either with the afiiftance of boards, hurdles, and faf-
cines, when it is muddy, or with fmall boats of tin, or
baikets covered with ikins or oil-cloth, when it is deep
and filled with water, a party mult be placed on the
counterfcarp, oppofite to the landing-place, ready to
lire at the garrifon if they are alarmed, and oppofe the
mounting on the rampart. If the ditch is dry, the
ladders are fixed in fome place fartheft diftant from the
centry ; and as foon as hey get upon the rampart,
they put tbemfelves in order to receive the enemy ; if
the centry (hould be furprifed and filently overcome,
the detachment haftens to break open the gate, and to
let in the rtft of the party. If the ditch is wet, the
rampart high, and provided with a revetement, it will
be difficult to furprife the town in this way ; but if
there is no revetement, the troops may hide themfelves
along the outfide of the rampart till all are over.
Since the invention and ufe of gunpowder, and the
walls of cities have been flanked, they are feldom taken
by efcalade.
ESCALLONIA, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The fruit is bilocular and polyfpermous ; the
petals diftant and tongue-lhaped; the ftigma headed.
ESCAPE, in law; a violent or privy evafion out of
fpme lawful rellraint, without being delivered by due
courfe of law. There are two forts of efcapes, volun¬
tary and negligent. Voluntary, when a man arrefts
another for felony, or other crime, and afterwards lets
him go freely by confent; in which cafe, the party
that permits fuch efcape is held guilty, committed,
and muft anfwer fpr it. Negligent efcape, on the con¬
trary, is where one is arrefted, and afterwards efcapes
againft the will of the perfon that arrefted him, and is
not purfued with freffi fuit, and retaken before the
perion purfuing hath loft fight ot him. By ftat. 8 and
9 Wdi. III. c. 26. the keepers of prifons conniving at
efcapes ffiall forfeit £ool; and in ervil cafes the fire-
riff is anfwerable for the debt.
ESCHALOT, or Shallot. See Allium.
ESCHAR, in furgery, the cruft or fcab occafioned
by burns or cauftic medicines.
ESCHARA, in natural hiftory, the name of a fpe-
cies of coralline, &c. the chara&ers of which are thefe:
they are of a ftony or coral-hke hardnels, and relemble
a woven cloth in their texture ; and the microfcope in¬
forms us, that they confift of arrangements of very
fmall cells, whpfe furfaces appear much m that form.
23 ] K S G
Linnaeus makes it a fpecies of millepora, in the clafs Ei'chara,
of lithophytes. See Plate CXLVIII. fig. 9. 10. | Eft-heat.
The narrow-leaved horn wrack, fig. 9. divides as it
rifes, into narrow leaves made up of regular rows of
oblong fquare-ffiaped cells placed alternately by each
other, and oppolite to an equal number on the other
fide of the leaf, like an honeycomb:, from thefe leaves
proceed other ftill fmaller foliaceous ramifications,
many of which feem to be corme&ed at the lower part
by tubuli, as in the corallines; by which means they
can ply to and fro more freely in the water;—e, Gives
the natural appearance of this coralline. E reprefents
two leaves with their tubuli and cells magnified. E 1
is a crols fedtion of one of the leaves at E, {bowing the
partition and inner form of their cells.
'1 he broad-leaved hornwrack, fig. 10. when frelh
taken out of the lea, is of a fpongy foft texture, and
fmells very filhy; but when it has lain for fome time
on the ftrore, it becomes ftiff and horny, like fome fort
of withered leaves. Both furfaces, when examined by
glaffes, appear to be covered with cells ; and, when a
piece of it is cut acrofs, one may difeover the thin
membrane that ferves as a bafe to the cells of each fur-
face. The form of the cells is very remarkable, each
one being arched at the top, and contracted a little at
the lower part of the fides to make way for the arches
of the two next adjoining cells ; fo that by this par¬
ticular conftrudtion no room is loft. The entrance of
the cells is immediately under the arch of each cell,
and the walls of the cells feem to be fortified with
fpines. Juffieu difeovered fmall polypes extending
themfelves out of thefe cells, which he has deferibed
in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences 1742.—
y, Gives the natural appearance of a leafy branch of
this coralline. F is a part of a leaf magnified to Ihow
the fuperficial figure of the cells, and the manner in
which they are difpofed. F 1 fhows a crofs fetlion
of a leaf, and difeovers the feveral partitions of the
cells.
At the entrance of many of the cells a fmall tefta-
ceous body like a bivalve Ihtll is difeovered : F 2, the
figure of the cell, with the Ihell in it; it is of a tranf-
parent amber colour, fo clear that one may fee the
dead animal through it, reprefented by the black
fpot.
ESCHEAT, in law, fignifies any lands or tene¬
ments that cafually fall to a lord witiiin his manor.
It is one of the confequences of tenure in chivalry :
(See Feodal Syjlem, Knight-Service, and Tenure).
It is the determination of the tenure or diffolution
of the mutual bond between the lord and tenant, from
the extin&ion of the blood of the latter by either na¬
tural or civil means : if he died without heirs of his
blood, or if his blood was corrupted and ftained by
cqmmiffion of treafon or felony ; wheieby every in¬
heritable quality was entirely blotted out and aboliflred.
In fuch cafes the land efeheated or fell back to the
lord of the fee ; that is, the tenure was determined by
breach of the original condition, expreffed or implied
in the feodal donation, in the one calc, there were
no heirs fubfifting of the blood of the firft feudatory
or purchafer, to which heirs alone the grant of the
feud extended : in the other, the tenant, by perpe¬
trating an atrocious crime, (howed that he was no
4 Y 2 longer
ESC [ 7H 1 ESC
longer to be trailed as a vaffal, having forgotten his
duty as a fubjeft; and therefore forfeited his feud,
which he held under the implied condition that he
fhould not be a traitor or a felon. The confequence
of which in botli cafes was, that the gift being deter¬
mined, refulted back to the lord who gave it.
The word efckeat is fometimes ufed for the place or
circuit within which the king or other lord is intitled
to elcheats ; alfo for a writ to recover the fame from
the perfon in poffefiion after the tenant’s death.
Escheat, in Scots law, is that forfeiture which is
incurred upon a perfon’s being denounced a rebel. See
Law, Part III. N clxvi. 12.
ESCHEVIN, or TLcmviti (Scabinus), in theFrench
and Dutch polity, a magiftrate eledled by the inhabi¬
tants of a city, to take care of their common concerns,
the good order, conveniency, and decoration of the
city, See.
At Paris there is a prevot and four ejchevms; in moft
other cities a mayor and efchev'tns. In Languedoc,
Provence, and Dauphine, they are called confuls; at
Touloufe, capitouls; znA jurats at Bourdeaux.
Anciently the ejehevins were the afTefTors and coun-
fellors of the comites or judges of cities; on which ac¬
count they were called in fame places pairs, pares; they
even took cognizance of petty caufes themfelves.
Du-Cange obferves, that the judges and their af-
feffors, who were chofen by the inhabitants, were call¬
ed fealini “ efehevins,” and their college fcabinagium or
“ efehevinage.”
In Holland, the fealins or efehevins judge of all
civil affairs at firft hand. They alfo take cognizance
of criminal matters: and if the criminal confefs himfelf
guilty, they can fee their fentence executed without
appeal. They can even give torture. The number
is not the fame in all cities; at Amfterdam there are
nine, at Rotterdam feven, &c.
ESCHRAKITES, or Esrakites, a feft of philo-
fophers, among the Mahometans, who adhere to the
dodtrines and opinions of Plato. The word is derived
from the Arabic fchraca, which in the fourth con¬
jugation p-wx afchraca, fignifies to fhine, glitter like
the fun;” fo that Efchrakite feems to import “illu¬
mined.”
The Efchrakites, or Mahometan Platon ills, place
their highefl good and happinefs in the contemplation
of the Divine Majefty ; defpifing the grofs imagina¬
tions of the Alcoran touching paradife. They are
very careful in avoiding all vice ; they preferve an
equal and eafy temper, love mufic, and divert them¬
felves with compofing little poems or fpiritual fongs.
The fhaeicks or priefts, and the chief among the preach¬
ers of the imperial mofques, are Efchrakites.
ESCLAIRCISSEMENT, a French term adopted
into our language, fignifying the explaining or clear¬
ing up of fome difficulty or obfeurity.
ESCORT, a French term, fometimes ufed in Eng-
lifh authors, to denote a convoy or company of armed
men, attending fome perfon or thing, in a journey or
voyage, to defend or fecure it from infults. Some de¬
rive the word from the Latin cohort.
ESCOUADE, or Squad, is ufually the third or
fourth part of a company of foot; fo divided for
mounting guards, and for the more convenient re¬
lieving of one another. It is equivalent to a brigade
of a troop of horfe. See Brigade.
ESCUAGE, in our old cuftoms, a kind of knight-
fervice, called fervice of the fhield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars at his own
charge. See the articles Chivalry, Feodal Syflem,
and KNiGHT-Service.
ESCULAPIUS. See jEsculapius.
ESCULENT, an appellation given to fuch plants
or the roots of them as may be eaten: fuch are beets,.
carrots, artichokes, leeks, onions, parfnips, potatoes,
radifhes, fcorzonera, &c.
ESCURIAL, a royal refidence of Spain, fituated
about 15 miles north-weft of Madrid. It is the largefl
and moil fuperb ftrufture in the whole kingdom, and
perhaps one of the fineft in Europe. The word is A-
rabic, meaning “ a place full of rocks.” It is built in
a dry barren fpot, furrounded with rugged mountains,
infomuch that every thing which grows there is owing
to art. This place was chofen* it is faid, for the fake
of the ftone wherewith the fabric is built, which is got
from a mountain juft by, and is very durable; and
the defign of erecting it was to commemorate a vi&ory
which Philip II. obtained over the French (but by the
affiftance of the Englifh forces) at St Chrintin, on
St Laurence’s day, in the year 1557, The Spanilh
defeription of this ftrufture forms a fizeable quarto
volume, and it is faid that its founder expended upon
it fix millions of ducats. The apartments are deco¬
rated with an aftoniffiing variety of paintings, fculp-
ture, tapeftry, ornaments of gold and filver, marble,
jafper, gems, and other curious (tones, furpaffing all¬
imagination. This building, befides its palace, con¬
tains a church, large and richly ornamented; a maufo-
leum; cloifters; a convent; a college; and a library,
containing about 30,000 volumes; befides large apart¬
ments for all kinds of artifts and mechanics, noble walks,
with extenfive parks and gardens, beautified with foun¬
tains and coftly ornaments. The fathers that live in.
the convent are 200, and they have an annual revenue
of 12,oool. It was begun by Philip in 1562, five
years after the battle; and completed in 22 years. It
confifts of feveral courts and quadrangles, which alto¬
gether are difpofed in the Ihape of a gridiron, the in-
ftrument of the martyrdom of St Laurence ; the a-
partment where the king refides forms the handle.
The building is a long fquare of 640 by 58b, and the
height up to the roof is all round 60 feet, except on
the garden fide, where the ground is more taken away.
At each angle is a fquare tower 200 feet high. .The
number of windows in the weft front is 200; in the
call front 366. The orders employed are Doric and
Ionic. There are three doors in the principal front.
Over the grand entrance are the arms ofSpain, carved in
ftone; and a little higher in a nich, a ftatue of St Lau--
rence in a deacon’s habit, with a gilt gridiron in his right
hand, and a book in his left. Direftly over the door
is a baflb relievo of two enormous gridirons in ftone.
This vaft ftrudlure, however, with its narrow high
towers, fmall windows, and fteep Hoping roof, exhibits
a very uncouth ftyle of architecture ; at the fame time
that the domes, and the immenfe extent of its fronts,
render it a wonderfully grand objeft from every point-
of view. The church, which is in the centre of all, is-
large.
Efcuage^
fl 1
Efcurial;'
ESC
feu rial, large, awful, and richly but not afFe&edly ornamented,
cutcheoi. CUp0]a ;s anci light. The high altar is com-
pofed of rich marbles, agates, and jafpers of great
rarity, the produce of this kingdom. Two magnifi¬
cent catafalquas fill up the fide arcades of this fan&u-
ary : on one the emperor Charles V. his wife, daugh¬
ter, and two fifters, are reprefented in bronze, larger
than life, kneeling; oppofite are the effigies of Philip II.
and of his three wives, of the fame materials, and in
t 725 1
E S O
The efcutcheon, as ufed at prefent, is fquare, only
rounded off at the bottom.
ESDRAS, a Jewifii prieft, and do&or of the law.
Artaxerxes Longimanus fent him with rich prefents
for the ufe and ornament of the temple at Jerufalem,
rebuilt under Zerubbabel; the king alfo ordered the
neighbouring governors to provide him with what con¬
duced to the pomp of the Jewifh religion, and to ex¬
empt the pridts from paying taxes. He is fuppofed to-
rial-place of the royal family, called the Pantheon.
Twenty-five fteps lead down to this vault, over the
door of which is an infeription, denoting, that
Hie locus,facer mortalitatis exuviis Catholicorum Regum, Mfc.
was intended by Charles the emperor, refolved upon
by Philip II. begun by Philip III. and completed by
Philip IV. The maufoleum is circular, 36 feet dia¬
meter, incrufted with fine marbles in an elegant tafte.
Efdras •
II
Efbx.
the fame devout attitude. Underneath is the bu- be the colledtor of the Canon of Scripture ; and that.
by divine infpiration, he added fome things which hap¬
pened after the deaths of the authors. It is gueffed
he wrote the Chronicles, befides thofe books which
bear his name, the two laft of which are exploded even
by the church of Rome.
ESK, the name of feveral rivers both in England
and Scotland, particularly of one which forms part of'
the boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from
The bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of north-eaft to fouth-weft, and gives name to the county-
marble, in niches, one above the other. The plan of of Eflcdale.
thefe fepulchres is grand, and executed with a princely ESKI-HISSAR. See Stratonic-ea.
magnificence; but, as a modern traveller obferves, ESKIMAUX. See Esquimaux.
in a ftyle rather too gay, too light, and too deli- ESNE, a confiderable fea-port town of Upper
cately fitted up for the idea we are apt to form of Egypt. It is governed by an Arabian prince, and by
a chapel deftined for the reception of the dead. The a cachef, dependant on the bey of Girze. The Ma-
colledtion of piftures difperfed about various parts of hometans have ieveral mofques here, and the eoptis a
the church, facriffy, and convent, has been confider- church ferved by two priefts. “ Efne (fays Abul-
ed as equal, if not fuperior, to any gallery in Europe feda), remarkable for its public baths and its com-
except that of Drefden. Formed out of the fpoils of merce, is built on the weftward of the Nile, between
Italy, and the wafted cabinet of that unfortunate di- Affouan and Cous, but nearer to this latter. It ac-
lettante Charles I. of England, it contains fome of the knowledges, adds the geographer of Nubia, the coptia
moft capital works of the greateft painters that have for founders. Its well cultivated territory abounds in
flouriftied fince the revival of the art. In the facrifty grain and palm trees. It is furrounded by gardens
is an altar called Za fanta Forma: this is a kind of ta- filled with fruit trees. One admires here feveral an-
bernacle or cuflioda of gems, marbles, woods, and other cient monuments conftru&ed by the coptis, and fu-
precious materials, inlaid in. gilt bronze; in which, perb ruins.” This defeription anfwers to Efne in
rather than in the excellence of the workmanfhip or our time, which is fituated on the edge of a rich coun-
tafte of the defign, confifts the merit of this rock of try, and ftraded by groves of orange trees loaded with
riches. Before it hangs a curtain, on which Coello fruits and flowers. This town, formerly called Zu/o-
has reprefented Charles II. and all his court in pro- polis, revered Minerva and the fifh Latus (Strabo),
ceffion, coming to place this Zorma. This is efteem- It contains within its boundary an antique temple;
ed one of the moft curious colledions of portraits in thick walls inclofe it on three fides. Six large fluted
the world ; for all the perfons are drawn with the columns, crowned by a capital ornamented with the
greateft ftrength of colour and truth of expreffion, and palm leaf, form the facade of it; 18 others fupport
are faid to be perfeft refemblances not only of the mo- the roof, which is compofed of large fquares of mar-
narch and grandees, but even of the monks, fervants, ble; the building is furrounded by a freeze, and in-
and guards. The ftatues, bulls, and medallions of the numerable hieroglyphics cover its exterior afpedls.
Efctirial, are not in any great number, nor very re- A little to the fouth of the town are feen the ruins
markable for their excellence: but the library contains of a monaftery founded by St Helena,-and near it
a moft precious colledlion of manuferipts, many fine the burying place of the martyrs, adorned with tombs
drawings, and other curiofities. Notwithftanding the crowned by cupolas, fupported by arcades. The in-
coldnefs of the expofure, the late king, for the fake of habitants of Efne having revolted againft the perfeciT-
hunting, ufed to pafs here feveral months of the year; tion of Dioclefian, that emperor deftroyed this town
and to make the place lefs inconvenient to his attend- and put them to the fword. This place,. confecrated
ants and the nobility, he built an entire new town- by religion, is become a-celebrated pilgrimage among
adjoining to it.. the Coptis. They repair thither from the moft diftant
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in heraldry, is . provinces of the kingdom. In the chain of mountains
derived from the French efcujjpn, and that from the which ftretches to the eaftward of the Nile, and nearly
Latin feutum, and fignifies the fhield whereon coats of oppofite Efne, are quarries of a foft ftone, called
arms are reprefented. Baram. It is made ufe of for kitchen utenfils. It
Moft nations of the remoteft antiquity were wont hardens in the fire, and forms excellent kettles and
to have- their ftrields diftinguilhed by certain marks pans, which give no bad tafte to the vi&uals.
painted on them; and to have fuch on their flrields was ESOX, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belonging
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them to the order of abdominales. The body is elongated ;
till they had performed fome.honourable adlion. the head is plainilh above ; the upper jaw is plain,
5^ and-i
E S O [ 726 ] E 8 P
and (hcrter than the under one, which is dotted ; and
the branchioftege membrane has from feven to twelve
rays.
1. The Lucius, or Pike, has a flat head: the up¬
per jaw is broad, and {hotter than the lower: the un¬
der jaw turns up a little at the end, and is marked
with minute pun&ures. The teeth are very (harp, dif-
pofed only in the front of the upper jaw, but in both
fides pf the lower; in the roof of the mouth, and of¬
ten in the tongue. The flit of the mouth, or the
gape, is very wide ; the eyes fmall. The pike is com¬
mon in moft of the lakes of Europe ; but the largeft
are thofe taken in Lapland, which, according to
Scheffer, are fometimes eight feet long. They are
taken there in great abundance, dried, and exported
for fale. The largelt fifli of this kind faid to be
caught in England, weighed 35 pounds. All writers
who treat of this fpecies bring inftances of its voraci-
.oufnefs. It hath been known to choke itfelf by at¬
tempting to fwallow one of its own fpecies which
proved too large a morfcl. Yet its jaws are very loofe-
ly connt&ed, and have on each fide an additional
bone like the jaw of a viper, which renders them ca¬
pable of greater diftenfion when it fwallows its prey.
It does not confine itfelf,to feed on fifh and frogs; it
will devour the water-rat, and draw down the young
ducks as they arefwimming about. But there are in¬
ftances of its fiercenefs (till more furprifing, and which
indeed border a little on the marvellous. Gefner re¬
lates, that a famiflied pike in the Rhone, feized on the
lips of a mule that was brought to water, and that the
beaft drew the fifli out before it could difengage itfelf;
that people have been bit by thefe voracious creatures
while they were wafhing their legs ; and that the pike
will even contend with the otter for its prey, and en¬
deavour to force it out of its mouth. Small fiflies
{how the fame uneafinefs and deteftation at the pre-
fence of this tyrant, that the little birds do at the
fight of the hawk or owl. When the pike lies dor¬
mant near the furface, as is frequently the cafe, the
leffer fiflies are often obferved to fwim around it in vaft
numbers and in great anxiety. Pikes are often halter¬
ed in a noofe, and taken while they thus lie afleep, as
they are often found in the ditches near the Thames,
in the month of May. In the {hallow water of the
Lincolnftiire fens they are often taken in a manner, we
believe, peculiar to that country and to the ifland of
Ceylon. The tifliei man makes ufe of what is called a
crown net; which is no more than a hemifpherical
balket, open at top and bottom. He Hands at the
end of one of the little fen-boats, and frequently puts
his baflcet down to the bottom of the water; then
pi king a flick into it, difcovers whether he has any
booty by the ftriking of the fifli; and vaft numbers of
pike are taken in this manner. The longevity of this
fifli is very remarkable, if we may credit the accounts
given of it. Rzaczynfki tells us of one that was 90
years old ; but Gefner relates, that, in the year 1497, a
pike was taken near Hailbrun in Suabia. with a brazen
ring affixed to it, on wbiih were thefe words in Greek
cha^ afters: “ 1 am the fifli which was firft put into
this lake by the governor of the univerfe, Frederick
the Second, the 5th of Oftober 1230 :” So that the
former muft have been an infant to this Methufalem
«f a fifli. PikeS fpawn in March or April, accord¬
ing to the eoldnefs or warmnefs of the weather.
When they are in high feafon, their colours are very
§ne, being green, fpotted with bright yellow, and
the gills are of a moft vivid and full red. When out
of feafon, the green changes to a grejy, and the yellow
fpots turn pale.
2. The Belone, or Gar, fometimes grows to the
length of three feet or more. The jaws are very long,
flender, and fliarp-pointed; the under jaw extends
much farther than the upper ; and the edges of both
are armed with numbers of ftiortand flender teeth: the
tongue is finall: the eyes are large ; the irides filvery;
the noftrils wide and round. The body is flender, the
belly quite flat, bounded on both fides by a rough line.
The tail is much forked. The colours are extremely
beautiful when the fifli is in the water : the back is of
a fine green, beneath which appears a rich changeable
blue and purple : the fides and belly ate of a fine fil¬
very hue. This fifli, which is found in many places, is
known by the name of the fee-needle. It comes in
fhoals on our coafts in the beginning of fummer, And
precedes the mackerel: it has a refemblance to it in
tafle ; but the light green which (tains the back-bone
of this fifli gives many people a difgufl to it.
3. The Saurus, or Saury, is 11 inches in length:
the nofe flender; the jaws produced like thofe of the
fea needle, but of equal length: the eyes large: the
body anguilliform ; but towards the tail grows fud-
denly fmaller, and tapers to a very inconfiderable girth.
The tail is much forked : the back dufky : the belly
bright and filvery. Great numbers of thefe fifli were
thrown afliore on the fands of Leith near Edinburgh,
after a great ftorm in November 1768. Rondeletitius
defcribes this fpecies among the fifti of the Mediterra¬
nean ; but fpeaks of it as a rare kind.
4. The Barracuda of Cateft>y,is found ingreat num¬
bers about the feas of the Bahamas and as far as Jamaica.
Its body and head very much refemble the European
pike : the eyes are large : the mouth is very wide : the
under jaw longer than the upper : there are four very
large and fliarp teeth in the front of the upper jaw ; in
that of the lower, a Angle great and {harp tooth: there are
two dorfal fins: the tail is large and forked : colour a
deep brown, whitifii on the belly. It grows to the length
of 10 feet. It fwims exceedingly fwift, and is of dread¬
ful voracity : will attack and devour men when they are
bathing. The flelh has a difagreeable fmell and tafte,
and is frequently poifonous; caufing great ficknefs,
vomiting, intolerable pains in the head, and lofs of hair
^nd nails: yet the hungry Bahamans formerly were
under the neceffity, at times, of feeding on it.
ESPALIERS, in gardening, are rows of trees
planted about a whole- garden or plantation, or in
hedges, in fuch a manner as to inclofe quarters or fe-
parate parts of a garden ; and are trained up regularly
t» a lattice of wood-work in a clofe hedge for the de¬
fence of tender plants againft the injuries of wind and
weather. They are of admirable ufe and beauty in a
kitchen garden, ferving not only to {belter the tender
plants, but fereen them from tho fight of perfons in
the walks.
The trees chiefly planted for efpaliers, are apples,
pears, and feme plums: fome plant apples grafted up¬
on paradife-ftocks : but as thefe are of fliort duration,
it is better to plant thofe grafted upon crabllock, or
upoa
Efp
E S O. [ 7
Ef^'lanade upon wliat the gardeners call Dutch-fioch; which will
Efqm.i®. caufe them to bear fooner, and prevent their
v' growing too luxuriant. The beft kind of apple for this
purpofe, are the golden pippen, nonpareil, rennet, &c.
and the beft fort of pear, are the jargonelle, blan-
quette, &c. Thefe laft, if defigned for a ftrong moift
foil, ftiould be grafted upon quince-ftocks ; but if for
a dry foil, upon free-ftocks.
While the trees are young, it will be fufficient to
drive a few ftakes into the ground on each fide of them ;
fattening the branches to thefe in an horizontal pofi-
tion, as they are produced. This method will do for
the three fir ft years ; after which an efpalier fhould be
made of afh-poles, whereof there mult be two forts,
larger and fmaller; the former to be driven upright
into the ground a foot afunder, and the latter, or flen-
der poles, to be nailed acrofs thefc, at about nine
inches. Some prefer to this another fort of efpalier,
made of fquare timber cut to any fize : thefe are, in¬
deed, more fightly, but withal vaftly more expen-
five.
When the efpalier is thus framed, the branches are
to be faftened to it with, ofier-twigs; obferving to train
them in an horizontal pofition, and at equal diftances.
Fruit-trees thus managed are preferable to any others;
not only as bearing better-tafted fruit, but as taking
up very little room in a garden, fo as to be lefs hurtful
to plants which grow in the quarters.
ESPLANADE, in fortification, the floping of the
parapet of the covered-way towards the campaign.
ESPLEES, in law, the general produdfs which
lands yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be
taken or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in law, fignify a contraft or pro-,
mife made between a man and a woman to marry each
other; and in cafes where marriages may-lie confum-
mated efpoufals go before. Marriage is termed an
efpoufal de br<tfmti.
The efpoutals amongft the Jews were either by wri¬
ting, or by a piece of filver given and received, or by co¬
habitation. Amongft the Greeks, after the parents and
friends of the young couple had finifhed their negocia-
tion, the couple themfelves pledged their faith to each
other, the man fwearing that he would be conftant
and true, the woman that the would marry him,and
make him mailer of all the had. Then they ratified
their agreement by a kifs and joining right hands.
Amongft the Romans the efpoufals contifted in an
engagement of friends on both fides, whether abfent
or prefent, in public or without witnetfes. But the
common way was by writings drawn up by common
confent, and fealed by both parties ; befides this, the
man fent a ring to the woman, confifting of iron and
without a ftone.
ESQUILIiE (anc. geog.), one of the feven hills
of Rome, which Varro will have to be two, viz., Cif-
pius and Oppius ; alfo Mons Efquilinus,.foftened from
Exquiiinus; and this again from Excubinus, the watch
or guard Romulus kept here, from a jealoufy he enter¬
tained of his colleauge Titus Tatius. On the eaft fide it
reached the city walls; on the fduth, theViaLavicana;
on the weft, the wide valley between mount Coelius and
the Palatine ; on the north, the Mons Viminalis ; on
the eaft fi le was the Porta Efquilina. This hill by
fome of the ancients was called Sulurranus, from the
27 1 ESS
ftreet Sulurra to the north of it: by the poets, Ejqut- Esquimaux
IiUU v<r .
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America inha- 'p' f
biting all that vaft trafl of land known by the name V
of Labrador, or New Britain.—They differ very con-
fiderably, both in afpecl and behaviour, from the other
American nations; agreeing in moll refpedls with the
inhabitants of Weft Greenland. See New Bui-tAiN,
and Greenland
ESQUIRE (from the French e/w, and the La¬
tin fcutum, in Greek vicuna, which fignifies an hide,
of which Ihields were anciently made, and after-
wards covered; for, in the time of the Anglo-
Saxons, the fhields had a covering of leather), was
originally he who, attending a knight in time of war,
did carry his Ihield; whence he was called efeuier
in French, and feutifer, or armiger, i. e. armour-
bearer, in Latin. Hotoman fays, that thofe whom the
French call efquires, were a military kind of vaffals,
having jus feuti, viz. liberty to bear a ftiield, and in
it the enfigns of their family, in token of their genti¬
lity or d gnity. But this addition hath not of long
time h .d any relation to the office or employment of
the perfon to whom it hath been attributed, as to car¬
rying of arms, See. but hath been merely a title of
dignity, and next in degree to a knight. For thofe
to whom this title is now due, fee the article Com¬
monalty. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the
king's houfehold, counfellors at law, juftices of the
peace, are only efquires in reputation ; and he who is
a juftice of peace has this title only during the time he
is in commiffion, and no longer, if he is not otherwife
qualified to bear it. A ftieriff of a county being a
fuperior officer, bears the title of efquire during his
life ; in refpedl of the great truft he has in the com¬
monwealth. The chief of fome ancient families are
efquires by prefeription ; and in late afts of parliament
for poll-money, many wealthy perfons commonly re¬
puted to be fuch, were ranked among the efquirts of
this kingdom.
There is a general opinion, that every gentleman of
landed property who has L.300 a-year, is an efquire ;
which is a vulgar error : for no money whatfoever, or
landed property, will give a man properly this title,
unlefs he comes within one of the above rules: and no
perfon can aferibe this title where it is not due, unlefs
he pleafes ; there being no difficulty in drawing the
line by the accounts given above and in the article
Commonalty ; but the meaner ranks of people, who
know no better, do often bafely proftitute this title ;
and,. to the great confufion of all rank and precedence,
every man who makes a decent appearance, far from
thinking himfelf any way ridiculed by finding the fu-
perfeription of his letters thus decorated, is fully gra¬
tified by fuch an addrefs.
Esquires of the King^zve. fuch as have that title by
creation, wherein there is fome formality ufed, as the
putting about their necks a collar of SS, and beftow-
ing on them a pair of filver fpurs, &c.
ESRAKITES. See Eschrakites,
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the qua¬
lity of any thing ; or an attempt to learn, whether or
not any invention will fucceed.
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of compofi--
tion, the character whereof is to be free, eafy, and na¬
tural \ :
ESS
[ 728 1
ESS
Effaylng. tural; not tied to ftridl order or method, nor worked
w—y—/ Up an(j lijj-g a formal fyftem.
ESSAYING, or Assaying, in chemiftry and me¬
tallurgy, fignifies the examination of a fmall quantity
of any ore or mineral by fire, in order to difcover its
contents. This is very necefiary for thofe who intend
to deal largely in metallurgic operations, in order to
avoid unneceflary expence, by becoming previoufly ac-
x quainted with the nature of the ore.
fMlory of The fifft attempts in this way were no doubt ex-
th:
tremely rude ; but fucceeding trials have advanced it
te the form of a fcience or art pra&ifed by numbers of
.people under the title of ejfay-mqjlers. No treatife was
publifhed on this fuhjeft till after the middle of the
16th century ; and the firft book we have upon it is
attributed to Lazarus Ereker, which appeared in
1574. Agricola, however, in his feventh book De re
Metallica, publifhed in 1576, defcribed both the inftru-
ments and procefi’es, illuftrating the whole with plates;
and there is inconteftable evidence that this treatife had
been prefented to the ele&or of Saxony in 1567, tho’
it did not appear to the world till after the publication
of Ercker’s book. Since that time, the art has been
greatly improved ; but the operations in the dry way
are not materially different from thofe defcribed under
The moift Metallurgy. The Blow pipe likewife affords an
way of ef- excellent method of examining fmall quantities of me-
•faying in- tal in the dry way ; but the greateft improvement hi-
YiKl“cedby therto made in it is that of effaying by the moift way
man S‘ introduced by Mr Bergman.
3 This celebrated chemift obferves, that in the Doa'-
Requifites mafia Sicca, or eflaying in the dry way, three things are
?for effaying reqU{flte . x Xhat the metal contained in the ore be
Way6 ^ re^uceci to a complete form ; for fuch part of it as
is deficient in that refpe£t cannot be united with the e-
•liquated metal. 2. That the whole be colledted into
one mafs ; for when it is difperfed in numerous fmall
grains, fome of them are very eafily fcattered, and di-
minifh the weight. 3. That the metallic form be pre-
ferved; for the extrafted regulus mull inevitably be
diminifhed more or lefs by calcination. All thefe re-
quifites are frequently cffefted conveniently enough in
a crucible by fufion with proper ftrata of charcoal,'
provided the ore is free from fulphur and other vola¬
tile mixtures, and is entirely without a matrice, or uni¬
ted to one that can be melted by a moderate degree
of heat; but if the matrice be refra&ory, notwithftand-
ing the moft fubtile pulverifation, it will cover many
of the metallic particles, and thus the redu&ion and
fufion will be in fome meafure prevented. When this
happens to be the cafe, we mufi: add fuch other fub-
ftances as not only promote fufion, but make the mat¬
ter flow fufficiently thin to allow the reguline par¬
ticles to fall to the bottom. Thefe fubftances, which
from the effeft they have on tire matter are called
fluxes, are of a faline nature, and muft therefore necef-
farily corrode the metals more or lefs; and hence the
fcoria, which are almofl always tinged, contain a quan¬
tity of calcined metal. But as long as we are defiitute
of a fure method of meafuring intenfe degrees of heat,
and as long as it is neceffary to perform the operation
N°kii9
in clofe vefiels to prevent the accefs of air, the force Effiyinj
and proper continuance of the fire will be uncertain (a). —
Now, by every excefsor defeft in this’point fome part
of the regulus is loft; fo that any judgment of the
goodnefs of the ore, formed from the weight of the re¬
gulus, muft be fallacious, or at leaft fomewhat inaccu¬
rate.
Hence we may underftand, that experiments upon Daficfenci
ores made in the dry way, ai'e liable to many faults and f. he dry
imperfedtions; to which we may add the following, viz. way of ef-
that a given quantity of ore fubjedted to trial almoft al- fa>ing*
ways exceeds in weight the regulus to be extradied from
it. Nowjfince it is impoffible to avoid a certain lofs both
during calcination and fufion, this lofs will be the more
remarkable, as the mafs to be weighed becomes ulti¬
mately lighter. The cafe is quite otherwife with ex¬
periments made in the moift way ; for here the weigh¬
ty fediment, from which the quantity of the contents
is judged, is never lefs, but often greater, than that ob¬
tained by fire. s
In the attempts made to efiay ores in the humid Muhod of §
way previous to thofe of Mr Bergman, both methods ci%in?
were ufed, the metallic part being extradled by a meii-^ m?evi
ftruum, and afterwards reduced by fire. Our author,TmtoBerg
however, has now drown a method of performing the o- man’s im-
peration without either calcination or fufion. “ It mufti rovemem
indeed be confefled (fays he), that experiments in the
humid way often require more care and pairts than the
other; but if accurate conelufions are thereby obtain¬
ed, we ought not to grudge the flownefs. Befides, in
many cafes this method is more expeditious than the
other; and indeed almoft always, if we content our-
felves with fuch difcoveries as can be made by the
common calcinations and fufions : nay, fometimes the
dry method is obvioufly infufficient, when the metallic
content is either very fmall or volatile ; but particular¬
ly if it be inflammable, as is the cafe with zinc.” g
In this method the ores to be examined fltould be re-DiredHom
duced to to a very fubtile powder by pulverization andf°r effa)irJ
calcination. In diflblving fuch ores as contain ful-inthe
phur, we ought to employ the vitriolic or marine acid;Way'
for the nitrous, by long continued heat, deftroys the
fulphur. Too great heat alfo diffipates fome of it in
vapours, or melts it into globules containing heteroge¬
neous matters ; therefore boiling ought to be avoided
where it can be done. All the precipitates muft be
carefully colle&ed, wafhed, and dried. Diftilled wa¬
ter ought conftantly to be ufed, and all the menftrua
carefully depurated. Vitriolic acid our author calls
diluted, when its fpecific gravity is below 1.3, the ni¬
trous when below 1.2, and the marine when below 1.1.
The precipitations Ihould be carefully made in glafs
veffcls; fo that nothing may remain either through
the deficiency of the precipitant, or be rediflblved
through its too great quantity. The clear liquor is to
be decanted from the precipitate, water poured on in its
place, the veffel Ihaken, and then fuffered to Hand; the
water again decanted off, and more poured on in its
Head, until it will no longer affeft certain precipitants
by which it muft be examined. The fediment is then
to be coUe&ed on a filter, the latter being previoufly
weighed,
(a) The newly-invented thermometer of Mr Wedgewood has furnilhed us with a method of meafuring in*-
rfcaffe degrees of heat; but we have not yet heard how far this has been found ufeful in practice.
ESS [ 729 ] ESS
teffaying. weighed, and made of paper not impregnated with In the following experiments an effay cwt. was al- Efraying*
alum. It is to be dried at firft with a gentle heat, but ways employed, unlefs w'here it is exprefsly mentioned v——^
afterwards expofed for five minutes to a heat of ioo°. otherwife : conclufions fufficiently accurate may in- 9
On cooling, it is to be weighed together with the fil- deed be obtained from 25 lb. nay fometimes from
ter; the known weight of which muft afterwards be fmaller quantities. In thefe cafes our author mentions Bergman’s
fubtracted. The fediment is beft waflied in a bottle ; the ufual quantity ; applying to them thofe formulae of experi-
calculation which are founded on the mutual proper- n1*11**-
tions of the proximate principles conftituting metallic
falts. By an eafy fubftitution, the fame formulae may
be ufed by thofe who employ ^ or ^ cwt. We now
come to deferibe the method of effaying the ores of the
for a filter when once impregnated with faline matter
cannot be freed from it again without great difficulty,
efpecially if an interval of fome hours intervenes.
The alkali made ufe of in Mr Bergman’s experi¬
ments, was that of foda faturated with aerial acid.
two ounces of Pruffian blue, carefully avoiding fuch
an eff?rvefcence as may throw any thing over, which
eafily happens if the quantity be too large. The pig¬
ment foon lofes its beautiful blue colour, growing not
red but black; which ffiows that a decompofition has
taken place. The Pruffian blue ufed in his experi¬
ments contained in 100 parts only 23 of the pigment
and 77 of the clay; fo that if wt employ the blue
made without any alum, 221 grains of it will faturate
the half ounce of alkaline fait more completely than
the two ounces of the kind already deferibed. But in
whatever manner the operation is performed, after the
addition of the laft quantity, the whole muft be ex¬
pofed to a ftronger digefting heat, and ftirred with a
wooden fpatula. If the liquor be too much diminiffi-
cd by evaporation, the defedf muft be fupplied by ad¬
ding more water. When the liquor becomes clear,
the refiduum muft be colle&ed upon filtering paper,
I .Ika ies
i jte and
d°uCedCb phlogifticated alkali is made by deflagrating equal particular metals.
[r Berg- ^weights of pure nitre and cream of tartar intimately 1. Ores of Gold. This metal occurs in the bowels
mixed together; the refiduum is the common white flux, of the earth native, pofieffing a complete metallic form, f^y tjie ole3
Half an ounce of this isdifiblved in half a quadrans of although in general the fmall particles of it are fo in-of gold,
diHilled water. To this he adds, in a digefting heat, terfperfed in various matrices, that they are entirely
invifiblei It is alfo found mineralized, or united
with fulphur by means of iron or fome other me¬
tal. Thefe two fpecies of ore we ffiall confider fe-
parately. Ir
Native gold is very feldom, if ever, free from hete- Native
rogeneous matters ; the moft ufual mixtures are cop- gold,
per, {liver, and fometimes iron. The firft of thefe
remains in the menftrurm, and may be feparately col-
lefted by diffolving the gold in aqua-regia, and preci¬
pitating it by martial vitriol: the fecond falls during
the folution, yielding a falited lilver; which, being
waftied and dried, fliows the weight of the filver con¬
tained ; and the iron may be difeovered by phlogifti¬
cated alkali. The precipitate occafioned by martial vi¬
triol is pure gold in its metallic ftate, but very fubtilely
divided, and therefore its weight requires no corredfion.
Hence it appears how fmall a portion of gold in¬
herent in the ores of other metals may be extradled ;
and gradually waftied with warm water until all the befides, a folution containing the moft minute par-
foluble part is extracted; when, if the operation has tide of gold inftantly produces the purple precipi-
been properly condudted, the filtered liquor amounts tate of Caffius, with a folution of tin properly pre-
to a whole quadrans, of a browniflt yellow colour, and pared. J2
fo well faturated with colouring matter, that it does As to the ore which contains gold adhering to and Ores of this
not change the colour of paper tinged with Brafil furrounded by ftony particles, r. We muft reduce a deter-metal pro-
wood. This lixivium, however, contains a fmall quan- mined weight to an impalpable powder by triture and P®rly f° c^'‘
tity of Pruffian blue, about 4 lb."to a cwt. of the al- elutriation. Then let the^powder, weighed a fecond time,le ’
kali. Thefe ffiould be previoufly feparated by an acid, be boiled in aqua regia, as long as any thing is taken
or, which is better, corrected by fubtrafting from the up by the menftruum ; after which, let the exhaufted
weight of the fedimentid eflay pounds for each qua- ore, well waftied, be collefted, exficcated to ignition,
drans of the lixivium. When we wifti to examine the and weighed. Let the clear folution (the colour of
colour of the precipitate exaftly, however, the lixivium which, in fome degree, affords a method of judging) be
we employ muft neceffarily be well depurated ; for by precipitated in the ufual way by martial vitriol; the
neglefting this precaution we may eafily peifuade our- precipitate well waftied, dried, and weighed, ftiows
felves that any metal precipitated by the lixivium has the gold, which, added to the weight of the exhaufted
a blue colour. When we only wifli to afeertain the ore, ought to be equal to the original weight, unlefs
weight, the lixivium, having the fmall proportion of fomewhat has been difperfed by the pulverifation, or
Pruffian blue intermixed, may be employed : but ftill unlefs fome of the matrice has entered the menftruum.
the proper correftion muft ultimately be made ufe of; The former of thefe is difeovered by comparing the
for the precipitating acid is wont to impair the quali- weights before and after pulverifation ; the latter by
. - ■ ’■ ’ . in -v— -1.— precipitants.
When grains of gold are mixed with loofe earthy
particles, they are fometimes eafily feparated by me¬
chanical application of water.
When the metal is mineralifed by fulphur, as in tlie Goldmine-
golden pyrites, let one or more effay cwts. reduced toraiizedby,
powder be gently boiled in the nitrous acid, or rather fulphur.
ties of the lixivium, and even to deftroy them altoge¬
ther, efpecially in a warm temperature. Calcareous
earth, whether in its mild or cauftic ftate, is alfo ca¬
pable of abftrafting a colomed fubftance from iron and
other metals.
In the precipitation of metals by metals, it is to be
obferved, that the acid of the folution ought to be
's by fomewhat predominant*; but any confiderable excefs digefted in a heat of 50°—So*, left the fulphur fliould
ictals. muft be correfted occafionally, either by alkali, water,
or fpirit of wine.
Vol.VI. Part II.
be deftroyed. It is even neceffary to employ a more
gentle heat for this purpofe, that the fulphureous par-
4 Z tides,
E S S [ 73° 1 ESS
EfTaying. tides, gradually feparating, may remain in-their natu-
'' f~~— ral ftate ; for if they melt, the heterogeneous partides,
which ought to have been removed, will be inclofed in
the melted mafs. The menftruum ought to be added
in feveral portions, about fix times the quantity of the
ore at each turn. The pyrites is a&ed upon by this
menftruum; an effervefcence enfues, which continues for
fome time; after whiclva frefh quantity of the acid is
to be added, until the fulphur is obtained pure and of
its proper colour. From 12 to 16 parts of the acid
are ufually required to one of the ore. The purity of
the fulphur is eafily afcertained by cauftic alkali.
The matrice, if infoluble in the menftruum, remains
at bottom, together with the gold ; which is diftin-
guifhed by its peculiar colour and fplendor, and may
be feparated from the matiice by careful elutriation.
The particles of gold affume the form of very fmall
grains, yet fuch as have angular points difcernible by a
good eye ; and their appearance gives fome reafon for
fippofing that they have rather been intimately mixed
with the pyrites than dilfolved in it. The clear folu-
tion, which is generally green, muft be evaporated,
made red hot, and then weighed. Any other metals
that happen to be prefent befides iron, may be ex-
trafted by fuitable menftrua ; as copper by the volatile
alkali, manganefe by dilute nitrous acid, with the ad¬
dition of a little fugar: zinc is fcarce ever met with in
gold pyrites; but if it fhould happen to exift, may be
extradled by any menftruum ; and filver by pure ni¬
trous acid. Calcareous earth, when it happens to
form the matrice, unites with nitrous acid, and clay
with that of vitriol. The fum of the weights of all
the ingredients ought to be equal to the original weight
of the ore ; and unlefs any lofs has been fuftained du¬
ring the operation, any deficiency may be attributed
to the confumption of the fulphur.
Of phit'n?.. 2- Orer of Platina. The only metal with which pla-
tina is known to be alloyed is iron. This may be
feparated in a great meafure by boiling the grains of
platina, reduced to as fine a powder as poflible, in ma¬
rine acid, by which the original weight of the grains
is generally reduced by about 0.05 of the whole. The
depurated platina, diftblved in aqua-regia, eafily dif-
covers itfelf by precipitation with martial vitriol, if
any gold be prefent: and, on the other hand, if pla¬
tina contains a fmall quantity of gold, the latter may
be difcovered by any neutral fait containing vegetable
or volatile alkali.
Of fiivsr, 3« Ores of Silver. This metal, when found in its
native ftate, is generally alloyed with gold or copper,
ot both. The filver and copper will be taken up by
nitrous acid, leaving the gold at bottom in the form
of a black powder, which may be made to aflume a
more metallic apppearance by folution in aqua-regia
and precipitation by martial vitriol. The copper re¬
maining in the folution may then becolle&ed by means
of iron or aerated alkali.
Mine ali- Silver united with fulphur alone (the glaify ore of
s-et by va- filler) is of a black colour. To difcover the contents
jiousfub- of this ore, let it be divided and powdered as much as
fiances. pofliMe, and then gently boiled for an hour in 25 cwt.
of diluted nitrous acid: then after decantingthe liquor,
the operation is to be repeated with an equal quantity
of the menftruum ; and even a third time, unlefs the
pure fulphur be now feparated* The laft particles of
the filver adhere obftinately to the fulpjiur. If any Effaying*
gold be prefent, it remains undiflolved at the bottom of ——y—<
the veflel. The decanted liquors being colledled, are
to be deprived of the filver by adding common fait;
then if we fuppofe the precipitate when colledled,
wafhed, and dried, to be —a, the filver required will
be i£—The weight of the fulphur added to the
I29
above ought to be 100 lb. if the operation has been
rightly performed, and no decompofition of the ful¬
phur taken place. The clear liquor, which paffes in
filtering the luna cornea, eafily difcovers any other
metal which may originally have been mixed with the
filver; after which, the earth may be precipitated by
means of a common fixed alkali.
It is difficult to feparate the remains of the matrice
from the fulphureous particles. To effect this, howi-
ever^letthe fum of the weights be firlt obferved; then
pour on cauftic lixivium, which will difiblve the ful¬
phur by a gentle digeftihg heat; the matrice then re¬
mains alone, and by its weight we can determine that
of the fulphur ; but we muft not continue the digeftion -
longer than is neceffary to diflblve the fulphur, left
fome of the filiceous earth fhould alfo be taken up, tho’
Mr Bergman thinks there is no great.reafon to appre¬
hend any inconvenience of this kind.
The red ore of filver may be examined by reducing Red fiivar j
it to a very fubtile powder, and boiling it twice gent-or<u
ly in diluted nitrous acid. A part of the menftruum
being decanted off, wadi the refiduum-well, then pre¬
cipitate the filver by means of fea-falt; boil the above-
mentioned white powder quickly in aqua-regia until
the arfenic be diffolved and the fulphur appear pure.
The yellow folution, cautioufly decanted, lets fall a
very white powder on the addition of a proper quanti¬
ty.; and the fmall quantity taken up by the water
may be obtained by evaporating to drynefs. The ful¬
phur feparated in this manner, though it feems pure,,
yet contains fome filver which the nitrous acid could,
not diflblve on account of the arfenic contained in the
ore ; but when this is,taken away by the aqua-regia,,
the remaining parts of the filver adhere to the marine
acid entangled among the fulphureous particles. This
luna cornea may be freed from the fulphur by cauftic.
volatile-alkali diluted with water, and kept in a well-
clofed veflel for fome days* A weight of alkaline li-'
quor equal to that of the fulphur is fufficient. By
weighing the fulphur both.before and after the opera¬
tion, we know the weight of it as well as the luna
cornea. Iron may be difcovered by means of the phlo-
gifticated alkali. jg
The white ore of filver, confifting of the metal united White ore>
with fulphur, arfenic, and copper, is eflayed in the.
following manner. Let 1 cwt. of the ore, redu¬
ced to powder, be gently boiled for an hour in a
little more than 12 times its weight of diluted nitrous
acid. The dry powder becomes black, foul, and fends
forth the fmell of hepar fulphuris. Part of it is diflbl-
ved, and a white refiduum remains at length at the
bottom. The liquor cleared by fubfiding or filtration,-
contains the filver and copper ; the former cannot be
precipitated alone by fea-falt, becaufe the marine acid,
attrails the copper more ftrongly. A white pre¬
cipitate indeed, confifting of fmall needle-like cry
Hals, is thrown down; but it is found on examination
to
ESS [ 73 t 1 ESS
fiSaytng. to confift of a peculiar combination of marine acid,
fdver, and copper. The filver therefore muft be pre¬
cipitated by a determined weight of copper, and the
latter may be afterwards feparated by iron or mild
fixed alkali; but from the ultimate weight we muft
fubtradt that of fuch part of the precipitant as has en¬
tered the menftruum. The white menftruum muft next
be boiled in marine acid, and precipitated by water; by
which means we obtain the arfenic, along with a fmall
quantity of marine acid which it retains obftinately.
After the reparation of the arfenic, it remains only to
prove the purity of the fulphur by volatile alkali, in or¬
der to determine whether it ftill contains any' luna cor¬
nea, or copper.
vlinerali Silver mineralized by fulphur fometimes contains
:ed by ful- antimony alfo ; and this ore often appears in the
hur. form of capillary threads of an hoary brown colour.
To analife this, let it be gently boiled, or rather di-
gefted, for an hour, in fix times its weight of diluted
nitrous acid, until the filver is thoroughly diffolved,
and all the antimony reduced to a white calx ; which,
after decanting the liquor, may be feparated from the
fulphur by marine acid, and precipitated by water.
The folution of filver may be precipitated by fea-falt,
and i cwt. feldom contains more than four ounces.
Sometimes there is prefent in this kind of ore a little
copper and iron bdides the fulphur and antimony ; in
which cafe we may conduct the experiment in the fame
manner, only with the addition of a double portion of
acid. All the metals are eafily obtained by precipita¬
ting the filver by copper, and the iron by zinc or an
2o alkaline fait.
Uoineous The corneous filver ore, in which the metal is mine-
ilver ore. ralized by the marine and vitriolic acids, has two re¬
markable varieties; one of which may be cut, and is
fomewhat malleable; the other brittle, and containing
fome fulphur befides the acid. An hundred parts of
the former, reduced to a fine powder, is to be digefted
for one day in marine acid, fhaking the mixture from
time to time. The liquor is then to be decanted clear,
and the refiduum, previoufly well wafhed in water, add¬
ed to the liquor. A folution of terra ponderofa is to
be gradually dropped into the liquor, until it ceafes to
occalion any precipitation. Suppofe the weight of the
precipitate, waihed and dried, =za: now vitriolated ter¬
ra ponderofa, whofe weight is a, contains of acid O. ija,
which correfponds with vitriolated filver 0.48 a ; for
from 100 lb. of vitriol of filver, 68.75 of metal is ob¬
tained by reduftion. But as all the filver is not precipita¬
ted from nitrous acid by mineral alkali combined with vi¬
triolic acid, the luna cornea will therefore be too—0.4 8a.
In the former fait, the iilver contained is expreffed by
0.33 a; in the latter, by 75.19—0.36 a; and therefore
the fum required for the 100 will be 75.19—0.03 a.
The brittle corneous ore likewife contains fulphur; but
the faline part may be extracted by volatile alkali, and
the quantity of metal afterwards afcertained by the me¬
thod already defcribed. Or this compound may be
reduced in the following manner: Let the mafs be
mixed with an equal bulk of alkaline fait in a glafs
mortar, and be formed into a globule by means of a
few drops of water : let this globule be put into a cru¬
cible, the bottom of which has been previoufly ftrewed
with fal fodte, cornpreffed, and covered with the fame
alkali. On applying a melting heat, the whole of the Eflaying.
metal will then be reduced if the luna cornea has been ' v—-J
properly collefted.
4. Gres of Mercury. Native quickfilver is feldom
mixed with any other metals than gold, filver, and bif- mercury,
muth. The firft remains at the bottom on difiblving
the fluid mafs in nitrous acid ; the fecond is difeovered
by fea-falt, which at the fame time precipitates the mer¬
cury combined with fea-falt; and the third, though it
is taken up by the fpirit of nitre, is yet precipitated by
the mere affufion of water.
The combination of quickfilver with fulphur (native cinnabar,
cinnabar) cannot be decompofed either by vitriolic,
nitrous, or marine acid. Our author has even attempt¬
ed in vain to difunite them by boiling for many hours
in a folution of cauftic fixed alkali in water. There
are, however, he tells us, two ways of effedting a per¬
fect decompofition ; one by gently boiling for an hour
.the cinnabar with eight times its weight of an aqua re¬
gia, one fourth of which is marine acid ; the other by
boiling it in marine acid, with the addition of one
tenth of the weight of the cinnabar of the black calx
of manganefe; but the former method is preferable,
as no heterogeneous matter is thus added to the mer¬
cury. The menftruum is the fame in both, viz. the
dephlogifticated marine acid; the only difference is.,
that in the former method it is dephlogifticated by the
nitrous acid, and in the latter by the manganefe. In
whatever manner, however, the fulphur be feparated,
it may be collefted by a filter, and the mercury pre¬
cipitated by zinc: copper precipitates mercury from
the marine acid in a more imperfeft manner. — If the
ore under examination be very much entangled in the
matrice, it muft be mechanically freed from it by lotioru;
after which the foluble parts of the matrice being taken
up by the nitrous, marine, or vitriolic acid, the metal
itfelf is feparated by aqua-regia. 23
When mercury is mineralized by the vitriolic aoid, Mercury
it may be feparated by the help of the marine acid by zeii by vi-
trituration or digeftion, and the metal precipitated by triolic acid,
terra ponderofa diffolved in nitrous acid ; after which
the weight of the new earthy fait a being given, we
can eafily learn the quantity of metal contained ; yet,
as folution of mercury in nitrous acid is not totally
precipitated by Glauber’s fait, we muft not here de¬
pend on the weight of the precipitate. By another
procefs, therefore, our author obtained from 100 lb. of
vitriol of mercury 33.899 of pure metal, and from an
equal weight of corrofive fublimate 75.5 ; from whence
a calculation is eafily deduced in the following man¬
ner. Let the quantity of vitriolic acid be =r 0.15 the
vitriol of mercury containingthis, = 0.44a; and thecom-
bination of mercury with marine acid, = 100—0.44 a.
In the former-falt the mercury conftitutes 0.29 a, and
in the latter 72.5 = 32 a; fo that the whole metallic
content in 100 lb. is 72.5—.03 a. The fcarcity of this
ore, however, renders it ftill uncertain whether this
combination of mercury with marine acid approaches
to the nature of corrofive fublimate or mercurius dul-
cis. In the latter cafe the calculation comes out diffe¬
rent; for mercurius dulcis contains above 0.91 of me¬
tal, and the whole content is expreffed by pi.iSa-f-
0.29a—o.4oa=9i.18—0.1 ta.
iV. i?. The weights on which all thefe calculations
4 Z 2 are
ESS [ 732 1
Eflaying, are Founded, may be found in Bergman’s table of pre- fuppofe to weigh a
(.ipitates under the article Chemistry. ^ ^
ESS
a which cafe the correfponding Eflaying.j
Minerali¬
zed by ful-
fhur;
5. Ores of Lead. This metal, if ever found native,
may be eafily examined as to its purity by means of ni¬
trous acid, which difcovers copper both by its blue
colour and precipitation by iron; and filver is difcover-
ed by the addition of copper.
When lead is mixed with fulphur, and freed from
any matrice, it is to be reduced to a fine powder, and
then boiled in nitrous or marine acid until the fulphur
is obtained pure, which may be afcertained by the cau-
ftic fixed alkali. The folution is then to be precipita¬
ted by mild mineral alkali, when the lead is either a-
lone or mixed with filver. In the former cafe, if a
be the weight of the precipitate, that of the lead will
be In the latter, the filver is to be extracted
The liquor remaining after precipita-
by volatile alkali, and the refiduum multiplied by -
32.
tion yields, on being evaporated, a phofphoric acid.
6. Ores of Copper. This metal, when native, readily Copper,
difiblves in nitrous acid. Gold, when mixed with it,
falls untouched to the botto m in form of a black pow¬
der. Silver is foon precipitated by copper ; and iron,
by boiling the folution for fome time, and infpiffating to
dryncfs, is gradually calcined and falls to the bottom. j
Copper mineralized by fulphur is to be powdered, Minerali-I
and gently boiled to drynefs in five times its weight zed by ful<
of concentrated vitriolic acid. The refiduum mull then Phur- !
be well waihed with water, until all the metallic part
has entered the mentlruum. The quantity of water
ufed for the folution ought to be in fome degree
proportioned to the goodnefs of the ore; that which
contains 0.05 of copper requires about 0.08 of wa-
and fo on. A polifhed plate of iron, about
will give the weight of the lead.. The aerated filver twice the weight of the copper, is then to be immerfed
is known by the diminution of weight; and if this be
100b
called l. then the filver in a metallic Hate will be 
.129*
During this operation the folution in marine acid de-
pofits a large quantity of plumbum corneum, which is
in the folution properly diluted, and the boiling c
tinued until all precipitation ceafes. If the quantity
of water be too fmall, the precipitated metal adheres
very obftinately to the furface of the iron plate; which,
however, may always be freed by making ufe of a pro¬
to be diffolved in water before the precipitation. If per quantity of liquid. The precipitated copper, after
antimony happens to be prefent, it is fo much dephlo- being well waihed, is to be fpeedily dried ; “ but yet
gifticated by the concentrated nitrous acid, that it is
calcined and falls to the bottom : the given
this multiplied by—-g- Ihows the quantity of regulus
diffolved in marine acid, which fails fpontaneoufly up¬
on being dropped into water, and the plumbum cor¬
neum is taken up in its place.
Iron is feldom found in galena; however, in cafe it
fhould happen to exift, its prefence may be difcovered
in the following manner. Let the folution in marine
acid be firft fo far faturated with fixed alkali, that the
acid may predominate only a little, and yet all preci¬
pitation be carefully avoided. The lead will then be
(fays our author) with fuch a degree of heat as to
ight of make the furface of the metal of different colours, which
inftantly and fenfibly increafes the weight.”
Sometimes the precipitated copper is found mixed po
with iron, efpecially in a poor ore ; in which cafe theiron from^
precipitate muff be rediffolved in order to obtain a rich-PreciP;ta*
er folution ; and this depofits pure copper, if the ope-ted C0PPf‘”
ration has been properly conduced. A fimilar cir-
cumftance alfo takes place in the precipitation of filver
by copper; a rich folution yielding the metal pure,
but a poor one affording it mixed with copper. When
the precipitated copper is alloyed with other metals,
they may eaiily be Separated by folution in the nitrous
precipitated by a polilhed plate of iron added during acid. Gold, as has already been obferved, remains at
boiling; as will alfo the filver, which almoft always
exifts in lead. The iron is then to be precipitated by
aerated or phlogifticated alkali, and its weight corredt-
ed by the part of the metallic plate which is diffolved
during precipitation—When the ore contains any ma¬
trice, this is either foluble, and may at firft be fepara-
ted by vinegar; or elfe is infoluble in common acids,
and js found collefted at the bottom.
When this metal is mineralized by fixed air, and
deprived of all heterogeneous foluble mixtures, it may
be diffolved in nitrous acid, and precipitated by aera^
the bottom in form of a black powder, and filver is
precipitated on a copper plate.
During this procefs almoft ,all the fulphur is diflipa-
ted by the intenfe heat neceffary for evaporating the
vitriolic acid to drynefs : however, we may judge of its
quantity from the fum of the weights of the other in¬
gredients, compared with that of the whole ; or a fo-
lution in aqua-regia may be made on purpofe for col-
le&ing the fulphur.
The beautiful green ores of copper called malachites, MalachiU
in which the metal is mineralized by fixed air, are to¬
ted mineral alkali; which being done, the quantity of tally foluble in acids, and may be prec'pated by iron
had is known by the weight of the precipitate as'be- or aerated fixed alkali. In the latter cafe, fuppoiing
fore. But if the matrice be foluble, we muft employ the weight of the precipitate to be a, that of the cop-
the marine acid, and precipitate the metal by iron,
already directed.
per will be-j . Calcareous earth, when any happens
Lead has lately been found mineralized by acid of to be prefent, may be thrown down by aerated alkali.
By acid of
phofpor^s.
phofphorus. An hundred pounds of this in powder is
diffolved in nitrous acid by means of heat, excepting
and the metal precipitated by phlogifticated alkali.—
Blue calciform copper, in which the metal is alfo n
few martial particles which commonly remain at the neralized by aerial acid, is to be analyfed in the fame
bottom. On adding the vitriolic acid, the diffolved
Lad falls in the form of a fnow-white precipitate;
which, when, waihed, collefited, and dried, we may-
way. Calciform red copper is alfo totally or in great
part diffolved with eftervefcence, though fome what
weaker than the other.
3 Mr
ESS [ 733 1
Effaying. Mr Bergman has examined by many different ways by the Germans.
v the red quartz of Mr Cronftedt, fuppofed to contain
_ 3* ' ' '  
Red quartz
experi-
a red calx of copper. None of this metal, however,
affords no was extracted either by volatile alkali, or boiling the
copper by vitriolic acid to drynefs upon it. As the fxliceous
Bergman’s matrices, however, cannot eafily be diffolved by the
common menftrua, a quantity of mineral fluor was
added to the vitriolic acid. The fluor acid has the
property of diffolving the particles of quartz, and fet-
ting at liberty thofe of copper which might be en¬
tangled among them : but though this experiment al¬
ways fucceeds when copper is prefent, yet in this fub-
ftance not the fmalleft fign of metal could be difco-
vered, and therefore it is probable that Mr Cronftedt
was miftaken.
7. Ores of Iron. Though fome traces of this metal
are found almoft every where in the mineral kingdom;
yet the ores which contain it in confiderable quantity,
have it either mineralized by fulphur or more or lefs
calcined. Ores of iron are frequently found in Swe¬
den fo perfeft that they obey the magnet, or are
themfelves magnetic. Thefe attractive and magnetic
ores, though they do not contain much fulphur, are
yet feldom entirely without it, though more can be ex¬
tracted by menftrua. Thofe faturated with fulphur
are called fulphureous pyrites, nothing but fulphur being
extracted from them ; for though they fometimes con¬
tain the metal in fufficient quantity to pay the ex¬
pence of fmelting, it is always brittle and untraCtable
in the fire, and is eafily corroded by ruft on expofure
to the open air.
All the ores of iron, when reduced to a very fubtile
powder, and repeatedly boiled in marine acid, part
with their metal; the folution of the pyrites is acce¬
lerated by the addition of a fmall quantity of nitrous
acid. In order to obtain the metal by itfelf, we muft
precipitate it by phlogifticated alkali; when, if we
fuppofe the weight of the precipitate to be a, the cor-
ESS
Thefe forms cannot be examined Effaying.
the moift way without great difficulty, as they are ^ ' *
not aCted upon effectually either by vitriolic, nitrous, chryftal-
or marine acid, or even by aqua-regia. The reafon of line ores o£
this infolubility is, that the calx, being well dephlogifti- tin.
cated, is either not taken up at all, or in very fmall
quantity ; and befides, being involved in ftrong par¬
ticles, the menftrua can fcarce have accefs to it. The
following method is recommended by our author as
one by which this procefs may be nearly effected.
“ To a very fubtile powder of the cryftalline tin ore-
obtained not only by levigation but elutriation, let there
be added a quantity of concentrated vitriolic acid, and
let this be expofed to a ftrong digefting heat for feveral
hours: then pour on a fmall portion of concentrated ma-
rineacid; and upon agitating it, a vehement effervefcence
immediately begins, with a confiderable heat ariiing
from the marine acid, which is partly deprived of its
water by the vitriolic, and generates a marine acid
air. By this method the forces of the two are conjoin¬
ed : water is to be added in about an hour after, and
the clear liquor decanted after the fediment has fallen.
This operation is to be repeated with the reiiduum
until the acids can diffolve no more. What remains
finally undiffolved is nothing more than the ftony
matrice. Let the folution precipitated by means of
aerated alkalirea, and the quantity of regulus will be
~Y~m r^ie fubtile atoms of the cryftalline ore, inti¬
mately mixed with any matrice, may, after due pulve-
rifation, be feparated by vvalhing from a given portion*
as the cryftals are nearly of fix times the fpecific gra¬
vity, of water; fo that they not only exceed the gra¬
vity of the earthy particles, but that of the ores off
other metals, and approach even to the lighter metals
themfdves. The cryftalline particles, after being fe¬
parated, are expofed to the trial above defcribedi
The larger diftinft cryftals can fcldom be employed.;
refponding quantity of metal will be § but this muft the f^ommon ore contains particles of them very
6; much difoerfed.”
be correfted according to the quantity of the preci¬
pitant. That ore which is naturally foluble by vitriolic
acid requires nothing but water to precipitate by
means of phlogifticated alkali.
Manganefe* Manganefe, which is frequently mixed with iron,
may eafily be difcovered by immerfing the blue fedi-
much difperfed.”
The adventitious metals ufually found in tin are cop¬
per and iron.
9. Ores of Bifmuth. This femimetal, when native, Bifmuth,.
is eafily taken up by nitrous acid, and may then be
precipitated by water ; after which any other metals
that happen to be mixed with the bifmuth remain ii
ment (carefully weighed) in water lharpened' by ni- the liquor, and may be feparated by the methods al-
trous acid ; by which means the part arifing from the ready frequently defcribed. When mineralized by
 iganefe is diffolved. Other metals fometimes enter fulphur, the ore is decompofed by flight boiling in the
the ore of iron in larger quantities; which for the moft
part render the former ufelefs* by imparting bad qua-
35 lities to the fmelted iron.
Of native 8. Ores of Tin. The examination, of native tin by the
tU1, humid method is attended with no difficulty: for the ad-
dition'of nitrous acid quickly deprives it fo farof itsphlo-
gifton, that it is reduced to the form of a white calx ;
the iron and copper, if any be prefent, remaining in
the liquor. An hundred parts of tin corroded by ni¬
trous acid, w’aflied and dried, yielded 140 of calx. Ar-
fenic may be feparated by waihing with large quanti¬
ties of warm water; for little enters the acid men-
ftruum. The other metals are but rarely united with
native tin.
Kspiuecre. The pure ore, is commonly called, according to
the magnitude of its cryftals, zinngraujjer. or ziuitier,
fame menftrum; fo that the fulphur may be at laft ob¬
tained ; which when waftied and collected is to be ex¬
amined as to its purity and quantity.. The folution
of the metallic part precipitated by water leaves a white
calx ; and fuppofing its weight = a, that of the cor-
refpondlng metal will be
113
Iron is fometimes met with in thefe ores, which
may eafily be difcovered after the feparation of the
bifmuth.
Bifmuth in form of a calx, whether alone or mi- 39
neralized by aerial acid, is alfo foluble in nitrous acid, Minerall*
and may be precipitated by water, upon which tlie ze<1'l
heterogeneous matters remain in the liquor. The
prefence of cobalt is difcoverable by its communi¬
cating a red colour.
10.. Qm
TVTinerali-
Red by ful-
phur..
*Too much
■nitre muft
«ot be ufed
E S S [ 73+ ] E S S
10. Gres cf Nickel. This fub'ftance, when found native, almoit always coiitains iron, arfenic, aild frequently F-fTaying.
may be diffolved by the nitrous acid $ and when precipi- nickel ; whence no doubt it is, that iome authors have  v—
tated by aerated alkali, yields a calx which almoft always faid tlrat vitriolated cobalt is of a green colour, as well 45
contains iron, arfenic, and cobalt, in the fame proporr asthe other faltscontainingthis femimetal; but the truth Co^alt'
tions in which they ufually accompany the regulus ob- is, that they are of an obfeure red, unlefs the nickel be
tained in the common way. If lilver and bifjnuth hap- in large quantity. To feparate thefe metals from
pen to be prefent, which, however, is very feldom the one another, diffolve tire compound mafs in water, eva-
cafe, the former i&be precipitated by common fait be- porate to drynefs, and extratd the cobalt with vine-
fore the latter is employed. Sulphur may be feparated gar. Let the weight of the precipitate be a, and that
and colle&ed during folution. r . r .. , ... , xooa ,
Nickel, mineralized by vitriolic acid, is fekveely of the correfpond.ng regulus wiU be—. If the ar-
ever without iron. A great part of the latter,, how- fenic be abundant in the evaporated folution, it may
ever, is feparated by long and violent boiling in wa- perhaps be precipitated by the effufion of water. Co-
ter. Aerated alkali throws down a greenilh. white united with fulphur may be treated in the fame
precipitate; and if we fuppofe the weight of this = a, way, as it differs from the native cobalt only in contain-
that of the reguline nickel is = —. The fame metal inS a “ of fulphur, which is to be feparated
a 135 and colleaed. 45
mineralized by aerial acid is diffolved by fpirit of nitre, Cobalt has been difeovered by Mr Brandt in a ftate Minerali-
and may be precipitated by means of mild alkali. of union with vitriolic acid, along with a large quantity
w. Ores of Arfenic. The purity of native arfenic of iron, and without any arfeuic. This may be exami-
may be examined by diffolving it in four times its ned by folution in aqua regia. The folution is yellow,
weight of aqua-regia, and the folution flowly evapo- with icarce any rednefs, on account of the great quan-
rated without any feparation of the metal. The ar- tity of iron. By boiling it affumes an obfeure green,
fenic is then to be precipitated by water, and colle6t- and refumes its former colour; a property by which
ed upon a filter ; the heterogeneous metals will be the exiftence of cobalt is always known. 'L’he ore does
contained in the clear liquor which paffes through the not appear to contain any fulphur ; but a few drops of
filter. If any filver be prefent, it falls to the bottom folution of terra ponderofa diffolved in marine acid im-
in conjundfion with the marine acid. Iron is hardly mediately difeovered the vitriolic acid. Scarce any
ever abfent altogether, and is frequently in fuch quan- veftige of arfenic was to be met with. The vitriolic
tity, that the mafs has a poliihed appearance, mod com- acid, however, though prefent in fuch abundance, was
monly cryftalhne, and is commoly known by the name yet fo far depblogifticated, that it could not unite with
of mfpickel. the femimetal into a vitriolated cobalt, and therefore
Arfenic mineralized by fulphur is to be diffolved in muft be coniidered only as an impurity,
marine acid, with the addition of the nitrous occafion- The trichetes of the Greeks, which is found in the Tnchitea
ally, in greater or leffer quantities, fo that the fulphur mines of Herngrund and Idua, adhering to an argilla- an ore of
may be feparated free from all metallic matter. The ceous done, is found to contain a real cobalt, belides cobalt,
fulphur colle&ed, wafhed, and weighed, indicates the the clay and vitriolic acid. It can only be precipitated
quantity of the arfenical part. This, however, ought -by the phlogifticated alkali. 4g
to be precipitated feparately by water, and weighed; a Cobalt frequently exhibits beautiful red efflorefeen-A fenicated
ftep which is always neceffary where great accuracy is ces, fometimes more dilute, and fometimes of a deeper cobalt,
required. Arfenic diffolved by marine acid may alfo colour. Sometimes it appears like a loofe powder,
be precipitated in its metallic form by zinc ; the folu- fometimes concrete, and at times forming mod beauti-
tion being previoufly weakened by fpirit of wine, ful cryftals radiating from a centre like a dar. Thefe
When fulphur alone is' united to the arfenic by its dif- fubftances always fhow fome veftiges of arfenic; but as
ferent proportions, it produces different colours, from this fubftance is incapable, either in its regulitie or cal-
a dilute yellow to an intenfe red. But if a cond- cined ftate, of imparting a red colour to arfenic, it is
derable portion of iron alfo eutefs the compofition, a reatonable to fuppofe that it is done by the arfenical
white colour is generated, and a very different fpecies acid itfelf, as all acids have the property of communi-
of pyrites formed, which is called the arfenical pyrites, eating a red colour to cobalt. To determine this
This may be analyzed by folution in marine acid in point, Mr Bergman made the following experiments,
the manner already deferibed. 1. Having artiticially combined the acid of arfenic
In analyzing arfenical ores in general, we muft with cobalt, he found an exaft refemblance betwixt this
take care not to add too much nitrous acid, as we compound and the natural cryftais above mentioned,
would thus take away the whole of the phlogifton, and 2. On account of the fcarcity of the latter fubftance,
difengage the arfenical acid. The fmalleft quantity fuf- he extracted the pure acid of arfenic, firft feparating it
ficient for folution ought therefore to be employed; by vitriolic acid, and then abforbing the latter by high-
otherwife wrater will occafion no precipitation: and even ry reftified fpirit of wine, which takes up only the fu*
with all our caution, it is fcarce poflible to pi'event a perfluous acid, leaving the vitriolated cobalt untouch-
finall portion of the arfenical acid from being difen- ed. Natural arfenicated cobalt is fcarcely foluble in
gaged, efpecially if the boiling be long continued, water, unlefs the latter be iharpened by an acid ; and
This may be recovered by evaporating to drynefs, when thus diffolved it ftrould be precipitated by mild
though rarely alone, but united either with the alka- alkali, to difeover the quantity of femimetal. Cobalt
line earths or the metals which are prefent. Some of artificially combined with arfenical acid, and dried,
the arfenic eafily flies off. {hows the fame properties with the natural.
12. Ores of Cobalt. This femimetal, when native, The black calx of cobalt is generally found concre-
2 ted
ESS [7
Effaying. ted into" an hard mafs, known by the name of the glaJTj'
"v~~' ore of cobalt. This, when pulverifed, may be difiblved
rforc in the marine acid or aqua-regia, and examined like
ibalt. the former.
5° 13. Ores of Zinc. If ever this femimetal occurs in a
native Hate, its purity.may be eafily determined, as it
is readily foluble in all the acids-; and whatever hetero-
- geneous metal is prefent may be precipitated by zinc,
x .erali- ^'^e pfcuio-galena which contains zinc mineralized
ed by ful- by fulphur, together with iron, mutt be carefully treat¬
ed with nitrous acid, in order to extraid the metallic
part without decompofing the fulphur. If" no other
metal than iron be prelent, it may be precipitated by
zinc ; but if others alfo are combined with it, the iron
muft be calcined, by repeatedly abftrafting nitrous acid
to drynefs, and a new folution, made by vinegar or
any other acid, examined.
To analyfe the combination of vitriolic acid and
zinc, diffolve the fait in water, and precipitate thefolu-
tion with mild fixed alkali; when, if the weight of the
When
precipitate be a, that of the regulus will be-
9.3
h
iron is prefent, as is ufually the cafe, it ought to be
precipitated by a known weight of zinc,
inc mine- This femimetal, mineralized by aerial acid, ought to
Jized by be diffolved in fome of the mineral acids, and then pre¬
ted air. cipitated by phlogifticated alkali or mild fixed alkali.
When the former is employed, the weight-of the fedi-
ment muft be divided by 5, in order to afcertain that
of the metallic part.
mtimony '4' 0res °f Ant'm™y- The purity of this femime-
tal, when found native, may be examined by reducing
it to a calx with ftrong nitrous acid : in which cafe, if
it has been entirely pure, there will remain only a fmall
part diffolved in the water, and which will feparate on
the addition of water. When mineralized by fulphur,.
the metallic part is taken up by aqua-regia, and the
fulphur remains pure. The folution, by boiling with
ftrong nitrous acid, lets fall a calcined antimony; which
being feparated, the remaining liquor may be examined
5- by phlogifticated alkali or otherwife at pleafure.
mbfned ^7 addition of a certain quantity of arfenic,
ih arfc- crude antimony grows red, frequently exhibiting beau¬
tiful fafciculi of filaments radiatingTrom a centre. The
prefence of arfenic may be difcovered by gently boiling
the powder in aqua^regia, until the fulphur be obtained
pure. The arfenic and antimony are contained in the
clear folution, and may be feparated in the following
manner. Let coftcentrated nitrous acid be poured on,
and the antimony reduced to a white calx by boiling.
Let this be collected on a filter; and the liquor that
paffes through affords arfenic by evaporation, but ge¬
nerally deprived of phlogifton, or reduced to the ftate
of arfenical acid. As the cauftic alkali alfo takes up
both fulphur and antimony, it may be advantageoufty
employed, efpecialiy for the feparation of filver, or
other metals which do not yield to this menftruum. A
hepar fulphuris is indeed produced ; but in this cafe it
diffolves little or nothing.
15- Mc.nganefe., This femimetal accompanies
angane e mQ{^ 0f the ores of iron, though it has likewife ores
of its own in which it predominates, but feldom to be
met with. It has never been found native or minera¬
lized by fulphur, but commonly occurs in the form of
a calx, generally alone and black, though fometimes
K 1 ESS
mineralized by the aerial acid. Thefe ores, after be- Maying,
ing reduced to a fubtile powder, mult be immerfed in v J
any acid, particulaily one of the mineral kind, toge¬
ther with a fmall piece of fugar, in order to fupply the
phlogifton neceffary for diffolving the manganefe.
Frefti acid is to be poured repeatedly on the calx with
fugar, until no more can be extracted by a digefting
heat; after which the folution is to be precipitated by
mild alkali: and if we fupj&fe the weight of the fcdi-
ment —a, that of the correfponding regulus will
be . The infoluble refiduum at bottom either
1 oo
contains heterogeneous mixtures or belongs to the ma-
tnCe* . 57
To feparate the iron from calx of manganefe com-Combined.1
bined with aerial acid, nitrous acid is to be repeatedly with aerial
abftracled from the ore, and the heat, after each addi-aci4,
tion, increafed to ignition ; after which the manganefe
will be obtained pure, or at leaft contaminated with
iron in a much fmaller degree than before. It may
then be feparated by ftrong concentrated vinegar or
diluted nitrous acid. Manganefe, when precipitated
from fuperabundant nitrous acid by phlogifticated al¬
kali, totally diffolves in diftilled water ; which proper¬
ty affords likewife a method of feparating it perfectly,
from iron.
$8
Eefides the foregoing kind of operations which re- Method ojv
late only to the ores of metals, ejfaying is ufed in metal- effaying id-
lurgic operations to fignify the method of determining ^eLatui
how much gold or filver is contained in any mafs of me- S°
tal already fmelted from its ore.
1. EJjay of the Value of Silvery to examine its purity,
or the quantity of alloy mixed with it. The common
method of examining the purity of filver, is by mixing
it with a quantity of lead proportionable to the quan¬
tity of imperfedt metals with which it is fuppafed to
be alloyed; by telling this mixture; and afterwards
by weighing the remaining button of filver. The lofs
of weight which the filver fuffers by cupellation Ihows
the quantity of imperfed metals which it contained.
We may hence perceive, that the effay of filver is
nothing elfe than the refining of it by cup'ellation. The
only difference between thefe two operations is, That
when filver is tefted merely for the purpofe of refining
it, its value is generally known ; and it is therefore:
mixed with the due. proportion of lead, and tefted,
without any necelfity of attending to the lofs of weight
it fuftains during the operation : whereas, in the effay,
ail pofiible methods ought to be employed to afeertain
precifely this lofs of weight. The firil of thefe ope¬
rations, or the mere refining of filver, is made in the
great, in the fmelting of filver ores, and in mints for»s
making money *. The fecond operation-, is never^
made but in fmal]; becaufe the expences of fmall ope¬
rations are lefs than of great, and in the requifite ac¬
curacy is more eafily attended to. The laft operation
is our prefent objedt, and is to be performed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
We fuppofe, firft, that the mafs or ingot of filver
of which an effay is to be made,. confitts of 12 parts
perfedtly equal; and thefe 12 parts are called penny- chm D-a,
■weights. Thus, if the ingot of filver be an ounce
weight, each of thefe 12 parts will be XV of an ounce ;
or if it be a mark, each of thefe will be TV of a
marie.
ESS
[ 736 1
ESS
ought to be ufed than is abfolutely neceffary, becaufe
it carries off with it always fome portion of lilver.
Effaying. mark, &c. Hence, if the mafs of filver he free from
**—> ■ ■ aji ajioy-j ft Js called fdver of 12 penny-weights ; if it
contains -rr of its weight of alloy, it is called fiver of Every effayer ufes his own particular method of pro-
n penny - weights ; if of its weight be alloy, it is ceeding, to which he is attached,
colled fiver of \o penny-weighu
' and thefe 10 penny¬
weights or parts of pure filver are called fne penny¬
weights.
We ought to obferve here concerning thefe penny-
weights, that effayersgive atfothe name penny - weight to
a weight equal to 24 real grains: which latter real
penny-weight mull not be confounded with the former,
which is only ideal and proportional; and fuch a con-
fufion is the more likely to take place, as this ideal
penny-weight is alfo, like the former, divided into 24
ideal grains, which are called fine grains.
An ingot of fine filver, or filver of 12 penny-weights,
contains then 288 fine grains; if this ingot contains
■sw Part °f ahoy, it is faid to be fiver of 11 penny¬
weight and 23 grains ; if it contains of alloy, it is
called fiver of 1 \ penny-weight and 22 grains; if it con¬
tains ffig, it is called fiver of 11 penny-weight and 10
grains ; and fo on. Lallly, the fine grain has alfo its
fra&ions, as £ of a grain, &c.
As effays to difcover the value of filver are always
made in fmall, effayers only take a fmall portion of an
ingot for the trial; and the cuftom in France is to take
3 6 real grains for this purpofe, which is confequently
the largdt weight they employ, and reprefents 12 fine
penny-weights. This weight is fubdivided into a fuf-
ficient number of other fmaller weights, which alfo
reprefent fractions of fine penny-weights and grains.
Thus x 8 real grains, which is half of the .quantity em¬
ployed, reprefent fix fine penny-weights; three real
grains reprefent one fine penny-weight, or 24 fine
grains; a real grain and a half reprefent 12 fine grains;
and TV part of a real grain reprefents ^ part of a fine
grain, which is only Tj-j- part of a mafs of 12 penny¬
weights.
We may eafily perceive, that weights fo fmall, and
elfay-balances, ought to be exceedingly accurate. Thefe
balances are very fmall, fufpended and inclofed in a
box the fides of which are panes of glafs, that they
may be preferved from dull, and that their motion may
not be affedted by agitated air, fo as to difordcr their
attion *.
When an efiay of a mafs or ingot of filver is to be
made, the cuftom is to make a double eflay. For this
purpofe, two fi&itious femi-marks, each of which may
be equal to 36 real grains, are to be cut from the in¬
got. Thefe two portions of filver ought to be weighed
very exa&ty ; and they ought alfo to have been taken
from oppofite fides of the ingot.
Perfons accuftomed to thefe operations know pretty
nearly the value of filver merely by the look of the ingot,
and ftill better by rubbing it on a touchftone. By the
judgment they form of the purity of the ingot, they
regulate the quantity of lead which is to be added to
it, as this quantity muft be always proportionable to
the quantity of imperfedt metal mixed with the filver.
Neverthelefs, this proportion of lead to the alloy has
not been precifely determined. Authors who treat of
To afcertain thefe doubtful points, three chemiftsof
the Academy of Sciences at Paris, Meffrs Hellot,
Tillet, and Macquer, were appointed by the French
government. They were directed to afcertain every
thing concerning the effay of gold and filver by au¬
thenticated experiments, made under the infpe&ion of
a minifter whofe fuperior knowledge is equal to his
defire of public good, and in prefence of the officers
of the mint.
The experiments made by thefe chemifts, and the
confequent regulation, have determined that four parts
of lead are requifite for one part of filver of 11 penny¬
weight and 12 grains, that fix parts of lead are requi¬
fite for filver of 11 penny-weight, eight parts of lead
for filver of 10 penny-weight, io parts of lead for fil¬
ver of nine penny-weight, and fo on in the fame pro-
greffion.
Two cupels of equal fize and weight are to be cho-
fen. The cuftom is to ufe cupels of fuch a fize that
their weight ftiall be equal to that of one half of the
lead employed in the efiay; becaufe fuch cupels have
been found capable of imbibing all the litharge formed
during the operation. Thefe cupels are to be placed
together under a muffle in an eflky-furnace. The fire
is to be kindled, and the cupels are to be made red-hot,
and to be kept fo during half an hour at leaft before
any metal be put into them. This precaution is ne-
cefiary to dry and calcine them perfectly; becaufe if
they contained any moifture or inflammable matter, an
ebullition and effervefcence would be occafioned in the
eflay. When the cupels are heated fo as to become
almoft white, the lead is to be put into them ; the fire
is to be increafed, which is done by opening the door
of the afh-hole fo as to admit air, till the lead becomes
red, fmoking, and is agitated by a motion of its parts
called its circulation, and till its furface becomes fmooth
and clear.
Then the filver, previoufly beat into fmall plates for
its eafier fufion, is to be put into the cupels; the fire
is to be continued, and even increafed, by putting hot
coals at the mouth of the muffle, till the filver (hall
have entered the lead, that is, till it have melted and
mixed with the lead. When the melted matter circu¬
lates well, the heat is to be diminifhed by taking away,
partly or entirely, the coals put at the mouth of the
muffle, and by clofing more or lefs the doors of the
furnace.
The heat ought to be regulated fo, that the effays
in the cupels {hall have furfaces fenfibly convex, and
fhall appear ardent, while the cupels are lefs red ; that
the fmoke (hall rife almoft to the roof of the muffle ;
that undulations fhall be made in all direftions upon
the furfaces of the effays, which are called circulations ;
that their middles ftiallbe fmooth, and furrounded with
a fmall circle of litharge, which is continually imbibed
by the cupels.
The eflays are to be kept in this ftate till the opera-
this fubjeft differ much. They who dirett the largeft tion is finifhed, that is, till the lead and alloy have
quantity of lead fay, that thereby the alloy is more foaked into the cupel; and the furfaces of the buttons
certainly deftroyed ; and others who direct a fmall of filver being no longer covered with a pellicle of li-
quantity of lead, pretend, that no more of that metal tharge, become fuddenly bright and finning, and are
N° 119. then
ESS
then faid to lighten. If the operation has been well
.conducted, the two effays ought to become bright
nearly at the fame tithe. When the ftlver has been by
this operation well refined, we may fee, immediately
after it has brightened, the furface of the filver covered
[ 737 ]
ESS
When the operation is finifhed, the cupels are left Eflay of
i the fame heat during fome feconds, to give time to s'lver- _
the laft portions of litharge to be entirely abforbed ;
becaufe, if any of it remained under the buttons of fil¬
ver, it would Itick to them. The fire is then allowed
with rainbow colours, which quickly undulate and crofs to extinguilh, and the cupels to cool gradually, till the
each other, and then the buttons become fixed or folid.
The management of the fire is an important at tide
in eifays. For if the heat- be too great, the lead is
fcorified and imbibed by the cupel fo quickly, that it
has not, fufficient time to fcorify and carry along with
it all the alloy ; and if the heat be too little, the li¬
tharge is gathered upon the furface, and does not pe¬
netrate the cupel. The dfayers fay then, that the ef-
buttons have entirely fixed, particularly if they be
pretty large ; becaufe if they cool too quickly, their
furfaces fix and contrad before the internal mafs, which
is thereby fo ftrongly compreffed as to burft through'
the external folid coat and form vegetations, or even1
to be entirely detached from the reft of the mafs, and'
diffipated. This is called the ’vegetation of the button.
It ought to be carefully prevented, becaufe fmall bits
fay is choaked or drowned. In this cafe the eflay does of filver are fometimes thrown out of the cupel.
not advance ; becaufe the litharge covering the futface
of the metal defends it from the contad of air, which
is abfolutely neceffary for the calcination of metals.
We have above related the marks of a fuccefsful ef-
fay. The heat may be known to be too great, from
the convexity of the furface of the melted metal; from
a too ftrong circulation ; from the too vivid appearance
of the cupel, fo that the colours given to it by the li¬
tharge cannot be diftinguifhed; and, laftly, by the
fmoke rifing up to the roof of the muffle, or not be¬
ing at all vifible from its being fo ardent and red-hot
Laftly, when the buttons are thoroughly fiiied, they
are to be difengaged from the cupels by a fmall iron*
utenfil while they are yet hot; otherwife they could
not be difengaged clean and free from part of the cu¬
pels, which ftrongly adhere to them when the heat is
much diminifhed.
Nothing then remains to complete the eflay, but to
weigh the buttons. The diminution of weight which
they have fuftained by cupellation will ftiow the purity
or value of the ingot of filver.
We ought to obferve, that as almoft all lead natu-
as not to be diftinguilhable. In this cafe, the heat rally contains filver, and that after cupellation this fil-
muft be diminiftied by Ihutting the door of tf.e afh-. ver is mixed with the filver of the ingot in the button
hole : Some effayers, for this purpofe, put round the
cupels fmall, oblong, cold pieces of baked clay, which
they call injlruments.
If, on the contrary, the melted metal have a furface
not very fpherical, relatively to its extent; if the cupel
appear dark-coloured, and the fmoke of the eflay do
only creep upon the furface ; if the circulation be too
weak, and the fcoria, which appears like bright drops,
have but a dull motion, and be not foaked into the
cupel; we may be affured that the heat is too weak ;
much more may we be aflured of it when the metal
fixes, as the efiayers call it. In this cafe, the fire ought
to be increafed by opening the door of the afti-hole,
and by placing large burning coals at the mouth of the
muffle, or even by laying them acrofs upon the cupels.
As foon as the lead is put into the cupels, the fire
is to be increafed, becaufe they are then cooled by the
• cold metal ; and the lead ought to be quickly melted,
to prevent its calx from colledting upon its furface in
too great quantity before it be formed into litharge ;
which -it would do, and be difficultly fufed, if the heat
were too weak.
When the filver is added to the lead, the heat muft
be ftill increafed ; not only becaufe the filver cools the
mafs, but becaufe it is lefs fufible than lead. And as
ell thefe effe<fts ought to be produced as quickly as
poffible, more heat is at length given than ought to be
of the eflay ; before we employ any lead in this ope¬
ration, we ought to know how much filver it contains,'
that we may fubtradl this quantity from the weight of
the button, when we compute the finenefs of the filver
of the ingot eflayed. For this purpofe eflayers gene¬
rally cupel a certain quantity of their lead feparately,
and weigh accurately the button of fiiver it yields : or,
at the fame time when they eflay filver, they put into
a third cupel, in the muffle, a quantity of lead equal to
that employed in both their eflays ; and when the ope¬
ration is finiftied, and the buttons are to be weighed,
they throw the fmall button produced from the lead
alone into the fcale which contains the weights ; and
as this exactly counterpoifes the fmall portion of filver
which the eflay buttons have received from the lead
employed in the cupellation, the weights will (how pre-
cifely the quantity of filver contained in the ingot, and
thus the trouble of calculating is prevented. The fmall
button of filver procured from the cupellation of lead
alone is called the witnefs. But to prevent this trouble,
eflayers generally employ lead which contains no filver,
fuch as that from Willach in Carinthia, which is there¬
fore procured by eflayers.
In the fecond place, we iliall obferve, that a certain
quantity of filver always pafies into the cupel, as re¬
finers in the great have long obferved, and which hap¬
pens alfo in efiaying fmall quantities. The quantity of
continued ; and therefore, when the filver has entered filver thus abforbed, varies according to the quantity
-n,, 1--J ... v.. .:n i  0f t}ie j£a(j employed, and the matter and 4form of the
cupels; all which otge<Sts will undoubtedly be deter¬
mined by the above mentioned chemifts.
The cupellation which we have now deferibed is
the lead, the heat is to be diminifhed till it becomes
of a due intenfity for the operation.
During the operation, the heat ought gradually to
be augmented to the end of it, both beqaufe the me¬
tallic mixture becomes lefs fufible as the quantity of exactly, the fame for eflays by which the produce of a
lead dimintfhes ; and alfo becaufe the lead is more dif- . filver. ore, or of an ore of another metal containing fil-
ficultly fcorifiable, as it is united with a larger proper- ver, is determined. But as thefe ores contain frequent-
tion of filver. Hence the eflays muft be rendered very ly gold, and fometimes in confiderable quantity, when
hot before they brighten. thefe eifays are made, the buttons of filver obtained
Vol. VI. Part II. 5 A by
ESS L 738 J ESS
by the eflays ought. to be fubjeclcd to the operation
called parting. See Silver, Refining, &c.
M. Tiilet has publifoed a memoir, Ihowing that ef-
fays of filver made in the common method are uncer¬
tain and not to be depended upon ; and that this uncer¬
tainty proceeds from the different quantities of filver ab-
fbrbed by the cupel in different effays, according as the
heat and other circumftances happened to vary. He
therefore propofes, in order to render effays accurate,
to extraft from the cupel the quantity of filver it has
abforbed during the operation, and to add this particle
of filver to the button, as thefe two contain the whole
quantity of filver in the matter effayed.
The variations in the different refults of different ef-
fayers, or of the fame effayer at different times, upon
the fame mafs of filver, are fufficient proofs of the un¬
certainty mentioned by M. Tiilet. Thefe variations
are opcafioned, according to that author, principally
from the following caufes : I. From the inaccuracy of
t;he balances and weights employed. 2. From the
faulty fufion of the mafs to be effayed; by which
means the contained alloy may be unequally diffufed.
3. From the impurity of the lead, efpecially from its
containing filver, which is not always equally diffufed
through its mafs. 4. From the different proportions
of lead ufed by different effayers. 5. From the diffe¬
rence of the intenfity of heat: for if the heat be not
fufficiently intenfe, the filver will ftill contain a por¬
tion of alloy; and if the heat be too intenfe, too much
of the filver will be imbibed by the cupel. 6. From the
want of care in picking the fmall particles of filver,
which frequently adhere to the fides of the cupel fe-
parately, from the principal button. 7. From the
fpurting which fometimes happens unobferved by the
effayer ; and which may further falfify the effays of
other pieces included under the fame muffle, by the
falling of the particles thrown out of one cupel into
others adjacent. But, with all the attentions to avoid
thefe caufes of error, the author obtained different re¬
fults from different effays of the fame mafs of filver.
Nor could he, by any method, make his different effays
confident with each other, but by adding to each button
the particle extrafted from the cupel; and this method
he f und by accurate experiments to be perfe&ly exaft.
M. Tillet obferved, that the quantity of lead direct¬
ed in the regulations eftabliffied in confequence of the
report made by Meffrs Macquer, Hellot, and Tillet, is
not fufficient to purify the filver perfectly from its al¬
loy. He neverthelefs approves of the faid regulation ;
and confiders the weight of the alloy retained by the
button, as fome compenfation for the weight of the
filver abforbed by the cupel. And as it is a conftant
fact, that the more lead is ufed, the greater is the lofs
by the abforption of the cupel, he remarks, that a re¬
gulation, directing a larger proportion of lead for
France than is ufed in other countries, would be dif-
advantageous to that kingdom ; as thereby the filver of
the fame denomination would be required to be finer in
that than in other countries where a lefs proportion of
lead was employed. He obferves, that the above men¬
tioned rule, “ that the more lead is ufed, the greater is
the lofs by the abforption of the cupel,” does not ex¬
tend to quantities of lead much above double the ufual
quantities. Thus 32 parts of lead to one of filver,
yvill not occafion more abforption than 16 parts of
lead. For the refining fcarcely takes place till the ex¬
traordinary quantity of lead be gone, and the filver is
only or chiefly carried into the cupel along with the
copper. Accordingly, he found, that he could render
the filver finer by ufing four parts of lead at firft, and
afterwards adding two more parts when the irifes be¬
gan to appear, than by employing all the fix parts of
the lead at once. By this method of dividing the
quantity of lead, the lofs of filver by abforption was
greater. M. Tillet did not find, that, by employing
bifmuth alone, or mixed with lead, his effays were more
certain than when lead alone was ufed. He obferved,
however, that the addition of bifmuth made the filver
purer,but occafioned a greater abforption by the cupel.
2. EJfay of the Valuc of Gold. The fidlitious weights
ufed to determine the purity of gold, and to effay this
metal, are different from thofe of filver. See the pre¬
ceding article. A mafs of gold perfe&ly pure, or
which contains no alloy, is ideally divided into 24 parts,
called carats; this pure gold is therefore called gold of
24 carats. If the mafs or ingot contains part of'
its weight of alloy, the gold is then of 23 carats; and
if it contains T\th or -^rth of alloy, it is gold of 22 ca¬
rats, &c. Hence wre fee, that the carat of gold is only
a relative and proportional weight, fo that the real
weight of the carat varies according to the total weight
of the mafs of gold to be examined. If this mafs of
gold v.'eighs a mark, the real weight of the carat will
be ^th of eight ounces, which is equal to a mark. If
the mafs weigh an ounce, the carat will be y^th part
of an ounce, or 24 grains. If it is only a penny-weight
or 24 grains, the real weight of a carat will be one
grain ; and fo on.
For greater accuracy, the carat of gold is divided
into 32 parts, which are relative and proportional
weights, as the carat itfelf is. Thus -j^d of a carat of
gold is -jVd of or Twa-th an7 raafs gold:
and the gold which contains an alloy equal to the y^-j-th
part of the whole mafs is called gold of 23 carats, and
■fyj gold which contains y^th of alloy is gold of 23.
carats and -fy; and fo on.
The real weight now generally ufed in the operation
for determining the purity of gold is fix grains. This
wmight then reprefents 24 carats. The half of this
weight, or three real grains, reprefents 12 carats. Ac¬
cording to this progreffion, we llrall find that yth of a
real grain reprefents one carat, and the rl-g-th part of
a grain reprefents the TVd of a carat, or the yJ-jth part
of a mafs of gold to be effayed.
As the'fe weights are exceedingly fmall, fome effayers
employ a weight of 1.2 grains, which muff be very con¬
venient.
When a mafs or ingot of gold is to be effayed, fix
grains are to be cut off, and exadlly weighed: alfo 18
grains of fine filver are to be weighed. Thefe two me¬
tals are to be cupelled together with about ten times
as much lead as the weight of the gold. This cupella- s
tion is conduced precifely like that of the effay to de¬
termine the purity of the filver, excepting that the heat
muff be raifed a little more towards the end of the ope¬
ration when the effay is going to brighten. Then the
gold is freed from all alloy but filver. If the quantity
of copper or other alloy deftiuftible by cupellation be
required to be known, the remaining button is accu¬
rately weighed. The diminutioa of weight from the
9|See I
E S S T 739 1 ESS
tclifum of the weights of the gold and of the filver deter- and honefty, whereby they lay open to no cenfure or Ellerrtial
mines the quantity of this alloy. reproof. (I
The button containing gold and filver is then to be ESSENTIAL, femething neceflarily belonging to *te'
flattened upon a polifhed piece of fteel, and care muft a thing, from which it cannot be conceived diltinft :
be taken to anneal it from time to time, to prevent its thus the primary qualities of bodies, as extenfion, fi-
fplitting and cracking. By this method it is reduced gure, number, &c. are effential or infeparable from
to a thin plate, which is to be rolled up, in order to them in all their changes and alterations.
rt~ be parted by aquafortis*. The diminution found after Essential Oils are fuch as are really contained in a
the parting from the original weight of the gold ef- plant, and are drawn from it by diftillation in an
fayed, fliows the whole quantity of alloy contained in alembic with water : they are thus called, in contra-
that gold. diftinttion to empyreumatic oils, which are raifed by a
The effay for determining the purity of gold is then naked fire without water,
made by two operations: the firft, which is cupella- ESSEX, a county of England, bounded on the north
tion, deprives it of all its imperfedt metals; and the by the Stour, which feparates it from Suffolk and
fecond, which is parting, feparates all the filver from Cambridgefhire ; on the eaft, by the German fea; on
ir. By antimony alfo gold may be purified, which is the weft, by Hertfordfhire and Middlefex ; and on the
a kind of dry parting. By this Angle operation, all fouth by the river Thames. It extends 46 miles in
the imperfeft metals, and filver with which gold is al- length from E. to W. and about 42 in breadth from
layed, are feparated. See Purification, Gold, Sil- N. to S. and 200 in circuit. This county is in the
ver, Refinino. diocefe of London, and gives title of Earl to the fa-
is the miners term for a little trench or mily of Capel. It is divided into 19 hundreds, and
hole, which they digto fearch for flioad or ore. contains 27 market-towns, 415 parifhes, 125 vicarages,
ESSEDARII, a fort of gladiators, mentioned by mid 1100 villages, with about 34,800 houfes, and
Seneca, Suetonius, and Tully, who on fome occafions 208,800 inhabitants. It fends eight members to par-
engaged one another out of chariots called ejfeda. The liament; namely, two for the county, and two for Col-
Ajjedum was a fort of heavy chariot from which the chefter, Harwich, and Malden. The air in the inland
Gauls and Britons engaged the Romans. See Gla- parts is healthy ; but in the marfhes near the fea it
diator. produces agues, particularly in the part called the
ESSENCE, in metaphyfics, that which conftitutes Hundreds. However, the fertility of the unwhole-
the particular nature of each genus or kind, and di- fome part is very great, and even the higher grounds
ftinguifties it from all others: being nothing but that °f this county are very fruitful. About Saffron Wal-
abftradl idea to which this name is affixed, fo that every den, the earth, after bearing faffron three years, it is
thing contained in it is effential to that particular kind, faid, will produce good barley for 18 years fucceffively
This Mr Locke calls the nominal ejfence; in contra- without any manure. Its produce, w’hich is very plen-
diftinftion to the real effence, or conftitution of fub- tiful, confifts of corn, moft excellent faffron, cattle,
ftances on which this nominal effence depends. Thus fowl, fifh, and particularly oyfters. The chief manu-
the nominal effence of gold is that complex idea the failures of this county are cloth, fluffs, and particu-
word gold Hands for ; let it be, for inftance, a body, larly baize. The principal rivers, befides the Thames,
yellow, weighty, malleable, fufible, and fixed : but its are the Stour, which falls into the German fea at.Har-
rcal effence is the conftitution of its infenfible parts, on wich ; the Lea, its weftern boundary, falls into the
which thefe qualities and all its other properties de- Thames below Stratford ; the Blackwater runs thro’
pend, which is wholly unknown to us. the heart of the county, and palling by Chelmsford is
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewiffi antiquity, joined by the Chalmer, and from thence runs into the
one of the three ancient fe&s among that people. German fea ; the Coin runs by Halfted to Colchefter,
They allowed a future Hate, but denied a refurreftion aod fo into the fea. The Roding which rifes north-
from the dead. Their way of life was very Angular: wards, near Dunmow, runs into the Thames near
they did not marry; but adopted the children of others, Barking. All thefe rivers abound in moft forts of
whom they bred up in the inftitutions of their feel: filh.
they defpifed riches, and had all things in common, ESTATE, in law, fignifies the title or intereft that
and never changed their cloaths till they were entirely a perfon has in lands, tenements, or other effefts; corn-
worn out. When initiated, they were ftriftly bound prehending the whole in which a perfon hath any pro-
not to communicate the myfteries of their fed! to perty, and will pafs the fame.
others; and if any of their members were found guilty Eftates are either real or perfonal; otherwife diftin-
of enormous crimes, they were expelled. guilhed into freeholds, which defeend to heirs ; or
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the weft fide of chattels, that go to executors or adminiftrators.
the lake of Afphaltites ; and that they were a folitary A fee-fimple is the ampleft eftate our law admits
kind of men, living without women or money, and of. See Fee.
feeding upon the fruit of the palm-tree: he adds, that Eftates are obtained feveral ways ; as, by defeent
they were conftantly recruited by new comers, whom from a father to a fon ; by conveyance or-grant from
the furges of ill fortune had made weary of the world; one perfon to another; by gift orpurchafe; or by deed
in which manner the feft was kept up for feveral or will. See Descent, Succession, Tenure, &c.
thoufands of years, without any being born among Estates, in a political fenfe, is ufed either to de-
them. The reafon why we find no mention made of note the dominions of fome prince, or the general claf-
them in the New Teftament, may be their reclufe and fes into which the people are divided,
retired way of life, not lefs than their great furplicity la Britain, the eftates are the king, lords, and com-
5 A 2 mons ;
E S T [ 740 ] ETC
mens; Or rather the lords and commons, who meet
the king in parliament, for reforming abufes, and e-
nadting good and wholefome layrs.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Cld Tefta-
ment; containing the hittory of a Jewilh virgin, dwell¬
ing with her uncle Mordecai at Shulhan, in the reign
of Ahafuerus, one of the kings of Perfia.
The great beauty of this maid raifed her to the
throne.of Perfia; whereby {he had an Opportunity to
fave her countrymen, whofe deftrudtion was plotted by
Hariian, a favourite of that prince.
The learned are not agreed who this Ahafuerus was.
Archbifhop Uiher fuppofes him to be Darius Hyftafpes,
and Artyttona to be Eflher. Scaliger makes him
the fame with Xerxes, and his queen Haneftris to be
Either. Jofephus, on the contrary, pofitively afferts,
that the Ahafuerus of the feriptures, is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane itory ; and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Either, tranflate Aha¬
fuerus by Artaxerxes. Moil people fubferibe to this
laft opinion ; and indeed the extraordinary kindnefs
Ihowed by Artaxerxes to the Jews, can fcarce be ac¬
counted for otherwife than by fuppofing that they had
fo powerful an advocate as Either to folicit for them.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross Estoille'e, in heraldry, a
ftar with only four long rays In form of a crofs; and,
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
{harp points.
ESTONIA, is a province of the Ruflian empire,
and part of Livonia. It is bounded on the eafl by the
Baltic fea, on the north by the Gulph of Finland, on
the weft by Ingria, and on the foirth by Lettonia. It
is divided into fix diftridts: 1. Harrien; 2. Wireland;
3-. Alentakin ; 4. Wich ; 5. Jerven; and, 6. Odepoa.
The principal towns are, Revel, Weifenberg, Borch-
holm, Narva, Nyflot, rlabfal, Derpt, St Elin, Per-
nau, and Roderfwick.
In former times the inhabitants of this country car¬
ried on a good trade in corn, which was dried in
ftoves: but wars have much depopulated the country,
irifomuch that not a fourth part of it is inhabited, and a
great number of gentlemens feats lie in ruins.
ESTOPPEL (formed of the French ejlouper, oppl-
lare, objlipare, “ to ftop, or block up”), in law, an
impediment or bar of aftiou, ariling from a man’s
own aft or deed ; againft which a man is forbidden,
by law, to fpeak, though it be to {ay the truth.
ESTOVERS, in law, is ufed, by Brafton, for that
fuftenance which a man, committed for felony, is to
have out of his lands or goods for himfelf and his
family during imprifonment. In flat. 6 Edw. I. it is
ufed for an allowance in meat or clothes. In fome
manors, the tenants have common of EJlovers ; that is,
neceffary botes or allowances out of the lord’s wood:
in which laft fenfe, eftovers comprehends houfe-bote,
hay-bote, and plow-bote ; fo that if a man have in
his grant thefe general words, de rationabili ejlqverh in
itofeis, &c. he may thereby claim all three.
Eftovers is alfo ufed for alimony,'which, if the huf-
band refufes to pay, there is, beiides the ordinary pro-
cefs of excommunication, a writ at common law, de e-
1 jlovenis habendis, in order to recover it.
ESTRAY, or Stray, fignifies any tame beaft, as
fheep, oxen, fwine, and horfes, or fwans, found with¬
in a lordlhip, and not owned by any man ; in which
cafe being cried, according to law, in the church, and Eftre
two market towns adjoining, if it be not claimed by If
the owner within a .year and a day, it becomes the
lord’s of the foil where found. If the owner claims v""
it within the year and day, he muft pay the char¬
ges of finding, keeping, and proclaiming them; and
he may feize it, without telling the marks, or pro¬
ving his property; which may be done at the trial
if contefted. If , the beaft ftray within the year to-
another lordfhip, the firft lord cannot retake it. An
eftray muft be fed and kept, uninjured, and without
labour, till it is reclaimed or the limited time expires.
ESTREAT, Extractum, in law, is ufed for the
true copy or duplicate of fome original writing, efpe-
cially of amercements or penalties fet down in the
rolls»of a court, to be levied by the bailiff or other of¬
ficer, on every offender.
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain, has New
Caftile on the call, Leon on the north, Andalufia on
the fouth, and Portugal on the weft. It is 175 miles
in length, and 100 in breadth; and its principal towns
are, Calatrava; Menda, ’ and Badajoz, on the river
Guadiana; Alcantara, on the Tajo ; and Cona and
Placentia, to the north of this river.
This province enjoys a very pure and healthful air,
and its mountains are full of wild and tame animals;
they having woods and forefts for the*one fort, and pa-
ftures for the other. The fields are planted with fruit-
trees, which bear all kinds of delicious fruit. The vine¬
yards produce excellent wines of all colours, and the
fields yield plenty of corn.
Estremadura, a province of Portugal, near the
mouth of the Tagus or Tajo, bounded on the north
by Beira, on the eaft and fouth by Alentejo, and on
the weft by the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 88 miles
in length, and 45 in breadth. This province is di¬
vided into fix comarcas, viz. Litria, Lhbon, Tomar,
Santaren, and Alanquar, to the north of the Tagus;
and that of Setubal, to the fouth of this river. Thefe
are likewife the principal towns. Eftremadura is e-
qual, if not preferable, to any other province in Spain
or Portugal. The diftrift of Santaren produces fuch
plenty of corn, and feeds fo many floc'ks of fiiecp,
that it may enter into competition with Sicily. The
fruits and the wines are all excellent; and it was here
that the fweet oranges brought from China were
firft planted, and of which there are large quantities
tranfported to foreign parts, with the wines and other
fruits. The fields are covered with flowers almoft all
the year, from which the bees coileft large quantities
of fine honey. The olive-trees are numerous, from
which they have excellent oil. The rivers abound with
good fifh, and the mountains have quarriesof feveralkinds.
ETCPIING, a method of engraving on copper, in.
which the lines or ftrokes, inftead of being cut with a
tool or graver, are eaten in with aquafortis. See En¬
graving-.
Etching is of a later invention, though not very
modern, than engraving with the tool; of which it
was at firft only an imitation, that was praftifed by
painters and other artifts, who could much fooner
form their hands to, and attain a faculty of, working
in this way, than with the graver. But being then
nevertheleis confidered as a counterfeit kind of engra¬
ving, and therefore inferior to the other, it was culti¬
vated
ETC [ 74i I ETC
EtcRTng. vated in a very confined manner; the clofenefs of the
refemblance of the work to that performed by the
tool, being made the tell of its merit, and confequent-
ly the principal objedt of aim in thofe who purfued it.
This fervile confinement of the aj-t of, etching to the'
imitation of the original kind of engraving, was a
great caufe of retarding its advancement towards per¬
fection, as many of the moft able mafters cramped
their talents with the obfervance of it : which may be
feen in the inftances of Sadelers, Swaneberg, Villa-
mena, and particularly Le Boffe ; who, in his treatife
on engraving, has laid down as a principle, that the
perfedtion of this kind confifts in the clofe fimilitude
of the work with that done by the tool. This abfurd
prepofillEon has been fince worn out: and the method of
working with aquafortis has been fo far improved, that
inftead of being now deemed a fpurious kind of engra¬
ving, it evidently appears the foundation of an excel¬
lence in many modern works, that could never have
been produced without.it : fince, though the neatnefs
and uniformity of the hatches, which attend the ufe of
the tool, is more advantageous with refpedf to por¬
traits; yet the liberty and facility of the other manner
give a.much greater opportunity to exercife the force
of genius and fancy in hiftory-engraving 5 where the
effedl of the whole, and not the minute exa&nefs in
finilhing all the parts, conftitutes the principal value.
There are two methods pradbifed of engraving in this
way ; the one with a hard varnilh or ground, the other
with a foft. The firft was formerly much ufed, being
better accommodated to the intention of imitating the .
engraving with the tool; as the firmnefs of the body
• of the varnifh gave more opportunity of retouching the
lines, or enlarging them' with the oval-pointed needles,
called by the French echoppes, as was pradbifed by Le
Bofie and others for that purpofe. The latter has now
almofl wholly fuperfeded the ufe of the other, by the
free manner of working it admits of; which affords a
power of expreffion incompatible with the greater
inflexibility .of the hard varnifh, that confines the lines
and hatches to fuck a regularity and fame.nefs, as gives
a ftiffhefs of manner and coldnefs of effedt to the work.
The mixture of the ufe of the tool and aquafortis,
which are now both employed in many cafes, has, how¬
ever, given that perfedbion to engraving which it pof-
fcfies at prefent. The truth and fpirit of the outline
that the method of working with aquafortis affords,
and the variety of fhades which the different kinds of
blacjc produce in this way, as well as other means
of exprefling the peculiar appearance and charadjer of
particular fubjedbs, furnifh what was defedbive in the
foie ufe of the tool; while, bn the other hand, the ex-
adlnefs and regularity of the lines, which are required
for finifhing many b;inds of defigns, are fupplied by the
graver; and by a judicious application of both, that
complete finifhing is obtained, which either of them
alone muff neceffarily want.
: The manner by which this art is performed, is the
covering the furface of the plate with a proper varnifh
ox ground, as it is called, which is capable of refilling
aquafortis; and then fcoring or fcratching away, by
inilruments refembling needles, the parts of this var¬
nifh or ground, in the places where the flrokes or
hatches of the engraving are intended to be: then,
the plate being covered with aquafortis, the parts
that are laid naked and expofed by removing the Etching,
ground or varnifh, are corroded or eaten away by it; v ,
while the reft, being fecured and defended, remain un¬
touched.
There are two methods of etching, as hath been al¬
ready obferved; the difference of which from each o-
ther confifls, as well in the difference of the varnifh or
ground, as in that of the aquafortis, adapted to each
kind ; but the general methods of performing them-
are alike in both. Thefe varniflies or grounds are di-
flinguifhed by the names of hard and foft: for in their
confidence, or the refittance they give to the needles,
lies their effential variation from each other. The
hard varnifh, it is with good reafon conjeflured, was
not the firfl in ufe : but foon took place of the other ;
and was, for fome time, the moll received in pradlice,
on account of its admitting the work to be made more-
like that of the graver : the foft has, however, fince,
in its turn, prevailed to the txclufion of it in fome de¬
gree, except in the cafe of particular fubjedbs; but not
fo entirely as to take away the expedience of fhowing
how it is performed. The manner of etching with the.
foft varnifh is now, however, one of the moft import¬
ant objedts of the art of engraving; and it is at pre¬
fent in univerfal ufe, fometimes alone, but more fre¬
quently intermixed with the work of the tool, and
in fome cafes with great advantage, even where the
whole is intended to pafs for being performed by the
graver.
Preparation of the foft •varnljh; according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent Engli/h engraver at Paris. “ Take of
virgin wax and afphaltum, each two ounces; of
black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce.
Melt the wax and pitch in a new earthen-ware glazed
pot; and add to them, by degrees, the afphaltum
finely powdered.. Let the whole boil till fuch time as
that,- taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it -
is cold, on bending it double two or three times be¬
twixt the fingers. The varnifh being then enough boil¬
ed, muft be taken off the fire; and letting it cool a
little, rnufl be poured into warm water, that it may
work the more eafily with the hands!, fo as to be form¬
ed into balls ; which muft be rolled up, and put into a
piece of taffety for ufe.”
It muft be obferved, firft, that the fire be not too
violent, for fear of burning the ingredients ; a flight
fimmering will be fufficient : fecondly,,that while the
afphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed
with them, the ingredients fhould be ftirred continual¬
ly with the fpatula: and thirdly, that the water, in¬
to which this compofition is thrown, fhould be near¬
ly of the fame degree of warmth with it, to prevent a
kind of cracking that happens when the water is too-
cold.
The varnifh ought always to be harder in fummer
than in winter; and it will become fo if it be fuffered.
to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the afphal¬
tum or brown refm be ufed. The experiment above-?
mentioned, of the drop fuffered to cool, will determine.'
the degree of hardnefs or foftnefs that may be fuxtable.
to the fcafon when.it is ufed.
Preparation of the hard varmfls ufed by Callot, common -
ly called the Florence varnilh. Take four ounces of fat-
oil very clear, and made of good linfeed oil, like that
ufed by painters: heat it in a clean pot of glared
earthen .
ETC [ 742 ] ETC
r.ic'ung. eav-tlien-ware, and afterwards put to it four ounces of
“ v' maitich well powdered ; and llir the mixture briikly till
the whole be well melted; then pafs the whole mafs
through a piece of fine linen into a glafs bottle with a
long neck, that can be (lopped very fecurely; and keep
it for the ufe that will be below explained.
Method of applying the foft varni/h to the plate, and of
llackenlng It. The plate being well polifhed and bur-
niflted, as alfo cleanfed from all greafinefs by'chalk or
Spanifh white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to ferve as a handle
for managing it when warm: then put it upon a chaf-
ing-di(h, in which there is a moderate fire ; obferving
to hold it fo that it may not burn : keep the plate over
the fire till it be fo hot that the varnilh being brought
into contaft with it may melt : then cover the whole
plate equally with a thin coat of the varnifh ; and
while the plate is warm, and the varnifir upon it in a
fluid (late, beat every part of the varnilh gently with a
fmall ball or dauber made of cotton tied up in taffety;
which operation fmooths and diftributes the varnifh e-
qually over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly cover¬
ed with the varnifh, it muft be blackened by a piece of
flambeau, or of a large candle which affotds a copious
fmoke ; fometimes two, or even four, fuch candles are
ufed together for the fake of difpatch, that the varnilh
may not grow cold : which if it does during the ope¬
ration, the plate mufl then be heated again, that it may
be in a melted (late when that operation is performed :
but great care muft be taken not to burn it ; which,
when it happens, may be eafily perceived by the varnifh
appearing burnt and lofing its glofs. The following
expedient is made ufe of for the more commodioully
blackening the varnifh, being particularly neceffary
where the plates are large : Fix a ftrong hook in the
roof of the room, through which pafs four pieces of
cord of equal length, at the end of which are fixed four
iron rings of about four inches diameter, for fupport-
ing the corners of the plate. The plate being thusfuf-
pended in the air, with the varnifhed fide downwards,
may be blackened with great convenience : but this is
not, however, abfolutely requifite, except in the cafe
of large plates that could not, without difficulty, be
held up, unlefs this or fome other^ fuch contrivance
were made ufe of.
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the flam¬
beau or candle at a due diftance from the plate, left the
wick touch the varnifh, which would both fully and
mark it. If it appear that the fmoke has not penetra¬
ted the varnifh, the plate muft be again placed for fome
little time over the chafing-difh ; and it will be found,
that, in proportion as the plate grows hot, the varnifh
will melt and incorporate with the black which lay a-
bove it, in fuch a manner that the whole will be equal¬
ly pervaded by it.
Above all things, the greateft caution fhould be ufed
in this operation, to keep all the time a moderate fire ;
and to move frequently the plate, and change the place
of all the parts of it, that the varnifh may be alike
melted every where, and kept from burning. Care
muft alfo be taken, that during this time, and even till
the varnifh be entirely cold, no filth, fpavks, or duft, fly
on it; for they would then flick fall, and fpoil the work.
Method of applying the hard varviflo. This is precifely
the fame as for the foft; being fpread equally over the
warm plate with the taftety-ball, and fmoked in the fame
manner : only after it is fmoked, it muft be baked, or
dried over a gentle fire of charcoal, till the fmoke from
the varnifh begins to decreafe; taking care not to over¬
heat the plate, which would both foften it and burn
the varnifh.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exa£l draw¬
ing of the outlines of the defign made upon thin pa¬
per, the other fide of the paper muft be well rubbed
with chalk or Spanifh whitening, or, which is bet¬
ter, with red chalk fcraped to a powder; and the
loofe chalk is cleared off with a linen rag : then the
ftained fide of the paper h laid upon the varnifh, fix¬
ing the corners to the plate with wax or wafers, to pre¬
vent its fhuffling; and with a blunted needle or pointer
the drawing is (lightly traced, and communicates to
the varnifh an exaft outline of the defign to be etched.
A variety of pointers is neceffary for the work.
Thofe ufed for the broad large ftrokes ought fo be
very blunt, exceeding round, and well polifhed at the
point; the foal of a fhoe anfwers very well for polilh-
ing the points. The fineft ought to be as (harp as a
needle. If any fcratches or fake ftrokes happen in the
working, they are to be flopped up with a hair-pencil
dipped in Venetian varnifh, mixed with lamp-black, by
which means thefe places will be defended from the ac¬
tion of the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding
the plate with aquafortis; in order to which, a border
of foft wax (being a compofition of becs-wax melted
and tempered with a little Venice turpentine and taU
low) muft be failened round the plate about an inch
high, in the form of a little wall or rampart, to contain
the aquafortis. At one of the corners of this border
a gutter is ufually made, which ferves for pouring com-
modioufly the aquafortis off the plate. The plate be¬
ing thus bordered, take a due quantity of the refiners
aquafortis ; mix it with half its quantity of common
water ; and pour it gently on, till it rife above a fin¬
gers breadth above the furface of the plate; when, if all
things have been rightly conduced, it will be feen that
the aquafortis will foon exert its a<ftion in the hatches
which have been ftrongly touched ; but thofe more
weakly engraved will appear at firfl clear, and of the
colour of the copper. The menftruum muft therefore
be fufferedjx) continue on the plate till its effedls be¬
come vifible on the more tender parts: then the aqua¬
fortis fhould be poured off, the plate wafhed with clean
vvater, and dried before the fire : then take a fmall
pencil dipped into the Venetian varnifh, and cover with
it the lighter parts of the plate. This being done, the
aquafortis muft again be poured on, and fuffered to
continue a longer or fhorter time, according to the
ftrength of the menftruum, or the nature of the en¬
graving ; when it muft be again poured off as before,
and the plate immediately wafhed with water.
It may not be improper to obfetve, that, when the
■ aquafortis is on the plate, a feather fhould be ufed t(r
cleanfe away the foulnefs of the verdigris that gathers
in the hatches when the aquafortis operates on them,
and to give it more room to exert its adlion; for by
moving the aquafortis to and fro on the plate by the
feather, and brufhing away the black faline matter
where it appears to be formed, the hatches will be
cleanfed,
E T E t 743 ] E T H
Eteccks ckanfed, and the aquafortis exert its whole force equal-
Etefiae ^ 00 every Part-
, ‘ . The plate being thus fufficiently corroded by the
aquafortis, and well wafhed with water, it nruft be
warmed at the fire, and the border of wax removed ;
after which, it muft be made hotter till the varnifli melt;
then it mull be well wiped with a linen cloth, and af¬
terwards rubbed heartily with oil of olives; when it
will be ready to be retouched and finifhed by the gra¬
ver. See the article Engraving.
ETEOCLES (fab. hill.), a fon of CEdipus and Jo-
cafta. After his father’s death, it was agreed between
him and his brotherPolynices, that they Ihould both ftiare
the royalty, and reign alternately each a year. Eteocles
by right of feniority fir ft afcended the throne ; but af¬
ter the firft year of his reign was expired he refufed to
give up the crown to his brother, acccording to their
mutual agreement. Polynices,* refolved tq puniflr fuch
an open violation of a folemn engagement, went to im¬
plore the affiftance of Adraftus king of Argos. He
received that king’s daughter in marriage, and was foon
after affifted with a ftrong army headed by feven fa¬
mous generals. Thefe hoftile preparations were feen
by Eteocles, who on his part did not remain inadive.
He chofe feven brave chiefs to oppofe the feven leaders
of the Argives, and ftationed them at the feven gates
of the city. He placed himfelf againft his brother
Polynices, and he oppofed Menalippus to Tydeus, Po¬
lyphonies to Capaneus, Megareus to Eteoclus, Hyper-
bius to Parthenopaeus, and Lafthenes to Amphiaraus.
Much blood was fhed in light and unavailing fkirmifhes,
and it was at laft agreed between the two brothers that
the war (hould be decided by Angle combat. They
both fell in an engagement conducted with the moll
inveterate fury on either fide ; and it is even faid that
the alhes of thefe two brothers, who had been fo ini¬
mical one to the other, feparated themfelves on the
burning pile, as if feniible of refentment, and hoftile
to reconciliation.
ETERNITY, an attribute of God, exprefiing his
infinite or endlefs duration. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Eternity, in mythology, a divinity among the
Romans, who had neither temples nor altars. They
reprefented it under the figure of a woman, who held
the fun in one hand and the moon in the other; her
fymbols were a phoenix, globe, and elephant.
ETESIiE, or Etesian •winds, are fuch as blow at
fiated times of the year, from what part foever of the
compafs they come. They are fo called from the Greek
word eJoc,' “ year,” being yearly or anniverfary winds,
fuch as our feamen call monfoons and trade-winds, which
in feme parts of the world coptinue conftantly blowing
for certain ftated feafons of the year. Thus, the north
winds, which, during the dog-days, conftantly blow
upon the coafts of Egypt, and hinder all Ihips from
failing out of Alexandria for that feafon, are called
etefu: in Caefar’s Commentaries. In other authors, the
weft and eaft winds are called etefa, when they con¬
tinue blowing for certain feafons of the year.
Cellarius endeavours to prove that thofe winds are
properly etefian which blow from that part of the hori¬
zon which is between the north and weft about the time
of the folftice. In ancient writers, they are reprefent¬
ed as of a very mild and gentle nature j and were cal¬
led by mariners fomniculofi and dejicati, from their fleep- Ethe l
ing or ceafing to blow in the night.
kings of
England.
./Ether.
ETHERIDGE (Sir George), ?. celebrated wit and
comic genius in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.
defeended from an ancient family in Oxfordfhire, and
born in 1636. He travelled in his youth; and, not
being able to confine himfelf to the ftudy of the law,
devoted himfelf to the gayer accomplifitments. His
firft dramatic performance, the Comical Revenge, or
Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced him
to the leading wits of the time : in 1668, he produced
a comedy called She would if ihe could; and, in 1676,.
he publifhed his laft comedy, called the Man of Mode,
or Sir Fopling Flutter; which is perhaps the moll ele¬
gant comedy, and contains more of the real manners
of high life than any one the Englifh ftage was ever
adorned with. This piece he dedicated to the beauti¬
ful duebefs of York, in whofe fervice he then was; and
who had fo high a regard for him, that when, on the
accefiion of James II. fhe came to be queen, ihe pro¬
cured his being fent ambaffador firft to Hamburg, and
afterwards to Ratifbon, where he continued till after
his majefty quitted the kingdom. Our author being
addicted to certain gay extravagances, had greatly im¬
paired his fortune; to repair which, he paid his ad-
dreffes to a rich widow : but file, being an ambitious
woman, had determined not to condefcend to a marriage
with any man who could not beftow a title upon her;
on which account he was obliged to purchafe a knight¬
hood. None of the writers have exadtly fixed the period
of Sir George’s death, though all feem to place it not
long after the Revolution, Some fay, that on this event
he followed his mafter king James into France, and
died'there; but the authors of the Biographia Britan,
nica mention a report, that he came to an untimely
death by an unlucky accident at Ratilbon ; for that af¬
ter having treated feme company with a liberal enter¬
tainment at his houfe there, where he had taken his
See
(Hiftory of)
England.
ETHELBALD,
ETHELBERT,
ETHELRED,
ETHELWOLF,
ETHER, )
ET HE RIAL, <
.glafs too freely, and being, through lys great complai-
fance, too forward in waiting on his guefts at their de¬
parture, fluihed as he was, he tumbled down ftairs and
broke his neck, and fo fell a martyr to mirth and jol¬
lity. As to Sir George’s literary charafter, he certainly
was born a poet, and feems to have been pofltffed of a
genius whofe vivacity needed no cultivation : for we
have no proofs of his having been a fcholar. Hi-},
works, however, have not efcaped cenfure on account
of that licentioufnefs which in general runs through
them, which renders them dangerous to young un¬
guarded minds; and the more fo, for the lively and ge¬
nuine wit with which it is gilded over, and which has
therefore juftly baniihed them from the purity of the
prefent ftage.
ETHICS, the do&rine of manners, or the fcience
of moral philofophy. The word is formed from
»>», mores, “manners;” by reafon the fcope or ob¬
ject thereof is to form the manners. See Moral Phi-
lofophj.
E THIOPIA, a celebrated,, though very much un-
kuowa
Ethiopia.
Ttie name
anciently
bell owed oi
nations.
Different
Dames of
^Ethiopia.
1 Situation
Ethiopia
Propria.
Different
nations in
Ethiopia.
E T H
L 744 ]
E T H
know,) empire of Africa, whofe boundaries have never
been exa&ly defined either by ancient or modern geo¬
graphers. By fome writers of antiquity the title of
Ethiopians was given to all nations whofe complexion
‘was black : hence we find the Arabians as well as
many other Afiatics fometimes falling under this deno¬
mination ; belides a number of Africans whofe country
lay at a diitance from Ethiopia properly fo called.
Thus the Africans in general were by thefe writers di¬
vided into the weftern or Hefperian Ethiopians, and
thofe above Egypt fituated to the eaft of the former ;
the latter being much more generally known than the
former, by reafon of the commerce they carried on with
the Egyptians.
From this account we may eafily underftand why
there fhould be fuch a feeming difagreement among
ancient authors concerning the fituation pf the empire
of Ethiopia, and likewife why it Ihould jiafs under fuch
a variety of names. Sometimes, for example, it was
named India, and the inhabitants Indians ; an appel¬
lation likewife applied to many other diftant nations.
It was alfo denominated Atlantia and Etheria, and in
the mod remote periods of antiquity Cephenia; but
more ufually Abafene, a word fomewhat refembling A-
bapfia or A'byJJinia, two ,of its modern names. On the
other hand, we find Perfia, Chaldaea, AiTyria, &c. ftyled
Ethiopiaby certain writers ; and all the countries ex¬
tending along the coafts of the Red Sea were promif-
cuoufly denominated India and Ethiopia. By the Jews
the empire of Ethiopia was ftyled Cajh and Ludim.
Notwithftanding this diverfity of appellations, and
vaft diffufion of territory aferibed to the Ethiopi¬
ans, there was one country to which the title was
thought more properly to belong than to any of the
reft ; and which was therefore called Ethiopia Propria.
3f This was bounded on the north by Egypt, extending all
the way to the leffer cataradb of the Nile, and an ifland
named.Elephantine; on the weft it had Libya Interior;
on the eaft the Red Sea, and on the fouth unknown
dophagi; 9. Chelonophcrgi ; io. I chi hy ophagi; 11. Cytinrnol- EthiopiJfcj
gi; 11 Elephantophagi; 13. Rhaz.ophagi ; 14. Sper~ '
matophagi; 15. Hylophagi; and, 16. Ophiophagi: all of
whom had their names from the food they made ufe of,
viz. locutls, tortoifes,fiflr,bitches milk, elephants; roots,
fruits, or feeds, and ferpents. 17. 1 he Hylogones, neigh¬
bours to the Elephantophagi, and who were fo favage
that they had no houfes, nor any other places to fleep
in but the tops of trees. 18. The Pamphugi, who ufed
almoft every thing indiferiminately for food. 19. The
Agribphagi, who lived on the flefh of wild beafts.
20- The Anthropophagi, or man-eaters, are now fup-
pofed to have been the Caffres, and not any inhabitants
of Proper Ethiopia. 21. The Hippophagi, or horfe-
eaters, who lay to the northward of iftbya Incognita.
22. The Macrobii, a powerful nation, remarkable for
their longevity; fome of them attaining the age of 120
years. 23. The Sambri, fituated near the city of Te-
nupfis in Nubia upon the Nile ; of whom it is reported
that all the quadrupeds they had, not excepting even
the elephants, were deftitute of ears. 24. The Afacha:,
a people inhabiting the mountainous parts, and conti¬
nually employed in hunting elephants. Befides thefe,
there were a number of other nations or tribes, of
whom we fcarce know any thing but the names; as
the Gapachi, Ptoemphanes, Catadupi, Pechini, Cata-
drte, &c.
In a country inhabited by fuefra variety of nations, Of the firft
all in a ftate of extreme barbarifm, it is rather to befe.dement
wondered that we have any hiftory at all, than that it Ethiupia..
is not more dillinft. It has already been obferved,
that the Jews, from the authority of the facred wri¬
ters no doubt, beftowed the name of Cu/h upon the
empire of Ethiopia; and it is generally agreed tliat Cufti
was the great progenitor' of the inhabitants. In fome
, paffages of feripture, however, it would feem that Cii/h
was an appellation beftowed upon the whole peninfula
of Arabia, or at leaft the greater part of it. In others,
the word ieems to (fenomicate the country watered by
parts of Africa; though thefe boundaries cannot be the Araxes, the feat of the ancient Scythians or Cu-
fixed with any kind of precifion.
In this country the ancients diftinguiflied a great va¬
riety of different nations, to whom they gave names
either from fome perfonal property, or from their man¬
ner of living. The principal of thefe were, 1. I heE/em-
myes, feated near the borders of Epypt; and who, pro¬
bably from the fhortnefs of their necks, were faid to
have no heads, but eyes, mouths, &c. in their breads.
Their form, fomehow or other, muft have been very
extraordinary, as we learn from Vopifcus, who gives an
account of fome of the captives of this nation brought
thites; and fometimes the country adjacent to Egypt
on the coaft of the Red Sea.
A number of authors are of opinion, that Ethiopia
received its firft inhabitants from the country lying to ^
the eaft of the Red Sea. According to them, the pe0pje{j (
defeendants of Cufh, having fettled in Arabia, gra-riginaily
dually migrated to the fouth-eaftern extremity of thatf1-0111
couutry; whence, by an eafy paffage acrofs the ftraits>'"
of Babelmandel, they tranfported themfelves to the
African fide, and entered the country properly called
Ethiopia: a migration whicl}, according to Eufebius,
to Rome. 2. The Nobata, inhabiting the banks of took place during the refidence of the ifraelites in E-
the Nile near the ifland Elephantine already mention¬
ed, faid to have been removed thither by Oafis to re-
prefs the incurfions of the Blemmyes. 3. The Troglo¬
dytes, by fome writers faid to belong to Egypt, and
deferibed as little fuperior to brutes. 4. The Nubians,
gypt; but, in the opinion of Syncellus, after they had
taken pofleffion of Canaan, and were governed by judges.
Mr Bruce makes mention of a tradition among the At, • n
Abyflinians, which, they fay, has exifted among them tradition
from time immemorial, that very foon after the flood, concerning
of whom little more is known than their name. 5. The Cufti the grandfon of Noah, with his family, parted11-
Pigmies, by fome fuppofed to be a tribe of Troglo- through Atbanxi, then without inhabitants, till they
dytes; but by the moft approved writers placed on the came to the ridge of mountains which feparates that
African coaft of the Red Sea. 6. The Aualita.ov Aba- country from the high lands of Ahyflinia. Here, (till
Idee, of which we know nothing more than that they terrified with the thoughts of the deluge, and appre-
henfive of a return of the fame calamity, they chofe
to dwell in caves made in the fides of thefe moun¬
tains, rather than truft themfelves in the plains of-At-
bara;
were fituated near tbe Abalftic gulf. y.^The Slruthio
phagi, fo called from their feeding upon oftriches, were
Situated to the fouth of the Memnones. 8. The Acri-
N° 119. ' 4
Ethiopia.
E T H ( 745 ] E T H
bara ; and our author is of opinion, that the tropical is large, with a (harp upper jaw; at the end of which is Ethi
- rains, which they could not fail to meet with in their a ftrong pointed hair about a quarter of an inch long ;  *
journey fouthward, and which would appear like the and the lower jaw has two of thefe hairs : all of which
return of the deluge, might induce them to take up together make a refinance to the finger equal to that of
their habitations in thefe high places. Be this as it a ftrong hog’s bridle^ One or all of thefe hairs are
iidnal will, he informs us that it is an undoubted faft, “ that
|heUOn* ^ere t^ie Cufhites, with unparalleled induftry, and with
inftruments utterly unknown to us, formed to them-
felves commodious, yet wonderful, habitations in the
heart of mountains of granite and marble, which re¬
main entire in great numbers to this day, and promife
to do fo till the confummation of all things.”
The Culhites having once eftablifhed themfelves a-
mong thefe mountains, continued to form habitations
of the like kind in all the neighbouring ones; and thus
following the different chains (for they never chofe to
defcend into the low country), fpread the arts and
fciences, which they cultivated, quite acrofs the African
ufed as weapons of offence to the cattle ; but what pur-
pofe they anfwer to the animal itfelf, our author does
not fay. So intolerable, however, are its attacks to the
cattle, that they no fooner hear its buzzing, than they
forfake their food, and run about till they fall down with
fright, fatigue, and hunger. Even the camel, though
defended by a thick and ftrong fkin with long hatr,
cannot refift the pun&ures of this infeft ; which feem
to be poifonous, as they produce large putrid fwellings
on the body, head, and legs, which at laft terminate in
death. To avoid this dreadful enemy, the cattle mud
all be removed as quick as poffible to the fandy parts of
Atbara, where they ftay as long as the rains laft, and
continent from the eaftern to the weftern ocean. Ac- where this dreadful enemy never ventures to follow
y cording to the tradition above-mentioned, they built them. The elephant and rhinoceros, who, on account
:fcription the city of Axum early in the days of Abraham. This, of the quantity of food they require, cannot remove to
th0Ugjj now an inconfiderable village, was anciently thefe barren places, roll themfelves in the mud, which,
noted for its fuperb ftruftures, of which fome re- when dry, coats them over fo hard, that they are ena-
mains are ftill vifible. Among thefe are fome belong- bled to refift the puntlures of the infed ; though even
ing to a magnificent temple, originally no feet in on thefe fome tubercles are generally to be met with,
length, and having two wings on each fide ; a double which our author attributes to this caufe. Mr Bruce
porch ; and an afcent of 12 fteps. Behind this ftand is of opinion, that this is the fly mentioned by Ifaiah,
feveral obelilks of different fizes, with the remains of chap. vii. 18. 19. ‘ And it ftiall come to pafs, in that
feveral others which have been deftroyed by the Turks, day, that the Lord ftiall hifs for the fly that is in the
There is alfo a great fquare ftone with an infcription, uttermoft part of the rivers of Egypt ; and they ftiail
but fo much effaced that nothing can be difcovered come and ftiall reft all of them in the defolate valleys,
excepting fome Greek and Latin letters, and the word and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and
Bqfilius. Mr Bruce mentions fome “ prodigious frag- upon all bufhes.” ‘ That* is (fays Mr Bruce), they
ments of coloffal ftatues of the dog-ftar” ftill to be feen fhall cut off from the cattle their ufual retreat to the
at this place; “ and 5«V (adds he), which, in the lan- defert, by taking poffeffion of thefe places, and meet-
guage of the Troglodytes, and in that of the low coun- ing them there, where ordinarily they never come, and
try of Meroe, exadfly correfponding to it, fignifies a which therefore are the refuge of the cattle.'
dog, inftrudts us in the reafon why this province was
called Sire, and the large river which bounds it Siris.”
’Soon after building the city of Axum, the Cuftu'tes
founded that of Meroe, the capital of a large iftand or pe-
Meroe, which lay in N. Lat. 160, the exaft limit of
the tropical rains, was without the bounds affigned by
nature to thefe deftrudfive infedls ; and confequently a
place of refuge for the cattle. Mr Bruce, on his return
ninfula formed by the Nile, much mentioned by ancient through the defert, faw at Gerri, in this latitude, ruins.
hiftorians, and where, according to Herodotus, they
purfued the ftudy of aftronomy in very early ages with
why great fuccefs. Mr Bruce gives two reafons for their
^ building this city in the low country after having built
Axum in the mountainous part of Abyflinia. 1. They
had difcovered fome inconveniences in their caves both
fuppofed to be thofe of Meroe, and caves in the moun¬
tains immediately above them 5 for he is of opinion,
that they did not abandon their caverns immediately
after they began to build cities. As a proof of this,
he mentions that Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was built
by a colony of Ethiopians ; and that near the ruins of
Sire and the country below it, arifing from the tro- that city, a vaft number of caves are to be feen even up
pical rains in which they were now involved, and which
prevented them from making the celeftial obfervations
to which they were fo much addidted. 2. It is pro¬
bable that they built this city farther from the moun¬
tains than they could have wifhed, in order to avoid
the fly with which the fouthern parts were infefted.
This animal, according to Mr Bruce, who has given
to the top of a mountain in the neighbourhood: all of
which are inhabited at this day. By degrees, how¬
ever. they began to exchange thefe fubterranean ha¬
bitations for the cities they built above ground ; and
thus became farmers, artificers, &c. though originally
their foie employment had been commerce. li
On this fubjedt Mr Bruce has given a very curious Of the
•ription a tigure °f it* >s the molt troublefome to quadrupeds differtation; though how far the application of it to the magn‘fi-
pefti- that can be imagined. He informs us, that it infefts Ethiopians may be juft, we cannot pretend to deter-cIejlce °.t
al fly. thofe places within the trupical rains where the foil is mine. He begins with obferving, that the magnifi-
black and loamy, and no other place whatever. It is cence of the Indians and Egyptians has been celebrated ii^-pca
named (by whom we are not informed), and has not from the moft remote antiquity, without any account
beendefcribedby any other naturalift. It is of afize fome- of the fourcesfrom whence all this wealth was derived:
what larger than a bee, thicker in proportion, and ha- and indeed it muft be owned, that in all hiftories of
ving broader wings, placed fepa’rate like thofe of a fly, .thefe people, there is a ftrange deficiency in this re-
and quite colourlefs, or without any fpots. The head fpedt. The kings, we are to fuppo.fe, derived their
Vol. VI. Part II. 5 B fplendor
E T H [ 746 1 E T H
Ethiopia, fplendor and magnificence from their fubjefts ; but we grow fpontaneoufly in that ftripe of ground from the Ethiopia-. '
v are quite at a lofs to know whence their fubje&s had Bay of Bilur weft of Azab to Cape Gardefan, and 
it : and this feems the more ftrange, that in no period then foiithward up in the Indian ocean, to near the
of their hiftory are they ever reprefented in a poor coaft of Melinda, where there is cinnamon, but of an
or mean fituation. Nor is this difficulty confined inferior kind.” As the Cufhites or Troglodytes ad-
to thefe nations alone! Paleftine, a country produ- vanced ftill farther fouth, they met not only with moun¬
ting neither filver nor gold, is reprefented by the fa- tains, in which they might excavate proper habitations,
cred writers as abounding in the early ages with both but likewife with great quantities of gold and filver
thofe metals in a much greater proportion than the moft furniihed by the mines of Sofala, which, our author
powerful European ftates can buaft of, notwithftanding fays, furnhhed “ large quantities of both metals in
the vaft fupplies they derive from the lately difeovered their pure and unmixed ftate, lying in globules with-
continent of America. The Affyrian empire, in the out any alloy or any neceffity of preparation or re¬
paration.” In other parts of his work, he lab
time of Semiramis, wasfo noted for its wealth, that M.
Montefquieu fuppofes it to have been obtained by the
conqueft of fome more ancie'nt and richer nation ; the
fpoils of which enriched the AfTyrians, as thofe of the
latter afterwards did the Medes. This, however, Mr
Bruce very juftly obferves, will not remove the difficul¬
ty, becaufe we are equally at a lofs to know whence the
wealth was derived to that former nation; and it is very
unufual to find an empire or kingdom of any extent 1
paration.” In other parts of his work, he labours to
prove Sofala to have been the Ophlr mentioned in fcrip-
ture. I3 I
Thus the Ethiopians, for fome time after their fet-The hthioJB
tlement, according to Mr Bruce, muft have been a na-Pians _ J
tion of the firft importance in the world. The
northern colonies from Meroe to Thebes built cities, learned1 ■
and made improvements in architefture ; cultivated people. ‘V
commerce,- agriculture, and the arts ; not forgetting
riched by conqueft. The kingdom pf Macedon, for the fcience of aftromomy, for which they had an ex-
inftance, though Alexander the Great over-ran and cellent opportunity by reafon of the clearnefs of the
plundered in a very Ihort time the richeft empire in Iky in the Thebaid. Their brethren farther to the
the world, could never vie with the wealth of Tyre and fouth, or thofe who inhabited Ethiopia properly fo
cm ... iMi   called, were confined for fix months to their caves by
Sidon. Thefe laft were commercial cities ; and our
thor juftly confiders commerce as the only fource from
whence the wealth of a large kingdom ever was or could
be derived. The riches of Semiramis, therefore, were
reafon of the tropical rains, whence they were natural¬
ly led to purfuits of another kind. “ Letters *, at leaft * Bruces I
...         ,    one kind of them, and arithmetical chara&ers (we are *
accumulated by the Eaft India trade centring for fome told), were invented by this middle part of the Cuffiites;p'3 3‘ 1
time in her capital. While this wasfufFered to remain while trade and aftronomy, the natural hiftory of the
undifturbed, the empire flouviflied : but by an abfurd winds and feafons, were what neceffarily employed that
expedition againft India itfelf, in order to become part of the colony eftablifhed at Sofala moft to the
miftrefs at once of all the wealth it contained, fhe loft fouthward.” i4 *j
that which Ihe really poffefled t and her empire was While the Cufhites were thus employed at home in Account o|
foon after entirely ruined. To the fame fource he at- collecting gold, gathering and preparing fpices, &c.rlie Ethio* |
tributes the riches of the ancient Egyptians; and is of thefe commodities were fent abroad into other conn-e^"|
opinion, that Sefoftris opened up to Egypt the com- tries by another fet of people named Shepherds, who
merce with India by fea ; though other authors fpeak acted as carriers to them, and who afterwards proved
of that monarch in very different terms. As the luxu- fo formidable to the Egyptians f. Thefe differed in • See E- c
of India have fome how or other become the ob- their appearance from the Ethiopians, having longgypt, n°
hair, and the features of- Europeans ; and were of a
very dark complexion, though not at all like the black-
moors or negroes. They lived in the plain country
in huts or moveable habitations, attending their cattle,
and wandering up and down as various circumftances
required. By atfting as carriers to the Cufhites, they
jedts of defire to every nation in the world, this eafily
accounts for the wealth for which Egypt has in all
ages been fo much celebrated, as well as for that with
which other countries abounded; while they ftrved as a
medium for tranfmitting thefe luxuries to other na¬
tions, and efpecially for the riches of thofe which
naturally produced the Indian commodities fo much became a great and powerful people, poffeffing vaft
fought after. This was the cafe particularly with Ara- numbers of cattle, as well as a very confiderable ex-
bia, fome of the productions of which were very much tent of territory. They poffeffed a ftripe of land along
coveted by the weftern nations ; and being, befides, the the Indian ocean ; and to the northward of that, ano-
medium of communication between the Eaft Indies and ther along the Red-Sea: but their principal habita-
weflern nations, it is eafy to fee why the Arabian tion was the flat part of Africa between the northern
merchants foon became poffeffed of immenfe wealth. tropic and the mountains of Abyffinia, which country
Befides the territories already mentioned, the Cu- is now called Bcja. This reaches from Mafuah along
fhites had extended themfelves along the mountains the lea-coaft to Suakem ; then turns weftward, and
which run parallel to the Red Sea on the African fide; continues in that direction, having the Nile on the
which country, according to Mr Bruce, has “ in all fouth, the tropic of Cancer on the north, with the
times been called Saha, or Aiabo, both which ffgnify deferts of Selima and Libya on the weft. The next
South; 9 an epithet given from its lying to the fouth- diftriCt belonging to thefe people was Meroe, 1
ward of the Arabian gulf, and which in ancient times
was one of the richeft. and moft important countries in
the world. “ By that acquifition (fays our author),
they enjoyed all the perfumes and aromatics in the
eaft; myrrh, and frankincenfe, and caffia y all which
called Atlara, lying between the rivers Nile and Afta-
boras. A third diftriCt, now called Derkin, is a final!
plain lying between the river Mareb on the eaft and
Atbara on the weft But the moft noble and warlike
of ail the Shepherds were thofe who poffeffed the
mountains
E T H
mountains of Habab, reaching from the neighbourhood
of Mafuah to Suakem; which didrict is ftill inhabited
by them.
Thefe Shepherds, according to our author, were
ftnlclaffes of diftinguifhed by feveral different appellations, which
[ 747 1
E T H
ftroyed by a flood that it received the name of Oure Ethiopia..
Midra, or a country laid wafte; “ or (fays our author) '
as it is called in feripture itfelf, a land which the waters Ti,e Conn¬
er floods had /polled” (Ifaiah xviii. 2.) The peopling ny laid
of the country was finiflied about 1400 years befbre wade by a-
may be fuppofed to denote different degrees of rank Chtift, by the fettlement of a great number of people, deluSe*
among them. Thofe called limply Shepherds, our au¬
thor fuppofes to have been the common fort who at¬
tended the flocks. Another fet were called Hycfos or
Ayfos, fignfying “ armed Ihepherds,’' who are fuppofed
to have been the foldiers. A third were named Agag,
fuppofed to be - the chiefs or nobles of thefe armed
fhepherds ; whence the title of king of kings, according
to Mr Bruce, is derived ; and he fuppofes Agag killed
by Samuel, to have been an Arabian Ihepherd.
The building of Carthage augmented the power
fpeaking different languages, who fat.down peaceably
in the high lands of Tigre, in the neighbourhood of
the Shepherds, with whom they were in friendfliip.
Thefe people, according to tradition, came from Pa-
leftine; and our author is inclined to believe the whole
of the relation to be true, as the time coincides with
the expulfion of the Canaanitilh nations by Jofhua,
which happened about 1490 B. C. ten years before
which there had been, according to Paufanias, a flood
Ethiopia which occafioned prodigious devaftation.
of the Shepherds to a confiderable degree, by reafon of Ethiopia, he thinks, would afford the moll ready afy-
the vaft quantity of carriage, naturally belonging to a
place of fuch extenfive commerce, and which fell into
the hands of the. Lehabim, Lubim, or Libyan pea-
fants. An immenfe multitude of camels, in the early
ages, anfwered the purpofe of navigation : arid thus
we find that commerce was carried on by the Iflimael-
ites as early as the days of Jofeph from the fouthern from the face of Joffnia, the fon of Nun, the robber."
iJ Reaion of extremity of the Arabian peninfula. Thefe Shep- The authenticity of thefe inferiptions, however, is
'l ^ ^er^s» however, though generally the friends and allies much difputed, and therefore it cannot go a great
theWShtp- t^>e Egyptians, who were alfo Cufliites, fometimes Way in ettabliihing any hiftorical point. The firlt
herds and proved very bitter enemies to them, as is related in
# Egyptians, the hiftory of that country. The reafon of this may
be deduced from the great oppofition betwixt their
manners and cuftoms. The Egyptians worfhipped
black cattle, which the Shepherds killed and ufed as
food; the latter worlhipped the heavenly bodies, while in the territory of Gafat.
lum for the fugitive Canaanites, as they muff have
long had a commercial intercourfe with that country ;
and he fupports the opinion likewife from what Proco¬
pius mentions of two pillars extant in his time, on the
coaft of Mauritania, with the following infeription iu
the Phoenician language : “ We are Canaanites, flying
and moft confiderable of the colonies above mention¬
ed fettled in the province of Amhara ; the fecond in
Damot, one of the fouthern provinces ; the third in
another province called Lajla, or Tcheratz-Agow,
from Tchera their principal habitation; and a fourth
the Egyptians were the grofleft idolaters, and worfhip¬
ped idols of all kinds that can be imagined. Hence
a mere difference in religion might occafion many
bloody quarrels; though if the above account can be
depended upon as authentic, it is natural to imagine
that the mutual connexion ©f intereft fhould have
Our author goes on to prove, that the Ethiopians
in ancient times were not only the moft. learned people
in the world, but that they fpoke the original lan¬
guage, and were the inventors of writing. In what
manner they came to degenerate from this charadler,
and into their prefent ftate of barbarity, cannot be
cemented their friendfliip, whatever difference there known ; this being a phenomenon equally unaccount-
17
Origin
might happen to be in opinions of any kind.
Befides the Cufhites'and Shepherds, however, we
able with the degeneracy of the Egyptians. Ac- 1Q
ding to fome authors, the Ethiopians were conquer- EthinpJa
i| the diffe- mutt now feek for the origin of thofe different nations ed by Mofes: of which tranfa&ion we have the follow- conquered
• 1 Pt-ViiV. i  1   j    _ ;—  a. 'B,.r i by Mofes*
t Ethio- which have already been mentiond. Mt Bruce allows
™9na" that there are various nations inhabiting this country,
who are fairer than either theCufhites or the Shepherds,
and which, though they have each a particular name,
are all known by the general title of Habejk: which
ing account. Before the time of that legiflator, the
Ethiopians poffeffed the country of Thebais in Egypt:
but, not content with this, they made an irruption
into the Lower Egypt, and penetrated as far as Memr
phis; where, having defeated the Egyptians, they
may be tranffated by the Latin word fignifying threatened the kingdom with total deftrudtion. The
a number of diftind people meeting accidentally in Egyptians, by the advice of their oracles, put Mofes at
one place; and which our author maintains againft the head of their forces ; who immediately prepared for
Scaliger, Ludolf, and a number of others, to be a very invading the enemy’s country. The Ethiopians ima-
juft tranflation, and exceedingly confonant to the hifto-
ry of the country.
Firft fettle- ^le mo^ authentic ancient hiftory of this country,
meat of E-according to Mr Bruce, is the chronicle of Axum :
th opia, ac-the charadler of which, among the modern Abyffinians,
’ ftands next to the facred writings themfelves; and
f lldilVJO ilCAL LV7 Lllv- CclV—l WIILIIJ^O L J11 111 it. 1V O 9 dllli
finian hi- 'confequently muft be efteemed the higheft Abyflinian
flory.
authority we have on the fubjedt. According to
gined that he would march along the banks of the
Nile ; but Mofes chofe rather to pafs through fome of
the interior countries, though greatly infefted with fer-
pents, and where confequently his march mufc be at¬
tended with much danger. To preferve his men, he
conftrudted a number of chefts or panniers of the
Egyptian reed papyrus, which he filled with the birds
named Ibis, celebrated for their antipathy to ferpents.
this book, there was an interval of 5500 years between As foon as he approached the traft abounding with
the creation of the world and the birth of Chrift; thefe reptiles, a fufficient number of the birds were
1808 years before which laft event the empire of let out, who prefently cleared the way for the army
Abyffinia or Ethiopia received its firft inhabitants, by deftroying the ferpents. Thus the Ethiopians
Two hundred years after its fettlement, it was fd de- were furprifed in their own country where they had
5 5 B 2 dreaded
E T H [ 748 1 E T H
^Eth)opia dreaded no invafion ; their forces, being defeated in that the princefs Ilyled The Qieen of Sheba in Scripture
' the field, were at laft (hut up in the capital Meroe, a was really fovereign of Ethiopia. “ Ethiopia (fay
city almoft impregnable, by being furrounded with they) is more to the fouth of Judaea than the territory
three rivers, the Nile, Aftapus, and Artaboras. The or kingdom of Saba in Arabia Felix;. confequently
daughter of the Ethiopian monarch, however, having has a better claim than that country for the dominions
. an opportunity of feeing Mofes from the walls, fell in of the princefs whom our Saviour calls The Queen of
love with him, and offered to deliver up the city, pro- the South. Ethiopia is ftyled the remotejlpart of the ha-
vided he would fwear to marry her. With this re- bitalle world by Herodotus and Strabo ; and therefore
ejuifition the Jewilh legifiator complied; but treated better agrees with what our Saviour has faid of the
the inhabitants with great feverity, plundering the queen of Sheba, that (he came from ‘ the uttermoll
city, and putting many of the inhabitants to death, parts of the earth,’than Arabia. Nor can it be deem-
After this he ravaged the whole country, difmantling ed a fufficient reply to this argument, that Arabia
all the places of itrength ; and having thus rendered Felix was the uttermoft part of the earth in refpedt to
the Ethiopians incapable of attempting any thing Judaea, fince it was bounded by the Red Sea : for that
againft other nations for a cpnfiderable time, he re- not only Egypt, but even Ethiopia, regions beyond
turned in triumph to Egypt, after an abfence of ten that fea, were known to, and had a communication
years. with, the Jews, both bt’fore and in our Saviour’s time.
From the time of Mofes to that of Solomon there is indifputably clear. Lafily, from what has been fug-
is a chafm in the Ethiopic hiftory. After this, how- gefted, it appears no improbable conjecture, that Ju-
ever, we are furniflred with fome kind of regular ac- daifm was not only known, at leaft in a part of Ethi-
Ofthe counts. The hiftory commences with the queen of opia, but nearly related to the eftabliftied religion
q :een of Sheba, who came to vifit the Jewilh monarch, and there, at the beginning of the apoftolic age, if not
Sheba. whom the Abyflinians fuppofe to have been fovereign much earlier. After all, thefe two opinions, fo con-
of Ethiopia Propria : but Mr Bruce is uf opinion that trary in appearance, may be made confident without
(lie was only fovereign of that territory on the eaftern great difficulty ; fince it is agreed, that Arabia and
coaft of Africa named Saba, which he fays ought to Ethiopia have anciently borne the fame name, been in-
be her title inftead of Sheba. In favour of this opi- eluded during certain intervals in one empire, and go-
nion he likewife urges, that it was cuftomary for the verned by one prince. Part of the Arabs and Ethio-
Sabeans, or inhabitants of the African diftridt named pians had the fame origin, and very confiderable numr
Saba, to be governed by women ; whereas thofe who bers of the Abafeni tranfported themfelves from Arabia
inhabited the oppofite fide of the Arabian gulf, and Felix into Ethiopia; a circumftance which fufficiently
who were named Sabtean Arabs or Homerites, were not proves the intercourfe that formerly fubfifted between
only governed by kings, but would not allow their the Cuffiites or Ethiopians of Afia and Africa.”
fovereigns to go abroad any where under pain of being The Abyffinian hiftorians farther inform us, that the
(ioned to death. The Abyffinians, as has been already young prince Menilek was anointed and crowned king
hinted, claim her for their fovereign; and he informs us, in the temple of Jerufalem, before he returned to his
that having received an account from Tamerin, an E- own country; that Azarias was conftituted high-prieft;
thiopian merchant, of the furprifing wifdom and wealth that he brought with him an Plebrew tranfeript of the
of Solomon, (he undertook the journey mentioned in law ; and though this book is now loft, having been
Scripture, to afeertain the truth of the report. In burnt along with the church at Axum, the office is (till
this (he was attended by a great many of her nobility, continued in the line of Azarias, whofe fucceftbrs are
carrying along with her alfo magnificent prefents for ftyled Nebrits, high-priejis, or keepers of the church, in
the monarch (he intended to vifit. According to the that city ; both church and ftate being modelled ex-.
Abyffinian hiftorians, (he was a pagan at the time this adftly after that of Jerufalem. Makeda continued to
journey w'as undertaken ; but being (truck with ad- enjoy the fovereignty for 40 years; and the laft adt of
miration at the fight of Solomon’s grandeur; and the her reign was to fettle the (ucctffion to the throne,
wifdom he difplayed, (he became a convert to the true By this adt the crown was declared hereditary in the
religion. Another part of her hiftory, by no means family of Solomon for ever ; it was alfo determined,
inconfiftent with the charadfer of Solomon, is, that (he that after her no woman ffiould be intitled to wear the
returned in a ftate of pregnancy ; and within a year crown or adt as fovereign of the country ; but that
Was delivered of a fon, named David by Solomon; but the fovereignty (hould defeend to the moft diftant heirs
by his mother Meni’ek, Menelech, or Meneleheck; that is, male, rather than to the females, however near; which
another felf. When he grew up, he was fent to be edu- two articles were to be confidered as fundamental laws
catedat the court of his father Solomon; where having of the empire, not to be abolifhed. Laftly, that the
(laid fome time, he was accompanied home by many male heirs of the royal family (hould always be fent
dodlors of the law, and other Ifraelites of diftindtion, prifoners to a high mountain, where they were to be
particularly Azariah the fon of Zadoc the high-prieft. confined till they (hould be called to the throne, or as
By thefe thejewiih religion was eftabliftied in Abyffinia, long as they lived This cuftom, according toMr Bruce,
where it continued till the introdudlion of Chriftianity. was peculiar to Abyffinia; the neighbouring Shepherds
The princefs we fpeak of is named Makeda, Balkis, or being accuftomed to have women for their foviyeigns,
Bulkis, by theAbyffinians. By our Saviour, and in the which prevailed in the laft century, and perhaps does
Ethiopieverfion of the Scriptures, (he is ftyledT^eJS^wf,7 fo at prefent.
of the South, and is faid to have come from the uttermoft Makeda having eftabliftied thefe laws in fuch a man-
parts of the earth or of the habitable world. Hence ner as not to be revocable, died in the year 986 B. C.
the compilers of the Univerfal.Iiiftory have inferred, The tranfadliohs of her fon Menilek after his acceffion
x ' are
E T H
T 749 ]
E T H
Ethiopia. are not pointed out, farther than that he removed in's tions of antiquity will be brought lower by ages than Ethiopia.
in. vi.tr, 'Ti'rrrp Mia rpicrn ran hv no means be ar- bv the nfnallv rereived rnmnutatinns. Arrardinor to * ' '"
capital to Tigre. His reign can by no means be ac¬
counted profperous; fince in his time the empire was
invaded by Shifhak or Sefac the king of Egypt, who
plundered the temple of Jerufalem under Rehoboam.
The like fate attended a rich temple which had been
jnquered at Saba the capital of the Ethiopian empire, and
* t’tu " which might very probably occafion the removal of the
Ethiopia
by the ufually received computations. According to
this, the Argonautic expedition happened in the time
of Amenophis; though fome Greek writers inform us,
that the fame prince alfifted Priam king of Troy with
a body of forces. He was fucceeded by Ramefles, al¬
ready mentioned, who built the northern portico of the
temple of Vulcan at Memphis. The next was Moeris;
imperial feat to Tigre, as already mentioned. It is who adorned Memphis, and made it the capital of his
indeed pretty plain from Scripture, that Ethiopia, or empire, about two generations after the Trojan war.
great part of it, was fubjedt to this monarch ; as the Cheops, Caphrenus, and Mycerinus, fucceeded in order
Ethiopians or Cufhites mentioned in.his army which to Moeris; the laft being fucceeded by his liiter Ni-
invaded Judaea, are joined with the Lubims or Liby- tocris. In the reign of Afychis her fucceflbr, both
ans, and mull therefore be accounted inhabitants of Ethiopia and AfTyria revolted from Egypt; which,
Ethiopia Proper. This is indeed no fmall confirma- being now divided into feveral fmall kingdoms, was
tion of the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton, who agrees quickly fubdued by Sabacon or So, the emperor of
/with Jofephus in fuppofing Shifhak to have been the Ethiopia. This monarch, foon after his accehion to
celebrated Sefoftrts of profane hiftcrians. Thus far the throne of Egypt, allied himfelf with Hofhea king
we are certain, that in the paflage of Scripture juft of Lrael ; by which means the latter was induced to
now alluded to, the facred hiftorian indiredfly aferibes revolt from the Affyrians; and in confequence of this,
the fovereignty of Ethiopia to Shifhak ; and we do an end was put to the kingdom of Ifrael by Slialma-
not find it any where hinted that another Egyptian nefer king of AfTyria, in the 24th year of the era of
monarch was pofleffed of this fovereignty. Herodotus Nabonaffar, and 720th before the commencement of
alfo plainly tells us, that Sefoftris was mafter of Ethi- the Chriitian era. According to Herodotus, this mo¬
narch voluntarily refigned the crown of Egypt after he
had enjoyed it 50 years ; but Africanus relates, that
after a reign of eight years, he died in Egypt, in the
ninth year of Htzekiah king of Judah. His fucceflbr
Scthon, fuppofed to be the Sevechus of Manetho, ad- Sennache'-
opia, and that no other Egyptian but himfelf
poflefied that empire.
During the reign of Shifhak we know no particu-
» after ^ars concerning the Ethiopians ; but after his death,
time of Sir Ifaac Newton is of opinion that they defended
Shifliak. Egypt againft the Libyans, who had taken an oppor- vanced to Pelufium with a powerful army againft Sen-rlb defeat-
tun ity of invading the country during the civil war nacherib king of AfTyria; when the bowftrings of the ^r)y Se"
which took place on the death of that great conqueror. AfTyrians were gnawed in pieces by a great number of
In about ten years afterwards, however, according to rats or mice, and thus they were eafily defeated with
the fame author, they became aggreffors; drowned the great {laughter by the Egyptians. Hence Herodotus
fucceffor of Shtfhak in the Nile, and feized on the informs us, that the ftatue of Sethon which he faw in
whole kingdom; at which time Libya fell alfo into their Egypt had a moufe in its hand. Sir Ifaac Newton,
hands. In the time of Afa king of Judah, we find the however, explains the whole in an allegorical manner,
combined hoft of the Ethiopians and Lubims or Li- As the moufe among the Egyptians was a fymbol of
byans making an attack on the territories of that deftru&ion, he conjectures, that the Affyrians were on
prince, to the number of more than a million. This this occafion overthrown with great {laughter ; and
maybe reckoned a confiderable confirmation of the that Sethon, in conjunction with Terhakah, either king
SerTby P‘ece hHLuy juft mentioned ; as it is not eafy to of the Arabian Cufhites, — - c--1 ->
Afa kin.
•fJudah.
conceive how the two (hould combine in fuch a man¬
ner, unlefs Zerah was mafter of both. The total over¬
throw which the allied army received from Afa, gave
the inhabitants of Lower Egypt an opportunity of re¬
volting ; who being fuftained by an army of 20,000
auxiliaries from Phoenicia and Paieftine, obliged Mem-
non, fuppofed to be the fame with Amenophis, to re¬
tire to Memphis. Soon after this he was forced to
leave Egypt altogether, and to retire into Ethiopia ;
but in about 13 years he returned with his fon Ra-
meffes at the head of a powerful army, and obliged the
Canaanitifh forces to retire out of the Lower Egypt; a
tranfadion denominated by the Egyptian writers the
Jeccnd rxpulfion of the Shepherds.
Of Menes Sir Ifaac Newton is of opinion, that the Egyptian
and kisfuc-pr;nces Menes, Memnon, and Amenophis, were the
ceffors. parne perfon . anc| thj,t by him Memphis was either
originally built or firft fortified, in order to prevent
the Egyptians from entering Ethiopia. He is alfo
fuppofed to have been the fon of Zerah, and to have
died in a very advanced age about 90 years after the
deceafe of Solomon. Thus, according to Sir Ifaac
Newton’s chronology, the moft-. remarkable tranfac-
a relation of Sethon and
his viceroy in Ethiopia Proper, furprifed and defeated
Sennacherib betwixt Libnah and Pelufium, making
as great flaughter among his troops as if their fhield-
ftraps and bowftrings had been deftroyed by mice. 27
In the 78th year of the era of Nabonaffar, the em- Ethiopia
pire of Ethiopia was fubdued by Efaj-haddon king of ^bdne t by
Affyria ; who held it three.years, committing enor-^rha<**
mous cruelties both in that c-untry and in Egypt.
After his death the Ethiopians (hook off the yoke, and
maintained their independency till the time of Cyrus the
Great the fiiil king of Ptriia ; who, according to the
Greek hiftorian Xenophon, fee ms to have alfo been
fovereign of.Ethiopia. After his death they revolted, 2S
and his fon Cambyfes unfuccefsfully- attempted to re-Unf ceefs-
duce them. Herodotus informs us, that before he un- fu' expedi-
dertook this expedition, he lent E rne of the lehthyo- ion f
pi tag i ambaffadors to the king of the Macrobii err long- ^
lived Ethiopians, under pretence of foliciting his friend- c unoy.
{hip, but in icality to obferve the Itrength of the coun¬
try. Of this the Ethiopian prince was aware, and told
the ambaffadots that he knew their defign, reproached
Cambyfes with his injuftice and ambi ion, and gave-
them his bow; telling them at the lame time, that the-
Perliuns
Ethiopia
E T H t 75° 1
Perfians niight think cf invading Ethiopia when they of people.
■ could eafily bend it; and in the mean time, that their ’
mailer ought to thank the gods who had never in-
fpired the Ethiopians with a defire of extending their
territories by conqueft. Cambyfes had fent by the
ambaffadors a rich purple robe, gold bracelets, a box
of precif us ointment, a veffel full of palm wine, and
other things, which he imagined would be acceptable
to the Ethiopian monarch. But all thefe, excepting
E T H
. . One of thefe inhabited the Afiatic coaft, Ethinpid
and differed from the Indians only in their hair and v 
language. Their arms were the fame with thofe of
India ; they wore helmets made of the fltins of horfes,
the ears and manes of which ferved them for tufts and
plumes of feathers; their fhields being made of the
fltins of cranes. Tiie hair of the Afiatic Ethiopians
was long, but that of the weftern tribes was frizzled.
The latter were alfo differently armed, having darts
the wine, were defpifed. This, he owned,.was fuperior lighted at one end and covered with leather. We are
to any liquor produced in Ethiopia; and he did not
fcruple to intimate, that the Perfians, fhort-lived as
they were, owed mo'ft of their days to the ufe of this
excellent liquor. Being informed by the ambaffadors,
that a confiderable part of the food made ufe of by
the Perfians was bread, he faid that it was no wonder
to find people who lived on clung unable to attain the
longevity of the Macrobian Ethiopians. In fhort, the
whole of his anfwer was fo contemptuous and difguft-
ing, that Cambyfes was filled with the greateft indig¬
nation ; in confequence of which, he infiantly began
his march without taking time to make the neceffary
not informed particularly from what nations thefe
troops were brought, nor whether they W'ere natural
fubje&s of the king of Perfia or only auxiliaries: of
confequence we can conclude nothing certain concern¬
ing the dominion of the Perfian monarchs at this time
over Ethiopia, farther than that they might poffefs
fome of the provinces next to Egypt; while the main
body of the empire being in a ftate of independence,
and unconnected with other parts of the world, is
not taken notice of by the hiftoiians of thofe times.
Though Alexander the Great had a defire to know
the fources of the Nile, he did not fuffer himfelf to be
preparations, or even to procure provifions of any kind diverted by this curiofity from purfuing his grand ex-
for his army. Thus a famine enfued among them ; pedition into Perfia. Ptolemy Euergctes, however, Ethiopi
which at laft became fo grievous, that the foldiers were appears to have carried tl%i-nriofitv to fuch an extre- cauquo
o gnevou:
obliged to eat one another: and Cambyfes himfelf,
finding his life in great danger, was obliged to give
orders for inarching back again; which was not ac-
complilhed without the lofs of a great number of feription that he penetrated to the fartheft: parts of the
mity as to invade Ethiopia for no other purpofe. It
is furpfiiing that the particulars of this expedition are mv Euer'
not recorded by any hiftorian, as it appears by an in-gete8'
29
Ethiopia;
this time
powerful
Another army which he fent on an expedition
againft Ammonia, in order to deftroy the celebrated
oracle of Jupiter Ammon, perilhed entirely in the de¬
farts, being overwhelmed with the vail clouds of fand
frequently raifed there by the wind.
: At this time, it is doubtful whether Cambyfes would
1 have accomplifhed his purpofe even if he had found it
empire, and conquered the moil powerful nations in it.
Of this we have the following account, which is looke 1
upon by the bed hiilorians to be authentic. Jt was
copied on the fpot (being the weftern entrance to A-
dulc, one of the cities of Ethiopia) by Cofmas Egypti-
us, or, as fome call him, Cofmas Indifcoplenftes, in the
time of the emperor Juftin I. by order of Eltfbaan
practicable to march into the heart of Ethiopia. This king of the Axumites, and of which the followins? ac-
 • 1 j t _ n   _ i__r    • j - -  *   l. .1. . r , - , .
empire had but a (hort time before received a very
confiderable acceflion of ftrength by the defertion of
240,oco Egyptians who had been polled by Pfamme-
nitus in different places on the frontiers. Thefe not
having been relieved for three years, had gone over at
once to the emperor of Ethiopia, who placed them in
a country difaffefted to him; ordering them to expel
Ethiopia the inhabitants, and take poffelfion of their lands. Not-
fnppofed by withftanding this, however. Sir Ifaac Newton hints,
Newton to t^at Cambyfes conquered Ethiopia about the 223d or
have been 224th year of the era ofNabonaffar; but his opinion
conquered in this refpeft does not appear to be well founded,
by Camby-We are told indeed, that the Perfian monarch, not-
k®* withftanding the misfortunes he met with in the expe¬
dition above mentioned, did really make himfelf ma¬
iler of fome of the Ethiopic provinces which bordered
on Egypt; and that thefe, together with the Troglo¬
dytes, fent him an annual prefent of two chamixes of
unrefined gold, 200 bundles of ebony, five Ethiopian
boys, and 20 elephants teeth of the largell fize: but
it appears improbable to the laft degree, that even
though Cambyfes had employed the whole of his reign
in the attempt, he could have conquered the vaft re¬
gions of Ethiopia Proper, Sennaar, and Abafiia, which
31. were all included in the Ethiopia of the ancients,
employed* When Xerxes invaded Greece, we find his army,
by Xerxes, according to Herodotus, was partly cqmpofed of Ethi¬
opians, of whom Herodotus mentions two diftind races
count is given by the perfon who copied It. “ Heiv
(fays he), facing the road to Axuma, flood a chair of
white marble, confiiting of a fquare bafe, a fmall thin
column at each angle of this bafe, with a larger
wreathed one in the middle, a feat or throne upon
thefe, a back and two fides. Behind this chair there
was a large Hone three cubits high, which had fuftain-
ed confiderable injury from time. This Hone and
chair contained an infeription to the following pur¬
pofe : ‘ Ptolemy Euergetes penetrated to the fartheft
parts of Ethiopia. He fubdued Gaza, Agame, Signe,
Ava, Tiamo or Tziamo, Gambela, Zingabene, An-
gabe, Tiama, Athagaos, Calaa, Semene, Lafine, Zaa,
Gabala, Atalino, Bega, the Tangaitas, Arine^Metine,
Sefea, Raufo, Solate, the territory of Raufo, and feve-
ral other kingdoms. Among the nations he reduced,
were fome inhabiting mountains always covered with
a deep fnow; and others feated upon ridges of hills,
from whence iffued boiling fleams and craggy preci¬
pices, which therefore feemed inacceffible. Having
finally, after all thefe conqnefts, affembled his whole
army at Adule, he facrificed to Mars, Neptune, and
Jupiter ; for his great fuccefs, he dedicated this chair
or throne to Mars.’
From the time of this conqueror to that of the em- Comjucft
peror Auguftus, we meet with nothing of any confe- of Hthio-
quence relating to Ethiopia Proper. The Roman Pia by the
forces having about this time been drawn out of E- Roml'‘*•
gypt
E T H [ 75* ] E T H
Ethiopia, gypt in order to invade Arabia, Candace queen of E-
'“'—'v thiopia, or perhaps rather of the iiland or peninfula of
Meroe, took the opportunity of their abfence to make
an irruption, with a numerous army, into the province
of Thebais. As there was at that tipae no force to
oppofe her, (he met for fome time with great fuccefs;
but hearing at laft that Petronius, governor of Egypt,
was in full march to attack her, fire retired into her
own dominions. Petronius purfued her as far as
Pfelcha, where with 10^000 men he gained an eafy
vi&ory over 30,000 undifciplined Ethiopian favages,
armed only with poles, hatchets, and other clumfy or
infignificant weapons of a fimilar nature. This vic¬
tory was foon followed by the redu&ion of feveral
fortreffes ; however, as the Roman foldiers were ex-
ceflively incommoded by the heat of the climate, Pe¬
tronius, notwithftanding his fuccefs, was obliged at
laft to retire. Soon after, Candace fent ambaffadors
to Auguftus himfelf with fuch magnificent prefents,
that the emperor is faid to have been thereby induced
to grant her a peace on her own terms. From this
time the Romans accounted themfelves mafters of
Ethiopia: Auguftus was complimented on the great
glory he had acquired ; and that he had, by reducing
a country till that time unknown even to the Romans,
finilhed the conqueft of Africa. No material altera¬
tion, however, took place in the affairs of Meroe in
confequence of this conqueft, whether real or pretend¬
ed. Pliny informs us that it had been governed by
queens, who bore the title of Candace, for feveral ge¬
nerations before that time; and fo it continued to be
afterwards, as we learn from Scripture, where we are
informed that, in the reign of Tiberius, the lovereign
of Ethiopia was ft ill named Candace. Some indeed
are of opinion that the Candace mentioned in the Adis
of the Apoftles was the fame with her who had been
conquered by Auguftus; but this feems by no means
probable, as the interval of time is by far too long to
be allowed for the reign of a iingle princefs.
From an anecdote of the debauched emperor Helio-
gabalus, who was accuftomed to confine his favourites,
by way of diverfion, with old Ethiopian women, we
may learn that fome intercourfe took place between
the two empires, and probably that the Ethiopians
owned fome kind of fubjedtion to the Romans. The
34 Blemmyes, a gang of monftrous banditti, who inhabited
Account ofthe frontiers of Thebais, were vanquilhed by the em-
the Blem- peror Probus : but, towards the clofe of the third cen-
myes' tury, we find them again become fo powerful, that in
conjunction with another nation called Noiata, who in¬
habited the banks of the Nile near the Upper Egypt,
they committed fuch depredations in the Roman ter¬
ritories, that Dioclefian was obliged to affign lands to
the latter, and to pay both of them a confiderable fum
annually, to defifl from their former practices. Thefe
expedients did not anfwer the purpofe ; the favages
continued their depredations till the time of the em¬
peror Juftinian, who treated them with more feverity,
and obliged them to remain at peace. We are told
by Procopius, that before the time of Dioclefran, the
Roman territories extended fo far into Ethiopia, that
their boundaries were not 23 days journey from the
capital, fo that probably the whole empire had been in
a ftate of dependence on them.
From the time of this emperor to that of their con-
verfion to Chriftianity, we find nothing remarkable in Ethiopia,
the hiftory of the Ethiopians. Three hundred and * 1 ^
twenty-feven years are counted from the time of our
Saviour to that of Abreha and Atzbeha, or from A-
bra and Alba, who enjoyed the kingdom when the Ethiopians
gofpel was preached in Ethiopia by Frumentius. This converted
man was a kinfman and companion of a philofopher to Chridia-
named Meropius, a native of Tyre ; who having tra- ”lty
veiled all over India, died on an iiland of the Red Sea.
After his death Frumentius, with another named JE-
de fius, who had alfo been his companion, were brought
before the king of Ethiopia, to whom that iiland was
fubjed. He took them into his fervice ; making the
one his treafurer and the other his butler. On the
death of this prince, the queen conceived fuch a favour
fqr them, that Ihe refufed to allow them to depart out
of the kingdom ; but committed the management of
her affairs entirely to Frumentius, who made ufe of
his influence to diffufe the Ulmftian religion through¬
out the country, and at laft was appointed bilhop of
Axuma. It is faid, however, that the court and princi¬
pal people, if not the nation in general, relapfed into
idolatry, which continued to prevail till the year 521,
when they were again converted by their king Adad,
or Aidog.
The two princes Abra and Alba, who reigned
jointly in Ethiopia in the time of Frumentius, lived in-
fuch harmony together, that their friendlhip became 35
almoft proverbial. After being converted to Chriftia- The tw®'
nity, they adhered ftriftly to the orthodox doctrine, ^”8* re'
refufing to admit an Arian bilhop into their country. ^ ”
In the time of the emperor Conftantius, however, thisniim,
herefy was introduced, and greatly favoured by that
monarch; and an attempt was made to depofe Fru¬
mentius on account of his refufal to embrace it. 37
The reign of thefe princes is remarkable for an ex-^'ccoun<:
pedition into Arabia Felix, called by the Mohamme-0
dan writers the war of the elephant, and which was phant.
undertaken on the following occafion ; The temple of
Mecca, fituated nearly in the middle of the Arabian
peninfula, had been held in the greateft veneration for
near 1400 years ^ probably from the notion entertain¬
ed by the people in the neighbourhood, that Adam
pitched his tent on that fpot. Here alfo was a black
llone fuppofed to poffefs extraordinary fanclity, as be¬
ing that on which Jacob laid his head when he had
the vifion of angels. The moft probable account of
the real origin of this temple, according to Mr Bruce^
is, that it was built by Sefoftris, and that he himfelf
was worlhipped there under the name of Oiiris.
On account of the veneration in which this tower
and idol were held by the Arabians, Mr Bruce fup
pofes that the thought was firft fuggefted of making
it the emporium of the trade between India and Afri
ca ; but Abra, in order to divert it into another chan¬
nel, built a very large temple near the Indian ocean-
in the country of the Homerites; and, to encourage
the refort of people to this new temple, he beftowed
upon it all the privileges of the fornyer which flood in
the city of Mecca. The tribe of Arabians named
Korel/h, in whofe country Mecca flood, being exceed¬
ingly alarmed at the thoughts of having their temple
deferted, entered the new one in the night, burned all
that could be confumed, and befmeared the remains
with human excrements. Abra, provoked at this fa-
Ethiopia.
39
Firft ap¬
pearance
fmall-pox.
Chriiiiani-
ty under
Eielbaan.
ChrilHans
perfecuted
in Arabia
Jewiili
prince.
K T H f 75
crllege, affembled a confiderable army, with which he
inverted Mecca, himfelf appearing on a white elephant,
from whence the war took its name already mentioned.
The termination of the war, according to the Arabian
hiftorians, was miraculous. A vaft number of birds
named Ababil came from the fea, having faces like
lions ; each carrying in its claws a fmall ftone about
the fize of a pea, which they let fall upon the Ethio¬
pian army in fuch numbers, that every one of them
was deftroyed. At this time it is faid that the fmall-
pox firft made its appearance; and the more pro¬
bable account of the deftru&ion of the Ethiopian ar¬
my is, that they perirtied by this diftemper.
The war of the elephant is fuppofed to have termi¬
nated in the manner above-mentioned about the year
36c ; from which time to that of Elefbaan, named ai-
fo Caleb, and probably the fame, with the Adad or A-
dag already mentioned, we meet with nothing re¬
markable in the Ethiopic hiftory. He engaged in a
war with the Homerites or Sabseans in Arabia Felix ;
whom he overthrew in battle, and put an end to their
kingdom ; after which he embraced the Chriftian reli¬
gion in token of gratitude for the fuccefs he had met
with. In the time of this prince a violent perfecution
of the Chriftians took place in Arabia. The Jewifti
religion had now fpread itfelf far into that peninfula ;
and in many places the profeflbrs of it were become
abfolute mafters of the country, infomuch that feveral
Jewifh principalities had been ere&ed, the fovereigns
of which commenced a fevere yierfecution againft the
Chrirtians. Among the reft, one Phineas diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by his cruelty, having prepared a great
number of furnaces or pits filled with fire, into which
he threw thofe who refufed to renounce Chriftianity.
The Chriftians applied for relief to the emperor Juftin;
but he being at that time engaged in a war with the
Perfians, could not interfere: however, in the year
522, he fent an embafly to Elefbaan, who was now
alfo a member of the Greek church, intreating him
to exert himfelf for the relief of the Chriftians of Ara¬
bia. On this the emperor commanded his general A-
breha, governor of the Arabian, province Yemen, to
march to the affiftance of Aretas, fon to a prince of
the fame name whom Phineas had burnt ; while he
himfelf prepared to follow* with a more confiderable
force. But before the arrival of the Ethiopian mo¬
narch, young Aretas had marched againft Phineas,
and entirely defeated him. In a flroit time afterwards
the emperor himfelf arrived, and gave Phineas a fe-
cond defeat: but notwithflanding thefe misfortunes, it
does not appear that either the principality of Phineas
or any of the other Jewifti ones, was at this time over¬
turned , though it feems to be certain, that at the
time w*e fpeak of, the Ethiopians pofleffed part of the
Arabian peninfula. According to the Arabian hifto-
rians, the war of the elephant, with the miraculous de-
ftruftion of the Ethiopian army already mentioned,
took place in the reign of Eleftaan.
Some hiftorians mention, that the Ethiopian mo-
narchs embraced the dodlrines of Mahomet toon after
the impoftor made his appearance ; but this feems not
to be well founded : though it is certain that the
Najajhi or Ethiopian governor of Yemen embraced
Mahommedanifm, and that he was related to the royal
family. On this occafion, however, the Ethiopians
N° 119.
2 ] E T H
loft all the footing they once had in Arabia ; the go- Ethioph.
vernors being expelled by Mohammed and his fuc- v——»
ceflbrs. They fled to the African fide of the Red :
Sea with numbers of their fubje&s, where they erected np()Ut
feveral fmall kingdoms, as Adel, Wypo, Hadea, Mara, of Arabia,
and others which ftill continue.
During the conquefts of the caliphs, the Jews were
for fome time every where driven out of their domi¬
nions, or oppreffed to fuch a degree that they volun- 45
tarily left them. Ethiopia offered them an afylum :Number of
and in this country they became fo powerful, that
revolution in favour of Judaifm feemed ready to take creafecj
place. One family had always preferved an indepen¬
dent fovereignty on a mountain called Samen, the
royal refidence being on the top of an high rock; and
feveral other high and rugged mountains were ufed by
that people as natural fortreffes. Becoming by de¬
grees more and more powerful, Judith the daughter
of one of their kings formed a defign of overturning
the Ethiopian government, and fetting afide the family
of Solomon, who had hitherto continued to enjoy the
fovereignty. This defign was facilitated by feveral cir- Ro5,ai fa_
cumftances. The empire had been weakened by an un-m;iy „f K-
fuccesful war, famine, and plague ; the throne wrasthiopia
poffeffed by an infant; and the abfurd cuftom of con- maffucred
fining the whole royal family on a rock named Damo,
'gave her an opportunity of cutting them all off at 47
once by furprifing that place. Fortunately, however, The king
the king himfelf efcaped the genetal cataftrophe, andef«Pes'
was conveyed by fome of the nobility of Amhara to
the province of Xoa or Shoa; by which means the line
of Solomon was preferved, and afterwards reftored,
though not till after a very confiderable interval. 4g
Judith having by this maff icre eftabliftied her own Judith u-
power, affumed the imperial dignity, though in direftiurps the ■
oppofition to an eftabbfiied and fundamental law of t^rone‘
the empire already mentioned, that no woman ftiould
enjoy the fovereign power. The people, however,
feemed to have fubmitted quietly to her government,
as Ihe fat on the throne for 40 years, and afterwards
tranfmitted the fovereignty to her pofterity ; five of
whom reigned fucceffively in this country. We are
not furnifhed with any particulars concerning their
reigns; farther than that, during them, the people were
greatly oppreffed. By fome means, of which hiftorians
have not given any account, another revolution took
place, and a new fet of ufurpers, related to the family of
Judith, but not their diredl lineal defeendants, fucceed-
ed to the throne. Thefe were Chriftians, and govern- A new rs-
ed with much greater lenity than the Jewith fovereigns volut‘on
had done ; but ftill, being ufurpers, none of their tranf-talces Placc*
a&ions are recorded in the Abyffinian annals, excepting
thofe of Lalibala, who was accounted a faint. He
lived in the end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th ^
century, and proved a great prince. At that time chriftians
the Chriftians in Egypt were grievoufly perfecuted by , erfecuted
the Saracens, who had a particidar abhorrence at ma- Egn*1
fons, builders, and ftone-cutters ; looking upon them '
as the chief promoters of idolatry by the rnaments
they put upon their works. Thefe were joyful¬
ly received by Lalibala; who, by affording them an
afylum in his dominions, foon colledted a great num¬
ber. They were employed by him in hewing churches
out of the folid rock, after the example of the anci¬
ent Troglodytic habitations; and many works of this
kind
E T H [ 753 ] E T H
'jf Ethiopia, kind remain in the country to this day. He under-
— took, however, a ftill more difficult and arduous taflc;
1 _ 51. no lefs than that of leflening the ftream of the Nile,
6] undertakes an^ thus ftarving the whole kingdom of Egypt
M to diminifli now in the hands of his enemies, and who perfecuted
o the ftream thofe of his religion. From the account given by
} of the Nile. Bruce 0f this projedl, it appears that there really
is a poffibility in nature of accomplifhing it; not in¬
deed by turning the courfe of the Nile itfelf, but by
diverting that of many of its branches, which are the
means of conveying into it the water fupplied by the
tropical rains, and by which it overflows its bank an¬
nually. We are likewife aflured by the fame author,
that Lalibala fucceededin his enterprize fo far as to di¬
vert the courfe of two large rivers from the Nile, and
that they have ever fmce flowed into the Indian-ocean.
He next proceeded to carry a level towards a lake
named Zacvia, into which many rivers, whofe ftreams
contribute to increafe that of the Ndej empty them-
felves; and had this been accomplilhed, there is no
doubt that the lofs of fo much water would have been
very fenfibly felt by the Egyptians. According to
moil hiftorians, this enterprizing monarch was pre¬
vented by death from putting his defign in execution;
though Mr Bruce informs us of a written account at
Shoa, in which it was aiferted, that he was difluaded
from it by certain monks, who told him, that by fend¬
ing down fuch a quantity of water to the eailern and
dry parts of Africa, thefe countries would foon become
fo fertile and populous that they would rival the em¬
pire of Ethiopia, or at leaft withdraw their allegiance
from it entirely. The remains of thefe works were
feen by the Portuguefe ambaflador in 1522.
Reftc.ration All this time the princes of the line of Solomon
of the line had been obliged to content themfelves with the fove-
ofSolomon, reignty of the province of Xoa or Shoa, without
making any attempt to regain their former dignity;
but they w ^e unexpectedly reftored without blood-
ihed or diflurbance by Naacueto Laeb the grandfon
of Lalibala above mentioned. This prince, being of
a gentle and pacific difpofition, was perfuaded by a
monk named Tech Haimanout, greatly celebrated for
his fan&ity, to refign the crown, to which, though he
received it from his father, he could not pretend any
abfolute right. In confequence of the mediation of
this monk, therefore, it was agreed that Naacueto
fhould give up the empire to Icon Amlac the lineal
defeendant of Solomon, who then poffefied the fove-
reignty of Shoa. In confequence of this a portion
of lands fliould be irrevocably and irredeemably affigned
to him and his heirs ; and he Ihould likewife be allow¬
ed fome marks of fovereignty as a teftimony of his
former grandeur. In this treaty, however, the good
monk did not forget his own intereft. He had found¬
ed a famous monaftery in Shoa, and was primate of
the whole empire under the title of Abuna. He now
infifted that one third of the kingdom of Ethiopia
fliould be abfolutely ceded to himfelf for the mainte¬
nance of his own dignity, and the fupport of the cler-
Vol.VI. Part II.
gy, convents, See. throughout the country; he alio Ethiopia,
infifted that no native Abyffinian fliould ever enjoy
the fame dignity with himfelf, even though he fliould
have been chofen and ordained at Cairo, as was the
cuftom with the Abyffinian prelates. * ^
Thefe extraordinary terms were complied with, and Uncertain-
Icon Amlac raifed to the throne of Ethiopia. He T °I thf
did not, however, remove the feat of government from
the province of Shoa; but continued at Tegulat the a con(-1(jer..
capital of that province during the whole of his life-able time,
time, which continued 15 years after his acceffion to
the throne of Ethiopia. We are ignorant of the tranf-
aftions of his reign, as'well as that of feveral of his
fucceflbrs; five of whom afeended the throne in as
many years. From this quick fucceffion Mr Bruce is
of opinion, that a civil war had taken place among
the candidates for the throne : but the Abydflnian an¬
nals make no mention of this; neither have we any
particular account of the tranfadlions of the empire 54
till the time of Amda Sion, who began to reign iitRei8inof
1312. He was the fon of Wedem Araad, the young-Am aSlon*
eft brother of Icon Amlac, and fucceeded to the
throne on the death of his father. He profefled the
Chriftian religion; but h|s pra&ice feems to have been ^
very oppofite to its precepts. He began his reign He is ex-
with living publicly with a concubine of his father’s; communi-
and quickly after committed inceft with his two fifters.
On this he was firft exhorted to repentance, and then,nce ‘
excommunicated, by Honorius, a monk greatly cele¬
brated for his fandlity, and who has fince been ca¬
nonized. The prince, enraged at this indignity,
caufed the faint to be feverely whipped through every
ftreet of his capital. That night the town was by
fome#unknown means fet on fire and reduced to
allies : the clergy perfuaded the people, that the blood
of Honorius had turned to fire as it dropped on the $(,
ground, and thus occafioned the cataftrophe ; but the The monk*
king Ijifpedting that the monks themfelves had been haniftied.
the incendiaries, banilhed or imprifoned them all, fo
that their hopes of exciting an infurreftion were dif-
appointed; and being difperfecj into thofe provinces
where the inhabitants were moftly Jews or Pagan,
they were now obliged to apply to what was certainly
more incumbent upon them, viz. the diffufiori of the
knowledge of the gofpel.
While the king was bulled with the monks, one of
the fa&ors, who had been entrufted with fome of his
commercial interefts, was alfaffinated by the Moors in
the province of Ifat; on which, without making the Hisg£,e(jj
leaft complaint or expoftulation, he alfembled his tion ag*ajn^
troops, and withfeven horfemen ( a ) fell upon the neareft the Maho-
Mahometan fettlefnents, malfacring all he met without metans.
exception. Putting himfelf then at the head of his
army, he proceeded in the moll rapid career of defola-
tion, laying wafte the whole country with fire and
fword, and carrying off an immenfe booty.
For fome time the Moors were fo furprifed that
they did not think of making oppofition ; but at laft
they took up arms, and attempted to furprife the
5 C Abyffinian
(a) On this Mr Bruce remarks, that “ it has been imagined the number Ihould be increafed to 70; but
there would be little difference in the ralhnefs of thu aftion.” The word in the Abyffinian annals which he
tranflates is feven ; but if we increafe the number at all, it ought more probably to be to /even hundred than
feventy.
E T H
[ 754 1
E T H
Ethiopia. Abyflinian monarch in his camp, hearing that he had
' ' fent out moft of his army in detachments. With this
They at- v'ew approached the camp in the night-time, ex¬
tack his pedHng to have found the king and his few foldiers
camp intheimmerfed in deep. Unexpectedly, however, he had
niyht with- bggu i0;ned by a confiderable pa-1 of his army, whom
out fuccefs. 1 , . J. A
he drew up in battle array to receive his enemies. An
engagement enfued, in which the king behaved with
. His fpeech-
fore, and a monk of uncommon fanftity dreffed in the Ethiopia
fame habit in which he ufually performed divine fer- —v—
vice, the king made a long fpeech againlt the Maho-...
metans. He recounted the many violences which 
they had committed ; and of which the kings of Adel pi ck nee o£
and Mara had been principal promoters. He enume-his army,
rated many examples of murder, facrilcge, &c. of
which they had been guijty ; fetting forth alfo that
great valour ; killed the Moorifh general with his own they had carried off great numbers of Chriftians into
hand, and gained a complete vi&ory. He then com¬
manded fuch of his foldiers as ci uld not find houfes
ready built, to build huts for themfelves, and a large
trad of land to be plowed and fown, as if he meant to
59 flay in the country of the enemy during the rainy feafon.
They fub- The Mahometans now perceiving that they were in
niI.t’k,l>ut danger of being totally exterminated, willingly fub- he
volt aga'in. m>Hed to the terms he pleafed to impofe upon them; that,
while the monach conciliated the affe&ions of his peo¬
ple by dividing among them the vaft plunder he had
acquired in this expedition.
The Moors-no fooner found themfelves freed from
any apprehenfions of immediate danger, than they pre-
flavery, and that the view of making flaves v
a great motive with them for making war. He dif-
claimed every idea of commencing hoftilities from any
avaricious motive; as a proof of which, he denied
that he would accept of any part of the plunder for
his own ufe; concluding with a declaration, that
now about to fwear on the holy eucharift,
though but 20 of his army Ihould join him,
he would not turn his back upon Adel or Mara, till
he had either forced them to tribute, and fubmiffion,,
or entirely extirp>ated them and annihilated their re--
ligion.” After this fpeech, he took the oath in the
prefence of the whole army; who not only applauded
pared for a new revolt. The king having intelligence of him with loud fiiouts, but protefted that they looked
their defigns, fecretly prepared to fubdue them before
theycould have time to bring theirmatters to a fufficient
bearing. The Moors, however, being better prepared
than he expe&ed, began hoftilities by furprifing and
plundering fome villages belonging to the Chriftians,
and deftroying their churches. A moft formidable
upon themfelves to be all bound by the oath he had ^
taken. As he had mentioned in his fpeech that the £nt]lllflilfali,
plunder had been purchafed by the lives of their of his
Chriftian brethren, they determined to {how their ab- troops,
horrence at keeping any of it on thefe tjerms. Taking
lighted torches in their hands, therefore, they fet fire
combination had taken place ; and as the confequence to the whole plunder that had been amaffed fince the
of allowing the confederate rebels to join their forces beginning of the war ; and having thus reduced them¬
felves to a ftate of poverty, they prepared to ftiow their
Chriftianity by thirfting, not after the wealth, but the
blood of their enemies.
Nbtwithftanding the enthufiafm of the whole army
on. this occafion, the expedition was attended with 66
ight have been very dangerous, the king ufed his
utmoft endeavours to prevent it. This defign was in
6o fbme meafure facilitated by the fuperftition of A mano
King of king of Hadea, one of the principal rebels. This
fcateTand man’ ky t^ie advice of a conjurer in whom he put
taken pri- great confidence, inftead of marching his troops to the great difficulties. Thefe arofe principally from fuper- Exceffive
foner. afliftance of his allies, remained at home with them* ftition; andas, on the one hand, the Abyffinians were by
where he was defeated and taken prifoner by a de- ' ;j ---J— —,:j—1-1~   ° otll
tachment of the king’s army. The governor of Am-
hara was next difpatched againft Saber-eddin the re¬
volted governor of Fatigar, with orders to lay wafte
the country, and ufe every method to force him to a
battle, if he ftiouldbe difinclined to venture it himfelf.
Thefe orders were punftually executed ; Saber-eddin
waa compelled to ftand an engagement, in which he
was defeated; the vi&ors plundered his houfe, and
took his wife and children prifoners. But in the
mean time intelligence was received of a new revolt
Another
rebel chief
defeated.
ftition; and ay
this principle laid under confiderable difadvantages,t;eSr
their adverfaries on the other enjoyed equal advantages
from no better caufe. The Abyfiinians, according to
Mr Bruce, are very credulous with refpeft to genii or
fpirits which go about doing mifehief in the dark.
Hence they are afraid of travelling, but efpecially of
fighting, in the night-time ; becaufe they imagine that
the world is then entirely given up to thefe beings, who
are put out of humour by the motions of men, or of any
other terreftrial creature. In the night-time therefore an
Abyflinian dares not even throw a little water out of a ba-
among the Falaftia, who had affembled a great army, fon, left it (houid fall upon fome fpirit and provoke it to
and threatened to become very formidable ; their chief vengeance. The Moors, on the other hand, though'equal-
keeping a clofe correfpondence with Saber-eddin, as ly fearful, fecure themfelves againft thefe invifible enemies
The Fala- well as with the king of Adel- Thefe, however,
fha defeat- (hared the fame fate with the reft, being entirely de-
*d- feated by Tzaga Chriftos another Abyflinian general,
who foon after joined the king with his whole army..
This proved fatal to the rebel caufe : Saber-eddin, no
longer able to fupport himfelf againft the royal forces,
, was obliged to furrender at diferetion, and all the reft.
The king were ftu'cUy reduced; fo that the king was at leifute to than any other for coming to an engagement. Senfible
marches a- march againft the kings of Adel and Mara, who having of this advantage, and encouraged by the little lofs
gainft Adel,now united their forces, refolved to give him battle. '''    1   j-r—- .i,„r a. 1 
Mara, &c. this the Abyflinian monarch was fo exafperated,
that he determined to take a moft ample vengeance on
his enemies. In the prefence of his whole army, there¬
by means no lefs ridiculous than the fears themfelves. A
verfe of the Koran, fewed up in leather, and worn round
their neck or arm, is fufficient to defy the power of
the moft mifehievous genii. Under fuch powerful pro-
teftion, therefore, they laugh at the terrors of the Abyf-
ftnians, and are on all occafions ready to attack them
in the night-time, and even choofe that feafon rather
67
hich attended even a defeat in thefe no&urnal encoun-The king*
ters, they determined on the prefent occafibn to avoid troops ha-
any pitched battles, and to content themfelves with. ^
haraffing the king’s army by continual ikirmilhes of
this.
E T H [ 755 1 E T ft
TEtliioj 'a, this kind. Thus, though the Abyfiinian monarch had
always the advantage, his troops foon began to com¬
plain ; and, on the commencement of the rainy fea--
{bn, intlfted on being allowed to return.—This was by
no means agreeable to a prince of fuch a martial dif-
pofition as Amda Sion. He therefore told them, that,
if they were afraid oTrains, he would conduct them to
a country where there were none ; meaning Adel,
which, though likewife within the limits of the tropi¬
cal rains, has them at another feafon than that in which
they fail in Abyfiinia. Thus he perfuaded his army
again to fet forward : but was fo grievoufly haraffed
by the nofturnal attacks of the Moors, that he was
once more in danger of being deferted ; and when by
his eloquence he had found means to diffipate the ap-
prehenlions of the foldiers, he was feized with fuch-a
He is feizcil violent fever as thre.ttened his life. The foldiers now
with a dan-expected that they were foon to return; but while
rous fe- they indulged themfelves in the carlefihefs which ufual-
ly attends an expectation of this kind, they accidentally
received intelligence that the Moors, havmg affembled
an army of 40,000 men, were in full march to attack
them, and at a very fmall diltance. The king was
n< »*' free from fever, but fo weak that he fainted on
attempting to put himfelf in readipefs for'going oiit to
battle. Still, however, his refolution continued firm
and unalterable; having recovered from his faint, waih-
ed and refrelhed himfelf, he made a fpeech to his fol¬
diers, filled with the moft enthufiaftic expr^ffions of
confidence in the juftice and goodnefs of the caufe in
which he was engaged, and in the continuance of the
divine favour and ,prote6lion. “ As it never was my
opinion (faid he), that it was my own (Irength and
valour, or their want of it, which has fo often been
the caufe of preftrving me from their hands; fo I do
not fear at prefent that my accidental weak^efs will
give them any advantage over me, as long asT trull in
God’s power as much as I have ever done.” By this
fpeech the drooping fpirits of the Abyffinlans were re¬
vived; and they only begged that their monarch would
^ now truft to the valour of his troops, and not expofe
His troops his perfon to fuch danger as he had ufually done. He
dilhearten- promtfed to comply with their requeft; but matters
were foon thrown into confufion by a report that the
Moors had poifoned the wells and enchanted all the
running water in the front of the army. The poifbned
wells, however, were eafily avoided; and a pried of
vad fan&ity was difpatched a day’s journey before
the army to difenchant the waters by his blefiings ;
which, having the advantage of the good qualities of
the element itfelf on their fide, were doubtlefe more
powerful than the fpells of the infidels. N< t content
with this, the king caufed a river to be confecrated by
the name of Jordan ; but while his men were employ¬
ed in bathing themfelves in this holy water, the Fits-
Auraris, an officer who had been difpatched with a
party of men who always go before the Abyffinian ar¬
mies, was attacked and driven back on the main body
by a detatchment of the enemy, who had along with
jo them a number of women provided with drugs to poi-
They are fon and fpells to enchant the waters. On this a dread-
feized with^ fu] panJc fe;ZC(l the whole army ; who, unmindful of
STt’o the Promife8 made to their king, not only refufed to
engage. advance, but for the moft part Came to the refolution
of leaving their camp, and returning homewards without
delay. The king, fenfiblethat all was loft ifthisperni- EihlopTa.
ciousfeheme Ihouldie adopted, did hisutmoft toencou- * *
rage and perfuade them to return to their duty ; but per¬
ceiving that nothing was to be gained by reafoning with
men fo mhch terrified, he only requefted that fuch as
could not be induced to fight, would not leave their -r
places, but Hand quiet fpeftators of the battle. Even He begins
this had very little effect : fo that, finding the enemy fight
now ready to make an attack, he ordered his mailer
of the horfe, with only five others, to attack the left a!fts,
wing of the enemy; while he, with a finall party of
his fervants, made an attack on the right. This de-
fperate action was attended with fuccefs. The king,
notwithftar.ding the weaknefs he yet laboured under,
killed with his own hand two of the commanding of¬
ficers of’fa^ enemy’s right wing; while his fon dif¬
patched another of confiderable rank belonging to the
left. This had fuch an effeCb upon the whole Moorilh
army, that they began evidently to lofe courage; while
the Abyffinians, alhamed of their conduct, now rallied
furioufly on to refcue their prince from danger. The
battle continued for fome time with great obftinacy ;
but at laft the centre and left wing of the Moors were
entirely defeated. The right wing, compofed'principally The Moors
of Arabians, retired in a body ; but, not knowing the d':feat€d»
country, they entered a deep valley furrounded by .per¬
pendicular rocks entirely covered with wood. The A-
byffinians, imagining they had nothing more to do,
began to ftrip and mangle the bodies of the killed and
wounded ; but the king, perceiving that the Arabians
had brought themfelves into a fituation from whence
they never could be extricated, obliged his foldiers to
defift from this barbarous employment, and even killed 73
two of them who difobeyed his orders. The army And almoft
was then divided into two parts, one of which fur-^tlreiycut
rounded the devoted Arabians, while the other was
fent a day’s journey after the remainder of the Moors.
Both parties proved equally fuccefsful. The king with
part of his divifion attacked the Arabians in front,
while the reft rolled great ftohes down from the tops
of the rocks upon them. By this they were thrown
into fuch confufion, that being neither able to fly nor
refift, they were all killed to a man. The fate of the
Moors was little betteh The other divifion of the
Abyffinian army found them lying round a large pool
of water which they lapped like as many dogs. In
this helplefs fituation there was nothing requifite but
to order them to be flaughtered ; and this cruel order
was executed with the utmoft precifion. The foldiers,
imagining they ffiruld now difcharge their vow to hea¬
ven, wearied themfelves with daughter; till at laft,
being almolt fatiated with blood, they made a few pri-
foners, among whom was Saleh king of Mara with
his queen ; the former of whom was hanged by order
of Amda Sion, and the latter cut in pieces and her
body given to the dogs by the foldiers. 74
This ilgnal victory was gained in the end of July Amda Sion
1316 ; but as the rains at that feafon fet in with vio-P“rfues hl*
lence, moft of the army now again infifted on their re-a van age‘
turning home without delay. The king and principal
officers, however, were of opinion, that the advantages
fo dearly purchafed ought by all means to be purfued
till they had either reduced the Mahometans to fubjec-
tion, or at lead deprived them of all power to make at¬
tacks on the empire with any profpe£t of fuccefs. This
5 C 2 opinion
U T H [ 756 3 E T H
Ethiopia, opinion being adopted, the king fent back the baggage,
'     women, and others who could be of no ufe to the ar¬
my ; retaining only the veteran foldiers, who were able
75 to encounter more than fix times the number of fuch
His further enemies as he could expefk to meet with. Advancing
conquefts. farther into the Mahometan territories, he took up his
reftdence in a large town called Zeyla ; from whence
he, that very night, fent out a detachment to furprife
a large village in the neighbourhood named Taraca.
This was executed with fuccefs.; the men were mafia-
cred, and the women kept to fupply the places of thofe
who had been fent away Continuing ftill to advance,
he detached parties to lay wafte the countries all round;
and in this expedition he had the good fortune to cut
76 off two of the principal authors of the confpiracy
Adelinva- againft him. He then proceeded to invade Talab and
ded. Abalge in the territories of the king of Adel. That
monarch, now rendered defperate by the view of ap¬
proaching ruin, had aflembled all the troops he could
raife, in order to make one laft effort againfl the ene¬
my ; but conduced himfelf with much lefs prudence
than he ought to have done when contending with fuch
an experienced and vigilant adverfary. Amda Sion,
confident of fuccefs, took no lefs care how to prevent
the enemy from efcaping than how to gain the vi&ory.
For thispurpofe hedifpatched parties of horfe to lie in
wait in all thofe avenues by which he fuppofed that the
Moors might attempt to make their efcape; after which,
77 falling furioufly on the Adelians himfelf, and being
TheHng wen fUpp0rted by his troops, he gained a complete vic-
feated^nd" tory ’ the king of Adel, with great numbers of his
tilled. nien, being killed on the fpot, and almoft all the reft
by the parties of horfe whom the Abyffinian monarch
had pofted in ambufh to intercept them.
As the lofs of this battle rendered the affairs of the
Adclians quite defperate, the three young princes, fons
to the late king, with their uncle, waited upon Amda
78 Sion with rich prefents, which they laid at his feet
The princes in the moft humble manner, putting their foreheads
ef Adelfub- jn t},e an(j ;ntreating his pardon ; profeffing their
fubje&ion and readinefs to obey his commands, provi¬
ded that he would fpare the remainder of their country
and property. To this the king made a very unfa¬
vourable reply, reproaching them with indignities done
to himfelf; but efpecially with the facrilege they had
committed in burning churches and murdering priefls,
deftroying alfo defencelefs people in villages, merely
becaufe they imagined that he would not protect them.
To punifli thefe and other crimes, he faid, he was now
in the heart of their country ; and^e was determined
never to turn his back upon Adel while he had ten men
capable of drawing their fwords ; for which reafon he
commanded them to return and expedl the approach,of
his army.
By this fierce fpeech the brother and two eldeft
children of the king of Adel were fo difheartened, that
they could not fpeak ; but the youngeft fon made a
very fpirited fpeech, in which he attempted to foften
the king by complimenting his valour, and (bowing
that it was unworthy of his charadler to pufh the war
againft a people who were already conquered and de-
Are unfa- fencelefs. All the anfwer he could obtain, however,
vourably was, that unlefs the queen with the reft of the royal
received, family, and the principal people of the nation, would
come by to-morrow evening and furrender themfelves
as the princes had done, he would lay wafte the terri- Ethiopia,
tory of Adel, from the place where he fat to the Indian —yr-"'
ocean. On this the princes earneftly requefted their
mother to fubmit without referve to the clemency of
the Abyfiinian monarch, and to wait upon him next
morning ; but fhe was prevented from this by fome of
the nobility who had formerly advifedthe war, and who
juftly fufpefted danger to themfelves if they fhould be 80 IJ
obligedtofubmitunconditionally to theconqueror. They The war
refolved, therefore, to venture a battle once more; andcoruinue8*
the better to enfure fuccefs, they bound themfelves by
an oath to ftand by each other to the laft extremity.
At the fame time they difpatched meflengers to the
princes, requefting them to make their efcape with all
manner of expedition, and to head the army themfelves;
tdl of whom were determined to conquer or die as fooq
as the royal family Ihould be out of the enemy’s hands.
By this conduft the Abyffinian monarch was fo much
irritated, that he divided his army into three parts; two
of which he commanded to enter the territory of the
enemy by different routes, and to exterminate both man
and bead; wherever they came ; while he himfelf, with
the third, took the ftraight road to the place where
the new Adelian army was encamped. Here he foSnd An
a number of infantry drawn up and ready to engagenate at
him ; but, befides thefe, there was a multitude of old
men, women, and even children, all armed with fuch
weapons as they could procure. Surprifed at this
fight, he ordered a party of horfe to difperfe them ; but I
this was found impoffible ; fo that he was obliged to
call in the detachments he had fent out, with orders to
fall upon the enemy by the neareft way they could ad¬
vance. The engagement was for a long time very
doubtful; and in oppofition to Amda Sion appeared
the young king of Wypo, who every where encoura¬
ged his troops, and made the moft obftinate refiitance.
The Abyffinian monarch having obferved him, (beathed
his fword, and arming himfelf with a bow, chofe the
broadeft arrow he could find, and took fojuft an aim, that
he (hot the young prince through the fide of the neck,
and his head inclining to dne (houlder he foon fell
down dead. On this the fpirit of the Adelians entire¬
ly forfook them, and they betook themfelves to flight;
but unluckily falling in with two Abyffinian detach-
mentscoming to the king’s relief, they were fo complete¬
ly deftroyed, that only three of them are faid to have 82 1
made their efcape. On the fide of the Abyffinians, The Meor-
however, the vidtory was dearly purchafed ; many of.ar?1)r !
the principal officers being killed, and fcarcely one of^tlieyCUi
the cavalry efcaping without a wound. 83 1
The remainder of this expedition confided only in Dreadful j
the deftmftion and burning of towns and villages, and devafta- a
maffacres of helplefs people, on pretence of retaliating ‘ J
the injuries committed by the Mahometans againft the
Chriftians. At laft, weary ofconqueft and of carnage*
this victorious monarch, who never fuffered a defeat in
any battle, returned in triumph to his capital, where 84
he ended his days after a reign of 30 years. In his The royal
time we find that the royal family were not confined,
as had been the ufual practice from the time of the3°formerJ
queen of Sheba to the maffacre by Judith ; for Saif ly.
Araad, the fon and fuceeflTor of Amda Sion, diftinguifti-
ed himfelf in one of the battles in which his father
was engaged.
Though the new prince, as appears from what has
been.
E T H [ 757 1 E T H
Ethiopia been juft now obferved, was by no means deftitute of
^ - militaiy talents, the Abyffinian empire enjoyed a pro-
Rfien of f°und peace during his reign. The only remarkable
Saif Araad. tranfaclion was the relief given by him to the Coptic
patriarch, whom the fultan of Egypt had thrown into
prifon. At this time a great trade was carried on
through the defart by caravans between Cairo and
Abyffinia, as well as from Cairo and Suakem on the Red
Sea ; but the Ethiopic monarch having feized the mer¬
chants from Cairo, and fent parties of horfe to inter¬
rupt the caravans in their paffage, the fultan was foon
content to releafe the patriarch, whom he had imprifo-
ned only with a view to extort money.
Of Theodo- In the reign of Theodorus, who held the crown of
rus. Ethiopia from the year 1409 to 1412, we find an in¬
fringement made on the treaty between icon Amlac
and the Abuna Tecla-Haimanout formerly mentioned.
By that treaty the Abuna was to have a full third of
the whole empire for the fupport of his own dignity
and that of the church : but Theodorus, juttly confi-
' dering this as an unreafonable acquifition, reduced it
very confiderably, though he ftill allowed a very ample
revenue out of every province of the empire ; and even
this has been confidered by feveial of his fucceffors as
far too large, and has confequently been frequently
abridged by them. The annals of this prince’s reign
are very defediive, and Mr Bruce fuppofes that they
have been mutilated by the ecclefiaftics; which, confi-
87 dering what we have juft now related of his reducing
Is celebra- their revenues, is by no means improbable. By his
faint'8 1 Eibjefts he was confidered as fuch a faint, that to this
day the people believe he is to rife again and to reign
a thoufand years in Abyfiinia; during which period
war is to ceafe, and happinefs to be univerfally diffufed.
From the time of Theodorus to that of Zara Jacob,
88 who began his reign in 1434, the Abyffinian annals fur-
Zara Jacob nifh us with little or nothing, of any confequence. The
Sofotn°onUalcharaaer °f th'S prirtce is reprefented as by no means in-
0 on.on. fer;or to tjjat; 0f Theodorus, or indeed of any monarch
that everfat on the throne of Ethiopia, or any other king¬
dom in the world. He is in fhort fet forth as another So¬
lomon, and a model of what fovereigns ought to be ;
though, from feme particulars of his reign, this charac-
ter ihould feem to be rather exaggerated. The firft
Sends an remarkable tranfaffion of this great monarch was his
embaffy to fending an embaffy to the council of Florence. The
^ecouncil ambaffadors were certain priefts fromJerufalem, who in
«i orence. ajpeirlpiy adhered to the opinions of the Greek
church ; and the embafly itfelf was judged to be of fuch
confequence as to be the fubjeft of a picture in the Va¬
tican. This prince obtained alfo a convent at Rome
from the pope for the ufe of the Abyffinians; which
is ftill preferved, though very feldom vifited by thofe
for whom it was defigned. He feems to have been very
defirous of keeping up a correfpondence with the Euro¬
peans as well as the Afiatics ; and in his time we firft
read of a difpute in Abyffinia with the Frangi or Franks
on the fubjedt of religion. This was carried on in pre-
A art for^ence ^ie ^etween <>ne Abta George and a Ve-
thJchu^'clT net'an Pointer, Francifco de Branco Lone, in which
of Rome the former confuted and even convinced his antago-
fermed. nift ; but from this time we find a party formed for the
church of Rome, and which probably took its rife from
the embaffy to the council of Florence.
The prince of whom we now treat was the firft who
3
introduced perfecution on a religious account in- Ethiopia
to his dominions ; and for this reafon moft probably v
he is fo highly commended by the ecclefiaftics. Rciig^ou*
ftate of religion in Abyffinia was now indeed very perfecution
corrupt. The Greek profeffion had been originally introduced,
eftablilhed from the church of Alexandria ; but in the
low provinces bordering on the coaft of Adel, the Ma¬
hometan fuperftition prevailed. Many of that per-
fuafion had alfo difperfed themfelvcs through the
towns and villages in the internal parts of the empire,
while in not a few places the groffeft idolatry ftill took
place ; fuch as the worlhip of the heavenly bodies, the
wind, trees, cows, ferpents, &c. All this had hither¬
to pafled unnoticed; but in the reign of Zara Jacob,
fome families being accufed of worfliipping the cow
and ferpent, were brought before the king, who pro¬
nounced fentenee of death upon them. Their execu¬
tion was followed by a royal proclamation, that who¬
ever did not carry on his right hand an amulet with
thefe words upon it, “ I renounce the devil for Chriil
our Lord,” fhould not only forfeit his perfonal eftate, ^
but be liable to corporal punilhment. The fpirit of Amda Sion
perfecution thus begun, quickly diffufed xtfelf, and an * cruel m-
inquifitor was appointed to fearch for criminals. This ^uifitor*
was one Amda Sion, the king’s chief confident, who
pretended to all that abfurd and auftere devotion com¬
mon to religious hypocrites. In this he was flattered
with uncommon parade and attendance, the ufual re¬
wards of people of that ftamp ; as he never appeared
abroad but with a great number of foldiers,; trumpets,
drums, and other enfigns of military dignity waiting
upon him. He kept alfo a number of fpies, who
brought him intelligence of thofe who were fecretly
guilty of any idolatrous or treafonable pra&ices ; after
which, proceeding with his attendants to the houfe of
the delinquent, he caufed the family firft fupply him-
felf and his party with refrefhments, and then ordered
the unhappy wretches to be all put to death in his pve- 9^
fence. Among thofe who fuffered in this bar barous Murder off
manner were the two fons-in-law of the king himfelf,.j:he burg’s
who had been accufed by their wives, the one of adul- m"
tery, and the other of inceft ; on which flight ground
they were both put to death in their own houfes in
fuch a manner as defervedly threw an odium on the 94
king. His conduit was afterwards fo feverely con-
demned by certain clergymen from Jerufalem, that aiupi,re
reformation feems to have been produced ; and no men¬
tion is afterwards made of theinquifitor or perfecution
during this reign. py
The attention of the king was now called off from Affflgs °f
religion to the ftate of his-affairs in the different Pr°- dtm^regu-
vinces of the kingdom. As the Moorifh provinces iated ^ *
were very rich, by reafon of the extenfive trade they
carried on, and frequently employed their wealth in
exciting rebellions, it became neceffary that the fove-
reign himfelf ftiould examine into the circumftances
and difpofitions of the feveral governors ; which was
likewife proper on another account, that he might af-
fign to each the fum to be paid. On this occafion he
divided the empire more diftin&ly, and increafed the
number of governments confiderably; which being chu^fhes
done, he fet about repairing the churches throughout ■
the country, which had fallen into decay, or been de-r ^
ftroyed in the wrar with the Mahometans. So zealous
was he in this refpeft, that having heard of the de~
ftrudioni
E T H E 75$ ] E T H
'Ethiopia, ftrufllon of the church of the Virgin in Alexandria has already been obferved, that fome intercourfe by Ethiopia
.c—^ by fij-e, he inftantly built another in Ethiopia, to re- means of individuals had been carried on betwixt this " v
pair the lofs which Chriftianity might have fuffered. country and Italy ; but the knowledge conveyed to p'i;fcdv-ry
The laft public tranfadlion of this prince’s reign was Europeans in this manner was fo imperfect and ob-of Ethiop^
the qi-adring of a rebellion which fome of his gover- -fcure, that it fcarce amounted to any thing. Even b} the tu¬
ners had entered into ; but whatever glory he might the fituation of the country had been forgot; andr“Peas- 1
acquire from this or any other exploit, his behaviour though fome confufed notions were entertained ofa0p
T1 97ueen reSarc^ to ^'s ^ome^'c a^a‘rs muft cert:a'n^y P^ace di^ant Chriftian prince who was like wife a prieft, ter Jehu. |
him in a very difadvantageous light. In the decline Marco Paulo, the famous Venetian traveller, affirms,
cruel death. °f tbe king’s life, the mother of the heir apparent con- that he had met with him in Tartary ; and it was
ceived fuch an extreme dehre to behold her fon in pof- univerfally agreed that his name was Joannes Prejbyter,
feffion of the throne, that ffie began to form fchemes Prete Janni, or Prejler John. When the Portuguefe
for obliging his father to take him into partnerfhip began to extend their difeoveries along the coaft of A-
with him in the government. Thefe being difeovered, frica, more certain intelligence concerning this prince
her hulband cruelly caufed her-to be whipped to death: was obtained. Bemoy, one of the kings of the Jalof-
and finding that his fon afterwards performed certain fes, a nation on the weftern coaft of Africa, had af-
folemnities at her grave in token of regard for her, he fured the Portuguefe navigators of the exiftence of
caufed him to be loaded with irons and baniffied to fuch a prince i'o ftrongly, that the king determined to ro4 \
the top of a mountain ; where he would probably have fend ambaffadors to him; and the difeovery was of Ambalfs- i
been. put to death, had not the monks interfered, the greater confequence, that a paftage to the Eaft dors fenc
Thefe having invented prophecies, dreams, and revela- Indies was now attempted both by land and fea. Thej^111^.16
tions, that none but the young prince Breda Mariam ambafladors were named Peter Covillaii and sllphonfo de Portugal.
was to poffels the throne, the old king fubmitted to Paiva. .Thefe were fent to Alexandria in Egypt, from
^ the decrees of heaven, and relaxed in his feverity. whence they were to fet out on their journey ; the in-
The royal On the acceffion of the new king in 1468, the old tent of which was, to explore the fources of the Indian
•family a- law for imprifoning all the royal family was revived, trade, the principr.l markets for the fpice, &c. but above
cou^' and a mountain named GJhen chofen for the purpofe. all, to difeover whether it was poffible to arrive at the
Having thus fecured himfelf from any danger of a rival Eaft Indies byr failing round the continent of Africa. ro^
in cafe he ftiould undertake a foreign expedition, he In the profecution of this fcheme our two travellers Account of
proclaimed a pardon to all thofe who had been banilhed went from Alexandria to Cairo ; from thence to Suez tra“
during the former reign, and thus ingratiated himfelf at the bottom of the Red Sea; from Suez they tookvc,s'
with his people ; after which'he began to prepare for their route to Aden, a wealthy and commercial city
war. At this the neighbouring princes, particularly beyond the ftraits of Babel Mandel. Covillan now fet
War with the king of Adel, being alarmed, lent ambaffadors re- fail for India, and De Paiva for Suakem. The latter
•the Dobas quelling the continuance of peace. The Abyffinian loft his life without making any difeovery ; but Covil-
refolved monarch told them, that his defign was to deftroy the lan palled over to Calicut and Goa. From thence he
‘ Dobas; a race of Shepherds very wealthy, but extreme- returned to the continent of Africa, vifiting the gold
ly barbarous, profeffing the pagan religion, and greatly mines of Sofala, and paffing from thence to Aden and
refembling the Gallas. The reafon of his commen- Cairo; at which laft place he was informed of the death
cing hoftilities againft them was, that they made con- of his companion. In this city he was met by two
tinual inroads into his country, and committed the Jews with letters from the king of Abyffinia. One of
greateft cruelties; on which account he determined not thefe Jews was fent back with letters to the Abyffinian
to make war as with a common enemy, but to exter- monarch; but with the other he proceeded to the
minate and deftroy them as a nuifance. The king of Hand of Ormus in the Perfian gulf. Here they fepa-
Adel was no fooner polfelTed of this piece of intelli- rated; the Jew returning home, and Covillan repaffing
gence, than he communicated it to the Dobas; de- the ftraits of Babel Mandel, whence he proceeded to
firing them to fend their women and children, with Aden, and afterwards entered the Abyffinian domi-
■mu 10.° . their moll valuable effetfts, into his country, till the nions.
analLcred. *nvaflon Ihould he over. This propofal was readily The reigning prince at this time was named Alexan-
embraced ; but Boeda having got notice of it, feized der; and when Covillan arrived, he was employed in
an avenue through which they mull necefiarily pafs, levying contributions upon his rebellious fubjedls. He
. and maffacred every one of the company. After this, met with a kind reception; and was conveyed to the
entering their country, he committed fuch devaftaiions, capital, where he was promoted to the higheft polls of
that they were glad to fubmit, and even to renounce honour, but never allowed to return to Europe again,
their religion in order to free themfelves from fuch a The intelligence, however, which he tranfmitted to the 10
dreadful enemy. The king then turned his arms againft epurt of Portugal proved of much importance. He ;nteiiigence
Adel, where he was attended with the ufual fuccefs ; not only deferibed all the ports of India he had feen, conveyed
a moft complete victory Being gained over the Moors with the fituation and wealth of Sofala, but advifed thej° Portugal
by the Abyffinian general: but while the king him- .king to profecute the difeovery of the paflage round<m'>
felf was advancing towards that country, with a full Africa with the utmoft diligence ; affirming, that the
Cape at the fouthern extremity of the continent was well
Death of
the king.
refolution to reduce it to the moft abjeft ftate of r
fery, he was feized with a pain in his bowels, which oc-
cafioned his death.
The difeovery of the kingdom of Ethiopia or Abyf-
finia by the Europeans took place about this time* It bouring countries.
known in India ; and accompanying the whole with a
chart which he had obtained from a Moor, and which
Ihowed exadlly the fituation of the Cape and neigh-
Ethi' ria. Covillan arrived in Ethiopia about the year 1490;
and the prince to whom he addreffed himfdf was A
^ ^ f lexander the fon of Boeda Mariana. He feems to have
Uexandcr. ^een endowed with many good qualities, and no lefs
108 verfed in military affairs than any of his predeceffors.
Meditates His reign was diflurbed by plots and rebellions, which
■JnIIAdel at ^ Prove^ ^ata^ to From his early years he
’ 1 'manifefted a great defire to make war on the king of
Adel, who feems to have been the natural rival of the
Ethiopic princes. But the Adelian monarch, having
now became fenfible that he was not able to cope with
fuch powerful adverfaries, took the mod: effectual way
of fecuring himfelf; viz. by gaining over a party at
the court of Abyffiuia. In this he had now fucceeded
fo well, that when Alexander was about to invade
Adel, Za Saluce the prime minilter, with many of the.
principal nobility, were in the interelt of his adverfary.
Ie is <’e- Not being apprized of this treachery, however, A!ex-
nteJ by ailder entrulfed this minilter with the command of a
;er great part of his forces; and with thefe the latter aban -
roft of dotted him in the heat of an engagement. Alexander
my in gjjj the few troops who remained with him, however,
:t were fo far from being difneartened by this treachery,
that they feemed to be infpired with frelh courage.
The king having killed the ftandard-bearer of the
E T H
[ 759 3
E T H
tain being a man of a very enterprifing and martial Ethiopia;'
difpofition, and a moft violent enthufiaft in the Maho- ——v—'
metan caufe, had made a vow to fpcnd 40 days annually
in fome part of the Abyffinian dominions during the
time of Lent. For this purpofe he kept a fmall body
of veteran troops, with whom he fell fometimes on
one part, and fometimes on another of the frontiers of
Ethiopia, putting to death without mercy fuch as
made refiftance, and carrying off for flaves thofe who
made none. For 30 years he continued this practice;
beginning exactly on the fird day of Lent, and pro¬
ceeding gradually up the country as the term advan¬
ced. His progrefs was greatly facilitated by the
fuperftition of the people themfclves, who kept that
faft with fuch rigour as almofi entirely to exhaud
their drength ; fo that Maffudi having never met with
any opponent, was always fure of fuccefs, and thus ny
came to be reckoned invincible. On the prefent oc- is cis’
caiion, however, he experienced a prodigious reverfe ^eate<^'
of fortune. Naod having enjoined his foldiers to live
in the fame full and free manner during the fad as at
any other time, and having fet the example himfelf,
marched out againft his enemy ; who being ignorant
of the precaution he had taken, advanced with his
ufual confidence of fuccefs. The Abyfiinian
, and thus become mader of the green enfign of narch, dill pretending fear, as if on account of the
Mahomet, the enemy began to give way ; and
killing the king of Adel’s fon, immediately after they
quitted the field altogether. The viftory was not by
any means complete ; neither was Alexander in a fi-
tuation to purfue the advantage he had gained. Ha¬
ving therefore challenged the Moors to a fecond en¬
gagement, which they declined, he returned with a
defign to punifh his perfidious minidcr Za Saluce, who
had endeavoured to excite the governors of all the pro-
a vinces to revolt as he went along. The traitor, how-
1d“r ever, had laid his plots too well; fo that his fovereign
lurch red. was murdered ;n two days after his arrival in the ca¬
pital. Za Saluce did not enjoy the rewards he expeft-
ed from his treachery: for having attempted to excite
a revolt in the province of Amhara, he was attacked
by the nobility there ; and his troops deferting him,
he was taken prifoner without any refiftance, his eyes
were put out, and himfelf expofed on an afs, to the
hi curfes and derifion of the people.
iocT °f Alexander was fuccteded by an infant fon, who
reigned only feven months ; after which his younger
brother Naod was chofen king by the unanimous voice
of the people. He proved a wife and virtuous prince;,
but the late misfortunes, together with the corruption
introduced at court by the Mahometans, had fo un¬
hinged the government, that it became very difficult to
know how to manage matters. Judging very proper¬
ly, however, that one of the moft effeftual methods of
quieting the minds of the people would be an offer of
a general pardon; he not only proclaimed this, but
likewife, “That any perfon who fhould upbraid an¬
other with being a party in the misfortunes of paft
times, or fay that he had been privy to this or that
IIa confpiracy, had received bribes from the Moors, &c.
affudi fhould be put to death without delay.” On his en%er-
uPon government> he found it neceffary to prepare
ntoiies againft an enemy whom we have not heretofore men¬
tioned, vi%. Maffudi, prince of a diftrift named Arar,
which lay in the neighbourhood of AdeL This-chief-
weaknefs of his men, pitched his camp in very ftrong
ground, but left .fome paffages open to it, that the
enemy might make an attack. This was done con¬
trary to the advice of their leader ; and the confe-
quence was, that almoft every one of them was cut
off. On this the king of Adel fent ambaffadors to
folicit a continuance of the peace with himfelf; which
was granted, upon condition that he reftored all the
flaves whom Maffudi had carried off in his laft year’s,
expedition ; with which the Mahometan chief thought
proper to comply rather than engage in fuch a dan¬
gerous war.
Naod having thus freed his country from the dan¬
ger of any foreign invafion, applied himfclf to the
cultivation of the arts of peace, and reforming the
manners of his fubje&s, in which he fpent the remain¬
der of his days. He died in 1508, after a reign of lT^
13 years; and was fucceeded by his fon David HI. David III*
a child of ii years of age. Though the affairs of
the empire were at prefent in fuch a ftate as re¬
quired a very prudent and adtive adminiftration, the
Emprefs Helena, widow of Baeda Mariam, had inte-
reft enough to-get the crown fettled on the infant juft
mentioned. This proceeded partly from her defire of
engroffing all the power into her own hands,.and part¬
ly from a wifti to keep peace with Adel her native
country. Thefe ends could not be accompliftied but
by keeping a minor on the throne of Abyflinia; which
was therefore her conftant objeft as long as fhe lived.
But though this might not have been attended with
any very bad confequence had the two nations been
left to decide the quarrel by themfelves, the face of
affairs was now quite changed by the interference of
the Turks. That people having now conquered al- T .
moft the whole of Arabia to the Indian ocean, being Anyliinin
likewife on the point of reducing Egypt, and having in da: ger
a-great advantage over their adverfaries in ufing fire- 'In¬
arms, now proje&ed the conqueft of India alfo. In tur **
this indeed they were always difappoi-nted by the fu-
periur:
E T H f 760 1 E T H
Kfliopia. perlor valour of the Portuguefe ; but as this conqueft
  remained a favourite objeft with them, they did not
abandon their attempts. All along the countries which
they had conquered, they exadled fuch enormous con¬
tributions from the merchants, that vaft numbers of
them fled to the African fide of the Red Sea, and
fettled on the coaft of Adel. The Turks, furprifed at
the increafe of trade in this country, which they them-
fielves had occafioned, refolved to ihare in the profits.
For this purpofe they took poffeflion of Zeyla, a fmall
ifland in the Red Sea, direftly oppofite to the coaft of
Adel; and erefted a cuftom-houfe in it, where they op-
preffed and ruined the trade as in other places. Thus
both Adel and Abyffinia were threatened with a moft
formidable enemy, which it would have been utterly
out of their power to have refifted, had not the defire
,t6 of poffefiing India conftantly prevented the Turks from
An embaffy directing their ftrength againft thefe countries. He-
fent to Por-iena was fen{ible enough of the dangerous fituation of
the empire, but preferred the gratification of her am¬
bition to the good of her country ; however, that fire
might preferve herfelf from the attacks of fuch a for¬
midable enemy, it was now thought proper to enter
into an alliance with the Portuguefe. The ambaffa-
dor from Portugal Peter Covillan, was denied the li¬
berty of returning to his own country, as has been al¬
ready related ; and as, for fome time paft, it had not
been obvious how he could be of much ufe, he had
begun to fall into oblivion. The prefent emergency,
however, recovered his importance. The emprefs was
fenfible of the neceflity Are lay under of having fome
perfon who underftood both the Abyffinian and Por¬
tuguefe languages before ftie could open any correfpon-
dence with that nation, and who might likewife in¬
form her of the names of the perfons to whom her let¬
ters ought to be addreffed. By him (he was now in-
ftru&ed in every thing neceflary to the fuccefs of her
embafly- The meflage was committed to one Matthew
an Armenian merchant, with whom a young Abyffi¬
nian was joined ; but the latter died by the way. The
letters they carried are by Mr Bruce fuppofed to have
been partly the work of Covillan and partly of the
lefs experienoed Abyffinian confidents of the emprefs.
They began with telling the king, that Matthew would
give him information of her whole purpofe, and that
he might depend on the truth of what he faid ; but in
the latter part the whole fecret of the embafly was
difclofed, and a force fufficient to deftroy the Turkilh
power was exprefsly folicited. ■ Among the other par¬
ticulars of this embafly alfo it is faid, that a third part
of Abyffinia was offered in cafe her requifitions were
complied with; but this, as well as the embaffy itfelf,
was always denied by David when he came of age.
The ambaf- Matthew, tho’ raifed from the rank of merchant to
fador ill that of an ambaffador, could not, it feems, aft according
ufed. to his new dignity in fuch a manner as to fcreen himfelf
from the moft mortifying and dangerous imputations.
Having arrived at Dabul in the Eaft Indies, he was
feized as a fpy, but relieved by Albuquerque the vice¬
roy of Goa ; and that not out of any regard to his
charafter as ambaffador, but becaufe he himfelf had a
defign upon Abyffinia. This viceroy ufed his utmoft
endeavours to induce Matthew to deliver his commif-
fions to him; but the ambaffador conftantly refufed to
fhow any letter he had, except to the king of Portugal
N° 119.
in perfon, and in his own kingdom. This put him Efhiopia.*!
out of favour with the viceroy ; while his attendants, ——v—J
difpleafed at the mean appearance of the man, infifted
fometimes that he was a fpy from the fultan, at others
that he was a cook, an impoftor, or a menial fervant.
Matthew, however, perceiving that he was now out of
danger, maintained that his perfon was facred, and in¬
fifted on being treated as the reprefentative of a fove-
reign. He let the viceroy, bilhop, and clergy know,
that he had with him a piece of the wood of the true
crofs, fent as a prefent to the king of Portugal; and
he required them, under pain of facrilege, to pay
refpeft to the bearer of fuch a precious relic, and to
celebrate its arrival as a feftival. This was inftanlly
complied with, and a folemn proceffion inftituted; but
very little regard appears to have been paid to this
ambaffador either in his temporal or fpiritual charac¬
ter, as he could not obtain leave to depart for Portu¬
gal till 1513, which was three years after he arrived
in India. In his paffage he was extremely ill-treated
by the ihipmafters with whom he failed: but of this
they foon had caufe to repent ; as on their arrival at
Lilban they were all put in irons, and would probably
have died in confinement, had not Matthew made in-
terceffion for them with the king. ng
In the mean time, Maffudi having recovered from Maffudi re.
the defeat given him by Naod, and formed alliances’jew ll!S j,
with the Turks in Arabia, had renewed his depreda- wo'rfe j
tions 00 the Abyffinian territories with more fuccefs than ever,
than ever. Such a number of flaves had been, by his
affiduity, fent to Mecca, that he was honoured with
a green filk ftandard (an emblem of the true Mahome¬
tan faith), with a tent of black velvet embroidered with
gold, and he was likewife made Sheykh of Zeyla ; fo
that,as this ifland was properly the key to the Abyffinian
empire, he could neither be rewarded with greater ho¬
nour nor profit. This happened when David had at¬
tained the age of 16; and in confequence of fuch fur-
prifing fuccefs, the king of Adel, never a hearty friend
to Abyffinia, determined to break the peace with that
empire and make an alliance with Maffudi. Having
taken this refolution, the two princes invaded Abyffi¬
nia with their joint forces, and in one year carried off
19,000 Chriftian flaves, fo that a general terror was
fpread over the whole empire. David, already impa¬
tient of the injuries his people had fuftained, determi¬
ned to raife an army, and to head it in perfon as his
anceftors had done, contrary to the advice of the em¬
prefs, who, confidering only his youth and inexpe¬
rience in military affairs, wiftied him to have employed II9
fome of his veteran officers. A very powerful army was David;
raifed, and ample fupplies of all kinds were procured.m^rches.^
With one part of his forces the emperor took the roadgain^him
to Auffa the capital of Adel; fending the other under
the command of an officer named Betwudet, to meet
the Moorilh army, who were then ravaging part of
Abyffinia It was natural to be imagined, that the
Moors, on hearing that an army was marching to de¬
ftroy the capital of their country, would abandon the
thoughts of conqueft or plunder to preferve it. In
doing this, David knew that they had certain defiles
to pafs before they could reach Adel. He ordered
Betwudet therefore to allow them to enter thefe de¬
files,; and before they could get through, he himfelf
with the main body of the army, marched to attack
them
E T H
ihiopia
affudi
them at the other end. Thus the Moors were com¬
pletely hemmed in by a fuperior army : but befides
this unfavourable lituation, they were farther difpirite'd
by Maffudi. That hero came, on the morning of the
engagement, to the king of Adel, informing him that
his own time was now come ; that he had been cer¬
tainly told by a prophet, long ago, that if this year
(1516) he ihould fight the king of Abyffinia in per-
fon, he fhould lofe his life. He was affured that the
Abylfinian monarch was then prefent, having feen
the foarlet tent which was ufed only by the fovereigns
of that country; and therefore advifed the king of Adel
[ 761 1
E T H
moll applaufe ; but who by reafon of his age, being Ethiopia,
now 86, was .certainly very unfit for fuch a dillant and y—
perilous voyage. He died accordingly on the illand
of Camaran in the Red Sea, where Suarez had impru¬
dently landed, and palfed the winter in the utmoil di-
ftrefs for want of provifions of every kind. This ad¬
miral was fucceeded by Lopez de Seguyera; who failed
firft to the illand of Goa in the Eaft Indies, where he
fitted out a ftrong fleet; after which he returned to
the Red Sea, and landed on the ifland of MalFuah, ha¬
ving along with him Matthew, about the authenticity*
of whofe million there had been fuch difputes. At his
to make the bell of his way over the leaft lleep part of firll approach the inhabitants lied ; but at lall he was
i by the
:tuguefe.
ibaify
gof
tugal.
the mountain before the engagement began. The A-
delian monarch, who had at any rate no great inclina¬
tion to fight, was not infpired with courage by this
fpeech : he therefore followed the advice given him ;
and, with a few of his friends, palfed the mountain,
leaving his troops to their fate. The Moors, in the
mean time, being abandoned by one leader, and having
another devoted to dellrudlion, Ihowed an uncommon
backwardnefs to engage, which was taken notice of by
their enemies. Mafiudi, however, as foon as he fup-
pofed the king of Adel to be out of danger,1 ferit a
trumpet to the Abylfinian camp, with a challenge to
any man of quality in the army to fight him ; on con¬
dition that the party of the vidlorious champion Ihould
be accounted conquerors, and that the armies Ihould
immediately feparate without further bloodlhed. The
challenge was inftantly accepted by” a monk named Ga-
hriel 'jlndrtas; who, in the reign of Bteda Maiiam,
had been condemned to lofe the tip of his tongue for
fpeaking llightly of the king’s proclamation of atn-
r nelly. Maffudi Ihowed no reludlance to prefent him-
felf; but received fitch a ftroke from his antagonill
with a two-handed fword as almoil cut his body in two,
and he immediately fell down dead. Andreas cut off
his head ; and throwing it at the king’s feet, cried
out, “ There is the Goliath of the infidels.” This
became the fignal for a general engagement, notwith-
ftanding the terms ftipulated by Malfudi before the
combat. The Moors were quickly repulfed by the
king’s troops, and driven backward through the defile.
At the other end they were met by the Betwudet (b),
who drove them back to the king’s forces ; fo that at
lall being fenced to fly to the mountains, they were all
flaughtered by the peafants or perilhed with hunger
and thirll.
The fame day that this victory was gained over the
Moors by David, being in the month of July 1516, the
illand of Zeyla in the Red Sea was taken and the
town burnt by the Portuguefe fleet under Lopez Sua¬
rez de Alberguiera. The Abylfinian ambalfador, Mat¬
thew, in the mean time, had been received with the
greatell marks of eileem in Portugal. The utmoil at¬
tention was paid to his embafly; he was lodged in the
moll fplendid manner; and his maintenance was fuit-
able to his lodging. The king prepared an embafly
on his part, and fent home Matthew on board the In¬
dian fleet commanded by Lopez. The ambalfador
ordered for Abyffinia was one Edward Galvan, a man
who had filled many Hate departments with the ut-
Vol. VI. Part II.
accolted by a Chrillian and a Moor from the continent,
who informed him that the coall oppofite to Mafiuah
was part of the kingdom of Abylfinia, and that it a Portu
was governed by an officer named Baharnagajh; that allguefe fleet
the inhabitants of the illand were Chriflians; that the arrives <>u
reafon of their flying at the light of the Portuguefe fleet
was that they took them for Turks, who frequently 5
made defeents, and ravaged the illand, &c. The admiral
difmilfed them with prefents; and foon after had a vi-
fit from the-governor of Arkeeko, a town on the con¬
tinent; who informed him, that about 24 miles up the
country there was a monallery, feven of the members
of which were now deputed to wait upon him. Thefe
inllantly knew Matthew, and congratulated him in
the warmell manner upon his return from fuch a long
voyage. An interview foon took place between the
Baharnagalh himfelf and Lopez. The Abylfinian in¬
formed him, that the coming of the Portuguefe had been
long expedled,in confequence of certain ancient prophe¬
cies ; and that he himfelf and all the officers of the
emperor were ready to ferve him. They parted with
mutual prefents; and all doubt about Matthew being
now removed, he prepared to fet out for the emperor’s
court; while Roderigo de Lima was nominated am-
bafiador in place of Galvan who died. Along with
them were 15 Portuguefe 5 all men of the moll deter¬
mined courage, and who would hefitate at nothing
which they thought might contribute to the glory of r2f
their king, their own honour, or the advantage of their Difficult
country. Their prefent journey indeed was muchj°urney of
more perilous than their voyage from Portugal to A-ambaf-^
byffinia. The emperor was at this time in the fouthern AbvffiniaT
part of his dominions, but the Portuguefe had landed *
on the northern part; fo that they had almoil the
whole breadth of the empire to pafs before they could
meet with him. The very firll journey they attempted
was thro’ a wood fo thick that it could fcarce afford a
paffage either to man or bealt, while the xnterllices of
the trees were fo interwoven with briers and thorns of
various kinds, that their paffage was rendered almoll
impradlicable. This was rendered Hill more terrible
by the vail numbers of wild beads they faw, and w'hich
feemed only to be prevented from devouring them by
the appearance of fo many men together. The rainy
feafon was alfo now begun; fo that they were expofed
to inceffant deluges of water defeending from the
clouds, befides frequent and violent llorms of wind,
thunder and lightning, &c. To add to their mis¬
fortunes, an epidemic fever broke out among them,
5 D which
(b) This is the title of one of the officers in Abyffinia, not the proper name of a man.
E T H [ 7^2 ] E T H
Ethiopia, which earned off Matthew and one of the fervants
  of Don Roderigo. At lalt, after a moil tedious
and toilfome journey, from the 16th of April to
the 18th of O&ober' 1520, the Portuguefe ambaffa-
Are very t*or, W‘I:*1 ^'s ret‘nue’ came w't^1'n %ht of the Abyf-
ind^ent- fmian camp at tlie diilaace of about three miles. His
ly received reception was by no means favourable; for intlead of
by the em- being immediately admitted to the prefence of the em-
km°deuin- Peror> he was waited on b7 one of t,ie od'lcers of date>
cd,S 6 ' ftyled, in token of humility, Hadug Ras, or commander
of affes ; who caufed him pitch his tent three miles
farther off from the camp : and it was not till five years
afterwards that he was enabled to finilh the buiinefs
of his embalfy, and obtained leave to depart for Por¬
tugal.
During all this time not a fingle word had palled re¬
lating to the affairs of the two nations; fo that it
n1 is difficult to imagine what might have been the defign
Atlaft al- of the Abyffinian emperor. At laft, having refolved
lowed to de- to feng an embaffy to Portugal, he allowed Roderigo
part with to g rt> but detained two of his peopfe, appointing
dorTom ^Zaga Zaab, an Abyffinian monk, his ambalfador to
the empe- Portugal.
ror. This long intercourfe betwixt two fuch diftant na-
Badlffedts tIons’ bowever> could not but great]y alarm the Maho-
of this de- metan powers, who were natural enemies to both. Se-
lay. lim the Turkilh fultan, having been conftantly defeated
by the Portuguefe in the call, and alarmed at the
thoughts of having a fleet of that nation in the Red
Sea, where they might greatly annoy his fettlements
on the coafl of Arabia, determined to cany his arms
to the African fide ; while the king of Adel, having
ftrengthened himfelf by alliances with the Turkilh of-
The empe- ficers in Arabia, was now become a much more for-
ror defeat- midable enemy than before. This was foon experien-
ed by the ceg jn a battle with the Adelians; in which the Abyf-
Mccrs. p]n;an monarch was overthrown with the lofs of almoll
all his great officers and principal nobility, befides a
vaft number of private men. The vi&ory was prin¬
cipally owing to the affiftance given by the Turks;
for the army was commanded by Mahomet furnamed
Gragne,'i. e. left-handed, governor of Zeyla, which had
now received a Turkilh garrifon. This man, having
the conqueft of Abyffinia greatly at heart, refolved, as
foon as poffible, to effedt fomething decifive; and
therefore having fent to Mecca all the prifoners ta¬
ken in his late expedition, he obtained in return a
I3° confiderable number of janizaries, with a train of port-
Hansaffift- able artillery. Thus the fortune of the war was en-
cd by the* tirely decided in favour of the Adelians and Turks ;
Turks. the emperor was defeated in every battle, and frequent-
I3I ly hunted from place to place like a wild bealt. The
rur every6* Moors, finding at laft no neceffity for keeping up an ar-
where de- my, over-ran the whole empire in fmall parties, every
feared and where plundering and burning the towns and villages,
reduced to ang carrying off the people for Haves,
ftrefs dl" This deftru<aive war continued till the year J537 ;
' when Gragne fent a meffage to the emperor, exhorting
him not to fight any longer againft God, but to make
peace while it was in his power, and give him his
daughter in marriage: on which condition he would
withdraw his army ; but otherwife he would reduce
his empire to fuch a ftate that it Ihould be capable of
producing nothing but grafs. David, hdJwever, Hill
refufed tofubmit; replying, that he put his confidence Ethiopj
in God, who at prefent only chaftifed him and his "-vi
people for their fins ; but that Gragne himfelf, being
an infidel, and enemy to the true religion, could notru,)initJ
fail of coming in a ffiort time to a miferable end. This
unfuccefsful negociation was followed by feveral en¬
counters, in which the emperor was conftantly defeated;
in one of them his eldeft fon was killed, and in ano¬
ther his youngeft was taken prifoner: fo that he now
feemed entirely deftitute, being obliged to wander on
foot, and all alone, hiding himfelf throughout the day
among the bufhes on the mountains.
The invincible conftancy with which this forlorn
monarch bore his misfortunes, proved a matter of fur-
prife both to friends and enemies. Many of his vete¬
ran foldiers, compaffionating the diftreffes of their
fovereign, fought him out in his hiding places ; ,fo that
he once more found himfelf at the head of a fmall ar¬
my, with which he gained fome advantages that ferved
to keep up his own fpirits and thofe of his adherents.
His greateft enemy was Ammer, one of Gragne’s of¬
ficers, who headed the rebellious Abyffinians, and who
had formed a fcheme of affaffinating the king; but,
inftead of accomplilhing his purpofe, he himfelf was
affaffinated in 1538 by a common foldier, on what
account we are not informed.
By the death of Ammer and the fmall fucceffes
which David himfelf had obtained, the affairs of Abyf¬
finia feemed to revive; but ftill there was no probabi- - ■
lity of their being ever brought to a fortunate iffue. i
An embaffy to Portugal was therefore thought of in A new era
good earneft, as the mifehievous effefts of flightingbafiy to'
the proffered-friendfhip of that power were now fuf- PortuS?H
ficiently apparent. One of the attendants of Rode¬
rigo, named John Bermudes, who had been detained
in Abyffinia, was chofen for this purpdfe ; and to his
temporal chara&er of ambaffador was added that of
Abuna, primate or patriarch. John, who was not a
clergyman originally, had received all the inferior ec-
clefiaftical orders at once, that the fupreme one might
be thus conferred upon him; but happening to be a great
bigot to the popilh religion, he would not accept of
his new .dignity but with a provifo, that his ordina¬
tion ftrould be approved by the pope. This was in-
direhtly fubmitting the church of Abyffinia to that of
Rome ; to which David would never have agreed,
had it not been for the defperate fituation of his af¬
fairs at that time. John was therefore allowed to do
as he thought proper : when paffing through Arabia
and Egypt to Italy, he had his ordination confirmed
by the pope ; after which he fet out on the bufinefs
of his embaffy. On hit arrival at Liibon, he was ac¬
knowledged by the king as patriarch of Alexandria,
Abyffinia, and of the lea ; for this laft title had alfo I
been conferred upon hipr'by his Holinefs. Entering:
then upon the purpofe of his embaffy, he began by
putting Zaga Zaab in irons for having wafted fo
much time, and done nothing effc&ual fince he had
left Abyffinia. Then he reprefented to the king theA ^*34^
diftreffes of the Abyffinians in fuch a ftrong light, and port°UgB(.
infifted fo violently for relief to them, that an order ordered t
was very foon procured for 400 mufleeteers to be^11 die
fent by Don Garcia de Noronha to their relief. Toemferof'
accelerate the progrefs of the intended fuccours, John
him-
E T H
r 763 i
E T H
On his acceflkni, the Moors defpifmg his youth, in- Ethiopia.
ftantly formed a league among themfelves to cru'h him    *
atonce; but, like almodall others tooconlident ofvifto- r39 -
ry, they negle&ed to take the proper precautions againft ieagu7CrfUl
a furprife. This was not unohferved by Claudius; who formed a-
falling upon one party which lay next to him, gavegainft tlie
them a total defeat. The king purfued them theIlewemPe'
whole day of the engagement, the enfuing night, andror‘,
part of the following day ; putting to death without The Moors
mercy every one w ho fell into his hands. This excef-defeated,
five ardour very much damped the fpirits of his ene¬
mies, and at the fame time infpired his own party with
himfelf propofed to fail in the fame fleet with Don
Garcia; but his voyage was delayed for a whole year
by ficknefs occafioned, as he fuppofed, by poifon given
him by Zaga Zaab, the monk whom he had imprifoned,
and who had been fet at liberty by the king. After
his recovery, however, he fet fail for India, where he
arrived in fafety. The death of Don Garcia, which
happened in the mean time, occafioned another de¬
lay ; but at laft it was refolved that Don Stephen de
Gama, who had fucceeded to Don Garcia, ftiould un¬
dertake an expedition to the Red Sea, in order to
burn fome Turkifh galleys which then lay at Suez. But
intelligence having in the mean time been received of the moft fanguine hopes of fuccefs; whence he foon
j the intended voyage, thefe veflels had withdrawn them- appeared at the head of fuch an army as convinced his
:o felves. Anchoring then in the port of Mafuah, Don enemies that he was by no means to be defpifed. They
arrive Stephen fent over to Arkeeko on the continent to now found it neceflary to defifl: from the praftice they
;en of Procure frelh water and other provifions ; but the had fo long continued of plundering and ravaging the
:ko_ Turks and Moors being now entirely mailers of that country ; to call in their fcattered parties, unite their
coaft, the goods he had fent in exchange were feized
without any thing being given in return. A meflage
was brought back, importing, that the king of Adel
was now mailer of all Ethiopia, and confequently
that no trade could be carried on without his leave;
but if Don Stephen would make peace with him, the
goods Ihould be/reltored, a plentiful fupply of water
and all kinds of provifions granted, and amends like-
troops, and fpend the rainy feafon in fuch parts of
Abylfinia as they had conquered, without returning
into Adel as had hitherto been ufual with them, i hey
now came to a refolution to force the king to a gene¬
ral engagement, in which tbey hoped to prove victo¬
rious by dint of numbers. For this purpofe all the re¬
bel chiefs in Abylfinia were called in, and a formidable
army colleded- They waited only for one very expe-
wife made for 60 Portuguefe who had been killed at rienced chief named yonathan; after whofe junction
Zeyla. Thefe had run away from the fleet on its they determined to attack the royal army without delay,
firll arrival in the Red Sea, and landed on the coall of But Claudius took his polls at all times with fuch Jonathan, a
Adel, where they could procure no water ; of which judgment, that any attempt upon his camp would have rebel chief,
the barbarians took advantage to decoy them up the
country ; where, having perfuaded them to lay down
their arms, they murdered them all. To this Don
Stephen returned a fmooth anfwer, fent more goods,
obtained provifions, and promifed to come alhore as
foon as a Mahometan fellival, which the favages were
than celebrating, Ihould be over. This treaty was
carried on with equal bad faith on both fides; but
Don Stephen had now the advantage by obtaining the
provifions he flood in need of. Thefe were no fooner
brought on board, than he ftriclly forbad all inter-
courfe with the land; and choofing out 600 men, he
attacked the town of Arkeeko, killed the governor.
been almoft defperate ; and getting intelligence where ^efeat.ec*
Jonathan lay with his forces, he marched out in thean<*
night time, came upon him quite unprepared, defeated
and killed him, fending his head to the reft of the con¬
federacy by a prifoner, the only one he had fpared
out of all thofe who were taken. By the fame meflenger
a defiance was fent to the Moors, and many opprobrious
epithets were bellowed upon them; but though the ar¬
mies approached one another, and continued for feve-
ral days under arms, the Moors were fo much intimida¬
ted that they would by no means venture an engage¬
ment.
By this vidlory the fpirits of the Abylfinians were fo
and fent his head tq^the Abyffinian court; maflacring much elevated, that they flocked in from all parts to
at the fame time all the people in the town he met join their prince; and even many of the Mahometans,
with. having experienced the lenity of the Chriftian govern-
J (■ During this long interval a confiderable change mem, chofe rather to fubmit to Claudius than to the
had taken place in the Abyfiinian affairs. We have Turks and Adelians. The king, however, was in dan- *43
this already feen that David had been reduced to great ger of being affaflinated by one Ammer, a treacherous
diftrefs ; but afterwards met with fome little fucceffes, governor; who knowing that he had retired to fome to affa^P
which feemed to indicate an approaching change of diftance from his army to celebrate the feftival of nate Ciau-
fortune. In thefe, however, he was foon difappoint- Eafter, attempted to furprife him when almoft defti- ^U8,
ami~ ed. A Mahometan chief called Vizir Mugdid made tute of attendants ; but Claudius having timely notice
an attack upon the rock Gelhen, where the royal fa- of his defigns, laid an ambulh for him with a confider-
mily were kept; and finding it entirely unguarded, able part of his army which he headed in perfon. The
afeended without oppofition, and put every perfon rebel, not being equally well informed, fell into the
to the fword. This laft difafter feems to have been fnare, was defeated, and almoft his whole army cut off
on the 24th of April 1541.
, Matters were in this lituation when the Portuguefe
arrived, as has already been related. The head of the
governor of Arkeeko had been received by the queen,
who confidered it as an happy inftance of the valour of
her allies, and as a prefage of future victories. The
Portuguefc admiral, Don Stephen de Gama, loft no
time in employing the men allowed by the king to
5 D 2 affiff
auJ too great for the refolution even of this heroic
prince, as he died the fame year 1540. He. was
re. fucceaded by his fon Claudius, who, though then
but about 18 years of age, was endowed with all the
great qualities neceffary for managing the affairs of the
empire in fuch a dreadful crifis, and had made con¬
fiderable progrefs before the arrival of the Portu¬
guefe.
E T H
Ethiopia, aflift. the Abyffinians. 'I'hefe ’
H
[ 764 ] E T
: in number 450 ; whole force upon the Europeans. Even yet his fuc- Eth
" but as the officers who commanded them were all noble- cefs was doubtful, till Don Chriftopher, expofing him-
men of the firft rank, the army was confiderably increa- lelf too much, was fmgled out and (hot through the 148
fed by the number of their fervants. The fupreme arm. This produced fudh confufion, that a total de- anTdefesS
command was given to Don Chriftopher de Gama the feat, with the lofs of the camp, enfued ; when the bar- ed.
admiral’s youngeft brother. Almoft every man on barians, according to cuftom, put to death all the
board, however, was ambitious to (hare in the glory of wounded, and began to abufe the women, who had
this enterprife ; whence great complaints were made all retired into the tent of the general. This being
by thofe who were not allowed to go : and hence, Mr obferved by a noble Abyffinian lady married to one
Derivation Bruce informs us, tl\e bay in the ifland of Mafua, of the Portuguefe, (he fet lire to fome barrels of gun-
of the name where the admiral’s galley rode, had the name of Bahia powder which happened to be in the tent, and thus pe-1
of a bay in dos Agravados ; the bay of the injured, not of the fide, rilhed along with her raviihers.
Mafua}}. as jjas been erroneoufly fuppofed. Don Chriftopher, who by his rafhnefs had occafion-
ThePortu- This gallant army inftantly fet forward by the moft ed this difafter, obftinately refufed to fly, till he was
guefe under eafy road through the Abyffinian territories, in order put into a litter by force, and fent off along with the
Don Chri- to join the emperor. Still, however, the way was fo queen and patriarch, who happened to be prefent.
ftopher de j-ugg^ that the carriages of their artillery gave way, The two latter had fet off before the battle ; but Don
tmtto meetan^ t^iey were therefore obliged to conftruft new ones Chriftopher fent fome horfemen in purfuit of them, by
the empe- as they went along, fplitting the barrels of old mufkejs whom they were brought back, and reproached by the
ror. to furnfth them with iron, that commodity being very general for the bad example they had (hown to the
I45 fcarce in Abyffinia. In this journey the general was army. Arriving at the approach of night in a woodTa!l^^
Interview met by the emprefs, attended by her two fillers and where there was a cave, Don Chriftopher entered it ter in a
with the a great many .others of both fexes, whom he falu- to have his wound dreffed, but obftinately refufed td cave, is
emprefs. ted with drums beating and colours flying, accompa- proceed farther. Next day he was taken; betrayed,ken an<i
nied by a general difcharge of the fire-arms, to their as is moft probable, by a woman whom he loved; 'whojg^
great confufion and terror. Her majefty, whofe per- is faid to have pointed out this cave to him, and pro-
mifed to fend fome friends to convey him into a place
of fafety. Inttead of this, a party of the enemy en¬
tered the cave ; and on his readily informing them of
his name, they inftantly carried him in triumph to
fon was entirely covered, indulged the Portuguefe ge¬
neral with a view of her face ; and after a mutual ex¬
change of civilities, the queen returned with 100 nmf-
keteers appointed by him as her guard. After eight
days march, through a very rugged country, Don Chri- Gragne. Here, after feveral infults had paffed on both
llopher received a defiance in very infulting terms from fides, the barbarian, in a fit of paffion, cut off his head;
Gragne the Mahometan general, which was returned which was fent to Conftantinople, and his body cut in
14(5 in the fame ftyle. An engagement took place on the pieces and difperfed through Abyffinia.
iween the 25t^1 Mar(ffi 1542 ; in which little was done by ei- This cruelty of Gragne proved more detrimental to T-
Portuguefe ther party befides wounding both the commanders: his caufe than a complete viftory gained by the other j^arna(f^nec
and the however, Gragne, though greatly fuperior in horfe, had party could have been. On the one hand, the Portu- by his ‘
Moors. already felt fo much of the Portuguefe valour, that he guefe were fo exafperated by the lofs of their leader, lies, is
did not choofe to venture a fecond battle. that they were ready to embark in the moft defperate fe.ate^
As the feafon was now far advanced, the Portu- undertakings, in order to revenge his death ; on thekl e '
guefe put themfelves into winter-quarters ; while other, the Turks, on whom he principally depended,
Gragne remained in their neighbourhood, in hopes of were irritated to the laft degree ai the difappointment
forcing them to a battle before they could be joined by of (haring his ranfom, which they imagined would have
the king, who advanced for the purpofe as fall as pof- been an immenfe fum ; and therefore abandoned their
fible. This being the cafe, it was to the laft degree leader to return to their own country. Gragne, thus
imprudent in Don Chriftopher to think of ven- left to decide the quarrel with his Africans, was
luring an engagement without previoufly forming quickly defeated by Claudius; and in another engage-
a junftion with his royal ally; efpecially as Grag- ment which took place on the 10th of February 1543,
ne had now doubled the number of his horfe, in- his troops were defeated and himfelf killed. This laft
creafed his train of artillery, and otherwife received misfortune was owing to his boldnefs in advancing be-
l47 . confiderable reinforcements. Unfortunately, how- fore his army which was giving way, fo that he be-
Dou Chri- ^ portUguefe general fuffered himfelf to be came known to the Portuguefe. On this he was
raftily en- hurried away by the impetuofity of his own temper ; fmgled out by a Portuguefe named Peter Lyon, who
gages at a and paying regard to the defiances and reproaches of a had been valet de chambre to Don Chriftopher. This
difadvan- barbarian whom he ought to have defpifed, was indu- man, to make his aim more fure, crept for a confider-
'itaSe* ce<j) contrary to all advice that could be given, to ven- able way along the bank of a river towards the place
ture an engagement at a vaft difadvantage. Yet when where'Gragne was; and when come fufficiently near,
the armies encountered each other, the fuperiority of (hot him quite through the bpdy. Finding himfelf
the Portuguefe was fo great, that vidlory feemed like- mortally wounded, he quitted the field of battle; and
ly to be decided in their favour. On this Gragne or- was followed by Lyon, who in a (hort time faw him
dered fome artillery to be pointed againft the Abyffi- fall from his horfe. Fie then came up to him, and cut
nian allies. Thefe, entirely unaccuftomed to fire- off one of his ears, which he put in his pocket, and
arms, fled almoft at the firft difcharge. Gragne, returned to the battle to do what further fervice he
well knowing that it was his intereft to deftroy the could. The next day Gragne’s body was found by
Portuguefe, who were only 400 in number, ordered an Abyffinian officer, who cut off his head and claim-
ao purfuit againll the Abylfiaians, but fell with his ed the merit of killing himj but Lyon having pulled
cut
E T H
Ethiopia, out the ear which he carried in his pocket, vindicated
y  own nght to the reward which was to be given to
the other. On this occafion the Moorifh army was
almoft. entirely deftroyed ; Gragne’s wife and fon were
taken prifoners, with Nur the fon of Mugdid, who
deitroyed the royal family ; and it had been happy for
-Claudius, as we (hall afterwards fee, that he had put
Toramare t^e^e' Pr^0Iiers to death. Very foon after this en-
bel chief gagement, the emperor had intelligence that Joram, a
defeated ■ rebel chief, who had once reduced his father £)avid to
and killed, great diftrefs, was advancing rapidly in hopes of being
flill able to be prefent at the battle. This was the
laft of his father’s enemies on whom Claudius had to
revenge himfelf ; and this was effedtually done by a
detachment of his army, who polled themfelves in his
way, fell upon him unexpedtedly, and cut him in
pieces with all his men.
[ 7^5 ]
E T H
patience the infults ©f the patriarch ; attemptfng to Etniopia.
gain the rell of the Portuguefe over to his fide. He
fucceeded perfeftly with their commander Arias
as; who privately renounced the church of Rome, and tUgUefe
was baptized into that of Abyffinia by the narnecommand-
qf Marcus or Marco; in confequence of which, the er renoun-
emperor, looking upon him as a naturalized fubjedt,^.p'0"
fent him a Itandard with the AbyffiTiian arms to beg;on>
ufed inllead of thofe of Portugal. This, however,
.was not delivered; for a Portuguefe named James
Brito, meeting the page who carried it, took it from
him and killed him with his fword. The apoftacy of
Arius is faid to have been owing to the great honours
which had been conferred upon him by the Abyffinian
monarch : for having, in an expedition againft Adel,
defeated and killed the king and taken the queen pri-
foner, he beftowed her in marriage on Aritis; and that He :
Claudius being now freed from all apprehenfion of the matchmight be equal, he raifed him alfo to the royal veiled with
foreign enemies, began to turn bis thoughts towards
the reparation of the damages occaiioncd by fuch a
Diltmban- long war, and the fettlement of religious affairs. We
cespn af- alrea(jy mentioned, that John Bermudes was ap-
, 4on.° rC ' pointed by the pope, as he faid, patriarch of Alexan¬
dria, Abyffinia, and of the fea. This, however, is faid
by others to have been a falfehood ; that John was
originally ordained by the old patriarch of Abyffinia;
and that the pope did no more than give his fandlion
to this ordination, without adding any new one of his
own. But whether this was fo or not, certain it is,
that John, who was very infolent in his behaviour, and
of a turbulent difpofition, now began to infill that
Claudius (hould not only embrace the doftrines of the
church of Rome, but ellablilh that religion through¬
out the empire, which he faid his father David had en¬
gaged to do ; and which, confidering the extreme
diftrefs in which he was involved, it is very probable
Altercation ^iat Claudius, however, was of a different
betwixt the °pin'on> and refufed to alter the religion of the coun-
emperor try ; upon which a contention began, which was not
and the pa- ended but by the total expulfion of the catholics, and
mudes1 Ber* t^ie cutt*nff communication with Europeans. At
that time the Portuguefe and Abyffinians intermarried,
and attended religious worfirip promifeuoufly in each
others churches: fo that the two nations mighthave con-
tinued to live in harmony, had it not been for the mif-
behaviour of Bermudes. Claudius, perceiving the vio¬
lence and overbearing difpofition of the man, took
every opportuninty of ftrowing his attachment to the
Alexandrian or Greek church ; denying that he had
made any promife of fubmitting to the fee of Rome.
On this Bermudes told him that he was accurfed and
excommunicated; the king in return called him a
Neftorian heretic; to which Bermudes replied by call¬
ing him a liar, and threatened to return to India, and
dignity, by giving him the kingdoms of Dear andBelwa.r?5’a^
The altercation on the fubjetl of religion becomingnity-
every day more violent, Bermudes was prohibited by
the emperor from fending any farther orders to the
Portuguefe, they being now under the command of
Marco the Abyffinian captain-general; meaning Arius
Dias, to whom the name of Marco had been lately
given. To this the patriarch replied, that being fub-
. je£ls of the king of Portugal, they were under no ob¬
ligation to obey a traitor to his king and religion; and
that fine* his majefty ftill perfifted in refufing to fub-
mit to the pope, he was refolved to leave the empire
with his forces. The emperor, however, ftill infilled
that he was abfolute in his own dominions ; and he
expe&ed the Portuguefe to pay obedience to his gene- ^ ^
ral, and none elfe. The Portuguefe, enraged ai thispi0ftiiit;e,
declaration., refolved to die fword in hand rather than betwixt t!.e
fubmit to fuch terms; and therefore began to fortifyAbyffmians
their camp in cafe of any attack. The emperor, on and^Portu.--
this, thinking a defiance was given him in his own^Ue‘
territories, ordered the camp to be inftantly attacked.
The attempt was accordingly made, but with very
little fuccefs-; the Portuguefe having ftrewed the ground
with gunpowder, fet fire to. it as the Abyffinians march¬
ed along, which deftroyed great numbers, and intimi¬
dated the reft to fuch a degree that they inftantly fled.
Finding it vain to think of reducing them by force,
the emperor is then faid to have been advifed by Mar¬
co to confult his own fafety, and break the power of
the Portuguefe by artifice. With this view he fent
for the patriarch, pretended to be very forry for his
frequent breach of promife, and defirous to make what
amends for ft he could. Inftead of complying with
the patriarch’s demands, however, he firft ordered his
fubje£ts to fupply them with no proviiions : then he
Hopped the mouths of the Portuguefe by a confider-
carry allthe Portuguefe along with him. To this in- able quantity of gold, giving the patriarch himfelf a
folent fpeech Claudius anfwered, that he wifhed indeed
that Bermudes would return to India ; but that he
would not allow the Portuguefe, nor any perfon, to
leave his territories without permiffion.
Thus matters feemed likely to come to an open rup¬
ture; and there can be no doubt that the worft extre¬
mities would have followed, had not the emperor been
reftrained by the fear of the Portuguefe valour on the
one hand if he ftiould attempt any thing againft'them,
and the hopes of further advantages Ihould he retain
them in his fervice, For thefe reafons he bore with
very valuable prefent; adding to all this a large fupply
of provifions; but at the fame time taking proper me¬
thods to difperfe their leaders into different parts of
the empire, fo that they Ihould find it impoffible ever
to reunite in a body.
Such is the account given of this tranfadlion by the
Portuguefe hiftorians; but that of Mr Bruce, who fays
that he tranflated hisfromthe Abyffinian ann ds, is forrte-
what different. He only informs us, that the quarrel
betwixt the Portuguefe and Abyffinians was in flamed
by the “ inceiuiiaiy fpirit of the krutiffi Bermudes
E T H
l 766 ]
E T H
Ethiopia, from reproaches they came to blows ; and this pro-
ceeded fo far. that one night the Portuguefe aflaulted
the king’s tent, where they flew fome and grievoufly
wounded others.” The event, however, was, that no
abfolut quarrel ever took place betwixt this emperor
and any of the Portuguefe excepting this patriarch,
whom he was on the point of banifliing to one of the
rocks ufed as prifons in Abyffinia. This was difpen-
fed with on the interpolition of Gafpar deSuza the new
Portuguefe commander (who hadfucceededAriusDias),
and another named Kafmati Robel, both of whom were
Bermutles great favour with the emperor ; and Bermudes per-
Icaves/vbyf- fuaded to withdraw to India. According to Mr Bruce,
fmia. he repaired to Dobarwa, where he remained two years
pleafed, as fuppofing that a new fupply of Portuguefe Ethiopia,
foldiers were arrived. Finding, however, that they
were only priefts, he was very much mortified, but {till
refolved to give them a civil reception. But a more
important confideration, and which concerned the wel¬
fare of the empire in the higheft degree, now claimed
his attention. This was the appointment of a fuccef-
for to the throne, Claudius himfelf having no fon. A prjnjg^e
project was therefore fet on foot for ranfoming Prince n sredecm-
Menas, the emperor’s youngeft: brother, who had been ed from
taken prifoner by the Moors in the time of David, and captivity,
hitherto detained in captivity on a high mountain in
Adel. This was not likely to be accomplilhed ; for
the Moors would not willingly part with one who they
quite neglefted and forlorn, faying mafs to no more knew was their mortal enemy, that he might be raifed
than ten Portuguefe who had fettled there after the
defeat of Don Chrillopher: He then went to Mafuah;
and the wind foon becoming favourable, he embarked
in a Portuguefe velfel, carrying with him the ten per-
fons to whom he had officiated as prieft. From Goa
he returned to Portugal, and continued there till his
death. On the other hand, the Portuguefe writers in¬
to the fovereignty of a great empire. By detaining
him prifoner alfo, they might reafonably hope for dif-
putes concerning the fucceffion to the Abylfinian
throne; which would enable them to attack the em¬
pire with advantage. In thefe circumitances, it is pro¬
bable that Claudius would have found great difficulty
in procuring his brother’s liberty, had it not been that
form us, that he wfas narrowly watched by order of the fon of the famous Gragne had been taken in that
the emperor; and that Gafpar de Suza, the Portuguefe
commander, had orders to put him to death if he ffiould
attempt to make his efcape. Bermudes, however, be¬
ing determined at all events to make his efcape, pre¬
tended to be ill of the gout, and that a change of air
was neceflary for his recovery ; for which reafon he
went to the town above mentioned, where there was a
battle in which his father was killed, and in like man¬
ner confined on a mountain in Abyffinia. A propofal
was then made to his mother, who had efcaped into
Atbara, that her fon ffiould have his liberty, provided
the king’s brother ihould be reltored. This was ac¬
cepted; and by means of the baihaw of Mafuah, an ex¬
change was made. Four thoufand ounces of gold were
monaftery. On this pretence he was allowed to crofs given for the ranfom of Menas, which were divided
the kingdom of Tigre, accompanied by eight faithful between the Moors and the bafhaw of Mafuah; while
fervants, with whom he reached Dobarwa unfufpe&ed.
Here he remained concealed in a monaftery for two
years before he could find an opportunity of getting to
the ifland of Mafuah, from whence he proceeded to
Goa.
The emperor was fcarce freed from this troublefome
prieft, when he was in danger of being involved in new
difficulties by the intrufion of others into his dominions.
Ignatius Loyola, founder of the order of the Jefuits,
fon to Abyffinia, in order to make a thorough conver-
fion of both prince and people. His Holinefs, how¬
ever. who, from what he had already feen of Ignatius,
conceived that he might be of greater ufe to him by
Haying in Lurope, font in his Head Nugnez Baretto,
one of the fociety of Jefuits, whom he invefted with
the dignity of patriarch, and honoured with a letter to
1 his part Claudius fet at liberty Ali Gerad the fon
of Gragne without airy farther demand.
According to Bermudes’s account of thefe times,
the widow of Gragne was taken prifoner at the battle
in which her huffiand was killed, and was afterwards ,
married to Arius Dias. In this cafe we muft fuppofe
her to have been the fame with the queen of Adel, men¬
tioned as his confort by other hiftorians: but Mr Bruce
treats this account as a mere fable; and informs us,
was at that time at Rome ; and fo much attached to that by means of Nur the fon of Mugdid, murderer of
the caufe of the Pope, that he propoftd to go in per- the royal family as alrea dy related, fhemade her efcape I(^Q
^ a, •- — ---T —“ — 1  '■   into Atbara. On that occafion Nur fell in love withNurdeter-
her; but fire refufed to marry any man unlefs he brought mines to
her the head of Claudius, who had killed her former d,e.ttr°y
hufband. To attain his wiihes therefore, Nur, now ^au lus‘
governor of Zeyla, undertook the talk; and when
Claudius marched towards Adel, fent him a challenge
to fight; telling him that there was yet a particular
Claudius. With thefe commiffions, and a number of inftrument for fliedding the blood of the Abyffinian
priefts, Baretto failed for Goa in the Eaft Indies; by princes, and delxring him to be prepared, as he was
which, however diftant, the only paffage to Abyffinia very foon to fet out to attack him. The emperor did
was at that time. On his arrival at that place he was
informed that the Abyffinian monarch had fuch a
fteady averfion to the church of Rome, that there was
no probability of his meeting with a favourable recep¬
tion. For this reafon it was judged more proper to
fend fome clergymen of inferior dignity, with proper
not decline the combat, but is faid to have been ad-
vifed againft this expedition by all his friends. This
advice feems to have proceeded from a number of pro¬
phecies, probably trumped up by the clergy, that he
fhould be unfortunate, and lofe his life in the campaign.
Thefe prophecies ought no doubt to have had weight
credentials, as ambaffadors to the emperor from the with him, as they moft certainly indicated a fpirit of
governor of India, without running the riik of having
any affront put upon the patriarch. Thefe were Oviedo
bifliop of Hierapolis, Carneyro bifhop of Nice, and
feveral others, who arrived fafely at Mafuah in the year
1558. Claudius, on hearing ol their arrival, was greatly
difaffe&ion among his troops; and the event accordingly
evinced that it was fo. The Abyffinians fled almoft Defeat and
on the firft fire, leaving the king in the midft of his death of the
enemies, attended only by 18 Portuguefe and 20 horfe-emPeior*
men of Abyffmia, who continued faithful to the laft.
4 All
E T H [ 767 ] E T H
Ethiopia. All thefe were killed after the mod defperate refill- emperor Claudius, he informed him, that the pope and Ethio;
ance; the king himfelf receiving upwards of 20 wounds king of Portugal now expedled no lefs than an imme- —~v
before he fell. His head was cut off, and brought by diate fulfilment of his engagements of fubmifiion to the
Nur to his miilrefs, who hung- it up on a tree before fee of Rome. This requifition was made with fuch an
her door. Here it remained for three years, when it air of infolence, that the prince could fcarce conceal his
wasatlaft bought by an Armenian merchant, who bu- refentment; but reftraining hispaflion, he promifed to
ried it at Antioch in the fepulchre of a faint of the confide: of it, and to call meetings of the learned
Nur gained on this occafion a very corn-
fame name.
plete victory ; the king and moll of the principal no¬
bility being killed, a great number made prifoners, and
the camp taken with an immenfe booty. On his re¬
turn to Adel, he refufed to accept of any congratula¬
tions, or to allow rejoicings to be made for his vidlory,
but palled along in the habit of a common foldier
mounted on an afs ; faying, that he owed the vidlory
to the mercy of God alone, who had immediately in-
terpofed for the dellrudlion of the Chrittian army.
163
derable time upon it. This was followed by an attempt
to alfalfinate him, which had very near taken place;
and this again by a confpiracy among his principal
Rebellionof nobles headed by Ifaac the Eaharnagalh. He had been a
very faithful fervant of the late emperor Claudius ; but
ill ufed by Menas, who was of a very haughty and r
Ifaac the
Bahama-
gafli.
thefe matters to debate the point. This was a.very
fruitlefs talk ; and therefore Oviedo thought proper to
quit the court towards the end of December 1558 ;
leaving behind him an infolent letter addrelfed to the
Portuguefe and fuch converts as they had made ; in
which he exhorted them not to converfe with fchifma-
tics, and the Abyllinians to forfake their errors. Be*
trig now debarred from accefs to the emperor, he be*
gan to entertain the people with feditious difcourfes;
which pra&ice he continued during the remaining part
This fatal engagement took place on the 22d of of the reign of Claudius and the beginning of that of
March 1559; and as the fucceffion had been already Menas. The latter, perceiving the pernicious tenden-
fettled, Menas afcended the throne without any oppo- cy of his difcourfes, pofitively commanded him to de-
fition. On his acceffion he found his affairs in great fill ; which the patriarch refufing, the emperor fell
confufion, and he had Hill to contend with foreign and upon him with his own hands, beat him feverely, tore
domeftic enemies. The firll of thefe was Radaet the his clothes and beard, and took his chalice from him
king of the Jews, who had a territory in the empire of that he might thus be difabled from faying mafs ; after
Abyfiinia, the capital of which was on a rock named which he banilhed him, with Francis Lopez another 167
Samen. The caufe of this quarrel is not known, but of his afibciates, to a barren mountain, where they re-
the event was unfortunate; the king being obliged to mained feven months in great mifery. Not contentmountajJli
abandon the enterprife, after having bellowed a confi- with this, he ilfued many fevere edidls againll the Por-
 in,:,, ...o„ 1 —*• tuguefe ; prohibited them from intermarrying with the
Abyffinians ; and fuch of the Abyffinian women as
were already married to Portuguefe hulbands, he com¬
manded not to accompany them to their churches.
His next Hep was to calTOviedo again into his pre*
fence, and command him,- under pain of death, inHscom-
rofe difpofition. In attempting to fupprefs this rebel- ftantly to leave his dominions. The infolent and fool-mandt'd to
lion, the firll attempts of the emperor were likewife in- ilh prielt refufed obedience to this exprefs command ;leav® ^
effectual, his forces being attacked by furprife and en- he declared that he would obey God rather than man ; butrefufesi’
tirely defeated. Soon after this, Ifaac proclaimed and prefenting his bare neck to the emperor, defired
Tafcar the nephew of Menas, who was then at liberty, him to llrike and put an end to his life at once Me*
king of Abyfiinia; hoping thereby to ftrengthen his nas drew his fword, but was prevented by the queeri
caufe, and enable him to cope with the emperor, who and officers who Hood near him from giving the fatal
W'as afiembling a powerful army againll him. This ex- Itroke. A fepond beating and banilhment to the ?eni^nceof
pedient did not anfwer the purpofe. His army was mountain fucceeded ; and in the latter part of the fen-a]j
entirely defeated by Menas; Tafcar taken prifoner, tence all the Portuguefe priells as well as others were in-the Poitu-
and thrown headlong from the top of a precipice.; - eluded. The Portuguefe, however, determined not to jmek. who
and Ifaac himfelf cfcaped with great* difficulty to the fubmit to fuch an indignity ; and therefore, to a man,!hercVPon
confines of his own government in the neighbourhood joined. Ifaac ; who, in expeftation of more auxiliariesi-ebds
th of Mafuafi. Here he entered into an alliance with the from India, profefled a great defire of embracing the
the lurks q’urkifh bafhavv of Mafuah ; whofe friendfirip he gained Romifli religion. The king was very apprehenlive, and
by putting him in pofieflion of the town of Dobarwa, not without reafon, of the arrival of more Portuguefe ;
with the flat country adjacent, which abounds with the but it appears that Oviedo had not fufficient intereft to I7#
provifions wanted at Mafuah, and is looked upon as procure the fupply he promikd. An engagement, Ifaac agahr*
the key to the province of Tigre and the high-lands therefore, took place without them, in which Menasdefeated.
of Abyfiinia. Befides this, Ifaac flrengthened himfelf was again victorious; though the battle was not fo de-
alfo by an alliance with the Portuguefe ; which, had cifive as to put an end to the rebellion,
their numbers been at all confiderable, mufl have been The emperor died a fhort time after his victory, and
very formidable. Their inclination to defert their for- was fucceeded in 1563 by his fon Sertza Denghel,
mer proteClor and ally the emperor, proceeded entirely then only 12 years of age. The beginning of his R .
from the fhameful behaviour of their priefls, who never reign was diiturbed by new rebellions; which, however, s/rtza
would be fatisfied without enflaving the emperor as were happily fuppreffed. Ifaac, with his allies the ba- DengheL .
Reafon of we^ as fubje&s to tbe tyranny of Rome. We have fhawand the.Portuguefe, feem tohave remained for fome
their quar- already feen that Bermudes had proceeded fo far on time unmolefted; and in the year 1569, a kind of
rel with the:this fubjeCt, that he narrowly efcaped with his life. His accommodation took place. It is by no means eafy to
emperor, fucceflbr Oviedo (for the patriarcRNugnez died by the fay how the Portuguefe were again received into fa-
way) fared Hill worfe. On his introduction to the vour.after fuch flagrant treacherj’and rebellion. Mr1
Brwce
r6T .
and For
guefe.
E T H
• Bruce only fimply tells us that '
tuguefe did not appear at court.” This indeed
to be wondered at, as they had been fo lately at open
war with the emperor. Other accounts fay, that after
[ .768 ] E T H
Ovibdo and the For- owrn troops, -not only waited him patiently, but gave Ethiopia.
him every advantage he could defire. A very defperate —v—
battle enfued ; the event of which was doubtful, till
Robel, commander of part of the king’s houfehold
the laft battle with Ifaac, “ their name became fo odious troops, who were armed with pikes, attacked that part
to all the Abyffinians, efpecially to their monarchs,
that they would never fuffer any of them to be in their
army from that time.” Some of thefe accounts fay
alfo, that Menas was defeated and killed in another
battle; others, that he was driven to fome high moun¬
tains, where he wandered about till death put an end
nifery. Accounts of this kind, however, are
of the Turkiih horfe where he faw the bafhaw, and kill¬
ed the officer who carried the ftandard. In doing this
he broke his pike ; but though then deftitute of any
other weapon than a (hort crooked knife which the A- -phe^a
byffinians always carry in their girdles, he inftantly (haw de-
puffied up to the bafliaw, and with it wounded him mor- feated and
tally in the throat. This unexpefted event inftantlylillIed-
by Mr Bruce treated as mere faifehoods, and exprefsly decided the vidory ; the Turkifh borfe betook them-
contradidory to the annals of thofe times. All we
can fay upon the fubjed therefore is, that after the
defeat of llaac, the Portuguefe, not excepting Oviedo
l.imfelf, remained in Abyffinia, where they were more
favourably dealt with by tire new emperor than they
had been by his father; though he was no friend to
their religion, as fuppofing it to be deftrudive of mo¬
narchy and all civil government. It is probable alfo,
that the various diilurbances which happened, together
with his own tender age during the beginning of his
reign, would prevent him from paying that attention
to them which he would otherwife have done. The
Galla, a very barbarous nation, and who have at laft;
greatly reduced the power of the Ethiopian monarchs,
made frequent inroads during this reign ; and in the
V nd year 1576, a league was formed by Mahomet king of ing therm
L \ .1 . *4.1, T 1%, n si n /!■> fl /T» ««■> ** .-I Of- lw
felves to flight, and the reft of the army foon followed
their example. A dreadful flaughter enfued among
the Moors, who were purfued to the ifland of Mafuah;
and many were driven into the defarts, where they pe-
riftied with third. After this, marching back to the
weftern part of his territories, the emperor proceeded
to Narea, deftroying the Galla as he went along. His Death of
laft expedition was towards Damot to chaftife fome re- theempc* (
bels there. Before he fet out, a pried of great fan&i- ror‘
ty and talent for divination, is faid to have warned him
not to undertake the war ; but his advice was rejected
with contempt : on which he requefted him only not
to eat the fiflr taken out of a certain river; but this ad¬
vice was alfo negle£ted> and the fifh being really of a
poifonous nature, the king died in confequence of eat-
the*Balhaw Adel, with Ifaac and the Turkifli bafhaw, who had <
league whhther continued their hoftilities, or renewed them about
the kmg cf tj,;s time. The emperor, however, marched with fuch
A e 5 expedition,^ that he did not allow them time to join
their forces; and attacking them feparately, gained a
complete viftory over them all. Almoft the whole
Moorifh army was deftroyed; but while the emperor
entered Adel with a defign to make a full end of his
enemies on the eaft, he received imformatjon that the
Galla had invaded him on the weft. Traverfing the
whole breadth of the empire therefore with the utmoll
expedition, he came up wuth thefe enemies,who were
afraid to encounter him. On this he turned his arms
3 „4 againft the Falaftia, obliging them to deliver up their
Thoea-.pe- king, whom he baniflied to a mountain. Then in-
But are e
tii e!y de-
'fsated.
On the death of Sertza Denghel a difpute enfued Twofuccef*
about the fucceffion. In the beginning of his ficknefs furs nom
the late king had named for his fucceflbr his fon Jacob, nated.
a boy of only feven years of age ; but finding death
approaching, he named his nephew Za Denghel, as be¬
ing come to the years of manhood, and more fit for the
government of fuch a numerous and turbulent people.
This laft refolution proved highly difagreeable to the
queen and fome of the principal nobility, who wifhed
for a minority, during which they might engrofs the
power into their own hands. In conjunftion w'ith her 0
two fons-in-law, Kefla Wahad and Ras Athanaftus, / to t|
therefore, the emprefs determined to raife Jacob to the throne,
throne, notwithftanding the final determination of the
late king abovementfoned. This was put in execution
immediately after the death of Sertza Denghel; Jacob
1- invades. va(3ing the country of the Galla and Falaftia, he ra-
and ravages vagcd for four years focceffively, protefting at the was raifed to the throne, and Za Denghel confined in
of'the Gaik fame time the kingdom of Narea from the inroads of an ifland of the lake £)embea or Tzana. An attempt
175 While Sertza Denghel employed himfelf in reprefs-
ded if Cad* ‘nS ^ incur^on6 Gafia> one Cadward Baftia, a
ward Ba- Turkifh officer of great valour and experience, who
ih&w. had been invefted with the office ofbafbaw of Mafuah,
began to make inroads into the province of Tigre.
The emperor haftened to oppofe him ; but in his paf-
fage committed great devaftations in the country of the
Falafha, in order to provoke them to defeend from
their mountains and come to an engagement. Thefe
Fakfha profefs the Jewifh religion, and were then go-
Kin^cf the verne<^ ^ a k'ng named Gejhen. This monarch, pio-
Balaflia de- voked at the ravages and deftruftion he beheld, de-
frated and feended with vaft numbers of his fubjedts, in order to
revenge it ; but was killed, and his army utterly de¬
feated by the Abyffinians, on the 19th of January
1594. The vi&ciious Sertza then haftened to encoun¬
ter the baftiavv; who, confident of the fuperiority of his
N° izo.
was likewife made to feize Socinios, natural fon to Fa-
cilidas grandfon of the unfortunate David, who had
likewife a claim to the throne ; for his not being born
of a lawful marriage, was no objeftion in Abyffinia.
Socinios, however, no fooner faw the fate of his coutin
Za Denghel, than he withdrew himfelf from the power
of his enemies; and Za Denghel himfelf, after be¬
ing a ihort time confined in the ifland above mentioned,
found means to gfcape, and took refuge among the in-
acceffible mountains of Gojam.
Thus difappointed in their attempts on the princes,
the emprefs, with her ‘two fons-in-law, were obliged
to pretend loyalty to Jacob, whom they governed till
he was 17 years of age. The young king then per¬
ceiving that his tutors w'ere taking fome fteps to pro¬
long their dominion over him, took the government
into his own hands, and baniftied one Za Selafie, whom
they had employed in the execution of their projects,
<5 to
E T H [7
if 'Ethiopia, to the kingdom of Narea. The confpirators, alarmed
v-—at this bold exertion of royal prerogative, determined
1 jgt inftantly to depofe Jacob, and raife ZaDenghel, whom
iiZa Derg- they had banifhed, to the throne. This, however, was
i'ahe! ra:fe4 to n°w a matter of fome difficulty, as- he had concealed
att e ti.rone. p0 t{feftually among the mountains of Gojam,
that he could fcarce be found out. His retreat being
at laft difcovered, Ras Athanafius took an opportunity
of infulting Jacob, even while fitting on the throne ;
called him an obftinate, ftubborn, and fooliffi boy ; de¬
clared him degraded from the imperial dignity, and
that Za Denghel was coming to fupplant him. Jacob,
perceiving by the infolence of this fpeech, that he
was entirely in the power of his enemies, left his
palace in the night, in order to fly to the moun¬
tains of Samen, where his mother’s relations were,
from whom he -expedfed protection. He got to the
borders of that country, but was there difcovered,
^ feized, and brought back to his rival, who was now
ob ba- featccl on the throne. Za Denghel, however, with a
icd. clemency not very ufual in Abyfiinia, did not either
put him to death, or mutilate him in fuch a manner
as to render him incapable of afterwards enjoying the
kingdom ; but contented himfelf with banifhing him
for life to Narea.
Za Denghel was no fooner fettled on the throne,
than he unluckily behaved in fuch a manner as to a-
lienate the affe&ions of his people from him entirely.
Decline of ^ h‘s was occafloned by his attachment to the church
the Romifh of Rome. Ever fince the time that the Portuguefe had
religion in joined Ifaac the Baharnagaflr, the entrance into Abyf-
Abyffinia. fUi;a had been (hut up by the Turks, fo that no new
miffionaries could have accefs ; and all thofe who
came with Oviedo being dead, the Romiffi religion
had languifhed for want of preachers to fupport it.
The lail of thefe died in 1596; and all the reft having
been dead fome time before, little could be expedted
from the labours of a Angle perfon. Next year Mel¬
chior Sylvanus, a vicar of the church at Goa, was fent
on a miffion to Abyffinia ; being fuppofed to be a proper
perfon for this work, on account of his language and
complexion, which might baffle the vigilance of the
Turks. He entered without being fufpedted; but
the great defeat given the Turks by Sertza Denghel
already mentioned, had reduced their power fo much,
that lefs danger now attended this expedition than for¬
merly, and other miffionaries quickly followed.
aretci^P ez mo^: learned> as weH as the beft qualifled for
reftores^t. t^ie undertaking in every refpedf, was Peter Paez, who
came to this country in the year 1600 ; and on his
taking upon him the whole charge of the miffion, Syl¬
vanus returned to India The new miffionary did not
at flrft affedf to intrude himfelf on the emperor ; but
taking up his reftdence at the convent of Fremona in
the province of Tigte, he ftrft applied to the ftudy of
the learned language of the Abyffinians called Geez,
and in which their books are ufually written. In this
he made fuch progrefs as quickly to furpafs the na¬
tives themfelves ; after which he fet up a fchool, where
the children of the Portuguefe and Abyffinians were
taught promifcuoufly. The progrefs made by his
fcholars was fo great, that he was fpoken of at court,
and recommended in the warmeft terms to the empe-
rrives ror Jac°b before his depoAtion. On this he was fent
urt. for, and appeared before the court in 1604; where, to
Vol.VI. Part II.
69 ] E T H
the great diffatisfa&ion of the Abyffinian monks, he Ethiopia,
received fuch honours as are ufually bellowed on men * J,
of the flrft quality. Next day, in a difpute before the
king, two of his fcholars, whom he had brought along
with him, fairly vanquilhed the beft theologians that
could be found to oppofe them. Mafs was then faid ,
in the Roman manner ; and this was followed by a fer-
mon, which in the purity and elegance of its didlion
(whatever the fubltance might be) excelled any thing
that had ever been compofed in the Abyiflnianlanguage.
Though Paez had been called to court by Jacob,
yet Za Denghel was on the throne before he arrived,
and it was he who witneffed the difpute and heard the ^
fermon. He was fo much charmed with the latter, The empei
that he inftantly refolved to embrace the religion of ror embra-
the church of Rome ; which refolution he foon afterCL'3 rhe Ca*
communicated to feveral of his friends, and even toj"r“lcrs'
Paez himfelf; but under an oath of fecrecy. The 0
emperor’s own zeal, however, rendered this oath of
no ufe ; for in a little time he ifiued proclama¬
tions forbidding the obfervation of the Jewilh Sab¬
bath, and wrote letters to Pope Clement VIII. and
Philip III. of Spain, deflring a fupply of mechanics
to inftrudt his people in the ufeful arts, and Jefuits to
teach them religion. ^
This precipitate conduct had the effedl which might HU impru.
have been expedled. The Abyffinians were generally dent con*
difaffefted to the church of Rome, and no pains had^j“^ “c^a‘.
been taken to gain them over : they were alfo turbu- hellion,
lent, favage, and rebellious ; ever ready to revolt; and
now had a favourable opportunity of excuflng their
treafons under pretence of zeal for religion. This op¬
portunity was quickly made ufe of by Za Selafle, ^
whom, as we have already mentioned, Jacob had ba-
nilhed ; but who, on the advancement of Za Denghel, jgg
had probably been fet at liberty. This traitor having The empe-
flrft held many feditious meetings in private, prevailedlor e.xcolu"
on the Abuna, or Abyffinian patriarch, to excommu-mulJli:atctl*
nicate the king, and abfolve his fubjedls from their al¬
legiance. He then fet out for the territory of Gojam,
where the people had always been remarkable for their
averflon to the church of Rome. In this place, there¬
fore, he found no difficulty in railing an army to light
againft his fovereign. Za Denghel, who was an ex- An
pert warrior, did not fail to go in queft of him with railed a-
what forces he could raife; but foon found, by thegainft him.
great defertion among his troops as he pafled along,
how much the excommunication pronounced by the
Abuna had availed. This was fo alarming, that John
Gabriel, an experienced Portuguefe officer, adviftd
him to decline an engagement for the prefent, and
take fhelter in fome fortrefs until his fubjefts fliould
return to a fenfe of their duty. This falutary advice
was rejected, from the abfurd notion that it was a dif-
honour not to flght a rebel who had defled his fove¬
reign. In the beginning of the engagement, vidtory
feemed to favour the royal caufe. The Portuguefe
carried every thing before them, and routed that wing
of the enemy which oppofed them. In the other w ing, pje is alian-
however, the cowardly and treacherous Abyflinians de- doned by
ferted their king, who was quickly furrounded by his his uoops
enemies, and left in a defperate Atuation. A body oflind lallccJ'
nobility, with his own officers and domeftics, attended
him and fought defperately in his defence. Za Den¬
ghel himfelf, being an excellent horfeman, and admi-
5 E rSbly
E T H
Ethiopia, billed in the life of arms, performed aftonifhing feats
w v  of valour. At laft he was thrown to the ground,
grievcufly wounded in the breaft by a lance. Not-
withrtanding this, he inftantly recovered himfelf, drew
his fword, and refifted his aifailants fo violently, that
they were fain to keep at a diitance and annoy him
with mifiilc weapons. In this fituatiqn he ftood till
almoft fainting with fatigue and lofs of blood; when
the traitor Za Selaffe, plifting up his horfe violently
[ 77° 1
E T H
military fkill, ftould have a ftare in the viffory he was Ethiopia*
to gain. Then, intoxicated with his opinion of him- /“*■“
felf, he negle&ed to behave with the caution neceflary
in the neghbourhood of fuch an experienced general
as Socinios, which gave the latter an opportunity of
cutting off almoft his whole army. Being now obliged
to fly with a few attendants to Jacob’s camp, he met
with an indifferent reception on account of his defeat;
for which reafon he made propofals to join bocinios.
againft him, threw him to the ground by a blow on the The latter accepted his offer, though he could put no
forehead, and a multitude then rufting upon him he confidence in one who had been guilty of fuch com-
was difpatched with many wounds.
His'death news of Za Denghel’s death were received with
Univerfally fuch general indignation throughout the Abyffinian
lamented, empire, that the rebels nurft not name any fucceffor.
As it feemed natural to think, however, that Jacob
,92 would now be re-elefted, meffengers were difpatched
The empire to acquaint him of his good fortune ; but during this
claimed by Jnperval Socinios appeared, not as a candidate, but as
Socmios. already in poffeffion of the empire, and ready to fup-
port his rights by force of arms. His firft ftep was
to let Ras Athanafius know his pretenfions to the
throne, and defire his affiftance with his army, pro-
mifing to reward him as foon as it ftould be in his
power. Without waiting for any anfwer, he advan¬
ced fo rapidly, that Athanafius had fcarce time to
confider what he ftould reply, when a fecond meffage
was fent, importing that Socinios was in the neigh¬
bourhood, and ordering preparations to be made for
receiving him as his fovereign. This expeditious
mode of action fo much confounded Athanaiius, that
he complied with the requilitions, fainting him king,
and joining his troops to his. Thus fuccefsful in his
firft attempt, Socinios made a fimilar one on Za Se¬
laffe. In this, however, he was difappointed. Za
plicated treachery; only he thought it would be an ad-*
vantage to put it out of his power to join his antago.
nift. Jacob, on the other hand, confident in his num-Jacob de-
bers, which are faid to have been almoft 30 to !, ad-fcatt:ti
vanced boldly to give his antagonift battle. Socinios*uilC1^'
declined the engagement till he had drawn him in¬
to a fituation where his numerous forces could not
ad ; fo that a dreadful carnage enfued, Jacob himfelf
perifting among the multitude, and his body being
never found afterwards. In this battle alfo was killed
the wicked prieft Abuna Petios, who was the occa-
fion of Za Denghel’s death, as we have already re¬
lated. Ras A'thanafius efcaped by the fwiftnefs of his
horfe, and took refuge in a neighbouring monaftery.
He was afterwards pardoned at the interceffion of Peter
Paez; but his goods and eftate being confifcated on
various occafions, falling into univerfal contempt, and
being abandoned by his wife, he died at laft of want.
According to the Abyffinian accounts, Socinios or¬
dered the purfuit to be Hopped as foon ab he faw the
head of Abuna Petros ; but the Portuguefe writers
inform us, that he kept it up with the utmoft vigour
throughout the whole day and part of the night.
They particularly mention, that a number of Portu-
Selaffe having firft fent an equivocal anfwer, marched guefe, who had joined the army of Jacob, loft their lives
i93
He is ob
liged to
retire.
againft him with his whole army ; while Socinios, hap¬
pening to fall fick, and putting little confidence in A-
thanaiius, withdrew to the mountains of Amhara. A-
thanaiius likewife, not knowing to whom he ftould
attach himfelf, withdrew his forces, and ftood neuter.
Za Selaffe had refufed to join Socinios, in expefta-
on this occafion, by falling over a precipice which they
could not avoid in the dark. One of thefe named
Manuel Gonfahe% had the good luck to light on a tree,
where he fat till morning in the utmoft terror, but at
laft made a ftift to clamber up and efcape.
By this viftory Socinios was fully eftablifted on the
tion that Jacob would make his appearance, whom he throne, though his fituation might ftill be accounted
ither wifted to enjoy the crown than Socinios; as precarious by reafon of the rebellious difpofition of
J.cod fe
up in op
pofmon
under the former he might hope to engrofs all the
power to himfelf. For a long time, however, no an¬
fwer was returned to his meflages ; his troops became
impatient; fo that fearing left a mutiny or general de-
fertion ftould take place, he difpatched a meffengef to
Socinips, acknowledging him for emperor. But icarce
was this done, when a meffenger arrived from Jacob,
informing bim that he was then in Dembea, and pro-
■ wn‘ mifing Za Selaffe great honours if he would acknow¬
ledge him for his fovereign. With thefe terms the
traitor inftantly complied, and his example was follow¬
ed by Athanafius; while Socinios, not as yet able to
refill all his enemies, retired again to Amhara. This,
however, he was not long of accomplifting. Jacob
was by no means poffeffed of equal military fkill ; and
though Za Selaffe was an experienced officer, yet his
195 extreme perfidy, pride, and obftinacy, rendered it very
Ba 1 c n- dangerous to have any concern with him. This ap-
defiLt"ot' Peared remarkably in the prefent cafe. His pride in
Za^Seiaffc the firft place would not allow him to join his forces
■Jacob’s go- to thofe of Jacob, left the latter, who was inferior in
petal.
many of the provinces. He began with making a ge¬
neral proclamation of pardon, excepting only the mur¬
derers of Za Denghel, with whom he had been in
terms of intimate friendfhip. Being informed there¬
fore, that one Mahardin, a Moor, had given him the
firft wound in that battle in which he was killed, he
ordered his head to be inftantly ftruck off with an ax
before the gate of the palace. ^
The Portuguefe were much favoured by this prince; Sociniosfa-
and they were become very numerous by conti-vours the^ .
nual intermarriages with the Abyffin-ians; the male Pjrtugue-€f i
children being always trained to the ufe of fire-arms
by their parents, and incorporated as foldiers with
them ; and they were now all united in one body un¬
der an experienced officer named John Gabriel, whom
we have already had occafion to mention. As their
numbers and valour made them objefts of confide-
ration, Socinios determined to attach them to him¬
felf as much as poffible; and the beft means to do this
he knew was by favouring their priefts. Peter Paez
was therefore fent for to court j where a difpute con¬
cerning
E T II [ 77i 3 E T H
Ethiopia, certung the fupremacy of the pope and the two natures
u”~v of Chrift (the great fubjedls of debate in Abyffinia),
took place, and a fermon was preached with as great
He refolves fuccefs as that in Za Denghel’s time. The king firft
to embrace enlarged the territory poifefled by the Jefuits at Fre-
hc^th^io* mona ’ after which he declared to Paez his refolution
of embracing the Catholic religion; giving him at the
fame time two letters, ohe to the king of Portugal, the
other to the Pope, the purport of which was to requeft
a number of more Portuguefe to deliver Abyfiinia from
the incurfions of the Galla, as they had formerly done
from the yoke of the Moors.
Before any thing of importance could be done in
matters of religion, the king was called forth to fup-
199 prefs a rebellion which had already taken place. An
ri An impof- impoftor had appeared, who called himfelf Jacob the
tor,pretend-iate king, and pretended to have efcaped from the
the late em ^at^e » ^ut much wounded in the face that he kept
peror, Jacobone fide of it conftantly covered to conceal the defor-
appears. mity. He made his appearance among the mountains
of Habab near Mafuah ; and being joined by great
BOO numbers of people, Sela Chriftos, brother to the king,
Is defeated. and governor of Tigre, marched againft him. The
impoftor’s troops, though numerous, lied at the firll
onfet; but he efcaped to the mountains, where it was
very' difficult to follow him. This, however, was at¬
tempted ; and a great many of the pods he had taken
were {formedlike as many forts: but ftill the impoftor
himfelf, though driven from place to place, found
' means to make good his retreat to the country lying
between the mountains of Habab and the territory' of
the Baharnagafh. Thither he was purfued by Selah
Chriftos ; but that general, finding the rebellion likely
to fpread through the whole province ofTigte, thought
proper now to acquaint liis brother Socinios with the
llate of affairs, and to defire his affiftance. The king,
though at that time he had fent away moft of his troops
in an expedition againft the Shangalla and Gongas,
who dwell on the northweft of Abyffinia, fet out im¬
mediately with fuch troops as he could colleft. Thefe
were but few in number; his cavalry particularly, a-
mounting to no more than 530, befides a fmall rein¬
forcement brought by his brother Emana Chriftos, go¬
vernor cf Amhara. As he proceeded, he was inform¬
ed that a party of Galla were lodged on a hill at no
great diftance from < him. Determining to cut them
off, he furrounded the hill where they were polled;
but having caufed his cavalry to advance before, and
pafs a deep ravine, they were almoft entirely deftroy-
ed, while the reft of the army were feized with fuch a
panic that they refufed to ftir. In this extreme dan¬
ger, the Galla paffed the ravine to attack them; but
the king having advanced fingly, and killed the firft of
them, his troops, afiiamed of their cowardice, ruihed
The alia forward on the enemy, and gained a complete vidlory,
which obliged the favages to leave the province they
infefted at that timeb
The misfortune of the cavalry on this occafion
quickly occasioned a report that the king had been
defeated ; of which the impoftor Jacob did not fail to
take advantage ; and defeendiftg from his mountains,
committed great devaftatiorts in the low country. But
though attended by a great multitude, who likewife
fonght with more obftinacy than formerly, he was ftill
defeated by Sela Chriftos with a force greatly inferior.
defeated.
But before any thing effeftual could be done for his Ethiopia
redudtion, the Galla made a dreadful irruption into ~v ILJlJ
the fouthern provinces, murdering all who fell into
theirhands, and burninganddeftroyingtowns, churches,
and villages, in the moft dreadful manner. The king
bore thofe exceffes for fome lime with patience, till at
laft he drew them into fuch a difadvautageous fitua-
tion, that being furrounded by bis forces, and inferior So,
in number as well as in valour, they were all cut off An army of
to a man, with the lofs of only 400 on the part of Gala cut
the Abyffinians. Soon after this viilory the king un-0^
dervvent the ceremony of coronation. He then march-Corp°3tjolt
ed againft the impoftor Jacob; but the latter was 0f the king,
too fenfible of the fuperiority of his rival to face
him in the field. He therefore retired again to liis
mountains, while the king left the fuppreffion of the
rebellion to an experienced officer named Amfala ao-
Chriftos; who employed two young men, that had The impofi.
been outlawed for murder, to affaffinate the impo-tir Jacob
ftor. This being done, it was found that the pre. aiTallinated,
tended Jacob was no other than a herdfman among
thofe mountains to which he fo conftantly fled for
refuge ; and that he had neither wound nor fear on
his face, but had ker one half of it covered to con¬
ceal the little refem* -.nee he bore to Jacob whom he
perfonated.
The king being now freed from this rebellion, began
again to turn his thoughts towards religion. His firft
flep was to make an handfome prefent to the Jefuits;
buthe foon ffiowed his inexperience in religious matters,
by attempting to reconcile the two contending parties
in his empire. Before he could fee the folly of this Dangerous
attempt, however, his attention was called by a moft rebellion
dangerous rebellion, which was begun by one Melchi-
zedec, a fervant of the late Sertza.Denghel, but c ize"
man of great experience in war. He was firil oppo-
fed by Sanuda, a brave officer ; but being totally de-
ftitute of troops, he was obliged to apply to the at¬
tendants of the king of Sennaar, who had been de-
pofed by his fubjefls, and was at that time in Abyf¬
iinia. Thefe readily joined him ; and a bloody battle Def*ats0ne
enfued, in which Sanuda was fo totally defeated, that oftheking's
he alone had the good fortune toefcape, and that grie-generals,
voufly wounded, his men being all killed on the (pot.
On this misfortune Socinios fent his brother Emana
Chriftos with a confiderable force to reduce the rebels.
Melchizedec finding himfelf oppofed by fuch an able
general, exerted himfelf to the utmoft, in order to raife
a force fufficient to refill him ; and in this he fucceed-
ed fo well, that his army foon ftruck terror into all
the neighbouring country, notwithftanding the pre¬
fence and known valour of the king’s brother. A aoS
prince of the blood-royal, named Ar%o, was likewife Caufes Ar-
found out and proclaimed king, in order to give fome he pro-
fandlion to the rebels; foon after which they boldly£laime<*
marched to meet the royal army. The engagementkmS’
took place on the 9th of March 1611, and was fought
with great obftinacy on both Tides : the advantage
even appeared for fome time on that of the rebels;
till Emana Chriftos, perceiving that all was at Hake,
pulhed defperatdy forward to the place where Melchi¬
zedec himfelf was. The latter feeing no probability
of avoiding a Tingle combat, which he did not chooTe
to try, inftantly turned his horfe and fled; and the reft
of the army foon followed his example. Melchizedec,
5 E 2 however.
E T H F 772
Ethiopia, however, did not much avail bimfelf of this cowar-
' v - dice; for he was clofely purfued by the peafants, taken
2°9 prifoner, and executed as a traitor, together with fe-
trken'prf- veral principal officers. The fate of Prince Ar-
foner, and zo, whom, to fupport their caufe, the rebels had pro¬
pur to claimed king, is not known.
death. This vi&ory, fo far from extinguiFhing the fpirit of
The^reW- rebellion, feemed to have inflamed it beyond nil bounds:
1
Cruel n
thiw-
for news were now received that the whole country
round the head of the Nile to the province of Tigre
had revolted ; fo that there was a neceffity for the im¬
mediate prefence of the emperor himfelf; and even
this was infufficient, as the rebels were difptrfed over
fuch a large trail of territory. His two brothers,
Emana and Sela Chriftbs, were therefore both em¬
ployed againit different rebel chiefs, while the king
marched againft thofe who were mod formidable. The
i-principle on which this war was carried on feems to
= have been very cruel, viz. that of killing all the men,
and carrying off the women and children for flaves.
This was pun&ually executed, firft upon the inhabi¬
tants of a mountainous diftriA named Gufman on the
Nile; though, at the interceffion of the miffionary Peter
Paez, the women and children, inltead of being fold
for flaves, were given to the Jefuits to be educated in
the Catholic religion. The Gongas and Agows were
next attacked with equal fuccefs, and Hill greater cruel¬
ty ; one of their tribes, named Zalabajfa, being almoft
entirely exterminated: but this, inftead of having any
good effedl, feemed to multiply the rebels Hill more.
The Agows and Galla invaded the provinces in the
Amdo^an- neighbourhood; and another impoftor, whofe true
other im-" name was Amdo, but who pretended to be the unfor-
poftor, fup- tunate emperor Jacob, appeared as a competitor for
ported by the crown. This laft rebel proved much more formi-
tpe Jew*, than any of the reft. He was indeed furprifed
before he had time to colledl any forces; but Gideon,
king of the Jews of Samen, having killed the guards
who watched him, fet the impoftor at liberty, and
fupported his caufe. Thus he foon colledted a very
formidable army, with which he defeated and killed an
officer named Abram, who oppofed him with a confi-
derable force. This brought Socinios himfelf againft
him, who inftantly attacked the Jewifli monarch Gi-
2,3 deon, as being the principal fupport of his caufe. As
War with the country of the Jews was naturally ftrong, and very
Gideon, full of fortified places, the redu&ion of it was evidently
a very difficult talk. The firft place attacked was a for-
trefs named MaJJiraba; which, though very ftrongly
fortified and garrifoned, was foon taken by ftorm, and
every one in it put to the fword without diftindtion.
Hotchi and Amba Za Hancafle, two other ftrong for-
trefl’es, fliared the fame fate. A fourth, named Senga-
Tiat, no lefs ftrong than any of the former, was alfo
taken; Gideon himfelf narrowly efcaping with his life
in the attack. Difcouraged therefore by fo many mis¬
fortunes, and apprehending the total ruin of his coun¬
try, this prince at laft was content to fue for peace ;
which was granted on condition that Amdo Ihould be
AwdoV delivered up. This traitor was condemned to a pu-
livered up" nifliment very unulual among Chriftians, vi*. that of
being crucified ; but in nailing him to the crefs, his
cries and groans fo much afildied the king, that he
ordered him to be taken down and beheaded.
The war was now relumed againft the Gongas and
death.
E T H
Guba ; whom the king annually invaded for the pur- Ethiopia,
pofe of making flaves. In this expedition his officers ~~~J
not only executed their commiffion againft thefe fa- other mill
vages, but likewife carried off a great number of cattle tary expe-s
from the Agows, who were then at peace with thediuons. |
emperor. This conduct was highly refented by Sq-
cinios, who obliged them to make reftitution of what
they had taken away ; and the doing them juftice in
this particular, had more effedl in reducing the reft of
thefe people to obedience, than all the cruelties which
had been committed fince the beginning of the war.
In i'6i6, the emperor fet out on an expedition a-
gainft the Galla; but this was laid afide on the
death of his eldeft fon, for whom he entertained a ^
great affedlion. It was fucceeded by a very cruel or- -phe Jews
der againft the Jews, whom Socinios now determined extermina-
to exterminate without any apparent occafion. His^d. j
commands, however, were executed with the utmoft
pun&uality, fo that very few efcaped; and among the
reft perifhed their prince Gideon lately mentioned.
He was fuppofed to be immenfely rich, and to have
concealed his riches, which have been fought for in vain
by the Abyffinians from that time to theprefent. The
children of the murdered Jews were fold for flaves;
and fuch of the profeffion as were fcattered through
the empire, had orders to renounce their religion and
be baptized, under pain of death. Thus almoft the
whole Jewifli religion was extinguiflied at once, as moft
of them chofe rather to embrace Chriftianity than fuf-
fer death. In token of the fincerity of their conver-
fion, they were all ordered to plow and harrow on the
fabbath day.
This butchery being over, the expedition againft Succefsutf
the Galla was refumed, and carried on with the ufual exPfftt!0'1
cruelty ; while the Galla never once appeared to pre- t's
vent the defolation of their country. Next year, how¬
ever, a new affociation was made among thefe favages,
and the empire invaded by them in two different parts
at once. One of their armies was cut off to a man
before they had time to begin their ravages ; while
the other fled on the firft approach of the royal army,
leaving their wives, children, and baggage, to the mer¬
cy of the enemy. Thus the king was left for a ftiort
time at reft from rebellions or ^foreign invafions ; and
this interval he determined to make ufe of in making 2l8
war on his neighbour the king of Sennaar, from whom War with-,
he had formerly received an affront. In this expedition Sennaar,
he was affifted by one Wed Ageeb, a prince ofthe^1*"
Arabs, who lived on the frontiers of Abyffinia. The
allies proceeded with their ufual cruelty, killing all the
men, and felling the women and children for flaves.
Vaft numbers of cattle were carried off; and the vic¬
torious armies returned with an immenfe booty. The
next expedition was againft Fatima queen of the Shep-
herds, otherwife called queen of the Greeks, who refided
on the north-eaft of Atbara. In this alfo the king
proved fuccefsful, though lefs blood was Ihed than
ufual: but it was not long before this extraordinary
fuccefs met with a fevere check by the entire lofs of
an Auyffinian army ; the favourite fon of the emperor
himfelf being killed,in the engagement, with fome of
the beft officers in (he empire. up
All this time Peter Paez had applied himfelf with Pro& efs r
the utmoft affiduity to the converfion of the Abyffi-th.®
nians to the Catholic faith ; and in. this undertaking1618*011' *1
hV
E T H [7:
Ithiopia. he had been attended with wonderful fuccefs. He was
v /—•' indeed of all others the moil fit for an undertaking of
Excellent t^1’s among a rude and barbarous people. Be-
charaftcr <>fan uncommon (hare of learning, he poffeffed an
Peter Paez. eminent degree of fit ill in the mechanical arts; by
which he was enabled to teach the Abyffinians how to
build houfes of done and lime, which they had never
known before. In thefe he was at firft mafon, car¬
penter, fmith, and architett, himfelf; and thus, to the
aftonifhment of the whole empire, he built fome church¬
es and a palace for the king. His univerfal genius
prepared the people for the reception of his opinions;
while the barbarous ignorance and favage manners of
his antagonifts tended to prejudice every one againft
their tenets, though ever fo juft in themfelves. Sela
Chriftos, the king’s brother, is faid to have been con¬
verted by only reading the Abyfiinian books with at¬
tention; in which, it fecms, the ignorance of the priefts
had been difplayed in an extraordinary manner. We
have already feen how well the emperor himfelf was
difpofed towards the Romifh church; and his example
was followed by many of the principal people of the
kingdom. At laft the Abyffinian patriarch named
Simon made a complaint, that irregularities in religion
had been committed ; and difputes held on matters of
faith without calling him, or permiffion granted him,
to fupport his clergy in thefe controverfies. As So-
cinios had no opinion of this prieft’s learning or elo¬
quence, he did not imagine that any harm could en-
fue to the caufe from granting what he wanted. A
public difpute was accordingly appointed; in which
Simon’s inferiority was fo apparent, that Socinios now
publicly declared his belief in the two natures of
Chrift.
541 While the converfion was in this profperous way%
from the ^etters arrived from the pope and king of Spain, but
pope and without any promife of the temporal afiiftance, viz.
kingr of the foldiers he had folicited; though they affured him
Spain. 0f an ally far fuperior, the Holy Spirit himfelf, pro¬
vided the emperor continued firm in his refolutions of
embracing the Catholic faith. Soeinios would pro-
bably have been as well fatisfied with an account of a
Determines reinforcement of foldiers; but as matters flood, he was
to fubmit to obliged to be content, and refolved to fubmit in form
the pope. t0 the pope, renouncing for ever his connexion with
the Greek church. As it was improper, however, to
fend letters on a fubjedt of fiich importance by a com¬
mon meffenger, proper perfons were to be appointed
who might occafionally aflame the charafter of am-
bafladors, and aft accordingly. This being refolved
on, the next thing was to determine the way by which
the ambafladors were to reach Europe. The ufual
track by Mafuah was now (hut up on account of the
rebellion which exifted in the neighbouring provinces ;
fo that the more eligible way feemed to be through
Narea and the provinces to the fouthward, by which
they might reach Melinda, and from thence embaik for
Goa.
Amhafld- The ambafladors were chofen by lot; which falling
dor* fet in t firft on Antonio Fernandes^ he namud Fecur Eg-
for Europe, zie as his companion ; and, all things being fettled,
thefe two fet out for Gojam in the beginning of.
March 1613. It feems furprifing that the Ahyfiinian
monarch fhould have fent thefe ambafladors on fuch a
dangerous expedition without a proper guard through
•3 1 „.E T H
the barbarous countries they had to pafs. This, how- Ethiopia,
ever, feems undoubtedly to have been the cafe ; as we “~v' !
hear of no other attendants they had than 10 Portuguefe
taken with him by Fecur Egzie, fix of whom were
to go no farther than Narea, but the other four were
to proceed to India; forty men armed with (hields and
javelins were alfo granted, but this force was undoubt¬
edly too fmall to anfwer any ufeful purpofe. Sela
Chriftos indeed furnifhed them with guides from the
barbarous nations in the neighbourhood of Narea, taking
hoftages for the fecurity of the travellers ; but the in- ^
fufficiency of thefe precautions foon appeared. Our Account of
travellers had proceeded but two days journey into the their jt ur-
country of the Gongas, when they were treated in^y-
fuch an hoftile manner, that one of the Portuguefe was
obliged to return with Fernandez to complain of the
behaviour of the favages. On this information Sela
Chriftos infiantly difpatched three officers, with a pro¬
per number of troops to chaftife them ; by which
means the ambafiadors got fafe to Mine, the name of
fome miferable villages on a ford of the Nile. Here
they crofted the river on {kins blown up, and next day
entered the country of the Pagan Galla; and foon after,
though not without great difficulty, they reached the
kingdom of Narea the moft foutherly province of the
Abyffinian empire, but quite furrounded by the Gal¬
la. Here they were received with great kindnefs by
the commanding officer of the firft fortified place they
came to; but on being introduced to the king himfelf,
they met with a very indifferent reception. This was
owing to the infinuations of an Abyffinian monk, that
they were to bring Portuguefe foldiers that way into
Abyffinia ; which wmuld be deftruftive to his king¬
dom. On calling a council, it was refolved to fend them
into the kingdom of Bali; fo that they would be ob¬
liged to pafs through a much more difficult and dan¬
gerous road than what was firft intended. Having
thus, as he fuppofed, provided againft the danger which -
threatened his kingdom, he made them a prelent of 50 -
pieces of .gold, recommending them at the fame time
to the ambaffador from-the fovereign of Gingiro, thro’-
which they were next to pafs.
On leaving Narea, they received a convoy of 80 fid¬
dlers to conduft them fafely to their next ftage ; after
which they paffed four days through countries totally
laid wafte by the Galla, and where they were obliged
to hide themfelves for fear of meeting with thefe fava¬
ges. Proceeding ftill through wmods and vaft chains of
mountains, they came to the river Zebee, or moie pro¬
perly from its white colour refembling melted 22^
butter, as the wmrd imports. Fernandez deferibes this Defcriptioi*»
river as larger than the Nile, and vaftly more rapid.'>f the rives;
They paffed it by a kind of bridge, but certainly az-jee-
moft tremendous one. The channel of the river is full of
rocks ; and betwixt every two of thefe a fingle tree was
laid, fo elaftic that it would bend with the wreight of
one perfon ; wffiile the vaft height of the precipice, and
the fight of the roaring current below, w-as fuffieient to
ftrike the.boldeft with terror. At a fmall diftance from
this bridge was a ford, through which it was neceffary
that their mules ffiould pafs ; which being accompliffi-
ed without any accident, though with difficulty and .
danger, they entered the territory of Gingiro. Here
tjiey were hofpitably received by the fovereign, and
after a mutual exchange of prefents proceeded to Sah*.-
l gara>>
H
They a
gara,. the capital of another fmall kingdom named
J C ami at, which was at this time governed by a
Moor named Amelmal. During the time of their re-
lidence liere, one Manquer, a fchifmatic Abyffinian,
arrived, who infinuated to the king that the recom¬
mendations they had brought along with them were
falfe. This reduced them to the neceffity of Haying
there till meffengers could be fent to Socinios to know
whether it was fo or not ; which occafioned a delay
of three months. At kill orders were brought to fend
them off immediately.- This favourable anfwer procu¬
red the difmiffion of the ambaffadors with prefcnts;
while the malicious Manquer was detained prifoner.
He efcaped, however, and overtook them in the next
kingdom, named Alaba, which was governed by a
Moor •named AMo. Here he accufed them of a de-
lign to overturn the Mahometan religion altogether:
which fo exafperated the barbarian, that he threatened
them all with death; and adtually put them in prifon,
where fome of the Portuguefe died. At laft, after
holding a council in which Manquer gave his voice for
putting them to death, it was refolved that they fnould
[ 774 1
E T H
A number
©f rebel ions
n account
obliged to ke fent back to Amelmal; which was accordingly done,
return. an(l from his dominions they returned to Abyflinia.
Thus ended this memorable embaffy, by which the
Pope was deprived of any authentic documents which
might fhow that any Abyffinian emperor bad ever vo-,
luntarily fubmitted to him ; and there can be no doubt
that this mifearriage, more than any thing elfe, pre-
vented the ellabliffiment of Popery in this country.
Socinios had now gone fo far in favour of the Ca¬
tholic party, that he began to ffiare in fome meafure
on account ^ pate Gf 2a Denghel, numberlefs confpiracies being
I^1 1 ‘ formed againft him ; which it w'as undoubtedly owing
only to the altered fitu&tion of affairs by the preaching
and affiduity of Peter Paez, that he was able to with-
ttand. The confpirators were at this time fupported,
not only by the Abnna, but by Emana Chriitos him-
felf, the king’s brother, whom wre have frequently had
cccafion to mention. Their firft flep w’as the very
fame which had been fo fuccefsfully taken by Za Selaffe
in the time of Za Denghel, viz. to pronounce fentence
The Abunaof excommunication on the emperor. He was at that
excommu- time abfent on an expedition againft. the Agows; but
ideates the retUrned immediately on hearing what was tranfafted
buMsobii- h*3 abfence; informing the Abuna, that if he did not
gedtowith-recal the excommunication without delay, his head
draw his ffiould pay the forfeit. This fpirited declaration had
fentence. an that the Anathema was annulled, and the
confpiracy diffolved for that time. It was next refol¬
ved between Emana Chriftos the king’s brother, Ju¬
lius his fon-in law% and Kefla Wahad mafter of the
houfehold, to affaffinate the king in his palace. To
accomplifti this purpofe it was concerted that they
ffiould defire an audience; that Julius ffiould enter
firft, and prefent a petition of fuch a nature as would
probably be refufed : on this he was to begin an alter¬
cation ; and during the continuance of it the other two
affaffins were to come up, and flab their fovereign be¬
fore he had time to put himfelf in a pofture of defence.
Happily for Socinios, however, he was informed of
his danger by a page juft before Julius made his ap¬
pearance : on which, inftead of refufing the petition,
he granted it immediately; fo that there was no room
fur difpute. He then got up to walk ; which was
IV)
Attempts
to affafli-
nate the
emperor.
fcarce done when Emana Chriftos alfo came; on which Ethiopia.
Socinios invited them all to the terrace to walk with
him. This prevented their falling upon him at that
moment; and as they fuppofed they would have ft ill a
better opportunity on the terrace, they readily confent-
ed._ But Socinics having opened a private door, at p niilcar-
which he entered firft, drew it quickly after him ; and ries.
as this door had a fpring lock made by Peter Paez,
which {hut it in the infide but could not be opened
from without, the confpirators were difappointed. Be- -
Jug alfo fenfible that their defign had been difeovered,
they were obliged for fome time to keep at a diftance,
but did not for that reafon abandon their wicked pro-
je<fts. Their next fcheme was to be put in execution Thfrebel-
when the king was abfent on an expedition againft Sen- lious fpi.it 1
nasr, who had made a- violent irruption into the A-°fths con-
byffinjan territories. The objett now was not the af-f1 ,ra.tors
faffination of the emperor, but of his brother geia continues'
Chriftos; becaufe the emperor had taken the govern¬
ment of Gojam from Eraana Chriftos, who was a fchif¬
matic, to give it to Sela Chriftos, who was a violent
Catholic. The enterprife was begun by Julius; who j„iius the
i ft tied a proclamation, that all thofe who believed two emperor’s
natures ia Chrift ffiould leave the province of Tigie, ffimin law
where he was governor; and that fuch as were true ai'lear*
friends to ;the Alexandrian faith fliould repair to his 'n arnlS‘
ftandard to fight for it. He then ordered the goods of
all the Catholics in Tigre to be confifcated ; and march¬
ed without delay into Gojam, in hopes to furprife Se¬
la Chriftos. But here the whole fcheme was baffled
by the vigilance and adlivity of the emperor; for he
having received information of what was going for¬
ward, returned into that province before the confpi¬
rators had received certain intelligence of his having
left it. This fo much damped the ardour of Emana js darted
Chriftos and Kefla Wahad, that'they flood aloof with- by his affo-
out attempting any thing till Julius ffiould try his for- elates,
tune. That rebel was at firft very much difconcerted ;
but foon recovering his courage, advanced to the place
where the Nile iffues out of the lake of Dembea, where
he met with the Abuna. Being confirmed by that
prieft in his wicked defigns, he refolvcd, by his ad¬
vice, to fall upon the king before he could be joined
by vStla Chriftos, Simon Uimfelf (the Abuna) offering
-to ffiare his fortune ; and to confirm all, a new and gociaj^ es>
folemn excommunication was pronounced againft the commtmi.
king and all his adherents. Socinios, alarmed at thefecatetf a fe-
proceedings, fent a meffage to Sda Chriftos, defiring colld time*
him to come to his affiftance as fall as poffible. In the
mean time he himfelf advanced to meet Julius; but
chofe his pofts fo judicioufly, that he could not be for¬
ced to an engagement, without great difadvantage on
the part of the enemy. Notwithftanding this, Julius
pitched his camp clofe to that of the king, with a de¬
fign to force him to a battle at all events. This raffi
adfion was followed by one ftill worfe. Simon had
perfuaded him, that as foon as the royal army ffiould
fee him, they would abandon the ftandard of the em¬
peror to join his. On this, without farther confidera- yp* raflt-
tion, he ruftred into the camp of Socinios with a very nefs and
few attendants, and reached the emperdr’s tent. Here death,
he was known by the guards, and inftantly difpatehed
with all his followers; the whole army betaking them-
felves to flight after his death, and being purfued with
great flaughter by the royalifts. The plunder of the
camp
Emana
Clinftoi
pardoned.
Another re¬
bellion by
Jonaei.
F. T II [ 775 1 . F T H
camp was immenfe, Julius having brought all his rich- entered their territories, and laid them WaLie ; which Ethiopia-,
es, which he had amaffed by a long courfe of extortion, created a diffention among the favages themfelves ;
into the field along with him ; and all of thefe were one party being for affording him proteftion, the o-
diftributed among the- foidiers. A vail number of ther for delivering him up. This being made known
cattle were likewife taken, which Socinios ditlributed to the king, he fent a few prefents to the faithlefs bar- 23J?
among the priefts, judges, and lay-officers. By this barians of Jonael’s party ; who returned his kindnefs^6^^11^
complete viftbry the whole fcheme of the confpirators by fending him the head of the rebel, though but a
was overthrown. Emana Chriftos having no forces fiiert time before they had fought with their brethren
capable of coping with his brother, and unwilling, as for his refeue. 439
we have faid, to affid Julius openly, had retired to a A more formidable enemy than Jonaei, however,
highNmountain named ff/f/cnr in the tenitory of ftill remained. The province of Damot was one ofre^e^io:j*
Gojam. Here he was inveited by Af Clniftos, an ex- the molt difaffe&ed to Socinios in the whole empire ;
perienced general, whom Sela Chriltos had left gover- and to this place the greatell part of the religious fa- ^
nor when he joined the emperor. Emana, who was natics in other provinces had retired. They now muf-Defperatc
likewife an expert commander, would have made a vi- tered up an army of more than 12,000 men, amongenthufiafni
gorous defence ; but unfortunately the mountain was whom were 400 monks, all of them armed with fiiields,tl}e
fo dellitute of water, that in three days he was deli- lances, and fwords ; infpired, befides, wdth fuch a de n‘on *
vered up by his own men to fav'e themfelves from pe- gree of religious enthufiafm, that they expeiffed to be
riihing with thirft. On being brought to the king, he rendered invulnerable by all terreftrial weapons, and
was tried in a full affembly of judges, and condemned that armies of angels would fight in their caufe. A-
to death; but the king pardoned and fent him to Am- gainft thefe Sela Chriftos was difpatched writh about
hara. 7000 excellent foidiers; and as the general himfelf was
This terrible confprracy had been occafioned by the a zealous Roman Catholic as well as moft of his men,
difpute concerning the two natures of our Saviour : we need not doubt that both parties imagined them-
another quickly followed on account of the dif- felves fure of the protection of heaven, and confequent-
pute concerning the Sabbath-day; the Abyffinian ly that the encouiUer would be very violent. The two-
church infilling on the obfervance of the feventh day armies met on the 16th of OCtober 1620 ; but Sela
of the week as a Sabbath, and the Romilh church on Chriftos was unwilling to deftroy the infatuated people,
the obfervance of the firft day. The author of this who he knew would be unable to rtiift his veteran
rebellion was one jonaei, who had been concerned in troops. He therefore firft Ihowed them his fupeiiori-
the expedition formerly mentioned, in which the A- ty in fome Ikirmilhes; and then fent a pathetic mefl'age,
gow’s cattle were driven away, and afterwards reftored offering a general pardon if they would lay down
by the king. It is more than probable that his re- their arms. TKe meffengers, however, were not al-
fentment on this account contributed much to increafe lowed to approach, fo that an engagement became un-
his zeal on the prefent occafion ; but whatever was the avoidable. The numbers of the rebels, as Sela Chriftos-
real caufe, religion was the foie pretence. He began had forefeen, availed very little againft the difeipline
with a moft infolent but anonymous letter to the of the veterans he commanded. The 400 monks made
king ; in which the arguments of the Alexandrians a moft obftinate refiftance ; and did not yield till after
for the obfervance of the Jewish Sabbath were ftated, 180 of them had been killed on the fpot.
and the contrary doftrine condemned with the utmoft Socinios, having once more vanquished his enemies,-
virulence of expreffion. The king himftlf was reviled now determined to fhow his attachment to the church
in the moft opprobrious manner, compared to another of Rome mote openly. Having therefore fent foryi eemn'--
Dioclefian, the Jefuits faid to be relations of Pontius Peter Paez, he told him his final refutation to embrace rur publicly
Pilate, and all of them devoted to hell without re- the Caiholic religion in its full extent; after which he renuunces
demption. By this ftupid performance the king was renounced the Alexandrian church- in the moft expli-th^-ile,L~
fo much offended, that he added a claufe to the for- cit manner. Hisrenunciation. was followed by a pro-
mer proclamation, commanding that “ all out-door clamation vindicating his conduct ; in which, befides
work, fuch as plowing and lowing, fliould be publicly the arguments ufed for the Pope’s fupremacy, &c. he
followed by the hufbandman on the Saturday, under infilled much on the bad lives of the clergy of the op-
penalty of paying a web of cotton-cloth for the firft polite party, and for which it appeared that there was
omiffion, the value of the cloth to be 5 s. ; the fe- in reality too much foundation. This was the laft
cond offence to be punilhed by a confifcation of move- work of the excellent miffionary Peter Paez, who died
ables, and the offence not to be pardoned for feven of a fever immediately after his leaving the king. The
years.” To this Socinios added a fpeech from the example of the fovereign,. however, had very little ef- 2 „
throne in vindication of him-ftlf, concerning the part fe£l upon his fubjedls. The proclamation was follow-A new%<ri'
Ire had taken in religious matters; and to fhow that ed by a new rebellion iivAmhara. Unluckily the e-hellion
he was in earneft, caufed the tongue of a monk to be ntmies of his brother Sela Chriftos had perfuaded So-^eail40USr
cut out for denying the two natures of Chrift, and cinios to deprive him of his government; and there
one of. his generals to be whipt for obferving the Jew- was no other in the kingdom who could be entrufted
ifh Sabbath. - with fuch an important commiffion ;, fo that the king
In the mean time Jonaei having colledled what for- foon found hiinfclf under a necefiity of replacing and
ces he could, openly declared againft his fovereign ; committing to him the charge of the war againft the
but not daring to meet him in the field, he retired in- rebels. In this he was attended with his ufual fuc-
to the country of the Galla, on hearing that Socinios cefs: for the rebel chief, finding himfelf unable to
was approaching him with an army. On this the king contend with his enemy, repaired for affiftance to the
5 Galla 5
E T H [ 776 ] E T H
Ethiopia. Galla ; who no fooner had him in their power than patriarch : and from fome other fteps taken by this Ethiopia!
they killed him on the firft offer of the imperial .gene- prelate, it appeared that he intended to encroach much “““v
The*rebel ra^’ mang^ng kis body in fuch a manner that fcarce a farther upon the civil authority. One of thefe related
.. - • Kif <■- r°"* t';"   :<l to the church-lands; which in Ethiopia are granted by
chief mur. kit of it remained to be fent to his antagonift.
<?ered by In the mean time news of the revolution in re¬
tire Gulla. ligious matters which had taken place in Abyflinia,
A nevv pa- arr^vec^ Europe. Though the embafly to the Pope
triarch and anc^ king of Spain could not pafs, as has already been
the king, and refumed at his pleafure ; others being
granted in their place, fo that neither prieils nor S4g
monks have any property in them. On the prefentAnAby
occafion, an Abyflinian nobleman had pofTeffed fome n‘a:; nol’le|
iniflionanes related, yet frequent accounts had been otherwife lands belonging to a catholic monk ; for which he was
AbylBni;
tranfmitted ; which produced fuch an effeft, that a new
fet of miffionaries, with a patriarch (AlphonfoMendez)
at their head, were fent to Abyffinia. They arrived
at Gorgora, the feat of royal refidence, in the beginning
of the year 162 6 ; and at the very firft audience of the
called before the patriarch. On his refufing to fub-
mit to this new tribunal, he was inftantly condemned
to reftore the lands ; but refufing this alfo, the patri¬
arch took an opportunity, as he was attending the em¬
peror at church, to pronounce fentence of excommu-
Socinios
takes an
oa-h of
fubmif-
emperor, it was agreed that he ftiould take an oath of nication againft him, giving him over at once, foul and
the pope
fubmiffion to the Pope. The ceremony was perform¬
ed with all the fplendor that could be contrived : the
patriarch then preached a fermou on the Pope’s fu-
premacy in the Portuguefe language, intermixed with
Latin quotations; which is reported to have greatly
confirmed the faith of the emperor and his brother,
thosgh neither of them underftood a word of the lan-
body, to.the devil. —On hearing this terrible fentence
pronounced, the nobleman fainted away, and was with,
difficulty recovered. On the interceffion of the em¬
peror, however, the curfe was taken off; but the in¬
cident produced a very difagreeable effeft on the
minds of the people, who from that day began to en¬
tertain a greater averfion than ever to the Roman Ca-
guages in which it was preached. An anfwer to this tholics and their priefts. This averfion was greatly Body of an
unintelligible difcourfe was made in the Amharic lan¬
guage, which was equally unintelligible to the patri¬
arch and his attendants ; and to this the patriarch add¬
ed a few words of a reply equally ill underftood. At
the conclufion of the difpute, an oath of the Pope’s
fupremacy was taken by the emperor himfelf on his
knees, then by the princes, and afterwards by all pre-
fent, according to their diflerent llations. Sela Chrif-
tos’ not contented with taking the oath, drew his
fword, and in words not eafily underftood, denounced
vengeance on “ thofe who fell from their dutyand
he likewife added to the oath of fupremacy another to
Seia Chri-
itos,
increafed by the abfurd condudft of the patriarch, in Abyffii
ordering the body of an Abyffinian faint to be taken aJ' fa‘ut
P . ■' r 1 ^ • • • • thrown
up, and thrown out or the grave in an ignominious out 0f
manner, becaufe it had been buried under the altar of grave.^
a church, which he imagined was thus defiled. In all
other refpefts, the patriarch behaved in fuch an infolent
and overbearing manner, that the effefts of his op-
preffion foon began to be univerfally felt, and the
Catholic religion began very quickly to decline.—
The firft ftroke given to it was the alteration of the Catholic
liturgy; which was done at the defire of 4.he empe-liturgy al.
Ever fince the eftabliffiment of the Catholic re-tcred’
the emperor and Facilidas the Prince Royal; but if ligion, the Latin mafs-book, &c. had been made ufe
the latter ffiould fail in the defence of the Catholic
faith, he fwore to be his greateft enemy: nor would
of according to the praftiee of the church of Rome ;
but as it_feemed very unreafonable to impofe this at
he be fatisfied without irnpoiing this claufe upon all once upon the Ethiopians, Socirfios ordered the patri-
the officers, whether civil or military, then prefent.
This violent condudf of Sela Chriilos procured him
a number* of enemies, and at laft was the occafion of
arch to make fuch alterations in the old Abyfiinian li¬
turgies as he thought proper, that the people might
thus have an opportunity of paying fifyeir devotions in
archfatI1 his deftruftion ; but that of the king and patriarch a language they underftood. The patriarch, not being
fet the w'hole empire in a flame. An excommunica¬
tion was firft pronounced upon all who did not keep
the oath : a proclamation was next iffued, that all
priefts ffiould prevroufly embrace the catholic religion
under pain of death ; and that every one, under the
fame penalty, ffiould obferve Lent and Eafter accord¬
ing to the rules of the Romiflr church. The patri¬
arch proceeded in the fame ftyle ; re-ordaining the
clergy, confecrating the churches over again, rebap¬
tizing the people, even fuch as were full-grown, abro-
able to aflign any folid reafon to the contrary, was
obliged to comply ; but no fooner wTas this done than
the people made ufe of their old liturgies entirely, with¬
out the leaft regard to the innovations of the patriarch.
In the midft of the confufion which daily took place An army
from thefe caufes, the Galla made a dreadful invafion, cut ofFby
and cut off one of the emperor’s generals with histheGalla'
whole army : nor wrere all the abilities of Sela Chri-
ftos, who had fo often diftinguifhed himfelf, fufficient
to retrieve matters; fo that the favages, after having
gating eircumcifion, polygamy, and divorce (for thefe ravaged the country for fome time at pleafure, return-
had been allowed by the Alexandrian church), and
reducing the moveable feafts entirely to the rules of
the church of Rome.
Though polygamy and divorce are no doubt incon-
fiftent with the pure dodlrines of the gofpel, yet it
was very improper to meddle with thefe praftices at
once in fuch a violent manner. Befides the confufion
that this would naturally occafion in private families,
thefe practices gave occafion to many queftions in law,
which it belonged to the civil judges to decide; but
now thefe wete all fubjedted to the authority of the
N° 120.
ed home loaded with booty. This misfortune was TeckGeor.
followed by the revolt of Tecla Georgis the king’s fon- K|s> the 1
in-law ; who not only made religion the pretence for-^"aw re>*
taking up arms, but infulted the Catholics in the moft Voitj> '
outrageous manner ; colledting their images and other
religious trinkets into an heap, and then publicly fel¬
ting fire to them. After this he called before him his
own chaplain, named Sllba Jacob, who was a Catholic,
ftripped him of his pontificals, and killed him with his
own hand. A reconciliation with Socinios was now
impoffible ; fo that he had no refource but in arms. In
this,
E T H [ 777 ] E T H
dii; p?a.
elcha
iriftos.
rebels
fcated by
la Chri-
if fortune?
fal tbe)
158
rebel ge-
ral en-
ilatcd.
2 SO
Lov.-ever, he was equally unfuccefsful with the
other rebels in this reign ; being defeated, taken pri-
foner, and put to death along with his filler Abdera,
not\vith!l anding the interceffion of a Catholic miffion¬
ary for him, and that of the queen and ladies of the
court for his filler.
As the reafons given by the king for refufing fuch
powerful interceffion w^ere purely religious, the people
became more and more averfe to a profeffion fo ex¬
tremely oppreffive and fanguinary as that of Rome
feemed to be. A revolt of the Agows quickly fol¬
lowed ; not that religion had really any lhare in their
determinations, but that they w'ere exafperated by the
flavery and oppreffion to which they faw themlelves
fubjecled. They now therefore fet up Melcha Chri-
ftos, a prince of the ruyal blood, as a pretender to the
crown ; and foon put on fuch a formidable appearance,
that the king himfelf thought proper to march againft
them with an army of 30,000 fighting men, which
with the fervants and other attendants amounted to
more than 80,000. Melca Chriftos retired with his
troops to the craggy mountains of the country ; and
being imprudently followed by the emperor, rolled
down fuch quantities of Hones from the precipices, that
Socinics W’as obliged to retreat with great precipita¬
tion, after having loll almoll one half of his army.
On this defeat the emperor found himfelf obliged to
apply to Sela Chriltos, whom he had again difgraced
and deprived of his government. He fucceeded in
giving the rebels a dreadful overthrow, which for fome
time entirely broke their powrer; but this fuccefs was
quickly followed by the revolt of Laeca Mariam, a
near relation of the king. He alfo was defeated, and
obliged to retire to a mountain fo lleep, that though
he afcended it in fafety, he was dalhed in pieces
with many of his followers in attempting to de-
fcend ; the reft, who efcaped this danger, being kill¬
ed by their purfuers. Still, however, the rebel Mel¬
ca Chriftos was unfubdued; againft whom Prince
Facilidas, the heir apparent to the throne, was fent,
having under him a nobleman of moll diftinguilhed
character named Keba Chrijlos. The latter was de¬
feated and killed, without its being in the power of
‘Facilidas to do any thing towards the fuppreffion of
the rebellion. This misfortune was followed by the
death of Fecur Egzie, formerly ambaflador with An¬
tonio Fernandes to the pope, but now lieutenant-ge¬
neral to Sela Chriftos. He was cut off with a fmall
body of troops by the Galla; and from many misfor¬
tunes befalling the imperial troops, the power of Mel¬
ca Chriftos was augmented to fuch a degree, that he now
began to aA as a king, and appointed a deputy gover¬
nor to one of the provinces. His opinion of his own
importance, however, had almoft proved his ruin; for
the new governor having appointed a great fellival on
a Saturday, in oppofition to the royal edidt, he was
attacked by a party of the king’s troops, and entirely
routed with the lofs of 4000 of his men. This defeat
was revenged by an overthrow given to Prince Facili¬
das himfelf; the blame of which was laid upon Sela
Chriftos. The latter, as we have often had occafion
to obferve, was not only a moll valiant commander,
but a rigid Catholic ; and thefe two properties might
naturally have been thought to fecure him in favour
with the emperor. His violent condudl in regard to
Vox-. VI. Part II.
the Catholic religion, however, had raifed him fo Ethiopia,
many enemies, that accufationswere perpetually brought — <~~~J
againft him ; and one difgrace conftantly followed an- ge]a2Q°r;
other, notwithftanding all his fervices. The prefentfglgaun;yt."r.
accufation was brought by one Lefana Chriftos, whom Tally hated.
Sela Chriftos had formerly condemned to death. For
this offence he had received a pardon from Socinios;
and he now revenged himfelf upon his former judge by
accufing him to his fovereign. Sela Chtillos was not
unmindful of this condud ; and therefore, as foon as
he had him in his power, put him to death without i6t
regarding the pardon he had received. The emperor D‘3Privel
on this deprived him of the government of Gojam,of
which he gave to Serca Chriftos, who was fuppofed to 0f Gr jam.
be a dependent on Prince Facilidas, and was befides
coufin to the emperor himfelf. The new governor, Revolt*of
on his entering upon office, promifed folemnly to fup-the new
port the Catholic religion ; but no fooner did lie ar- vtrnor*
rive in Gojam, than he folicited Prince Facilidas to re¬
bel againft Iris father, and re-eftablifh the Alexandrian
faith. This was not the only inftance in which he
ftiowed his difobedience. He had received the charge
of a caravan which came annually from Narea ; but
inftead of aAing properly in this refpeA, he employ¬
ed himfelf in driving off the cattle of the Agows and
Damots, who expeAed no harm, and were confequent-
ly quite unprepared. Such numbers of them were
carried off on this occafion, that loo,000 are faid to
have been fent to the Abyffinian market. Socinios,
when informed of fuch an atrocious robbery, ordered
him to reftore the cattle, and to furrender himfelf pri-
foner ; but inftead of complying with this order, he
again folicited Facilidas to revolt againft his father.
For this he was fliarply reproved ; but now', deter¬
mining to make the world believe that the prince had
entered into his fchemes, he fent a public meffage to
him, in which he was defired to come and take poffef-
fion of the kingdom. Facilidas imprifoned the per-
fon who brought this treafonable meffage, and foon af¬
ter fent him to Socinios ; but Serca Chriftos ftill per-
fifted in his mad attempts. He now propofed to abo-
liftr the Romifti religion throughout the kingdom; and
with that view attacked a convent wdiich Sela Chriftos
had built in Gojam: but the fathers having been fur-
niffied with fome fire-arms, made fo good a defence,
that he was obliged to give over the enterprize. He
then took the lall ftep to complete his folly, by open¬
ly revolting againft the emperor, and fetting up a
prince of the blood-royal in oppofition to him, whom
he had found living in obfcurity among his mother’s
relations. To cut off all poffibility of reconciliation
with the emperor, he renewed the facrilegious pradtices
of Georgis, and put to death a prieft for refufing to
deny the two natures of Chrift. Thus he procured a
multitude of enthufiafts to join him ; but when the af¬
fair came to a decifion, and Pri.nce Facilidas with a
well difciplined army was ,fent again him, it then be¬
came evident how little the fanaticifm of a tumul¬
tuous rabble availed againft the (kill of a regular army.
The rebels fought, however, with great obftinacy till
moil of them were killed, their commander being ob- ^
liged to take refuge on a mountain; from whence be-featjj Sta.
ing unable to make his efcape, he at laft came down ken, and
and furrendered at difcretion. We need not doubt ofPut to
his fate; but notwithftanding the execution of thisdeatl1,
5 F rebel,
Ethiopia
E T H [ 778 ] E T H
rebel, another ftill remained. This was Melca Chri- with Facilidas next day, the princess faid to have made Ethic
* y ftos, againil whom the emperor next prepared to a pathetic fpeech to his father; in which he told him,
march. He now found, however, the bad confe- that the bodies of the men he faw dead on the field of
quences of having added fo violently in favour of the battle were neither thofe of Pagans nor Mohammedans,
Catholic religion. His army was fo difaffefted, that but of his own Chriitian fubjedds ; and that victories princ-Fa
ad>4 he could fcarcely put any confidence in them. For of this kind were like driving a fword into his own en- ci!idas
to^refaxes rea^on iffued a proclamation, that fuch as chofe trails. “ * How many men (fays he) have you flaugh hls father
in hisfeve- to obferve the Wednefday as a fall inftead of Satur- tered? how many more have you yet to kill ? We arc^cerni|p
rity con- day, had liberty to do fo. This and fome other indul- become a proveib even to the Pagans and Moors for - Bruc/tW
cernitgre- gencies being reported to the patriarch, the latter carrying on this war; and for apoftatizing, as they TrWJ;vol,
^vhkh’isre ^iarpty reProved him as committing an encroachment fay, from the faith of our anceftors.” The king didu-iHj.p.
f ;med by on the priefthood ; and put him in mind of the pu- not make any reply at that time; but the effefts of the
the patri- nifhment of leprofy inflifted upon Uzziah for aflu- prince’s words were foon apparent. The patriarch took
§rch. ming the prieft’s office. Thus an altercation com- the firft opportunity of upbraiding him with his ingra- 1
menced ; and it was evident, from the behaviour of titude to the Catholics, and deferting the religion
Socinios, that his extreme favour for the Romidi reli- whofe profeffors had by their prayers obtained fuch a
gion began to decline. After this he fet out for the fignal victory. To this Socinios replied in general,
country of Lafta, where Melcha Chriftos was; and the that he had done every thing in his power to eftabliffi
entrance to which was guarded by very high and rng- the Catholic religion; for which he had fhed the blood
ged mountains. Among thefe the rebels had ftrongly of thoufands, and had ftill as much more to fired : but
fortified themfelves ; but were driven from four polls that he fhould confider of the matter, and acquaint him
by the king’s troops, fo that the latter imagined a with his final refolution. This was by no means fa-
a6p
audrian
■feith,
by the king’s troops,
complete vitfory had been gained. Affemblingthem- vourable'; for next day, in a meffage to the patriarch,
felves, however, on the top of another high mountain, he recounted the many rebellions which had been ex-
the rebels watched their opportunity ; and defeending cited on account of religion; and concluded with tell-
a65 fuddenly upon them, cut off great numbers, and obliged ing him, that though the faith of Rome was not a jal'tok,
^/defeat- t^ie re^ to ma^e a precipitate retreat. Another cam- bad one, yet the people of Abyffinia did not underftand tion giantj
cd. paign was therefore neceflary; but now the army loft it. For this reafon he was determined to grant a tole-ed. ®
all patience. They were become weary of making war ration, by allowing fuch as profeffed the Catholic faith
on their countrymen ; and, after flaughtering them in to do fo in peace, and fuch as rather chofe that of A- j 0 ■
the field, feeing the intervals between the campaigns lexandria to do the fame. The patriarch replied, that Oppofc°j1,i
filled up with numerous executions of thofe who had he had no obje&ion to grant this indulgence to fuch the patri-1
The army efcaped the fword. A deputation was therefore fent as had not yet embraced the Catholic faith; but thofearch*
require the from the foldiers by Prince Facilidas, who, though he who had done fo could not be permitted to renounce
reftoration j)acj never declared his fentiments openly, was ftrongly it without a grievous fin. Thus a new fyftem of per-
fufpedled of being no friend to the Catholics. The fecution would have commenced : but the emperor,
purport of the deputation was, that they did not mean underftanding well the purport of his difeourfe, replied,
to fay that the Romilh profeffion was a bad one, but that if this was the cafe, he was no longer mailer of
it was fuch as they could not underftand; and confe- his ownjkingdom; and immediately afterwards iffued a a7I
quently there could be no merit on their part in pro- proclamation, wherein he declared the Alexandrian
feffing it. They were ready, however, to lay down faith reitored, with the altars for the facrament, litur- tiie A"iex.
their lives for the public good, provided their ancient gy, and every other thing belonging to it; at the fameandrian
religion was reftored; but this was a point they would time, that being nowold and infirm, he himfelf refigned faifh> a'
not give up, and without which they would neither the crown and empire to Facilidas.
concern themfelves in the quarrel, nor even wifh fuc- This remarkable proclamation was made on the 14th 43
cefs to the emperor’s arms. With regard to the Ro- of June 1632; after which Socinios took no farther
mifti religion, they added this declaration, perhaps the care of publick affairs; nor did he long furvive this
llrongeft poffible mark of averfion, that they did not tranfadlion. He died on the 7th of September this
ivi/h to know any thing about it. Socinios, therefore, year, and with him fell all the hopes of the Jefuits.
according to the Abyffinian accounts, promifed to Facilidas, as had been rightly conjeftured, was an. in- 27*
reftore the Alexandrian faith, on condition that here- veterate enemy to the Catholic faith. As foon there-J*1® neW::
turned viftorious from Lafta. The army then rea- fore as he had obtained the government, even before he a^nemy
dily agreed to follow him wherever he pleafed; while took upon himfelf the title of king, the Catholics were to the &o
the rebels, having left their fortreffes in Lafta, proba- everywhere difplaced from offices of trull and honour; r"”™
bly from a confidence in their own {Length, boldly but as foon as he found himfelf eftablilhed on the
marched towards the royal army. In the engagement, throne, a letter was fent to the patriarch, informing
however, they did not ihow their ufual alacrity, and him, that as the Alexandrian faith was now reftored,.The"patr
were foon defeated with the lofs of 8000 men. Many it was become indifpenfably neceffary for him to leave.arch, con
Melca cf their belt officer s were killed on thefpot, and Melca the kingdom, efpecially as the new Abuna was on the manded.
Chriftesde-Qj^jft.^ efcaped only by the fwiftnefs of his way, and only deferred his journey till the Romilh Abj
iga.ed, , r jt u „r .1.=    rr„_  r lln;a* |
2,67
horfe. piiefts fhould be out of the country. For this reafon
By this vi&ory the power of the rebels was broken; be commanded the patriarch, with all his brethren, to
hut it was not attended with the fame fatisfa&ion to leave their convents throughout the empire, and retire'
the people with which other viftories were wont to be to Fremona in the kingdom of Tigre, there to wait
accompanied. On viewing the field of . battle along his further pleafure. The patriarch attempted to foft?
E T H [ 779 ] E T H
EtRlopla en him by many conceffions, but In vain ; on the 9th
•“‘V'—' of March 1633 he was ordered, with the reft of the
fathers, to proceed immediately for Fremona. This
they were obliged to comply with ; but the emperor,
tmderftanding that they were about to eftablifh them-
{elves, and to folicit fuccours from Spain to accompli(h
their purpofes by force, he fent orders to the patriarch
inftantly to deliver up all the gun-powder they had at
that place, and to prepare without delay to fet out for
Mafuah. Still the infatuated and obftinate prieft de¬
termined not to comply with the emperor’s orders. At
laft he thought proper to deliver Up the gun-powder ;
but refolved to leave his companions behind him, and
to difperfe them as much as poffible through the
empire, in cafe he himfelf ftiould be obliged to em¬
bark at Mafuah ; which, however, he did not by any
274. means intend. For this purpofe he applied to the Ba-
applies harnaga{h, named John Akay, then in rebellion againft
^tothe ^le emperor!; who carried them all off from Fremona
iarna- in the night-time, under a guard of foldiers, and lodged
:afh, then them fafely in a ftrong fortrefs named Adicotta. Here
’ rebellion, patriarch imagined that he might remain in fafety
till he fliould be able to procure fuccours from India.
In this, however, he was deceived. John conveyed
them from place to place, through many unwholefome
lituatious, till their ftrength as well as their patience
was exhaufted. At laft, on receiving a prefent of gold,
he allowed them to return to their old habitation Adi¬
cotta. Facilidas, then, being deter-mmed at all events
to get rid of fuch troublefome guefts, Endeavoured to
prevail upon John by bribes ter deliver them into his
hands. John was too delicate to comply with this re-
queft, which he fuppofed would be a violation of hof-
pitality ; but he confented, on receiving a proper com-
275 penfation, to fell them to the Turks. Two were left
fhe patri- Jn Abyffinia, in hopes of foon {haring ,the crown of
“Fch an.^°" martyrdom; and this indeed Facilidas did not delay
larks fold*to Put t^em ‘n poffeflion of, both being ordered for
so the execution as foon as he got them into his power.
Not content with this, and being perpetually appre-
henfive of frefh invafions from Europe, he entered in¬
to a treaty with the Turkifli baftiaws to keep the ports
of Mafuah and Suakem fhut againft them ; by which
their entrance into Abyffinia would be efle&ually pre¬
vented.
During thefe tranfaftions, the emperor took the
moft effectual methods otherwife to eradicate the Ro-
mifh religion, by cutting off the principal perfons who
276 profeffed it, or obliging them to renounce their profef-
Sela Chi i- plon> principal of thefe was his uncle Sela Chrif-
death!1110 tos» w^° (leferve(l f° we^ ^ late emperor So-
cinios, and of the whole empire in general. His ex-
ceffive bigotry in religious matters proved the caufe of
his deftru&ion, as has formerly .been hinted. When
it was propofed to him to renounce his faith, he abfo-
lutely refuted to do fo, either to avoid the greateft
puniftiment the king could inflift, or to obtain the
greateft gift he had in his power to beftow. On this
he was banifhed to an unwholefome diftriA among the
mountains of Samen; but as even here he kept up a
correfpondence with the Jefuits, and wiflied to facili¬
tate the mtrodu&ion of more Portuguefe from India,
he was fentenced to be hanged on a cedar-tree.
The expulfion of the prefent race of miffionaries did
not entirely difeourage the Europeans from attempting
to introduce a frefh miflion into AbyfGnia. The ob- Ethiopia.
Itinate, haughty, and rebellions fpirit of the Jefuits
was univerfally condemned, and looked upon to be the
caufe of the extreme averfion {bowed by the emperor
and the whole empire againft the do&rines they pro¬
feffed. It was therefore hoped, and not without fome
appearance of reafon, that the point might (till be
gained, provided the miflion were undertaken by others
lefs violent and infldious in their behaviour. After the
execution of thofe who remained in Abyfllnia, fix Ca- 277
puchins, the reformed order of St Francis, were fent unde-
with prote&ions from the Grand Signior to facilitate taken by fix
their paflage into Abyfiinia, where they hoped to re- Francifian
vive the drooping or rather loft caul’e of the Catho- Capuchins,
lie religion. Nothing, however, could be more un¬
fortunate than the event of this undertaking. The
Galla murdered two who attempted to enter Abyfiinia Four of
by the way of Magadoxa. Two who arrived fafely in them mur-
the country, were Honed to death; while the remain-c!ered’antl
ing two, hearing at Mafuah of the fate of their com^wVreturn
panions, returned home with an account of it. The
bad fuccefs of thefe did not deter three others from
making the fame attempt a fhort time afterwards; but 279
they having imprudently informed Facilidas of theirTJlree
intention, were murdered by the bafhavv of Ma-mur-
fuah, who had received orders from him to this pur- ordei-oLFa-
pofe. So particular was the emperor with regard to cilidas.
the execution of this order, that he caufed the baftiaw
to fend him the {kin of their faces and heads; that he
might know by their faces that they were Europeans,
and by their (haved heads that they were priefts.
Though the Catholic faith was now totally fuppref-
fed, the Ipirit of rebellion ftill continued ; and Melca 2S0
Chriftos continued as much in oppofition to his fove-Melca Crif-
reigri as when he firil took up arms on pretence of re-c°a'
ligion. At firft he met with extraordinary fuccefs; hellion,
totally defeated the royal army, though commanded by
Facilidas in perfon; after which, purfuing his good for¬
tune, he made himfelf mafter of the capital, entered
the palace, and was formally crowned king. This,
however, was the laft of his good fortune. Facilidas
having recruited his army as fait as poflibie, fent three
able generals to attack his rival, who was now ailing
the fovereign in his palace. The rebels were furround- aSr
ed before they expeAed any enemy, and almoft entirely18 defeated
cut off, Melca Chriftos himfelf being killed in the en-anc*
gagement.
The viilory over Melca Chriftos was followed by
feveral fuccefsful expeditions againft the Agows and
Galla; but in the 6th year of the reign of this em¬
peror, the rebels of Lafta, who feemed determined
not to yield while there remained a pofiibility of re-
fiftance, chofe the fon of Melca Chriftos for their king,
and again began their depredations on the neighbour- ch0ofe his
ing provinces. Facilidas marched againft them with fon for their
his ufual a&ivity ; but had the misfortune to lofe the leader,
greateft part of his army by cold among the mountains™,
of Lafta, though it was then the time of the equinox, ror^Sg"^e~
and confequently the fun was only 120 from being ver-perifhes
tical, the latitude of Lafta being no more than 12°, with co!4.
and the fun 12 hours in the day above the horizon.—
Before this rebellion could be fupprefled, another was
begun, at the head of which was Claudius the king’s
brother. He bad not the fame good fortune with the
rebels of Lalla; but was quickly defeated, taken pri-
5 F 2 fonerj,
a87
Reign of
Hannes.
E T H [ 78
Ethiopia, foner, and banifhed to a mountain called Wechne; which
ferved from that time for the imprifonment of the prin¬
ces of the blood-royal. The fuppreffion of one rebel¬
lion, however, feemed to have no other effeft than that
of giving rife to another. A new expedition was to
be undertaken againft the Agows and Shangalla; but
they had potted themfelves fo advantageoufly, that the
royal army was entirely defeated without being able to
make any impreffion on their enemies. Facilidas, how¬
ever, knowing that this defeat could be attended with
no other bad confequence than the lofs of the men,
which had already happened, marched direftly againft
the rebels of Lafta without attempting to revenge the
defeat he had fuftained. The rebel general, weary of
contention, in which he probably faw that he would be
finally unfuccefsful, chofe to fubmit unconditionally to
th'eemperor; who, though he at firft affedfedto treathim
with feverity, foon after releafed him from prifon, be¬
llowing upon him large pofleffions in Begemder, with
his daughter Theoclea in marriage.
Facilidas died in the month of O&ober 1665, and was
fucceeded by his fon Hannes. This prince was fuch anen-
thufiaft for Chriftianity, that in the very beginning of his
reign he iffued a proclamation forbidding the Mahome¬
tans to eat any flelh but what was killed by Chriftians ;
but fo far was he from any inclination to favour the
Catholics, that he ordered all their books which could
be found in the empire, to be colle&ed in a heap apd
burnt. Much of his time was fpent in regulations of
.church-matters, and in contentions and trifling difputes
with the clergy ; which conduft fo difgufted his fon
Yafous, that he fled twice from the capital, but was
purfued and brought back. The laft time was in the
year 1680, when he found his father ill of the diflem-
per of which he died. Hannes expired on the 1 yth
of July that year, having lived at peace during the
whole of his reign, excepting fome trifling expeditions
againft the Shangalla and rebels of Lafta.
Yafous, who fucceeded to the throne with the ap¬
probation of the whole kingdom, was of a very dif¬
ferent difpofitipn from his father; being generous,
a&iye, and brave to a great degree; he was alfo
much lefs bigoted, and differed from him confide-
rably in religious principles. Having fettled church-
matters as he thought proper, his next ftep, and the
moft glorious a&ion of his whole reign, was to pay a
vifit to thofe of the royal family who were confined on
the mountain of Wachne. He found them in the
moft miferabje condition ; all in tatters, and many ai¬
med naked ; their revenue having been ill paid by his
father, who was of a fordid difpofition, and the little
they received having been embezzled by their keepers.
Yafous being greatly moved at this fpe&acle, ordered
a large fum of money to be divided among them for
their prefent neceffities, clothed them according to
their rank, and fettled matters fo that no part of their
revenue could ever afterwards be applied to improper
purpofes. To the governor of the mountain he afllgn-
ed a large traft of territory, to make amends for the
profit he had been accuftomed to derive from the re¬
venue of the princes ; and finally, he left all the prifo-
ners at the foot of the mountain, at perfedl liberty ei¬
ther to take up their refidence again on it or anv
where elfe. By thefe extraordinary inftances of royal
munificence the emperor fo effe&ually gained the af-
389
His genero-
fity to the
banifhed
3 E T H
fedlion of his relations, that they unanimoufly deter- E hiopia. j
mined to return to their former ftate of confinement;
and during the whole time of his reign no competitor
for the crown ever made his appearance from among
thofe who refided there.
Though Yafous is faid to have poffeffed all the qua¬
lities which conftitute a great and good monarch, the m
natural turbulence of his fubjedts, and the peftilent dif¬
pofition of the monks, foon began to fliow themfelves
by new feditions. Thefe were preceded by a violent
irruption of the Galla, who were overthrown, as ufual, ofThe'caW
with great daughter ; but foon after, being folicited ia, fedidonff
by fome monks who had drawn over a party of the the H
Agows to their fide, the difturbances were renewed,
A grandfon of Socinios, who had fled to the Gallabe Ioa’ C*
when Facilidas firft banifhed the princes to Wechne,
was proclaimed king. A multitude of favages imme¬
diately flocked to his ftandard, fo that he was foon at
the head of a very formidable army, while the Agows
and other malcontents were ready to join him as foon
as he fhould repafs the Nile. The king, however, en¬
tirely difconcerted the fcheme by his a&ivity ; for,
advancing with the utmoft celerity, he reached the
banks of the Nile before the Galla on the other fide
were ready to join their allies on this fide of it. The
Agows were fo confounded at his prefence, that they
allowed him to pafs the river unmolefted. The Galla
were equally furprifed at feeing the war transferred
into their own country ; and, with their ufual fickle-
nefs, deferted the prince whofe caufe they had pre¬
tended to efpoufe. A few remained faithful, but were
utterly defeated by the forces of Yafous ; the unhap¬
py prince himfelf, whofe name was Ifjac, being taken 291
— -   of hi, rival.
prifoner, and put to death in the prefence of his rival, ^he cm J
After this many great exploits were performed a.gainllpcror^ •
the rebellious Agows, Galla, and other favages: but
which, as they produced no other confequence than
that of eftablifliing the emperor’s charafter for valour
and Ikill in military affairs, we (hall here pafs over ;
only remarking, that, in the opinion of his fubjeds,
one of his campaigns was the moft glorious ever re¬
corded in the annals of Abyfiinia. The moll memo¬
rable events in the prefent reign regarded religion, and A t 25,1
a renewal of the correfpondence betwixt Europe and to re^val
Abyffinia; of which we have a particular account from the religi-
Mr Bruce to the following purpofe. About the end ous
of the 17th century a number of Franeifcans fromfr<’mEu‘
Italy fettled at Cairo in Egypt, and were maintainedr0,e’
at the expence of the fathers in Paleftine, though pre¬
tending to be independent of their fuperior the guar¬
dian of Jerufalem. The latter, difpleafed at this me¬
thod of proceeding, offered to fupply the miffion to
Egypt entirely at the expence of Paleftine, and like-
wife to furnifli from thence miflionaries capable of in-
ftru&ing the people in the Chrillkin religion. This
offer meeting with a favourable reception at Rome, a
new fet of miflionaries from Jerufalem, called by our
author Capuchins, appeared at Cairo; from whence the
Francifcans were baniflied, only two of them being
allowed to remain in that city. The others returned
to Rome ; where, finding that they could not re-efta-
blilh themfelves by fair means, they had recourfe to
artifice and fi&ion. It was now pretended, that, on
the expulfion of the Jefuits from Abyffinia, a great
number of Catholic Chriftians had fled into the neigh-
* bouring;
E T H [ 781 ] E T H
Ethiopia, bouring countiies of Nubia and Sennaar, where they
found themfelves fo grievoufly oppreffed by the Ma¬
hometans, that, without fome fpiritual afliftance, they
would be under the neceffity of renouncing their reli¬
gion. This ftory being confirmed by the two Fran¬
ciscans who remained at Cairo, the caufe of thefe fup-
pofed Chriftians was eagerly efpoufed by the religious
in Italy, apd a new miffion fet on foot at the expence
of the pope for their relief, which continues to this
day under the title of the Eihiopic niiffion. The mif-
fionaries had it alfo in charge to penetrate if poffible
into Abyfilnia; and to keep up, as far as was in their
power, the Catholic faith, until a better opportunity
fhould offer of making an attempt to convert the whole
empire. For this purpofe a convent was procured for
them at Achmim in Upper Egypt; and permifiion was
granted, notwithftanding their former banifhment, to
fettle two of their order at Cairo independent of the
fathers of Paleltine. '
While thefe tranfa&ions palled in Italy and Egypt,
Louis XIV. of France was in the height of his glory.
Fie had attempted to rival the ancient Greeks and
Romans in the magnificence of his works ; but his
conduft with regard to religion, his perfecution of the
Proteflants, and revocation of the edift of Nantz, had
fligmatized him throughout the greateft part of Eu¬
rope as a bloody and mercilefs tyrant. To wipe off
this {lain,the Jefuits,his great fpiritual diredlors,formed
a fcheme of inducing the emperor of Abyffinia to fend
an embaffy to France; after which they hoped that
they might get themfelves replaced in the Ethiopic
miffion, to the exclufion of the Francifcans. The king,
w’hofe pride was very much flattered by the propofal,
readily came into it; but the Pope’s confent was ftill
* neceffary. Flis Holinefs was by no means pleafed with
this intrufion of a temporal prince into fpiritual affairs:
neverthelefs, he did not choofe to enter into any conteft;
but that he might undo with one hand what he did
with the other, he appointed fix Jefuits, of whom Ver-
feau, the ambaffador of Louis to himfelf, was one, to
be miffionaries to Abyffinia, but the fuperior of the
Francifcans to be his legate i latere at that court;
providing him with fuitable prefents for the emperor
and principal nobility.
The Jeluits now finding themfelves in danger of be¬
ing fupplanted by the Francifcans, applied to the Pope
to know which of the two orders ffiould make the firft
attempt to enter Abyffinia; but received no other
anfwer than that thofe who were mod expert fhould
do fo. Verfeau, probably difpleafed at this conduft
of the Pope, went to a convent in Syria of which he
was fuperior, without making any attempt to enter
Ethiopia: therefore the miflion remained in the hands of
two perfons of oppofite profeffions, a Jefuit and Fran-
cifcan ; the name of the latter being Pafchal, an Ita¬
lian ; and of the former Brevedent, a Frenchman.
The latter was accounted a man of learning and pro¬
bity, zealous in the caufe of his religion, but by
no means imprudent or rafh in his attempts to pro¬
mote it.
a53 In the mean time an unforefeen accident procured
Vafous falls admittance to the miffionaries into Abyffinia more
f;ck, and, readily than could have been expe&ed in the prefent
European111 ^tuat^on affairs. Yafous and his fon had both been
phyiician. attacked by a fcorbutic diforder which threatened to
turn to a leprofy ; on which one Fiagi Ali, a Maho- Ethiopia.
metan fa&or at Cairo, received orders to bring with  
him an European phyficianon his return to Abyffinia.
It happened that this man had formerly been acquaint¬
ed with Friar Pafchal, who had adminiflered fome medi¬
cines to him. Fie now propofed that Pafchal ffiould 294
accompany him to Abyffinia in the charadfer of aEnarEaf.
phyfician; and that Friar Anthony, another of his own other flran-
order, ffiould go with him as his companion. But cifcanun-
this fcheme was frufirated by Maillet the French con- dertake the
ful, who had the charge of the whole from Louis XIV. °®ie*
and wiffied that the Jefuits alone ffiould have the con-
dudl of the miffion. For this purpofe he reprefented Difapj oint-
to Hagi Ali, that friar Pafchal underftood nothing of ed by M.
medicine ; but he promifed to futniffi him with ano-MaiUet’'
ther, whofe Ikill he extolled above all thofe of ancient
or modern times. Hagi Ali, who knew nothing of
the matter, readily agreed to Maillet’s propofal; and Pnncet and
Charles Poncet a Frenchman, who had been bred a Brevedent
chemilt and apothecary, was appointed to the office ai'P°ffitc<k
of phyfician, with Father Brevedent to attend him as
his fervant. Thus the fcheme of the Francifcans was
for the prefent overthrown : but unluckily Mailiet em¬
ployed one Ibrahim Hanna, a Syrian* to write letters
to the Abyffinian monarch and fome of his principal
nobility, which he defined him to fubmit to the in-
fpedtion of one Francis a capuchin or monk of the
Holy Land, and confequently an enemy to the Fran¬
cifcans. Ibrahim, not being acquainted with the
monk he mentioned, and thinking any other would
anfwer as well, carried the letters to one of the fame
name, but of the Francifcan order. Thus the whole
fecret was divulged at once ; and the Francifcans, with 297
the malevolence effential to fuch religious mifereants, eifeans^e-
refolved on the deltru&ion of Poncet and his atten- foive the
dants. At prefent, however, their fanguinary inten-deftru<a:i;n
tions were defeated ; Poncet fet out immediately after “^K™***
h^ had received his com miffion, and arrived fafe at U° jpg'**
Gondar the capital of Abyffinia, with his attendant Poncet fats
Father Brevedent, on the 21ft of July 1699. Breve- out °:; his
dent died on the 9th of Auguit; but Poncet lived to a^ee
execute bis commiffion, by making a full cure of his fous.'°
royal patient. On the 2d of May 1700, he fet out
on his return for Europe, and arrived at Mafuah with¬
out any bad accident.
It has ffiready been obferved, that the main end of
this undertaking was to procure an embaffy from A-
byffinia to the French monarch ; and this end' alfo was
gained. An ambaffador was procured, but unluckily
not fuch a one as M. Maillet the chief manager of the
whole project defired. This man, intoxicated with 297
abfurd notions of nobility and diflindions of rank, Ehe Abyf-
could not make allowance for the difference between a™"
the appearance of an ambaffador from a barbarous mo- ddagree-
narch, however powerful, and one from tire fovereign able to'"
of a civilized and polite nation. The ambaffador fent M Mail,
by Yafous, therefore, having been originally no other !et‘
than a cook, could not be agreeable to a man of fuch
a difpofition. The prefents fent by the Abyffinian
monarch indeed, had they arrived, would have pro¬
bably conciliated matters. Thefe were, an elephant,
fome Abyffinian young women. See. but unluckily the
elephant died, and the ambaffador was robbed of all
the rell by a Turkilh bafhaw. Maiilet, therefore, na¬
turally proud, imperious,, and covetous, thought pro-
F. T H [ 7
' Ethiopia per to call in queftion the authenticity of Moral the
„Q'0^ ambaffado;’s million, to call Poncet himfelf a liar, and
He is not not to allow the former to proceed to France. The
allowed to tranfa&ions on this occafion are fet forth at length by
proceed to Mr Bruce, greatly to the difgrace of Maillet; but as
irai.ee. details of this kind would fwell the prefent article be-
•yond due bounds, we mull refer the curious reader to
, the work jult mentioned.
Thus the fcheme of procuring an embaffy from A-
bylfinia having proved abortive, the next projedt of the
Jefuits was to get an embalfy fent from France, whofe
objedt was to be the cementing a perpetual peace be¬
twixt the two nations, and to eftablifh a lading and
commercial intercourfe ; though, whatever friendlhip
or good-will might take phce, it was evident that
there was not a lingle article that could be exchan¬
ged between them, nor was there any ready com-
301 munication betwixt the two countries either by fea
°r ^an^' Per^on pitched upon as ambaffador
baAkdof111' was M. de Roule, vice-conful at Damietta. He
from is charadterifed by Mr Bruce as “ a young man
France. of fome merit, who had a confiderable degree
of ambition, and a moderate Ikill of the common
. languages fpoken in the eaft ; but abfolutely ignorant
of that of the country to which he was going, and,
what was worfe, of the cuftoms and prejudices of the
nations through which he was to pals. Like moft
of his countrymen, he had a violent prediledtion for
the drefs, carriage, and manners of France, and a hearty
contempt for thofe of all other nations : this he had
not addrefs enough to difguife y and this endangered
his life.” Befides thefe difadvantages, he had the mif-
fortune to be under the difpleafu’re of all thofe of his
own nation who refided at Cairo: fo that the mer¬
chants were very much averfe to his embalfy ; and, as
the Francifcans and Capuchins were his mortal enemies,
he had not a Angle friend in the world except Maillet
and the Jefuits. Unluckily the conful milled him in
one of the moft material articles, and which was un¬
doubtedly of the utmoft confequence to him in the ac-
complilhment of his purpofe, viz. the prefents necef-
fary to be taken with him for the barbarous people
through whofe country he was to pafs. Brocades,
fattins, and trinkets of various kinds, according to Mr
Bruce, were the proper wares ; but, inftead of this, he
had taken along with him mirrors of variows kinds,
with the pictures of the king and queen of France,
wearing crowns upon their heads. The former of
thefe fubjecled him to the imputation of being a ma¬
gician ; while the latter, if fhown to a Mahometarr,
would bring upon him the charge of idolatry. The
worft misfoitune of all was the malice and treachery
of the Francifcans, who had already prejudiced againft
him the people of the caravan with whom he was to
go, the governors of the provinces through which his
road lay, and the brutal and barbarous inhabitants of
Sennaar, who lie in the way betwixt Egypt and Abyf-
•*T •3°a fin*ai ^ confequence of all this was, that he was
4eredmUr* murdered at the laft mentioned place with all his reti¬
nue. The Francifcan friars, who had preceded him
to Sennaar, left it before his arrival, and returned im¬
mediately after, '['here cannot therefore be the lead
doubt that they were the authors of his murder;
though the bigotted difpofition of Louis XIV. pre¬
vented all enquiry into the matter; fo that the parti-'
82 ] E T H
cular fteps they took to accomplilh their defigns were EduoplsB
never pubiifhed to the world.  /
The affaffination of de Roule was preceded by that Yaf3°3
of Yafous emperor of Abyffinia, who fell by a confpi-faflinateik
racy of his wife and fon, occafioned by a fit of jealou-
fy in the former. He was fucceeded by his fon Te-
cla Haimanout, who had confpired againft him. Be¬
fore his death, he had difpatched a melfage to the
king of Sennaar, requiring him to afford M. de
Roule protection at his court, and a fafe conduft
from it; but when the meffenger was within three
days journey of the capital of that kingdom, he re¬
ceived news of the affaffination of Yafous. On
this he returned in great hafte to Gondar, in or¬
der to have the letters of protedftion renewed by Te-
cla Haimanout the reigning prince. This was
readily done: but before the meftenger could reach
Sennaar, he was informed that de Roule was already
affaffinated; on which he returned with ftill great¬
er hafte than before. The Abyffinian monarch, ^
provoked at fuch a fcandalous violation of the law The new
of nations, declared his intention of commencing emperor ia*
hoftilities againft the king of Semraar ; and for this^^JjV13*
purpofe affembled his army. But this was fcarce^”^. 13
done, before he was informed that a rival, named Am-
da Sion, had been fet up againft him by the friends of
his father Yafous, and had been for fome time private¬
ly collecting troops to furprife him before he could be
ready to make any oppofition. It was therefore ne-
ceffary to employ the army deftined againft Sennaar
to reduce this rebel to obedience ; and fcarce was this
done, when the emperor himfelf was affaffinated ; fo But is him-
that all thoughts of revenging the death of M. Roule kj^jiur*
Were laid afide. _ _ "306
Tecla Haimanout perilhed in 1706, and was fuc-Reigu of
deeded by his uncle Tiffilis, or Theophilus ; whofe The “phi*
firft care was to apprehend all thofe fufpeCted to have lus‘
been concerned in the death of his predeceffor. Thus
the murderers of Yafous, whom Tecla Haimanout had
in ftigated, imagined themfelves fecure, and came to
court without any fear of danger: but no fooner did
Theophilus get them into his power, than he caufed
them all to be put to death without exception ; the
queen herfelf being publicly hanged on a tree. Not-Exe3°t?on
fatisfied with avenging the death of Yafous by the0f the
execution of his murderers, he did the fame with thofe queen and
of Tecla Haimanout; putting to death all who were other reSi*
immediately in his own power, and commanding the Cldes‘
governors of the provinces to do the fame with thofe
whom they could find within their jurifdiCtion. One ’i'j£i'revolts
of thefe named Tigi, who had been formerly betwu- bu!. is de_
det, having efcaped into the country of the Galla, feaced, ta-
raifed a very confiderable army, with which he invaded and put
Abyffinia, where he committed the moil dreadful1^ 1'ulta*
cruelties. Theophilus engaged him on the 28th of
March 1709 ; when, with a force greatly inferior, he
gained a complete ViCloiy. A number of the Galla
fled to a church, hoping.to be protedledby the fandli-
ty of the place; but the emperor telling his foldiers
that it was defiled by thofe who were in it, command¬
ed it to be fet on fire, fo that every one perilhed. Ti¬
gi, with his two fons, were taken prifoners, and put
to death. The king himfelf did not long furvive his
victory; falling fick of a fever, of which he died in
September 1709.
After
E T H
Ethiopia. A fter the death of Theophilus, the line of Solomon by
the queen of Sheba w as fuperfeded a fecond time, and a
3°9 ftranger of the name of Oii/las feated on the Abyffinian
kmon f -l;0 t^rone* extreme feverity of Theophilus in puniflring
aflde. the murderers of both Yafous and Tecla Haimanout gave
occafion to this; for as both princes had been aflaflinated
in confequence of confpiracies formed by the principal
.people of the nation, the number of confpirators was
fo great, that the parties concerned had intered fuffi-
cient to influence the eleftionof the new monarch even
in this moft capital refpedf, of his not being a defen¬
dant of Solomon. Excepting this Angle defedf, he
tvas in every refpedt worthy of the kingdom, and was
already the higheft fubjedt in it. Scarce was he feated
On the throne, however, when a dangerous confpiracy
was formed againil him by the very perfons by whom
he had been placed upon it. Oudas baffled their de-
Jlgns, by feizing the principal confpirators before they
had time to bring their fchemes to a bearing; and fe^
veral people of the firft rank were condemned to lofe
their nofes, or to be put to death. After this the em¬
peror undertook an expedition againft the Shangalla,
according to the barbarous cuftom of. the Abyffinian
monarchs, who-hunt thefe poor people merely for the
fake of making Haves ; flaughtering the men without
mercy as well as many of the women, and carrying
off only the boys and girls into captivity. In this he
met with perfedl fuccefs; and was about to attempt the
tonqueft of the whole country, when he was called
back by the news that his prime rainifter Tafa Chriftos
was dead. While the emperor remained in his capital
The empe-at Gondar, he was taken fuddenlyill; which he at
ror falls hr ft imputed to witchchrafi, and therefore ufed fome
®cl£. .antidotes; among which the fmoking of the palace
with gun-powder was one. But this was done fo care-
lefsly by the fervants, that the whole building was con-
fumed; an accident looked upon by the people in general
as a very bad omen, efpecially as the king’s complaint
increafed every day. At laft the principal officers
came to pay him a vifit of condolence, as they pretend¬
ed ; but in reality to obferve the nature of his diftem-
per, and to confult whether or not it was likely to
continue till they could fall upon means to deprive him
of the government. Ouftas underflood their intentions,
and therefore fummoned all his ftrength to put on for
a moment the appearance of health; fo that the officers
found him attending bufmefs as ufual. Being thus
difconcerted, it became neceffary to make fome apo¬
logy for a vifit fo extraordinary and formal; for which
they were at firft fomewhat at a lofs : on recolle&ion,
however, they told him, that, hearing he had been
fick, which they happily found was not the cafe, they
had come to make a propofal concerning the fuccef-
-fion; profeffing a defire that he would quiet the minds
of his own family, and of the people in general, by ap¬
pointing his fon Fafil fucceflbr to the throne after his
3iT deceafe. Ouftas gave them an equivocal anfwer ; but
°oEd4and t*'e difeourfe concerning Falil happening to be over-
David pro- heard by the foldiers, a violent mutiny enfued, and all
claimed the officers tscho had come to vifit Ouftas were killed,
•mperor. Part of the town was fet on fire in the confufion; and
at laft a proclamation was made, that David fon of
Yafous was king of Abyffinia. The prince was then
lent for from the mountain, and arriving at Gondar
was crowned on the 30th of January 1714. The
3,
E T H
diftemper of Ouftas in the mean time continuing Ethiopia,
to increafe, he died on the xoth of February the fame v  
year. Deathof
The new emperor was a rigid Alexandrian in prin-ouflas
ciple ; but Ouftas had been fo far favourable to the 313
Catholics, as to entertain fome of their priells, though Reign of
in a private manner. As it was the cuftom, however, David,
to call a convocation of the clergy on the acceffion of
every new emperor, the monks and others infifted up¬
on one being called on the prefent occafion ; the more
efpecially that a new abuna was come from Egypt,
and the lenity fliowm to the Catholics by Ouftas had
excited tlie jealoufy of the Abyfiinian clergy in the
higheft degree. This affembly proved fatal to three
Romifti prieits, whom Ouftas had protefted and fup-
ported for fome time. They w'ere brought before the
king and Abyffinian clergy; who (hortly aiked them,
whether they believed that the council of Chalcedon
was to be accepted as.a rule of faith, and that Pope
Leo lawfully prefided in it ? To both thefe queftions
they anfwered in the affimative: on which, without
more trial, they were condemned to be ftoned ; and
the fentence was inllantly put in execution by the fu¬
rious and ignorant multitude, only one perfon in the
whole afl'embly exclaiming againft it as unjuft. The
priefts being thus gratified in one inftance, infifted
that Abba Gregorius, who had adled as an interpre¬
ter to the three juft mentioned, fliould alfo be put to
death ; but this was prevented by David, who found,
upon inquiry, that he had only doneTo in obedience to
the exprefs commands of Ouftas his fovereign.
Here we mull take notice, that though the faith of
Abyffinia is always faid to be the fame with that of
Alexandria, it is not for that reafon to be imagined Three Ro-
that the clergy are all of the fame mind. On themifliprieGs
contrary, many different patties exift among them,executed,
who hate one another no lefs than all of them do the
church of Rome. The principal of thefe in the time
we fpeak of were the monks of Debra Libanos and
thofe of St Euftathius, to which laft; the emperor him-
felf belonged. On the arrival of a new abuna, it is
cuftomary to interrogate him before the emperor and
affembly of the clergy, which of the two .opinions he
adheres to. The emperor at prefent, not thinking
his prefence neceffary, fent the betwudet with the prin¬
cipal perfons of both parties to hear the profeffion of
the new abuna, which was afterwards to be proclaim¬
ed to the people. The latter, probably not willing to
contend with either party, gave an equivocal anfwer.
But with this the king himfelf was diffatisjied; and
therefore, without confulting the abuna farther, he
caufed it to be proclaimed, that the new abuna’s pro¬
feffion was the fame with that of the monks of St
Euftathius. This was highly refented by the monks
of Debra Libanos, who inftantly ran to the abuna,
and from him received a profeffion diredtly contrary to
what had .been proclaimed by the king’s order. Not
fatisfied with this, they continued their tumult, difre-DJffenflons ••
garding the imminent danger they were in of falling among the -
under the king’s difpleafure. One of their number A‘r/*'ln'aa ;i
was fo infatuated as to cry out, that he faw a cherubClerSy'
with a flaming fword guarding the door of the houfe
where they were. Unluckily, however, they con¬
tinued their affembly fo long, and behaved in fuch a
feditious manner, that the emperor fent againft them a
body-.
[ 283 ]
E T H [ 784 ] E T H
Ethicp'a body of pagan Galla ; who falling npon them fword of peace, and their forcing him into a war when he Ethiopia.
w’—■v—in hand, killai upwards of 100 of the ringleaders, and had no inclination for it. In a (hort time, however, *
Crea^mif t^len ^a^y'nS out ’nt0 t^ie ftreet deftroyed indifcrimi- the people wrere perfectly comforted for the lofs ofReiigiuu*
Caere of the nately every one they met. their brethren. In the late unfortunate adtion they utenfils te*
-clergy ai d The maffacre continued till the next day at noon, had loit all thofe holy utenfils, which it is ufual in deemed at
«tlicr«. when a Hop was put to it by the king’s proclamation. Abyffinia to carry into the field of battle in order to 311 extr:iva'
The vaft quantity of blood fo wantonly (hed, .however, enfure viddoi y. Among thefe was a true picture ofgant rU *’
could not but occafion great difeontent throughout the crown of thorns which was put upon our Saviour’s
the capital, and the bad effedts of it foon appeared, head; fome pieces of the crofs upon which he fuffered;
The k ng
poifoned.
3tS
Rely 11 of
Bacuffa.
319
Of Ya-
fbus II.
The king was univerfally hated, and numberlefs con-
fpiracies were talked of; but before any pretender to
the crown appeared, David himfelf fell lick, the caufe
of which was found to be poifon. The perpetrators
of this crime being known, were inftantly put to death;
but nothing could fave the life of the emperor, who
died the 9th of March 1719 in great agony.
David was fucceeded by his brother Bacuffa ; who
in the beginning of his reign proved very fevere and
cruel, cutting off almoft all the nobility who could be
fuppofed to have had any flrare in the confpiracies
a crucifix which had fpoken on many occafions; with
many other facred relics of equal value. Soon after
the battle all thefe were redeemed by the priefts at an
extravagant rate; no lefs than 8000 ounces of gold
having been given for the fpeaking crucifix; and for
the reft, we are to fuppofe a proportional price had
been paid. On the arrival of this trumpery at Gon-
dar, the greateft rejoic gs were made, and Yafouswas
aftonifhed at the people having fo foon forgot, the lofs
of their countrymen and relations.
Soon after thefe tranfaclions the abuna died ; but
and feditions of former reigns: In the latter part of though it was cuilomary for the Abyffinian monarchs
it he became much more mild, and was beloved by his to advance the money neceffary to bring a new one
fubjedts. He was fucceeded in 1729 by his fon Ya- from Alexandria, Yafous found himfelf obliged to lay
fous II. who continued long under the regency of his a tax upon the churches for defraying it at this time,
mother ; and as foon as he took the management of having fpentall his ready money in repairing and orna-
affairs upon himfelf, was dillurbed with continual fedi- menting his palaces. Three priefts, coniigned to the The mef-
titions and rebellions. In one of thefe the city of care of as many Mahometan factors, were fent to knptrs fent
Gondar was made a field of battle, and was fo fre- Egypt for the new patriarch ; but they were detained new
quently fet on fire, as to be almoft entirely reduced to for fome time by the naybe or prince of Mafuah, who fuited^ti"
•l10 ruins. * Having at laft fucceeded in reducing all his extorted from them one half of the money given by the robbed,
himfelf to enemies to obedience, he applied himfelf to the arts of emperor for bringing the abuna from Cairo. Yafous
the arts of peace, repairing and ornamenting his palaces, in which no fooner heard that they were detained at Mafuah,
he employed fome Greek artifts. For this he renoun¬
ced the diverfion of hunting, and the barbarous expe-
I, r’diculed dEions againft the Shangalla ; but this way of life
by his fub- proved fo difagreeable to his turbulent fubje&s, that a
than he fent orders to Suhul Michael governor of Ti-
gre to refufe provifions to the inhabitants of Mafuah,
which would foon reduce the naybe to obedience : but
as Michael intended foon to quarrel with the king
jeils, and fevere fatire was publiftied againft him under the title himfelf, he was not in any hafte to obey the orders he
received. The travellers were therefore detained fo
long, that on their arrival at Jidda, they found they
undertakes Qf « The expeditions of Yafous the Little.” Nettled
tioi^aat reProac^> he determined on an expedition rung, uini uu men amva, aL jiuua, mey iuu.,u mej
Sennaar!n againft the kingdom "of Sennaar ; and having made had loft the monfoon ; and, what was worfe, the fche
the neceffary preparations, invaded it with a foimi- rif of Mecca would not allow them to pafs without a
dable army, without the leaft pretence of provocation,
r making any declaration of war. As he proceeded
frefii extortion. Their money was now exhaufted; but
the rapacious fcherif put one of their number in pri-
into the country of the enemy, he allowed his foldiers fon, where he continued for a twelvemonth till the mo¬
ney arrived : and from this time thefe extortions were 3ZJ
changed into a ftated tribute ; 75 ounces of gold (a' mbiue for
every where to exercife the greateft cruelties, to der
ftroy every living creature with the fword, and every w . ljluulc
thing combuftible with fire. Some of the Arabs join- bout L. 186 fterling) being granted for leave of paf-the j^ffage
ed him as he went along; many more fled from his pre- fage to Cairo for the abuna ; 90 ounces to the fche- of the A-
fence ; and a body of them tried to oppofehim. Thefe rif, and as many to the naybe, for allowing the abunabuna-
laft were utterly defeated; and Yafous without delay to pafs from Cairo ; an agreement which fubfifts to this
prepared to march to Sennaar the capital of the king- day. Several other infults of this kind being received
3** dom. As he ftill went on, the king Baady being af- from the naybe, Yafous at laft difeovered that there
A divifion flfted by Hamis prince of a territory named Dar was a ftrift alliance betwixt him, the governor of Ti-
y Ffj'wr, furprifed one divifion of his army fo effeaually, gre, and the Baharnagalh ; any one of whom, had he
° ’ that they were all cut off to the number of 18,000. thought proper, could have crufhed this pitiful prince
Yafous, however, ftill continued his deftruftive pro- with the fmaUett effort. On this the emperor deter-The^m_
grefs; though he gave over all thoughts of reducing mined to march againft him in perfon ; but was pre-pfrordeter-
the capital, or fubduing the kingdom. He returned vented by a rebellion which had been purpofely excited mia« 10
triumphant to Gondar, making a great ftiow of the in the country of Azab and that of the Dobas. The ^he
plunder he had acquired ; though the deje&ed counte- rebels were eafily overthrown : but thus the expedition jviafuah,
nances of many of his army ftiowed that they were by againft the Naybe was delayed for a year; during which but is pre-
no means pleafed with expeditions of this kind. The interval the emperor fent for Michael to Gondar. This vented,
king himfelf was fuppofed to behold the diftrefs of order was pofitively refufed, and a war enfued. Mi-^3*7^
his fubjefts on this occafion with a malicious pleafure, chael, unable to contend with the emperor in the open vl;;cbaei
on account of their impatience and turbulence in times field, took to a high mountain, the ufual refuge of governor o|
No i 20. 3 Abyffinian Tigre.
E T H [ 78,,-
Ethiopia.- Abyflinian rebels. Here alfo his bad fortune purfued
  him ; all his pods were taken by dorm excepting one,
which, it was evident, would likevvife have been carried,
though not without a very great expence of men.
Vlichael o- Here Michael requeded a capitulation ; and to enfure
E T H
:>f all others the mod obnoxious to the Abyffmians,
both on account of the horrid barbarity of their nr’.n-
ners, and the continual wars which from time immemo¬
rial had taken place between the two nations. The
queen was the daughter of one Amitzo, a prince
favourable terms, he defired to put into the hands of who had once hofpitably entertained Bacuffa before he '
Yafous a great quantity of treafure, which wmuld other-
wife be diffipated among the common foldiers. This
being done, Michael defcended with a done upon his
head, as confeffing himfelf guilty of a capital crime,
vith a defign to make fubmidion to the emperor.
Bruce informs us, that he has often heard hii
was Michael the archangel who was his correfpondent.
fonfis Yafous was firmly determined" put this rebel to
:s>e l to death, notwithdanding thequantuy of gold he had re-
don hitriceived ; neverthelefs a promife was extorted from him
irrary tothat he would grant him his life. As foou as Michael
o-yn in-came jilt0 bis prefence, the emperor was filled with in-
dignation, retracted his promne, and ordered him to
became emperor ; and his people were edeemed the
lead barbarous of the whole. A prejudice againd her,
however, againd her offspring, and the emperor him¬
felf, never to be effaced, »ovv took place among the
Abyfiinians ; hut'this did not (how itfelf during the
This was prevented for one day by a violent dorm of reign of Yafous. The emperor died on the 2 id of June Death of
wind and rain; from which moment the Abyfiinians 1753, being the 24th year of his reign, not without Yafous.
believe he began to converfe with the devil: but Mr fulpicion of being poifoned by his mother’s relations,
..o Co v.„o n(tan h>'m fay who were now attempting to engrofs the whole power
of the empire into their hands. 333
On the death of Yafous, his. fon Toas by the Galla Reign of
princefs jud mentioned fuccetded to the throne with-Ioa'•
out any oppofition. The difcontent which had taken
place .in the former reign about the power affumed by
the relations of the old quetn, now, began to (how it¬
felf more operdy ; and it was complained that a rela-
be carried out and put to death before his tent-door, tionfhip to her was the only way to preferment, by
The execution of the fentence, however, was prevent¬
ed by the hiterceflion of all the officers of any confide-
ration in the court or army. Such univerfal folicita-
tion could not be withdood : Michael was pardoned ;
but with thefe remarkable words, that the emperor
wafhed his hands of all the innocent blood which
Michael ffiould (bed before he brought about the de-
druftion of his country, which he knew he had been
long meditating.
Ie tf fet at Michael cominued for fome time in prifon ; but was
Lbr-rty and afterwards fet at liberty, and even reliored to his gc*-
atfed *0 vernment of Tigre. No fooner was he reindated in
the h'gheft thjg dignity, than colledb'ng an army, he attacked Kaf-
which means the old families, whofe merit had often
faved the date, were totally excluded from every (hare
.of favour. On the acceffion of the young king, a par- The^Galla
ty of Galla horfe, faid to be about 1200 in num-introduced
her, wete fent as the portion of his mother; and *nt5> Abyf-
thefe were quickly followed by a number of pri-^nia*
vate perfons from motives of curiofity, or hopes of
preferment, who were embodied to the number of 600
into a troop of infantry, the command of which was
given to Woodieka The great favour in which thefe
people were at comt foon induced many others to *
make their appearance. Two of the king’s uncles Two of
were fent for by his exprefs defire ; and they brought the king’s
*11/-v h Vi rv-» o ^ 1. A. 1. _ 4. * 11 n cl Cw ftT-
along with them a troop of 1000 horfe. By the time u.ncle’ ^
mati Woldo governor of Amhara, defeated him ii ^
two battles, and forced him to take refuge among fhey arrived the queen was dead; but he/two bro-au
the Galla, whom he foon after bribed to murder thers, named Brulhe and Lubo, finding that the king the power,
him. In other refpe&s he behaved as a mod du- put an entire confidence in them, determined to make
tiful fubjeft, gave the king the bed intelligence, and a party at court. This was eafily cffe&ed; everything
fupplied him with foldiers better accoutred than he was governed by Gallas ; even the king hirnfelf affedl-
had ever before beheld. He was alfo more humble ed to fpeak their language; while the Ahyffinians were
than before his misfortune ; nor did an increafe of his to the lad degree mortified at feeing their inveterate
favour and influence make him deviate from the line he enemies thus edablilhing a dominion over them in the
had preferibed: _ Having begun to gain friends by heart of their own country. At lad the king thought
bribery, he continued to add one bribe to another to
fecure the old, and to gain new ones by the fame
means, pretending all the virile to no kind of dignity
or honour, not even to fuch as was judly due to his
own rank. Thus he became fuch a favourite with the
proper to appoint his uncle Lubo to the government of
Amhara ; but this produced fuch exceffive difcontent,
that he was fain to ret raft his nomination, led a civil
war (hould have enfued. While the empire was thus
divided into two parties, Suhul Michael came to Gon-SuhulM'-
byffinia.
emperor, that he bedowed upon him the governments of dar in a very fplendid manner, on an application from chad ar-
^ the exiled prince of Sennaar to be redored to his king-r:ves at
dom. When condufted into the prefence of the em- coulC*
peror, he prodrated himfelf before him, owned him¬
felf his vaffal, and was put in. poffeffion of fhe. govern¬
ment of Ras-cl-Feel upon the frontiers, witft a large re¬
venue, where he was advifed to day till the difputes
which fubfided at that time (hoidd fgbfide. This fa-
. „ lutary advice, however, he had not prudence to com- 337
but as his wife pretended to_ interfere in matters of ply with; but fuffering hirafelf,to be decoyed froiq his K!n& o£
date, he was perfuaded by his mother to baniffi both afylum into Atbara, was taken prifoner and murdered. Sennaar‘
d her children to Wechne. After this his mother In the mean time, the Abvffinian orime minilh/murdere^’
Enderta and Sire, in addition to that of Tigre ; fo that
he was now mader of almod one half of Abyffinia.
During the reign of Yafous, however, he attempt-
ed nothing. 'The foundations of the difturbances
_ tufe of the which fucceeded were laid by the queen-mother, to-
great civil wards the end of the reign of Yafous. This emperor
a had been married when very young to a lady of Amha-
by whom he had twofons named Adigo and Aylo
her and
jchofe a wife for him from among the Galla ; a people
Vol. VI, Part II.
In the mean time, the Abyffinian prime minider,"1
Welled de 1’Oul, died. He had Hitherto moderated
5 ^ the
E T H [ 786 ] E T H
Ethiopia, the fury of the oppofite parties by his wife and prudent
v conduit; but no fooner was he taken out of the way,
than a moft dreadful fcene of confufion and civil war
took place, which raged with the utmoft violence while
Mr Bruce was in Abyffinia, and feemed not likely to
Statc^of the come t0 an7 termination when he left it. The whole
different cnipite was divided into two great fait ions: at the
parties. head of the one was the old queen-mother of Yafous;
and at the head of the other, loashimfelf the emperor,
with his Galla relations. Matters were firft brought
to a crifisby the imprudence of the emperor himfelfin
bellowing the government of Begemder upon Brultre
one of his Galla uncles. The government of this pro¬
vince had been lately refigned into the hands of the
'queen by an old officer named J!yo ; and it was fuppo-
fed that his fon named Mariam Barea, univerfally al
lowed to be one of the moft accomplilhed noblemen of
the kingdom, was to fucceed him in this government.
This opinion was farther confirmed by the marriage of
Mariam himfelf with 0'i.ora Efther, a daughter of the
old queen by her fecond hulband. Unfortunately a
quarrel had happened between Kafmati Ayo, the old
governor of Begemder, and Suhul Michael, a little be¬
fore the refignation of the former, and continued unde¬
cided till Mariam took the office upon him. The oc-
cafion was quite trifling ; neverthelefs, as Mariam had
refufed to fubmit to the decifion of the judges, whom
he ftigmatized as partial and unjuft, infilling that the
king fhould either decide the affair in perfon, or that
it Ihould be referred to the decifion of the fword, he
thus fell under the imputation of being a difobedient
and rebellious fubjedl. In confequence of this, leas
looked upon him ever afterwards with an evil eye ; and
Brulhe now deprived him, by proclamation, of the govern-
made go- ment of Begemder, giving it to his own Galla uncle
vernor of J3rulhe,of whom we have already made fo much mention.
^340 ^ This unexpected promotion threw the whole empire
An ‘univer- into a ferment. As Begemder was a frontier province
fal ferment bordering on the country of the Galla, there was not
enfues. ^ ]ea^ doubt, that, immediately on the acceffion of
Brulhe to his new office, it would be over-run by that
race of barbarians, remarkable for their favage manners
almoft beyond all the other nations in Africa. This
was the more dangerous as there was not above a day’s
journey betwixt the frontiers of Begemder and Gon-
dar, the capital of the whole empire. Mariam Barea
himfelf, who had a high fenfe of honour, was parti¬
cularly hurt at the manner in which he was deprived
of his dignity, and condemned with his family to be
fubjeft to a race of Pagans, whom he had often de¬
feated in battle, and obliged to acknowledge him as
their fuperior. All remonftrance, however, was vain.
Brulhe, under the fandion of the imperial command,
advanced with an army to take poffeffion of his new
dignity: but fo exceedingly averfe were the Abyffinians
to follow him in this expedition, that the army dif-
banded itfelf feveral times after it had been colleCled ;
and it took up almoft a year before he could proceed
from the place where his camp was, at the lake Tzana
or Dexnbea, to the frontiers of Begemder, though fearce
Is ^ofed a day’s journey diftant. Mariam Barea beheld
fey Mariam his operations with great contempt, employing his
JBarea. time in the difpatch of ordinary bufinefs, and endea¬
vouring to reconcile himfelf to the king, but without
•fttccefs. As his laft effortj he feat a remonftrance to
the emperor; in which, after many proteftatlons of Ethiopia#
duty and obedience, he reminded him, that, at his in- V'—J
veftiture into the office of governor of Begemder, he
had fworn not to allow any of the Galla to enter his
province : that, ftiould he deviate from the obfervance
of this oath, the fafety of the princes in Wackne would
be endangered ; they would conftantly be liable to the
invafions of the Pagans, and probably be extirpated,
as had already happened at two different times:
and he begged of the emperor, if he was deter¬
mined to deprive him of his government, to bellow
it rather upon fome Abyffinian nobleman; in which
cafe he promifed to retire, and live in private with
his old father. He had, however, formed a refolu-
tion, which he thought it his duty to fubmit to the
emperor, that if his majefty fliould think proper to
come, at the head of a Galla army, to invade his pro¬
vince, he would retire to the fartheft extremity of it,
till he was flopped by the country of the Galla them-
felves ; and, fo far from molefting the royal army, he
might be affured, that though his own men might be
ftraitened, every kind of provifion Ihould be left for
his majclty. But if an army of Galla, commanded
by one of that nation, Ihould enter the province, he
would fight them at the well of Fernay, on the fron¬
tiers, before one of them Ihould drink there, or ad¬
vance the length of a pike into the province.
This remonftrance had no effedl upon the empe¬
ror. He returned a fcoffing anfwer, announcing
the fpeedy arrival of Brulhe, whom he thought fure
of victory: but, at the fame time, to Ihow that he
did not put his confidence entirely in his prowefs, he pan3[fe* I
created Suhul Michael governor of Samen, which lay promoted
next to Tigre in the way to Samen, fo that no ob- of Michae
ftruclion might lie in the way of that officer’s march
to Gondar, in cafe there fhould be any occafion for - 1
him. Mariam, provoked at the manner in which he
was undervalued in the king’s meffage, gave an ironi¬
cal reply, in which he alluded to the name of Brulhe,
in the Abyffinian language fignifying a kind of bottle ;
this he told him would be broken on the rocks of Be¬
gemder, if fent into that country.
On receiving this laft meffage from Mariam, the
king inftantly ordered the army to be put in motion ; feateri an^|
but the Abyffinians had unanimoufly determined not fe lled.,
to a£l offenfively againft their countrymen. Brulhe
therefore was left to decide the affair with his Galla.
Mariam kept exactly to his word in the declaration he
had made to the king, not ftirring out of his province,
nor allowing the leaft attempt to be made to harafs his.
enemy, till they were drawn up at the well above men¬
tioned, where he met them with his army. The Galla*
unfupported by the Abyffinian troops, were utterly un¬
able to bear the fhock of Mariam’s army, and therefore
foon betook themfelves toflight; but a part of them, who,
were furrounded by the cavalry, fought valiantly till
they were all cut to pieces. Mariam had given the
moll exprefs orders to take Brulhe alive ; or, if that
could not be done, to allow him to make his efcape.
One of his fervants, however, obferving him in the
field, pulhed up through the enemy to the place where
he was, and running him twice through with-a lance,,
left him dead on the fpot.
Mariam Barea was no fooner informed of the death
of his rival, than he cried out in great emotion, that
6. Suhul
' Michael
reatedRas.
Commits
rallations.
E T H [ 787 1 E T H
Suhul Michael, with the whole army from Tigre, thereby giving the inhabitants to underftand, that if Ethioi>i*.
he ftiould fet fire to it as he had done to other pla- v
ces, it would not be in their power to quench the
flames.
The capital being thus fecured in perfeft obedience, MJc4hef
Michael next prepared to fet out on his expedition a- againft Ma*
gainft: Mariam Barea. Senfible, however, that the riatn Bare*,
deftruftion of this worthy nobleman would be attend¬
ed with a great degree of odium, he was refolved that
none of it, or at leaft as little as pofiible, fhould fall
upon himfelf. For this purpofe, he infilled that the
emperor Ihould march in perfon from Gondar, and
carry all his foldiers along with him. Thus he had an
would attack him before autumn. In this he was not
deceived. loas inllantly difpatched an exprefs for Mi¬
chael, ordering his attendance, and inveiling him with
the dignity of Ras, by which he became pofleffed of
unlimited power both civil and military. Michael
himfelf had for a long time feen that matters would
come to this crifis at laft, and had provided for it ac¬
cordingly. He now fet out with an army of 26,000
men, all of them the bell foldiers in the empire, and
10,000 of them armed with mulkets. As he palled
along, his troops defolated the country wherever they
came, but he encumbered his army by nothing ufe-
lefs; allowing his men to carry along with them neither opportunity of throwing the whole blame upon loas,
women, tents, beafts of burden, nor even provifions.
The fubfillence of his troops was abundantly provided
and reprefenting himfelf as no more than a palfive in-
ftrument in the affair. He alfo took every occafion of
for by the miferable inhabitants of the provinces thro’ praifing his antagonift for his virtues, and cenfuring
which he paffed ; and, not fatisfied with this, he in¬
filled on a contribution in money from all the di-
ftri&s within a day’s march of thofe places where he
was ; the leall delay was followed by the flaughter
of the inhabitants and deftru&ion of their houfes.
Towns, villages, and buildings ®f every kind, were fet
on fire as he palfed along; the people fled from all
the emperor for attempting to cut off fuch an excel¬
lent officer.
In the mean time Mariam Barea keeping exa£lly to
the terms of the lall remonllrance he had fent to loas,
retired before him to the extremity of the province,
loas and Michael advanced furioufly, burning and de-
llroying every thing as they went along. An engage-
quarters to the capital for refuge, as from the face of ment at lall took place at a place called Nefas Mufa,
346
Arrives a
ondar.
partially.
the moll inveterate enemy; and loas himfelf was now
fenfible of his having been in the wrong to inveit him
the extreme borders of Begemder, when Mariam
could not retreat without going out of the province.
w’ith fuch unlimited power. On his arrival at the ca- As the royal army was more than twice the number
pital, Michael took poffeffion of all the avenues, as if of the other, and commanded by an officer of fuperior Mariam do*
he meant to befiege it; fo that an univerfal conllerna- Ikill, vi&ory was not long of being decided in its fa-feated.
tion enfued. Inilead of offering any holtility, how-
?r, he waited with the utmoll refpedl on the empe-
Mariam, with 12 of his officers, took refuge
the country of the Galla; but were immediately
ror, proceeding immediately from the royal prefence delivered up by that faithlefs people. Fie was put toR .35° ,
hla mxrn Vir»nfat in inrlermfnt. as tViP Hpath Kir T .nKr» tKp KmtK#>*- R»«nlK/» ti.-K/A to ~
to his own houfe, where he fat in judgment, as the
nature of his office required him to do. No fooner
had he taken upon him this new office, however, than
he executed ju(lice in fuch a rigorous and impartial
manner as made the boldeft offenders tremble. Some
parties of his own foldiers, prefuming upon the licence
that had hitherto been granted them, entered Gondar
and began to plunder as they had done in other places
death by Lubo the brother of Brulhe, who is faid by the GaL
with his own hands to have cut his throat as a Iheepla, and
is commonly killed in this country, and afterwards tocruelly
have disfigured the body in a Ihocking manner. Thernun*ere<^
head was cut off, and carried to Michael’s tent,
who would not allow it to be uncovered in his pre-
fence- It was afterwards fcnt to the family of Brulhe
the country of the Galla, to fhow them what at-
but, on the very firil complaint, their commander cau- tention had been given to revenge his death ; and this
fed i 2 of them to be apprehended and hanged. Their difpleafed the Abyffinians even more than any thing
execution was followed by 50 others in different quar¬
ters of the city; after which he gave the charge of the
that had yet happened fince the beginning of the con-
tell. The 12 officers, who were taken alonnr with, ^r.
, „. . some of
capital to three officers who were to prefide over three him, fought protedlion in the tent of Ras Michael, to0fl^er°p
quarters, himfelf taking care of the fourth. Two ci¬
vil judges were appointed to affift each officer in a di-
which they were fuffered to efcape by Woofheka their te&ed by
keeper. Lubo, however, intended likewife to have Micliaeb
ftridl, two were left in the king’s houfe, and four of facrificed them as he had done Mariam, and therefore
them held a court of judicature in his own. Thus the
inhabitants, finding, that inftead of bloodfhed and maf-
facre, they were to expe£l nothing but ilri£l equity
and moderation, became reconciled to Michael the
day after his arrival, and lamented only that he
had not come fooner. to relieve them from the anar¬
chy and confufion in which they had been held fo long.
fent Woolheka to demand them: but no fooner had he
unfolded his errand, than Michael in a rage, called to
his attendants to cut him in pieces before the tent-
door ; which would certainly have been done, had he
not fled with the utmoft precipitation.
The fcandalous afcendency which the Galla al-Difagree-
ways manifefted over the king, had greatly difplea-1
To fo great a degree of perfeclion indeed did he bring fed Michael; who expreffed himfelf fo freely
his legiflation, that a very fliort time after he entered ‘u~ - —1 ^ . 1- .
the city, a loaf of bread, a bottle of water, and an
ounce of gold, were expofed in the market-place on
the head of a drum night and day for fome time, with¬
out any one offering to take them away. This was the
more remarkable as there was then a fcarcity of pro-
— , VYllt, UlUlLtil iu ircciy oii,.re'ntjC
the fubjeft, that a coolnefs took place between Michael,
them. Another officer named Waragna Faftl, a
Galla by birth, had infinuated himfelf into the
king’s favour, and,greatly diflinguiflied himfelf at the
battle of Nefas Mufa. It was no wonder, therefore,
that he foon became a rival to Michael; and this rival-
vifions, and Michael himfelf would allow but a very fhip was greatly augmented by the following circum-
fcanty fupply of water to be carried into the city ; llance. Near the field of battle at Nefas Mufa was a
5 G 2 houfe
E T H [
^Ethiopia, houfc of Marfam Barca, where Ozoro ERher Lis vviJow
v——y—__ now was. Being furrounded by pleafant a«id verdant
meadows, Bafil encamped there for the fake of his ca¬
valry. No other defign was-at that time apparent;
however, his prefence greatly alarmed the pvincefs.
She had along with her at that time a nobleman named
Ayto Aylo, vvho Had'been at the battle of Sennaar ; but
had there been terrified to fuch a degree, that he ref >1-
ved to renounce the world ever after and turn monk.
In this charadN,- he was now with Ozoro Either ; and
though he refufed to be concerned in any military af-
788 ] E T H
the houfe where he fat in judgment ; the diRanee be- Ethiopia,
ing fo fmall, that he could eafily be feen from the pa-
lace while thus employed. The ball, however, miffed
Michael, but killed a dwarf who was Handing before
him fanning the flies from his face. As it w'as evident
that this fhot muft have been fired with the knowledge
of the king, it was rightly judged to be the commence¬
ment of hoflilities. lo'as inftantly removed to a di¬
fiance, but fent Woofhcka with orders to the Has to
return to Tigte without feeing his face ; declaring, at
the fame time, his own uncle Lubo governorof Begem-
fairs, he was ftill confulted by both parties as a kind of der and Amhara. Michael could fcarcely be prevailed
oracle. In the prefent emergency, therefore, he told
the princefs that there was only one w-ay by which fhe
could fecure herfelf from the cruelty of the Galla, and
upon to fee Woofheka, and told him that he fhould
certainly be put to death the next time he appeared in
his prefence. Next day loas fent a meffage to the Ras
becoming a prey to one or other of the murderers of by four judges, commanding him to return to Tigre
her hufband ; and that was by immediately efpoufing
Ras Michael. Ozoro w-as perfeftly fenfible of the
propriety of the advice, and therefore fet' out next
morning in company with Aylo to Michael’s tent.
Here fhe threw herfelf at his feet on the ground ; and
refufing to rife, Aylo explained her errand, informing
the Ras that fhe intended to befiow herfelf upon him
in marriage, as being the only perfon not guilty of her
former hufoand’s death capable of affording her pro-
theut the leaf! delay, under pain of kis higheft dif-
pleafure. Michael returned a formal anfwer, conclu¬
ding, that he expedited the king himfelf to be ready to
inarch again ft Fafil to morrow. To this an abfolute
refufal was given ; on which Michael iffued a procla¬
mation, commanding all the Galla to leave the capital
next day under pain of\leath : in cafe of difobedience
they were declared outlaws, and liable to be killed by
the firfi that met them if they were found 24 hours af-
teftion in her prefent fituation. Michael law clearly ter the proclamation in the capital, or to the fame pe-
;s the advantages attending fueh a match; and therefore nalty if they were found in the kingdom after
princeft O- having caufed the army to be drawn up in order of days
soroEfthcr.battle, as if fc
married to the princefs
he fent for a prieft, and was
1 the light of all his men. The
days. An engagement took place a fhort time after, t 35°
in which Fafil was totally defeated, and obliged to re- ‘j ,
tire into Damot. In this engagement fome of the chad.
ceremony w'as followred by the loud acclamations of the king’s black horfe were taken. Thefe are all flaves, and
   —j r  r— -'-r J -r •’ fuhjed to no other commands but thofe of his majefiy
hitnfdf. The# appearance of them therefore fhowed
that they muft ha-e been feni by the king to fight a-
gainft the Kas. All of them were therefore brought
before the latter, and interrogated by whofe orders they
had come to the battle. Two refufed to give any an¬
fwer, and had their throats cut in prefence of their
companions. A third plainly told him that they had
been fent by the king; who had likewife ordered an
Armenian to fire out of the palace window at Ras Mi-
whole army ; and Joas was foon informed of the rea-
fon. He expreffed his difpleafure at the match, how¬
ever, in fuch unequivocal terms, that a mutual hatred
commenced from that moment. This was foon made
public by a very trifling accident. One day while the
army was marching, Michael being much incommoded
by the fun which affefled his eyes, threw a white hand¬
kerchief over his head to keep off the heat. This wfas
inftantly told the king, who took it as an affront of¬
fered to himfelf; for in Abyffinia it is unlawful to co-
the head on'any occafion whatever in prefence of chad. On this the priloners were difmiffed ; but af
the emperor, or even within fight of the palace where
he lodges. loas wras no fooner informed of the fuppo-
fed affront, than he fent to the Ras to know upon wrhat
account he prefumed to cover his head in his prefence;
but though the covering was inftantly taken off, it was
thought that no atonement could ever be made for fuch
a grievous offence. Soon after this a quarrel happening
between Fafil and a perfon named Gu/ho, likewife a man
cf great confequence, complaint was made to the Ras,
who, as civil judge, fummoned both parties before him.
lafil abfolutely refufed to obey any fuch jurifdidlion ;
and the affair being laid before the other judges, it
faflins inftantly difpatched to put an end to the king’s ^ '
life; which they accomplifhed, and buried hint in a y rated,
church dedicated to St Raphael.
On the death of l ias, Michael, now abfolute mailer .U8-
ofAbyflinia, fet up for emperor Hannes, brother to^T
the late king Bacuffa, an old man who had refided al-chat f and
moll all his lifetime on the mountain of Wechne, and foon after
being entirely unacquainted with the affairs of theP0if°ne<L
world was on this account probably fuppofed by Mi¬
chael to be the more proper for his purpofes. Han¬
nes had been maimed by the lofs of his hand, on pur^
pofe to incapacitate him for the throne; but this
given in favour of Michael, and Fafil declared to be in ohjedlion was laughed at by the Ras. He found him.
af uar rekeH*on- This was followed by a proclamation de- however, poffeffed of a quality much more inimical to
rel bttwbtt priving him of his government of Damot, and every his own purpoits; and that was, an abfolute averfion
’ ” ’ • at meddling with the affairs of government: fo that he
could not by any means be induced to take the field
againll Fafil. Michael therefore was obliged to fet
out by himfelf; but thinking it improper to leave a
king of any kind behind him in the capital, he had the
old man poifoned before his departure; putting his
fon Tecla Haimanout in his place.
The young emperor, according toMr Bruce.’s ac¬
count,
other public office he held. Fafil, however, had no
ar,a raui. niind to fubmit to this difgrace ; and therefore, after
holding a long conference with the king, departed with
355 his army, encamping on the high road betwixt Damot
A {hot firedand Goadar, where he intercepted the provifions co¬
at Michael from the fouthward to the capital. This was
palace ^.followed by an attempt to affaffinate the Ras. A (hot
dew. was fired from one of the windows of the palace into
E T H [ 789 1 E T H
EtUi' pja. count, was of a fair complexion, lefs tawny than a
' Neap litan or fortugueft, owing to his having been
R V^^of ^°ln ,n t'le mounta'n- was endowed with many
.jy 'r princely accomplifhments ; and fo much attached to
mu; out. Michael Ras, rhat he called him Father from the time
of bis acceflion, waiting upon him when indifpofed
.3®° with the affc&ion of a fon. There being now no ob-
cji eeat'je6tiori therefore, Michael marched againit Fafil with
out delay, and entirely defeated him on the 3d of De¬
cember 1769. On this occafion Wooftieka was taken
prifoner, and afterwards flead alive, notwithftanding
the interceflion of fome of Michael’s officers for him ;
his fkin being afterwards, formed into a bottle. This
piece of cruelty was attributed to Ozoro Either j whom
Mr Bruce reprefents as the moft humane and merciful
of women ; though he is obliged to allow, that on the
prefent occafion, as well as on every other which re¬
garded her former huiband, foe entirely forgot her
charafter. The night on which this miferable viftim
was deilroyed, foe appeared in the king’s tent dreffed
like a bride ; and in a little time returned in triumph
3&r bo G-mdar.
Mr Bruce's Soon after thefe tranfa&ior.s, Mr Bruce entered A-
arrival and byffinia. He arrived at Mafuah when there was only
a report of Hannes’s being ill, and Mr Bruce was
liuia. ’ fuppofed to be his phyfician, though in truth that em¬
peror was already dead. Here he was ill-treated by
the naybe, with a defign to extort money, and after-
vvards probably to put him to cleath, as was his cuftom
with other Itrangers. He efcaped the danger, how¬
ever, by the piotedtion of Aclimet, nephew and heir
apparent to the naybe; and by his own prudent and
refolute behaviour, threatening his adverfaries with the
arrival of a Britifo man of war in cafe of any injury;
foowing the Grand Signior’s pfotedlion ; making ufe
of the name of Ras Michael, now fo formidable, and
to whom he had obtained a recommendation, &c. Af¬
ter many vexations and delays, he was at lalt allowed
to depart; and a guide, by name Saloome, was fent along
with him. This man was brother in-law to the naybe,
and a proftffed Chriftian; but a traitor in his heart,
and who wifoed to do every thing in his power to hurt
our traveller. He was furniOied with another guide,
however, by his friend Achmet, to inform him where
' to pitch his tent, and other necefl'ary particulars.
Sets out 0° the 15th of November 1769 Mr Bruce left Ar-
from Ar- keeko on the eallern coalt of Africa, and proceeded
keeko.j fouthward for Gondar the capital of Abyffinia. Af
tewan hour’s journey, he pitched his tent near a pit full
of rain-water, where he remained all day ; and in the
evening a meffenger arrived from the naybe, who
took away the guide Saloome. Next day the latter
returned in company with Achmet the naybe’s ne¬
phew, already mentioned. The latter caufed him (je-
pofrt in his hands Saktome’s full hire, as though he
had gone the whole length he had promifed. Four
of the men were commanded to go back to Ar-
keeko, and others put in' their place: after which
'Achmet told Mr Bruce, that he was not to take the
road through Dobarwa, though near, becaufe it be¬
longed to the naybe; but that Saloome knew another
by a place called Dixan, which belonged to himfelf,
and where he could enfure him of a good reception.
In this journey he told him,-that he would be obliged
to crofs the mountain of Taranta, the h'gheft'in Abyf¬
finia ; but the fatigue of this would be more than, re- Ethiopia,
compenfed by the ail'urance of fafety and the curiofity *
of the place. Taking leave of Achmet in a very
friendly manner, therefore, Mr-Bruce with his com¬
pany finally fet out on their journey the evening of the 3.53
16th. For the ftort ’fpace they had travelled, the Account of
ground was covered with grafs broader in the leaf than
ours ; hut in a little time the foil became hard, dry, w’hich he
gravelly, and full of acacia or Egyptian thorn. Next puffed,
day (17th) they changed their courfe from fouth to
welt; and foon arrived at a lange of mountains {land¬
ing fo clofe'to one another,1 that there was no paffage
between them excepting what was worn by torrents of
water'; the bed of one of which consequently now be¬
came their road. In the evening they pitched their
tent at fome diftance from this torrent, which had
fcarcely any water in it when they left it ; but all the
afternoon there had been an appearance of rain, with1
much thunder and lightning, at a difiance. On a Su
bidden they heard a noife among the mountains louder-0p g
than thunder ; and inftantly faw the torrent, fwelled torrent,
immenfely by the difiant rains, now running like a
rapid river, and the foremoft part of it advancing in its
bed in a body of water about the height of a man.
Having run for fome time in this violent manner, the
current, no longer fupplied by the rains, began to di-
miuifo, and by the next morning was quite gone. A-
mong thefe mountains the nights are cold even in fum-
mer.
On the 18th the journey was refumed in the bed
of the torrent, which now fcarcely had any wa¬
ter ; though the {tones were rendered very flippery by
the quantity of rain which had fallen. Leaving this
difagreeabk road, they came-to a fine rivulet; which
being the firft clear water they had feen from the time
Mr Bruce left Syria, was exceedingly agreeable. They
proceeded along the banks of this river for fome time;
and foon after leaving it, they came to another of the
fame kind: but next day were obliged to fefume their
courfe in the bed of a torrent. The mountains in this
part of the world are exceffively rugged and full of
precipices, entirely deftitute of foil, and covered with
loofe {tones of a black colour. Orv the fide of the
torrent in which they marched, however, there grew
very large fycamore trees, fome of them little lefs than
yt feet in diameter. Their branches affoided foeltcr 365
to an infinite number of birds; many of them without r
fong; hut others having notes very different from the d^can
European kinds, and peculiar to the continent of A- ferent from
fries. Moft of thofe which had very beautiful colours thofe of
were of the jay or magpie kind. The trees were loadr Europe,
ed with figs; but. they come to nothing, by reafon of
the ignorance of the favages, who know not the procefs
of caprification. The itreams of water themfclves,
which at this feafon were found fo delightful, run only
after October: they appear on the eaft fide of the
mountains when the fummer rains in Abyffinia are
cealing ; at other times, no water is to be met with,
excepting what-is contained in ftagnant pools. 366
On the 20th of November they began toafeend the Account of1
high mountain of Taranta; Their road was now c>:* Tarar
celfively rugged and uneven, interfered with mon-
ftrous gullies and holes made by the torrents, as well
as by huge fragments of rocks tumbled down by tlie
torrents. It was with the utmoft difficulty that they
could .
F. T H [ 790. 1
Ethiopia, could carry the aftronomical inftruments up tliis hill; which it borders.
"1 Jn which work Mr Bruce himfelf, and one of his at¬
tendants named Tajine, a Moor, bore a principal ihare.
The only misfortune they met with was, that their
affes being unloaded, and committed to the care of a
fmgle perfon, refufed to afcend this barren mountain ;
and in fpite of all that their driver could do, fet off at
a briflt trot for the fertile plains below. Luckily,
hbwever, they were afterwards recovered by four
Moors fent after them, and the journey refumed with¬
out any material interruption. The beafts were now
become much more traftable, having been feen and
E T H
Here he was in danger from the Ethiopia
treachery of Saloome, who wiihed to have decoyed
him into the power of fome aifaflins. Finding that
this could not be done, he furrounded Mr Bruce and
his retinue with a body of armed men ; but they were
difperfed by the authority of Hagi Abdelcader, the
friend of Achmet, who had received orders to provide
for the fafety of the travellers. The only trade car¬
ried on here is that of buying and felling flaves; who
are ftolen from Abyffinia, chiefly by the priefts, and
fent into Arabia and India.
The next ftage was from Dixan to Adowa, capital Journey to
' ' ' ' ' ' ’ Adowa,tho
capital of
purfued by the hyaenas with which that mountain a- of the province of Tigre. Leaving Dixan on the 25th
bounds.
Taranta is fo deftitute of earth, that there was no
poffibility of pitching a tent upon it; fo that our tra¬
vellers were obliged to take up their lodging in one of being about 74- feet in diameter. They had been join-
the caves with which it abounds. The under part of ed by fome Moors driving 20 loaded afles and two
of November, they pitched their tent the firft night
under a Large fpreading tree called Daroo, which Mr llgre*
Bruce fays was one of the fineft he faw in Abyffinia,
the mountain produces in great plenty the tree called
Kolquall, which was here obferved in greater per-
fe&ion than in any other place throughout the whole
journey. The middle part produced olives which car¬
ried no fruit; and the upper part was covered with
367 the oxycedras or Virginia cedar, called ar-ze in the
Of the vil- language of the country. On the top is a fmall vil-
and irdiahi ^aSe named Halai, inhabited by poor (hepherds, who
tants of the ^eeP t^ie ^oc^s °f r*cb people of the town of Dixan
mountains below. They are of a dark complexion, inclining to
yellow ; their hair black, and curled artificially by
means of a flick, and which our author fuppofes to
be the fame with the crifping-pin mentioned Ifa. iii. 22.
The men have a girdle of coarfe cotton-cloth, fwathed
fix times round their middle; and they carry along
with them two lances, and a fliield made of bulls hides.
Befides thefe weapons, they have in their girdles a
crooked knife with a blade about 16 inches in length,
„ 3'5.8 and three in breadth at the lower part. There is here
cattle1 &c great pl€n,y °f cattle of all kinds ; the cows generally
’ ’ of a milk white, with dew-laps hanging down to their
knees ; their horns wide like thofe of the Lincolnlhire
cattle; and their hair like filk. The flieep are all
black both here and throughout the province of Ti¬
gre ; having hair upon them inftead of wool, like the
reft of the Iheep within the tropics; but rematkable
for its luftre and foftnefs, without any briftly quality.
On the top of the mountain is a plain, which, at the
time our author was there, they had fown with wheat.
The air feemed exceffively cold, though the barome¬
ter was not below 590 in the evening. On the weft
fide the cedars, which on other parts are very beauti¬
ful, degeneiate into fmall fhrubs and bufhes.
The road down this mountain was for fome time
nothing inferior in ruggednefs to what they had met
with in afeending it; but as they approached Dixan,
it became eonfiderably better. This is the firft town
Town^of on t^ie Abyffinian fide of Taranta. It is feated on
Dixan de- the top of an hill of a form exa&ly conical, furrounded
faibed. by a deep valley like a ditch ; and no accefs to it but
by a path which winds round the hill. The inhabi¬
tants were formerly exterminated by Michael Ras ;
and the fucceeding race, in Mr Bruce’s time, were of
a very indifferent chara&er, being, as he fays, compo-
fed of the worft people from the territories of the Ba-
harnagalh and the province of Tigre, on both of
bulls, which in that country are likewife ufed as beafts
of burden. Here, our author fays, he recovered a
tranquillity of mind which he had not enjoyed fince
his arrival at Mafuah ; but they were now entirely
without the dominions of the naybe, and entered into
thofe of the emperor. Saloome attended them for His ma-
fome wray, and feemed difpofed to proceed; but one cherou*
of the company, who belonged to the Abyffinian mo- guide oblI«
narch, having made a mark in the ground with his ^ t0 re"
knife, told him, that if he proceeded one ftep beyondtutn*
that, he would bind him hand and foot, and leave him
to be devoured by wild beafts.
Being now in a great meafure delivered from their The coun¬
fears and embarraffments, the company proceeded on "T
their journey with pleafure, through a much better
country than they had hitherto paffed. In fome places paffcs a-
it w’as covered with wild oats, wood, high bent-grafs, long.
&c. but, in not a few places, rocky and uneven. Great
flocks of a bird as large as a turkey, called, in the
Amharic language, Erkoom, were feen in fome places.
A large animal of the goat kind, called Jlga-zan, was
found dead and newly killed by a lion. It was about
the fize of a large afs, and afforded a plentiful repaft.
Numbers of kolquall trees were alfo feen ; and the
fides of the river Habefti were adorned with a beauti¬
ful tree of the fame name with the ftream. There
were in this place alfo many flowers of various kinds,
particularly jeffamine. The mountains of Adowa,
which they came in fight of on the 5th of December,
are totally unlike any thing to be met within Europe;
their fides being all perpendicular rocks, like fteeples
or obelifles of many different forms.
Adowa, though the capital of an extenfive province A(j^j
or kingdom, does not contain above 300 houfes; but fcribed.
occupies neverthelefs a large fpace, by reafon of the in-
clofures of a tree called IVanzey, which furrounds each
of the houfes. It Hands on the declivity of a hill, fitu-
ated on the weft fide of a fmall plain furrounded by
mountains. It is watered by three rivulets which ne¬
ver become dry even in the greateft heats. A manu-
fadfure is carried on here of a kind of coarfe cotton
cloth, which paffes for money throughout all Abyffinia.
The houfes are built of rough ftone cemented with
mud; lime being only ufed in the conftrudtion of
thofe at Gondar, and even there it is very bad.
Our traveller was very hofpitably entertained at A-
dowa
ba I’arity i
of the A-
byffinians.
3t6
Sire de¬
scribed.
F. T H T 791 ] E T H
dowa by one Janni, with whom he refided during his mountains the river Tacazze runs, which, next to the Ethiopi*.
fiay there. Leaving it on the 17th of December, he Nile, is the largeft in Abyllinia. Mr Bruce informs v'
viiited the ruins of Axum, once the capital of the em- us that it carries near one third of the water which, .
pire. Here are 40 obelifles, but without any hiero- falls on the whole empire ; and when palling it, he faw
glyphics. A large one ftill remains, but the two lar- the marks of its ftream, the preceding year, 18 feet be J.
gelt aie fallen. There is alfo a curious obelilk, of which perpendicular above the bottom; nor could it be af-
he gives a figure, with other antiquities which our li- ceitained whether this was the higheft point to'which
mits will not allow us to enlarge upon. The town has it had reached. It has its fource in the dillridt of
at prefent about 600 houfes, and carries on manufac- Angot, riling from three fources like the Nile, in a
lures of the coarfe cotton-cloth already mentioned. It flat country, about 200 miles to the S. E. of Gondar.
is watered by a fmall ilream which flows all the year, It is extremely pleafant; being fliaded with fine lofty
and is received into a fine bafon 150 feet fquare, where trees, the water extremely clear, and the banks adorn-
it is collefted for the ufe of the neighbouring gardens, ed with the molt fragrant flowers. At the ford where
Its latitude was found by Mr Bruce to be 140 6' 36" they crofled, this river was fully 200 yards broad, and
north. about three feet deep; running very fwiftly over a
On the 20th of January 1770, our traveller fet out bottom of pebbles. At the very edge of the water the
from Axum. The road was at firft fmooth and plea- banks were covered with tamarilks, behind which grew
fant, but afterwards very difficult; being compofed tail and ftately trees, that never lofe their leaves. It a-
of {tones raifed one above another, the remains of a bounds with fifh, and is inhabited by crocodiles and
magnificent caufeway, as he conjettures. As they paf- hippopotami ; the former of which frequently carry off
fed farther on, however, the air was every where per- people who attempt to crofs the river upon blown up
fumed by a vaft number of flowers of different kinds, {kins. The neighbouring woods arc full of lions and.
particularly jeffamine. One fpecies of this, named hysenas. The Tacazze is marked by Mr Bruce in his
jlgam, w'as found in fuch plenty, that almoft all the rrsp as a branch of the Allaboras, which falls into the
adjacent hills were covered by it; the whole country Nile. The latitude of the ford was found to be x 30
had the moft beautiful appearance ; the weather was 42' 45 ".
exquifitely fine, and the temperature of the air agree- This river was puffed on the 26th of January ; after Mountain-
» able. In this fine country, however, Mr Bruce had the which our travellers entered into the country of Samen;°“s country
>?firft opportunity of beholding the horrible barbarity the governor of which, Ayto Tesfos, had never acknovv- d-fcrlboL
of the Abyffinians in cutting off pieces of fleffi from ledged the authority of Ras Michael, nor any of the
the bodies of living animals, and devouring them raw; emperors fet up by him fince the death of loas. The
but notivithftanding this extreme cruelty, they have country therefore was holtile; but the uncertainty of the
the utmoft horror and religious averfion at pork of e- event of the war, and the well-known feverity of Mi-
very kind ; infomuch that Mr Bruce durft not venture chad’s difpofition., preferved our traveller and his com-
to tafte the flefh of a wild boar, juft after having af- pany from any infult, excepting a feeble and unfuccef-
fifted in the deftruftion of five or fix. ful attempt to extort money. Here Mr Bruce ob-
During the remaining part of the journey from ferves that the people were more flat-nofed than any
Adowa to Sire, the country continued equally beauti- he had hitherto feen in Abyffinia. The path among
ful, and the variety of flowers and trees greatly aug- the mountains was for the moft part exceedingly dange-
mented ; but as a report was propagated that Ras rous, having a precipice of vaft height clofe by it which
Michael had been defeated by Fafil, they now met way foever you turn. The mountains appeared of very
with fome infults. Thefe, however, were but trifling ; extraordinary fliapes; fome being like cones; others high
and on the 22d in the evening they arrived fafely at and pointed like columns,, pyramids, or obelifles. In
Sire, fituated in N. Lat. 140 4' 35". one place a village was obferved in fuch a dangerous.
This town is ftill larger than Axum : but the houfes fituation, that fcarce the diltance of a yard intervened,
are built of no better materials than clay, and covered between the houfes and a dreadful precipice. Below
with thatch ; the roofs being in the form of cones, it is a plain of about a mile fquare, covered with citron
which indeed is the fhape of all thofe in, Abyflinia. and lemon trees. A river named Mai-Lumi rifes above
It Hands on the brink of a very fteep and narrow vab this village, and falls into the wood,, where it divides in
ley, through which the road is almoft impaffable. It two ; one branch furrounding the north and the other
is famous for a manufafture of cotton-cloth, which, as the fouth part of the plains; then falling down a rock
we have already obferved, paffesfor money throughout on each fide, they unite;, and having run about a quar-
the whole empire. At fome times, however, beads,, ter of a mile farther, the ftream is precipitated in a ca-
Beedles,antimon.y,and incenfe, will pafs in the fameway. taraff 150 feet high. 1 he lions and hysenas were very
The country in the neighbourhood is extremely fine ; numerous among thefe mountains, and devoured one of
but the inhabitants fubjeft, by reafon of the low fituati- the heft mules our travellers had. The hyrenas were fo 37^
on, to putrid fevers. On leaving it on the 24th,. our bold, that they ftalked about as familiarly as dogs, andExtre.me
travellers paffed through a vaft plain, where they could were not intimidated by the difeharge of fire-arms.o£
difeern no hills as far as the eye could reach, except- Their voracity was fuch, that they eat the bodies of l*1135'
ing fome few detached ones {landing on the plain, co- thofe of their, own fpecies, which our travellers had kili-
vered with high grafs, which the inhabitants were then ed in their own defence.
Ixurning. The country to the northward is flat and On the 7th of February they began to afeend La-iamaimo
open. In the way to Gondar, however, lie that ridge malmon by a winding path fcarcely two feet broad, on nio mtaia
of mountains called Samen ; of which one named La- the brink of a dreadful precipice, and frequently inter-defcribecU
malmon is the moft remarkable, and by fome fuppofed fefted by the beds of torrents, which produced vaft ir-
to be the higheft in Abyffinia. Betwixt Sire and thefe regular chafras in it. After aa afeent of two hours,.
attendedi
38 r
Journey to
Gondar.
3*3.
Mifchief
done by
ants.
3*3
Arrival a
Gondar.
1? T H [ 75
ahcrujcil v^ith incigdible toil, up tin’s narrow path, they
came to a fmall pltCh nametl Kedvs or St Michael, from
a church of that name fituated there. Tin’s plain is
fituated at rjie foot of a deep cliff, terminating the
wetlern fide of the mountain, which is as perpendicular
as a wall, with a fevwU-ees on the top. Two dreams
of water fall down nils cliff into a wood atythe hot
tom ; and as they continue all the 3rear round, the plain
is thus preferred’in continual verdure. The air is ex¬
tremely wholefome and pleafant. On afeending to the
very top of the mountain, where they arrived on
the 9th of February, our travellers were furpwfed to
find, that though from below it had the appearance of
being fharp-pointed, it was in reality a large plain, full
of fprings, which are the fourccs of mod rivers in this
part of Abyffinia. Thefe fprings boil out of the earth,
lending forth fuch quantities of water as are fulficient
to turn a mill. A perpetual verdure prevails ; audit
is entirely owing to indolence in the hufbandman if he
has not three harveds annually. The Lamalmon dands
on the north wed part of the mountains of Samen 5 butt
though higher than the mountains of Tigre, our author
is of opinion that it is confiderably inferior to thofe
which are fituated on the fouth-eaft. The plain on tjie
top is altogether impregnable to an army, both by
rcaibn of its fituation and the plenty of provifions it af¬
fords for the maintenance of its inhabitants; even the
dreams on the top are full of fifh. Here the mercury
in the barometer dood at -20^ inches.
During the time our travellers remained at La-
malmon, a fervant of Ras Michael arrived to conduct
them fafely to the capital, bringing a Certain account
of the yj&ory over Fafil ; fo that now the difnculties
and dangers of their journey were over. The country
appeared better cultivated as they approached the capi¬
tal ; and they faw feveral plantations of fugar-canes,
which there grow from the feed. In fome places, how¬
ever, particularly in Woggora, great damage is done
by fwarms of ants, rats, and mice, which dedroy the
fruits of the earth. Mr Bruce had already experien¬
ced the mifchief arifing from a fmall fpecies of ant,
whofe bite was not only more painful than the ding of
a fcorpion, but iffued out of the ground in fuch num¬
bers as to cut in pieces the carpets and every thing
made of foft materials to which they could have ac-
cefs. .
When Mr Bruce approached the capital, he was dref-
fed like a Mo'or: and this drefs he was advifed to keep
until he (hould receive fome protection from govern¬
ment ; his greated, indeed his only, danger arifing
from the prieds, who were alarmed at hearing of,
the approach%f a Frank to the capital. This was the
more neceffary, as the emperor and Michael Ras were
both out of town. For this reafon alfo he took up his
refidence in the Moovifh town at Gondar; which is
very large, containing not fewer than 3000 houfes.
The only inconvenience he underwent here was the not
being allowed to eat any fledi ; for we have already ta¬
ken notice of a law made by one of the emperors, that
none of his fubjecls fhould eat flefh but fuch as had
been killed by Chridians; and a deviation from this
would have been accounted equal to a renunciation of
Chridianity itfelf. Here he remained till the 15th of
February ; when Ayto Aylo waited upon him, and ad-
<3reded him in the chara&er of phyfician, which he
N° 120.
r2 ] E T H
had aflumed. By this nobleman he was carnTd lo the fhldapia.
palace of Kofcam, and introduced to the old queen, ’ ~
His advice was required for one of the royal family who ^ 3*4 ^
was ill of the fmali-pox; but a faint had already under- i^oc^ed
taken his cure. The event, however, proved unfortu-to the
nate ; the patient died, and the faint loft his reputa-qu<en.
tion. Our limits will not allow us to give any parti¬
cular account of the fteps by which Mr Bruce arrived
at the high degree of reputation which he enjoyed in
Abydinia. In general his fuccefs in the pva&ice of
medicine, his Ikill in horfeimanftjip, and the ufe of fire¬
arms, which by his own account mud be very extraor-
dinaty; his prudence in evading religious difputes ; as
well as his perfonal intrepidity and prefence of mini,
which never once failed him, even in the greated
emergencies; all confpired to render him agreeaule to
people of every denomination. By the king he was ^
promoted to the government of Ras-el-Feel, was his Is prom<
conftant attendant on all occafions, and was with him^d and
in feveral military expeditions; but never met with-any
opportunity ofdittinguifhing his perfonaj valour, though matiou.
he had the command of a body of horfe at one of the
battles fought at a place fftmed Serbruxos. Thus ho¬
noured and employed, he had an ample opportunity of
exploring the fources and catarahls of the Nile, as
well as the geography and natural produces of the
whole country ; obtaining alfo leave at lad to re- 38(5
turn home. We cannot, however, praife the be- His depar-
nevolence of his fpint at his departure. It hast^re^roni
already been obferved, that he was in feme danger from try>00l‘IU'‘
xthe priefts on his firft arrival, on account of their
fufpe&ing him to be a Jefuit; for that is the mean¬
ing which they affix to the v/ori Frank or European.
As he conilantly attended the eftablilhed worlhip of
the country, however, and carefully avoided all difputes
on the fubjefl of religion, he became at lad not only
unfufpefted, but very intimate with many of the princi¬
pal ecckfialtics. From one’of thefe, named
he aiked a benedi&ion immediately before he de¬
parted ; which piece of unexpe&ed humility fo a defied
the pried, that it brought tears in his eyes, 'Hie bene¬
diction was conveyed in the fimple form, “ God blefs
you.” A troop of inferior priefts who attended would
needs blefs him alfo; and probably were pleafed at ha¬
ring it in their power to bedow a benediction publicly
on a man of fuch confequence: but to the bleffings of
thefe poor monks Mr Bruce replied in Englijh, “ Lord
fend you all a halter, as he did Abba Salama!”
This Abba Salama had been an ecclefiaftic of great
conftquence ; but of a very didolute life, and at left
lianged for his crimes. The monks imaained he had
been recommending them to their patriarch Abba Sala¬
ma, and with great devotion anfwered “ Bmen.” ^
The hillory, of the war after Mr Bruce’s arrival is Eve r of:
related at great length in his work. The king Teclad'e war hi
Haimanout (till kept his ground, and was at lad ac- le^
knowledged by alrnoft the whole empire, though fuc-
cefs did not always attend his arms. An ulurper,
named Socinios, was reduced and made a fervarit in
the king’s kitchen ; but was afterwards hanged for
theft. Itas Michael,,-notwithftanding all his dull in
military affairs, was not able to get the better of
Fafil; and his exceffive cruelty, avarice, and ambition,
difgufted every one. An attempt was even made to
affaffinate him; and his fpiritual friend (Michael the
q. archangel.
E T H [ 793 ] E T H
Ethiopia, archangel, according to his own teport, or the devil, king to order him to die. The courier was comm if- Eihloj
according to that of the Abyfiinians) at laft forfook fioned to tell him, that it was tin? will of the gods, and
him ; fo that he was carried off prifoner by a party of that it would be the moil heinou$ of crimes to oppofe
the rebels. After this misfortune he was much dejec¬
ted, imputing it to the want of the fpiritual affiftance
juft mentioned, and which it feems had withdrawn it-
felf fome time before. His wife Ozoro Efter, whom
Mr Bruce charafterifes as the handfomeft woman he
ever faw, was in great favour with the king at the time
our traveller left Abyffinia. As the king himfelf was
a handfome young man, there is no improbability hi
fuppofing with Mr Bruce, that “ they were not infen-
fible to each other’s merits and as Ihe was fometimes
honoured with a private audience, where Michael him¬
felf “ bore no part in the converfation,” we fliall con¬
clude our hiftory of this Angular empire by a conjec¬
ture, that foon after Mr Bruce’s departure, Michael
either died by courfe of nature, he being then very old,
or wSs cut off by his enemies; on which Tecla Haima-
nout,, having fully fettled the affairs of his empire, be¬
came poffeffed of the beautiful Ozoro Efter, and com-
388 menced his reign with great glory.
Geography With regard to the geographical defeription of an¬
cient Ethiopia, little can be laid ; as not even the boun¬
daries of the empire itfelf, much lefs thofe of the parti¬
cular diftri&s which compofed it, were known. The
ancient writers, however, agreed that it was very moun¬
tainous: but they mention no mountains of any confe-
quence excepting Garbata and Elephas, whofe fituation
is not well afeertained, tho’ it is generally fuppofed that
they anfwer to the mountains of Tigre. The moft no¬
ted cities were Axum, Napata, Premis or Premnis,
o Melis, Mondus, Abalis, Mofylon, Caloe, Opone, &c.
Cuftoms of The nations which inhabited ancient Ethiopia have
the inhabi- already been enumerated ; and it is not to be fuppofed
tants. that all, or indeed any two of them, would agree in
of ancient
Ethiopia.
an order which came from thetit. Their firft kings
obeyed thefe groundlefs defpoucal fentences, though
they were only conttrained to futh obedience by their
own fuperftition. Ergamenes, who reigned in the
time of Ptolemy the fecond, and who was inftru&ed in
the philofophy of the Greeks, was the firft who had
the courage to (hake off this iniquitous and facerdotal
yoke. He led an army againft Meroe, where, in more
ancient times, was the Ethiopian temple of gold ;
where he put all the priefts to the fword, and inftituted
a new worfhip.
The friends of the king had impofed on themfelves
a very fingular law, which was in force in the time of
Diodorus Siculus. When their fovereign had loft the
ufe of any part of his body, by malady, or by any other
accident, they inflided the fame infirmity on them¬
felves ; deeming it, for inftance, ftiameful to walk
ftraight after a lame king. They thought it abfurd
not to (hare with him corporal inconveniences ; fince
we are bound by the ties of mere fnendihip to parti¬
cipate the misfortunes and profperity of our friends.
It was even cuftomary among them to die with their
kings, which they thought a glorious teftimony of their
conftant loyalty. Hence the fubje&s of an Ethiopian
king were very attentive to his and their common pre-
fervation; and therefore it was extremely difficult and
dangerous to form a confpiracy againft him.
The Ethiopians had very particular ceremonies in
their funerals. According to Ctefias, after having
falted the bodies, they put them into a hollow ftatue
of gold which refembled the deceafed; and that fta¬
tue was placed in a niche on a pillar which they fet up
for that purpofe. But it . was only the remains of the
Diod. Sic.
p.loi,io
many refpe&s. The ancient hiftorians, however, give richeft Ethiopians that were thus honoured. The
the following information. They had many laws which
• were very different from thofe of other nations ; Spe¬
cially their laws relating to the eledion of kings. The
priefts chofe the moft reputable men of their body, and
drew a large circle around them, which they were not
to pafs. A prieft entered the circle, running and
jumping like an JEgipan or a fatyr. He of thofe that
were inclofed in the circle who firft catched hold of
the prieft, was immediately declared king ; and all the
people paid him homage, as a perfon entrufted with
the government of the nation by Divine Providence.
The new-eleded king immediately began to live in the
manner which was preferibed to him by the laws. In
all things he exadly followed the cuftoms of the coun¬
try ; he paid a moft rigid attention to the rules efta-
bodies of the next clafs were contained in filver fta-
tues; the poor were enfhrined in ftatues cf earthen ware.
Herodotus* informs us, that the neareft relations of. ^
the dead kept the body a year in their houfes, and of-1 24,
fered facrifices and firft-fruits during that time to their
deceafed friend; and at the end of the year, they fixed the
niche in a place fet apart for thepurpofe near theirtowu.
The Ethiopians made ufe of bows and arrows, darts,
lances, and feveral other weapons, in their wars, which
they managed with great ftrength and dexterity. Cir-
cumcifion was a rite obferved amongft them, as well
as among the Egyptians, from very early antiquity ;
though which of thefe nations firft received it, cannot
certainly be known. The Ethiopian i'oldiers tied their
arrows round their heads, the feathered part of which
bliflied from the origin of the nation, in difpenfing re- - touched their foreheads, temples, &c. and the other
wards and puniffiments. The king could not order a projedted out like fo many rays, which formed a kind
fubjedt to be put to death, though he had been capi¬
tally convidted in a court of juftice ; but he fent an
officer to him, who {howed him the fignal of death.
The criminal then (hut himfelf up in his houfe, and
was his own executioner. It was not permitted him
to fly to a neighbouring country, and fubftitute ba-
nifliment for death; a relaxation of the rigour of the
law, with which criminals were indulged in Greece.
We have the following extraordinary information
with regard to the death of many of their kings: The
priefts of Meroe, who had acquired great power there,
when they thought proper, difpatched a courier to the
Vol. VI. Part II.
of crown. Thefe arrows were extremely fliort, point¬
ed with (harp ftones inftead of iron, and dipped in the
virus of ferpents, or fome other lethiferous poifon, iu-
fomuch that all the wounds given by them were at¬
tended with immediate death. The bows from which
they {hot thefe arrows were four cubits long; and re¬
quired fo much ftrength to manage them, that no other
nation could make ufe of them. The Ethiopians re¬
treated fighting, in the fame manner as the Parthians;
difeharging vollies of arrows with fuch dexterity and
addrefs whilft they were retiring full-fpeed, that they
terribly gaQed the enemy. Their lances or darts were
5 H of
E T H [ 794 ] E T H
Etliiopia. of an immenfe fize, whkh may be deemed a farther
w v proof of their vaft bodily ftrength.
Thus far chiefly with regard to the Ethiopians who
lived in the capital, and who inhabited the ifland of
Meroe and that part of Ethiopia which was adjacent
to Egypt.
Theie were many other Ethiopian nations, fome of
which cultivated the trads On each fide of the Nik,
and the iflands in the middle of it; others inhabited
the provinces bordering on Arabia? and others lived
more towards the centre of Africa. All thefe people,
and among the reft thofe who were born on the banks
of the river, had flat nofes, black fkins, and woolly
Lioi. Sic. hair. They had a very favage and ferocious appear-
p. to*. ance ; they were more brutal in their cuftoms than in
their nature. They were of a dry aduft temperament;
their nails in length refembled claws: they were igno¬
rant of the arts which polifh the mind: their language
was hardly articulate ; their voices were fhrill and
piercing. As they did not endeavour to render life
more commodious and agreeable, their manners and
cuftoms were very different from thofe of other nations.
When they went to battle, fome were armed with
bucklers of ox’s hide, with little javelins in their hands;
others carried crooked darts; others ufed the bow ;
and others fought with clubs. They took their wives
with them to war, whom they obliged to enter upon
military fervice at a certain age. The women wore
rings of copper at their lips.
Some of thefe people went without clothing.
Sometimes they threw about them what they happen¬
ed to find, to {belter themfelves from the burning rays
of the fun. With regard to their food, fome lived up¬
on a certain fruit, which grew fpontaneoufly in marfhy
places c fome ate the tendereft {hoots of trees, which
were defended by the large branches from the heat of
the fun ; and others (owed Indian corn and lotos.
Some of thejn lived only on the roots of reeds. Many
fpent a great part of their time in {hooting birds; and
.is they were excellent archers, their bow fupplied them
with plenty. But the greater part of this people were
fultained by the flefh of their flocks.
The people who inhabited the country above Me¬
roe made remarkable diftinftions among their gods.
Some, they faid, were of an eternal and incorruptible
nature, as the fun, the moon, and the univerfe; others
having been born among men, had acquired divine ho¬
nours by their virtue, and by the good which they had
done to mankind. They worlhipped Ifis, Pan, and
particularly Jupiter and Hercules, from whom they
fuppofed they had received moft benefits. But fome
Ethiopians believed that there were no gods; and when
the fun rofe, they fled into their marffies, execrating
him as their cruelleft enemy.
Thefe Ethiopians differed likewife from other na¬
tions in the honours which they paid to their dead.
Some threw their bodies into'the river, thinking that
the moft honourable fepulchre. Others kept them in
their houfes in niches : thinking that their children
would be ftimulated to virtuous deeds by the fight of
their anceftors; and that grown people, by the fame
objefts, would retain their parents in their memory.
Others put their dead bodies into coffins of earthen
war.;, and buri d them near their temples. . To fwear
wit 11 the hand laid upon a corpfe, was their moft facrcd
and inviolable oath.
The favage Ethiopians of fome diftri&s gave their ErhloySu
crown to him who of all their nation was belt made. v—**J
Their reafon for that prefeierice was, that the two firft
gifts of heaven were monarchy and a fine perfon. In
other territories, they conferred the fovereignty on the
moft vigilant {hepherd; for he, they alkged, would be
the moft careful guardian of his fnbje&s. Others chofe
the richeft man for their king; for he, they thought,
would have it moft in his power to do good to his fub-
jefts. Others, again, chofe the ftrongeft ; eftceming
tlhofe moft worthy of the firft dignity who were abkft
to defend them in battle. 3>jo
The Jefuit miffionarks were the firft who gave any
information to the Europeans concerning this country; ”
and indeed, excepting them and the late accounts by
Mr Bruce, we have no other fource of information
concerning it. The miffionarks confirm what is faid
by the ancients, that Ethiopia is a very mountainous
country. The provinces of Begemdcr, Oojam, Wa-
leka, Shoa, &c. according to them, are only one con¬
tinued chain of mountains. Many of them were faid
to be of fuch enormous height, that the Alps and Py¬
renees are but mole-bills in comparifon of them.
Tbofe called Jlorni were faid to be of this kind ; but
Mr Bruce informs us, that thefe accounts are greatly
exaggerated. Amongft thofe mountains, and even fre¬
quently in the plains, there are many fteep and craggy
rocks to be met with of various and whimfical ffiapes ;
fome of them fo fmooth, that men and oxen are
craned up to the top by means of engines: but what
is moft furprifing, the tops of thefe rocks are covered
with woods and meadows, full of fprings and ftreams of
water ; of the truth of which we have an atteftation
by Mr Bruce in his defeription of Lamalmon. The
moft remarkable of thefe, according to the authors we
are now fpeaking of, is that called Amba Gejhen, men¬
tioned in the courfe of this article as one of the moun¬
tains ufed for a prifon to the princes of the blood. Its
top is deferibed as only half a league in breadth, tho’
it is faid that it would require near half a day to go
round it. Kircher mentions alfo a rock which re-
lembtes a mirror at a diftance; though this is probably
not to be depended upon.
The climate of Ethiopia varies, as may naturally be Climate,
fuppofed, according to the fituation and elevation of&c-
the grou nd. On the coaft of the Red Sen, as well as
the open flat parts of the country in general, the heat
is intenfe, infomuch that at Suakem, an ifiand in the
Red Sea, Gregory the Abyffine relates that it was
fo great, as to excoriate any part of the body expofed
to the folar rays, melt hard fealing-wax, and fear a gar¬
ment like red hot iron. In feveral dittridts, however,
the heat is milder that in Portugal, and in Samen the
air is rather cold than otherwife. In fome other pro¬
vinces the winter is very fevere, though fnow is fekloTia
feen. Hail indeed fometimes falls, which refembks
fnow at a diftance . and Mr Bruce mentions an ac¬
count of fnow having once fallen which lafted three
days, and was looked upon to be a kind of prodigy.
There are frequent and violent thunders, with excef-
five deluges of rain during one part of the year, and
there are likewife vioknt {forms of wind. The mif- vioienc
fionaries mention a kind of wind named Stndu, which, whirl-
according to Gregory, may be feen like a ferpent of winds,
vaft magnitude with its head on the ground, and the
body twilled in vaft curls up to the Ikies. This, in all
pro-
E T H [ 795 ] E T H
jS Ethiopia, probability, is no other than that violent fptcies of
>r~~' whirlwind named Typhon, frequent in America and
other warm countries; and its being vifible is owing to
393 the dull which it takes up in its palfage.
JM i Bruce’s Modern I>hiopia, or /llyfinia, as it is now called,
lr;s£°“jt is divided, according to Mr Bruce, into tw'O parts, na-
aKSons. ^ met! Tigrs and Amhara ; though this rather denotes a
difference in the language than the territory of the
people. The moft tailerly province properly fo called
is Mafuah. It is of coniiderable length, but no great
breadth; running parallel to the Indian Ocean and Red
Sea, in a zone of about 40 miles broad, as far as the
iiland Massuah. The territories of the Baharnagalh
include this province as well as the diftrifts of Azab
and Habab. In the former are mines of foffile fait,
which in Abyffinia paffes current inftead of money. For
this purpofe the mineral is cut into fquare folid pieces
about a foot in length. Here alfo is a kind of mint
from which great profits are derived. The Habab is
likewife called the land of the Agaa%i or Shepherds ;
who fpeak the language called Geez, and have had the
ufe of letters from the moft early ages. This province
was formerly taken by the Turks, when the rebellious
Baharnagafh Ifaac called them to his affiltance againft
the emperor Menas. From that time the office fell in¬
to difrepote, and the Baharnagafh at prefent has much
lefs power than formerly. The province of Mafuah is
now governed by a Mahometan prince or officer called
a nay be.
Tigre is bounded on the eaft by the territories of
the Baharnagafh, of which the river Mareb is the boun¬
dary on the eaft, and the Tacazze on the wefL It
is about 200 miles long from north to fouth, and 1 20
broad from weft to eaft. All the merchandife fent a-
erofs the Red Sea to Abyffinia, or from Abyffinia
acrofs the Red Sea, muft pafs through this province,
fo that the governor has his choice of it as it goes
along. Thus the province itfelf is very wealthy ; and
as the Abyffinian fire-arms are brought from Arabia,
the governors of Tigre, by purchafing quantities of
them, may eafily render themfelves very powerful. No
arms of this kind can be fent to any perfon withont his
permiffion ; nor can any one buy till the governor has
fii ft had an offer.
Sire was fome time ago united to Tigre, on account
©f the mifhehaviour of its governor ; but was disjoined
from it at the time Mr Bruce was in Abyffinia, with
the confent of Ras Michael, who beftowed the govern¬
ment of it upon his fon. It is about 25 miles long,
and as much in breadth. Its wetlern boundary is the
Tacazze.
bamen is a very mountainous province lying to the
weftward of the river Tacazze, about 80 miles long,
and in fome places 30 broad, though in moft it is much
narrower. It is moftly inhabited by Jews.
Begemder lies to the north-eaft of Tigre. It is a-
bout 180 miles long and 60 broad ; bounded by the
river Nile on the weft. It comprehends the moun¬
tainous country of Lafta; and there are now feveral
fmall governments difmembered from it. The inha¬
bitants are fierce and barbarous, but reckoned the beft
foldiers in Abyffinia ; and it is faid that this province
with Lafta can furnifh 45,000 horfemen. It abounds
with iron mines, which in Abyffinia would be very va¬
luable if properly managed. It is alfo well ftored with
beautiful cattle. Near the fouth end it is cut into vaft
gullies, feemingly by floods, of which we have no ac¬
count. This province is reckoned the great barrier
againft the incurfions of the Galla ; and though they
have often endeavoured to make a fettlement in it, they
have never yet found it practicable. Several of their
tribes have been cut off in the attempt.
Next to Begemder is the province of Amhara, in
length about 120 miles, and fomewhat more than 40
in breadth. It is very mountainous ; and the men are
reckoned the handfomeft in all Abyffinia. In this pro¬
vince is the mountain or rock Gefhen, formerly the re-
fidence of the /oyal family. This province is parallel
to Begemder on the fouth ; being feparated from it
by the river Baftiilo. On the weft it is bounded by
the Nile. The river Gelhen is another boundary.
Walaka lies between the rivers Geftien and Samba.
It is a low unwholefome province, having upper Shoa
to the fouth ward. It was in this province that the
only furviving prince of the family of Solomon was pre-
ferved after the maffacre by Judith, formerly mention¬
ed ; and on this account great privileges were conferred
upon the inhabitants, which in fome degree continue to
this day. The governor is confidered as an ally, rather
than afubjeCI, of the emperor of Abyffinia; and topre-
ferve his independency, he has allowed the Galla to fur-
round his province entirely, yielding them up the ter¬
ritory of Walaka above mentioned. Trailing to the
valour of his own people, he is under no appreheniion of
his barbarous neighbours the Galla. This province ia
alio remarkable for the monaftery of Debra Libanos,
where the famous Saint Teda Haimanout, the foun¬
der of the power of the clergy, was bred.
Gojam is remarkable for having in it the fourCes of
the Nile. It is bounded on the north by the high
mountains of Amid Amid, on the fouth by the river
Nile, on the weft by another river named Gult, and
on the eaft ffiy the river Temci; on the north-eaft it
has the kingdom of Damot. It is about 40 miles long
from north to fouth, and fomewhat more than 20 in
breadth from eaft to weft. It is very populous; but the
men are accounted the worft foldiers in Abylfinia.
There is great plenty of very beautiful cattle.
Beyond the mountains of Amid on the eaft lies the
country of the Agows; on the weft it has Bure, Um-
barma, and the countty of the Gongas ; on the fouth,
thofe of Damot and Gafat; and Dingleber on the north.
Dembea occupies all the fpace along the lake of the
fame name from Dingleber below the mountains bound¬
ing Guefque and Kuara. Mr Bruce is of opinion,
that the lake has formerly overflowed the whole of it;
and the decreafe of this lake he brings as an inllance
of the decreafe of large pools throughout the world.
To the fouth of Dembea is the country of Kuara,
bordering on that of the Shangalla, the Macrobii of
the ancients. The neighbouring countries, inhabited
by the pagan favages, produce gold, which is introdu¬
ced in plenty into this province. None is produced in the
province itfelf, nor indeed does Mr Bruce mention any
part of Abyffinia where gold is naturally found. In the
lower part of this country is a colony of pagan blacks
named Ganjar; derived, according to our author, from
the black llaves who came into the country with the
Arabs after the invafion of Mahomet. Thefe defert-
ing their mailers, formed the colony we fpeak of; but
it is now more increafed by vagabonds from other parts
than by the multiplication of the inhabi tants themfelves.
5 H 2 The
E T H [ 796 ] E T H
Ethiopia. The governor of this country is one of the great offi-
v—- cers of ftate : he has kettle-drums of iilver, which he is
allowed to beat through the ftreets of Gondar ; a pri¬
vilege allowed to none but himfelf. This privilege
was conferred upon the firft governor by David II. who
conquered the country.
The frontier countries of Nara, Ras-el-Feel, Tchel-
ga, &c. are wholly inhabited by Mahometans, and
the government of them is ufually given to ftrangers.
The country is very hot, unwholefome, and covered
with thick woods. The people are fugitives from all
nations ; but excellent horfemen, making ufe of no
other weapon but the broad fword; with which, how¬
ever inadequate we might fuppofe the weapon to be,
they will attack the elephant or rhinoceros.
The moft diltinft idea of the fituation of the Abyf-
finian provinces is to be had from the map which
Mr Bruce has given of it in his Jth volume. Accord¬
ing to this, the empire is bounded on the fouth by a
vaft chain of mountains, extending with very little in¬
terruption from 340 to 440 E. Long, and between 8°
and 90 N. Lat. In the more profperous times it ex¬
tended beyond thefe fouthward, particularly into the
kingdom of Adel; but the mountains juft mentioned
are undoubtedly to be reckoned its natural boundaries
on this fide. On the eaft and north-eaft it has the Red
Sea, and on the fouth-eaft the kingdom of Adel. On
the weft and north its boundaries are lefs diftin&ly
marked; having on both thefe quarters the barbarous
kingdom of Sennaar, whofe limits will no doubt fre¬
quently vary according to the fortune of war betwixt
the two princes. From Arkeeko, fituated near the
foot of the Bafaltes mountains, in about 150 30' N. Lat.
it extends to near 70 N. Lat. where the mountains of
Caffa, the moft foutherly province of Abyfiinia, ter¬
minate. Along the coaft of the Red Sea lie the ter-
, ritories inhabited by the Hazorta-Shiho, the diftriift
of Engana Shiho, and the kingdom of Dancali, in¬
cluding the territory of Azab and the falt-pits already
mentioned. To the weftward of thefe are the province
or kingdom of Tigre, including the country of the
Dobas, part of the kingdom of Bali, and that of Da-
waro. Still farther weft are thofe of Sire, Lafta, Am-
hara, the greateft part of Bali, and part of Fatigar,
which laft reaches beyond the mountains. Proceeding
ft ill in the fame direftion, we come to Tcherkin,
Tchelga, Abargale. Salao, Begemder, Shoa, and Ifat;
reckoning always from north to fouth ; Tcherkin, for
inftance, being to the northward of Tchelga, &c.
Shoa extends a confiderable way to the weftward; fo
that, befides Ifat, it has to the fouth of it alfo the king¬
doms of Hade and Cambut; the latter extending be¬
yond the fouthern ridge of mountains. To the weft¬
ward are Ras-el-Feel, Dembea, Gojam, and Damot;
and beyond thefe are the kingdoms of Dembea, Biza-
mo, Gooderoo, and Guraque; thofe of Nare or Enarea
and Caffa occupying the fouth-weft corner of the empire.
?94 With regard to the climate of Abyffinia, Mr Bruce
Climate. ^oes not mentjon atly thing materially different from
what has been already faid ; only he gives a very par¬
ticular defcription of the rains which produce the in¬
undation of the Nile ; and of which the fubftance ftiall
be given under that article. We (hall therefore clofe
our account of this country with an enumeration of
its produfts, and fame detail of the manners and cu-
ftoms- of the prefent inhabitants.
The great difference of climate, owing to the vaft Kth'VpmJ |
extent and variety of elevation in different parts of this  
empire, is very perceptible in its foil and produ&ions. B
The mountains in many places are not only barren, but vg^able
altogether inacceffible, except by thofe who make it produc- n
their conflant praftlce to climb amongft them ; and '-ions. 1
even by them they cannot be afcended without great
difficulty and danger. The fhapes of thefe mountains,
as we have already had occafion to obferve, are very
ftrange and fantaftical; exceedingly different from thofe
of Europe; feme refembling towers and fteeples, while
others are like a board or flate fet up on end; the bafe
being fo narrow, and the whole mountain fo high and
thin, that it feems wonderful how it can ftand. In
the valleys, however, and flat parts of the country, the
foil is exceffively fruitful, though in the warmeft places
grain cannot be brought to perfeftion. Wine is alfo
made only in one or two places ; but the greateft pro-
fufion of fruits of all kinds is to be met with every
where, as well as many vegetables not to be found
in other countries. There is a vaft variety of flowers,
which adorn the banks of the rivers in fuch a manner
as to make them refemble fine gardens. Among thefe
a fpecies of rofes is met with, which grows upon trees,
and is much fuperior in fragrance to thofe which grow-
on bufhes. Sena, cardamom, ginger, and cotton, are
likewife produced here in great quantities. Among
the variety of rare plants to be met with in Abyffinia,
Mr Bruce particularly deferibes the following. . |
I.The papyrus, the ancient materialfor paper; which plains <le- I
our author fuppofes to have been a native of Ethiopia, feribed by J
and not of Egypt as has been fuppofed. 2. Bnleffan, Mr Bruce..
balm, or balfam plant; a tree growing to the height
of 14 or 15 feet, and ufed for fuel along with other
trees in the country. It grows on the coaft of the
Red Sea, among the myrrh trees behind Azab, all the
way to Babelmandel. This is the tree producing the
balm of Gilead mentioned in Scripture. 3. The faffa,
myrrh, and opocalpafum trees. Thefe grow likewife
along the coaft of the Red Sea. The faffa or opocal¬
pafum is ufed in manufactures ; and, according to our
author, refembles gum aaragant, probably tragacanth.
The tree which produces it grows to a great fize, and
has a beautiful flower, fcaice admitting of deferiptiom
without a drawing. 4. The ergett, a fpecies of the
mimofa, is of two kinds; one called ergetey’dimmo, or
the bloody ergett, from the pink colour of its filaments;
the other ergeti el krone, or the horned ergett, with a
flower refembling the acacia vera or Egyptian thorn.
Thefe were both found on the banks of a river named
Amo, near the great lake Dembea. 5. Enfete, an her¬
baceous plant, growing in Narea, in fwampy places ;
but it is fuppofed to grow equally well in any other
part of the empire where there is heat and moifture
fufficient. It forms a great part of the vegetable food
of the Abyffinians. It produces a kind of figs, but
thefe are not eatable. When ufed for food, it is t® be
cut immediately above the fmall detached roots, or
perhaps a foot or two higher, according to the age of
the plant. The green is to be ftiipped from the upper
part till it becomes white; and when foft, it affords an
excellent food when eaten with milk or butter. 6.
Kolquall, a kind of tree, only the lower part of which
is woody, the upper part being herbaceous and fuccu-
lent. The flowers are of a beautiful golden colour,
and the fruit turns to a deep crimfon; fo that the trees
make
E T H
Ethiopia, make a very beautiful appearance. The whole plant
;8 fun 0f a very acrid and cauftic milk. 7. Rack is a
large tree, growing not only in Abyflinia but in many
places of Arabia Felix. Its wood is fo hard and bit¬
ter, that no worm will touch it; for which reafon it is
ufed by the Arabs for conftru&ing their boats. It
grows, like the mangrove, among the fait-water of the
fea, or about fait fprings. 8. Gir-gir, or gefhe-el-aube;
a kind of grafs found about Ras-el-Feel, growing to
the height of about three feet four inches. 9. The
kantuffa, a very noxious fpecies of thorn, much more
troublefome than any with which we are acquainted,
and growing to the height of eight or more feet.
The flowers have a ftrong ftnell like the flower migni-
onet. 10. Thegaguedi, is a fhort tree only about nine
feet high, a native of Lamalmon. The flowers, which
are yellow and very beautiful, turn towards the fun
like thofe of the helianthus. 11. The wanfey, a tree
common throughout all Abyffmia; flowers exa&Iy on
the firft day the rains ceafe. It grows to the height
of 18 or 20 feet; having a thick bark and clofe heavy
wood ; the firft part of which is white, but the reft
r 797 i
E T H
grain a fourifh liquor called iouza is prepared, which Ethiopia,
is ufed for common drink like our fmall beer. A li- ^
quor of the fame kind, but of inferior quality, is made
from barley cakes. Some have been of opinion, that
the ufe oY teff occafions the worms above mentioned;
but this is controverted by Mr Bruce. Nook, a plant
not to be diftinguifhed from our marigold either in
fhape, fize, or foliage, is alfo fown very generally over
the country, and furnifhes all Abyflinia with oil for
the kitchen and other ufes.
Abyffinia abounds with a vaft variety of quadrupeds- ^
both wild and tame. Immenfe numbers of cattle every rU"
where preferit themfelves, fome of them the moft beau¬
tiful in the wot Id. Some have monftrous horns, faid
to be capable of holding 10 quarts each ; but this, as
our author informs us, is a difeafe which proves fatal to
them. Buffalos arc here met with in great numbers,
and are-very fierce and untratlable ; but there are no
fuch animals as carnivorous bulls, which have been faid
to exift in this and other internal parts of Africa.
Antelopes and other wild animals are met with in great
numbers in the uncultivated parts ; feeding chiefly on
of a dark colour. The flowers are of a beautiful the leaves of trees. They abound moft of all, however.
white colour; but it does not appear to poffefs any
other remarkable property, though it is held in great
eftimation by the Abyfiinians, and is even wor-
fliipped by the Galla. 12. The farek, or Bauhinia
acuminata, grows in the country immediately adjacent
to the fources of the Nile ; being found by Mr Bruce
fcarce 400 yards diftant from the fountain. 13. Kuara,
i beautiful tree, growing in the fouth and fouth-
in thofe parts which have been once cultivated, but fince
defolated by the calamities of war; and where wild
oats abound in fuch quantities as to hide them from
purfuit. Hyaenas, lions, foxes, jackals, wild boars,
&c. are alfo found, as well as the elephant, rhinoceros,,
cameleopard, and others of the larger and more uncom¬
mon kinds. Great havock is made in the cultivated
fields by multitudes of baboons, apes, rats, and mice.
weft parts of Abyflinia. It has a fruit like a bean, of There is plenty of hares ; but thefe being reckoned
a red colour, which in the early ages was made ufe of unclean, as well as wild boars, are not ufed as food.
as a weight for gold and diamonds; and hence Mr Bruce
is of opinion that the name of the imaginary weight
carat is derived. 14. The.walkuffa, grows in the hotteft
parts of Eihiopia. It is a flowering tree, with beauti¬
ful white bloffoms, which do not appear till towards
the middle of January. The flowers have no fmell,
and are accounted pernicious to bees. The wood is
very heavy. 15. The wooginoos, or Brucea anudy-
fenterica, is common throughout the whole empire,
but principally on the fides of the valleys. It is a fove-
reign remedy againft the dyfentery, a very common
and fatal difeafe in hot countries. Mr Bruce had ex¬
perimental proof of its antidyfenteric virtues. 16. Cuffo,
or Bankfia anthelmintica, is a very beautiful and ufeful
tree, being a ftrong anthelmintic, and ufed as fuch by
the Abyffinians. Every perfon there, whether male or fe¬
male,is troubled with that kindof worm called afcarides;
a great number of which are evacuated every month, and
the evacuation is promoted by an infufion of this plant.
While taking this medicine, the patients fequeftrate
themfelves from all their acquaintance, and keep clofe
at home. It is faid, that the want of this medicine in
other countries is the reafon why the Abyffinians do
not go out of their own country; or, if they do, that
they are ftiort-lived. 17. Teff, is a kind of grain fown
The rivers abound with crocodiles and hippopotami,
at leaft the Nile, and thofe large ftreams which flow
into it: but a great number have water in them only
during the rainy feafon, and thefe have neither fifh
nor any animal that feeds upon them.
The number of birds in this countryjs immenfe; nor
are thofe of the carnivorous kind at all deficient. Great
numbers of eagles, vultures, ha wks, and others of that
kind, are met with, and come pun&ually every year after
the tropical rains have ceafed. They feed at firft upon
the ftiell-fiih which are met with in great quantities on
theedges of the deferts, where they had lived in the fait
fprings; but, being forced from their natural habitations
when thefe fprings were fwelled by the rains, are after¬
wards left to perilh on dry land. When thefe fail, their
next refource is from the carcafes of the large animals,
fuch as the elephant and rhinoceros, which are killed in
the flat country by the hunters. Their next fupply is the
multitude of rats and field-mice which infeft the coun¬
try after harveft. The vaft flaughter of cattle made
by the Abyffinian armies, the multitude of perfons
killed whofe bodies are allowed to rot on the field of
battle, &c. furnifh them alfo with another refource.
Thefe fupplies, however, all fail at the beginning of
the rainy feafon, when the hunters and armies return
generally throughout Abyffinia; and conftituting the home, and the vaft quantity of water which continually
bread commonly made ufe of by the inhabitants. They overflows the ground renders it impoffible for them to
have indeed plenty of wheat, and are asfkilful in form¬
ing it into bread as the Europeans ; but this is only
made ufe of by people of the firft rank : however, the
teff is fometimes of fuch an excellent quality, that
the bread made from it is held in equal eftimation
with the fineft. wheat. From the. bread made of this, and
find any other food.
There are. other birds which feed upon infers, and
multitudes which live on grain or feeds of various-
kinds; all of which are amply fupplied by the immenfe :
quantity of fruits and berries which grow in Abyffinia,,
ire ripe at all feafons of the year. A very r
markable.
E T H
[ 798 ]
E T H
■ markable particular concerning this is, that the trees
■' which bear fruit all the year round do. not carry ir al¬
ways in the fame place. The well fide is that which
hlofl’oms firft, and where of confequenee the fruit Brit
comes to perfection ; the fonth fide fucceeds, and goes
through the fame procefs ; after which, the north blof-
He vouches alfo for the power that fome perfons have of Ethiopia.
inchanting ferpents and icorpions, which in fome is na- v
tural, in others communicated artificially by certain me¬
dicines. He prevailed upon thofe who knew the fecret
to prepare hiroby thefe means as they had done others;
but, notwithftanding this affidance, he acknowledges.
foms in like manner; and laft of all is the ealt fide, that when it came to the trial his heart always failed
which produces flowers and fruit towards the begin- him.
ning of the rainy feafon. All the trees of Abyfiinia
are ever-green ; and their leaves are of a thick leathery
Mr Bruce gives an ample defcription of the manners Manners
of the Abyfiinians, who in fome refpeCls are barbarous&c. of t
confiftence, and highly varnifhed to enable them to beyond meafure. The continual ftate of warfare in which
relift the violent rains which fall during a certain
feafon. The granivorous birds have likewife this ad¬
vantage, that the rains do not fall at the fame time all
they are engaged, mull no doubt contribute to con¬
firm them in their barbarity. That, again, according
to Mr Bruce, arifes from an error in the regulations
over the country. . It is interfefted by a chain of concerning the fuccefiion. The crown is indeed here- Me^hud of
mountains that divide the feafons alfo; fo that they ditary in the line of Solomon., but it depends on thethe
have but a ftiort way to fly in order to become birds of minifter to choofe the particular perfon who is to en- toCCt{,e1011
pafiage, and fupply themfelves with fuch food as is joy it ; and as it is always his inclination to have the cr0wn de-
government in his own hands, he never fails to choofe trimental
Few fer¬
pents in .
byffinia.
ceflary for them beyond the mountains. All the
pigeons, of which there are many fpecies, are birds
of pafi'age, excepting one kind. The owls are ex¬
tremely large and beautiful, but few in number. There
is a great variety of fwallows, feveral kinds of which
are unknown in Europe ; but, fays our author, “ thofe
that are common in Europe appear in paflage at the
very feafon when they take their flight from thence.
We faw the greateft part of them in the ifland of Ma-
fuah, where they lighted and tarried two days, and
then proceeded with moon-light nights to the fouth-
weil.” The large birds which refide conftantly among
the mountains of Samen and Taranta have all their fea¬
thers tubular, the hollow part being filled with a kind of
yellow duft which iffues out in great abundance on hunt¬
ing them. This was particularly obferved by Mr Bruce
in a fpecies of eagle which he calls the golden eagle ;
and the duft being viewed through a mierofcope with
a very ftrong magnifying power, appeared like fine
feathers. The crows are fpotted white and black, al-
moft in equal Apportions. I he raven has his fea¬
thers intermixed with brown ; the tip of his beak
white, and a figure like a cup or chalice of white fea¬
thers upon his head. Our author faw no fparrows,
magpies, nor bats; neither are there many water fowl,
efpecially of the web-footed kind; but there are vaft
numbers of ftorks, which cover the plains in May, when
the rains become conftant. There are no geefe, ex¬
cepting one fpecies called the golden goofe or goofe of the
Nile, which is common all over Africa; but there are
fnipes in all the marflies.
Our author defcribes very few fifties; though he fays
that an account of thefe, and other marine productions
of the Red Sea, which he has painted and collected,
would occupy many large volumes, and the engraving
colt a fum which he could not by any means afford.
He mentions one named hinny, which is good food, and
grows to a pretty large fize; that from which he took
the drawing being about 32 pounds weight. Its whole
body is covered with beautiful feales refembling filver
fpangles.
Of the reptiles in Abylfinia Mr Bruce defcribes the
fly already mentioned as deftruCtive to cattle, and
which in his 5th volume he calls tlatfalva. He gives
a particular defcription of a kind of lizard, and of the
_ ceraftes or horned ferpent; but denies that ferpents are
numerous in Abyffmia, as almoft all authors have fup-
pofed, and as we fhould be led naturally to fufpeCt.
an infant, who is feldom fuffered to live after he comest0 the cnl*
to the years of maturity. Thus perpetual wars and ^lrc‘
commotions take place, rnfomuch that the ravenous
birds, as has been obferved, find one great fupply of
food in the daughters made by the Abyfljnians of one
another. All authors indeed agree that the devafta- 404
tions committed by the armies of this country are ex- Exceffive
ceffive ; infomuch, that after a long encampment is re- delbudlion
moved, nothing is to be feen all around the place where
it was but bare earth. When an army marches through arnnes?11
the country, fays Mr Bruce, “ an inconceivable num-Bruce’s
ber of birds and beafts of prey, efpecially the former, 'Travels,
follow it from the firft day of its march to its return ; ^
increafing always in proportion the more it advances into.^ 1 0'
the country. An army there leaves nothing livingbehind,
not the veftige of an habitation ; but the fire and the
fword reduce every thing to a wildernefs and folitude.
The beafts and birds unmolefted have the country to
themfelves, and increafe beyond all poffible conception.
The flovenly manner of this favage people, who, after a
battle, bury neither friends nor enemies; the quantity of
beafts of burthen that die perpetually under the load
of baggage, and variety of mifmanagement; the quan¬
tity of offal, and half-eaten carcafes of cows, goats,
and fheep, which they confume in their march for fuf-
tenance; all furnilh a ftock of can ion fufficient to oc-
cafion contagious diftempers, were there not fuch a
prodigious number of voracious attendants who con-
fume them almoft before putrefa&ion. There is no imntenfe
giving the reader any idea of their number, unlefs by number of
comparing them to the fand of the fea. While the army birds which
is in motion, they are a black canopy which extends over ^^7
it for leagues. When encamped, the ground is difeo-
loured with them beyond the fight of the eye; and
all the trees are loaded with them.”
The prodigious number of criminals executed for
high treafon, whofe bodies are cut in pieces and throvm
about the ilreets, invite the hyaenas to the capital, in .
the fame manner that the carrion of the camp invites Cuitnis
the birds of prey to follow it. The method of keeping method of
off thefe voracious animals is certainly very curious, keeping off
“ An officer (fays Mr Bruce) c&\\z6. Serach
with a long whip, begins cracking and making a noife kind’s pa_
worfe than 20 French poftilions at the door of the pa- lace,
lace before the dawn of day. This chafes away the
hyaenas and other wild beads: this too is the fignal for
the king’s rifing, who fits in judgment every morn¬
ing
E T H l 799 ] E T H
Ethiopia, jng and after that, about 8 o’clock, he goes to
u*—breakfaft.”
407 From thefe and other circumftances we ftiould be
anointing aPt t0 imag'ne that the Abyffiniatis, inftead of be-
and crown-coming mote civilized, were daily improving in bar¬
ing the barity. The king is anointed at his election with plain
h1DS« oil of olives; “ which (fays Mr Bruct) being poured
upon the crown of his head, he rubs into his long hair
indecently enough with both his hands, pretty much as
his foldiers do with theirs when they get accefs to
plenty of butter.” In former times, however, matters
feem to have been condufted with more decency. So-
cinios, the greateft monarch that ever fat on the Abyf-
fmian throne, was crowned, after having gained a great
victory over the Galla, in a very dift'erent manner, and
with the ceremonies which w'e are told were in ufe
among the ancient ki*gs of Tigre. At that time he
had with him an army of about 30,000 men; and was
beftdes attended by all the great officers dreffed in the
gayeft manner, as well as by the ladies of the firft qua¬
lity in the empire. The king himfelf, dreffed in crim-
fon damaflt, with a great chain of gold about his neck,
his head bare, and mounted on a horfc richly capari-
foned, advanced at the head of his nobility, paffed the
outer court, and came to the paved way before the
church. Here he was met by a number of young girls,
daughters of the Umbares or fupreme judges, together
with many noble virgins Handing on the right and left
of the court. Two of the nobleft of thefe held in their
hands a crimfon cord of filk, fomewhat thicker than
common whip-cord, ftretched acrofs from one company
to another, as if to fhut up the road by which the king
was approaching the church. When this cord was
prepared and drawn tight about breaft-high by the
girls, the king entered ; advancing moderately quick,
and ffiowing his Ikill in horfemanffiip as he went along.
Being flopped by the tenfion of the ftring, the damfels
afked. Who he was? To this he anfwered, “ I am your
king, the king of Ethiopia.” But they replied, “ You
fliall not pafs ; you are not our king.” He then retired
fome paces, and again prefented himfelf. The queftion
was again put, “ Who he was?” To which he anfwer-
ed, “ I am your king, the king of Ifrael.” But the
fume reply was Itill given by the girls. The third
time, on being alked, “ Who he was?” he anfwtred,
“ I am your king, the king of Sion and draw¬
ing his fword, he cut the cord afunder. The damfels
then cried out, “ It is a truth, you are our king; truly
you are the king of Sion.” On this they began to
ling Hallelujah, and were joined by the whole army
and the reft of the king’s attendants. Amidft thefe
acclamations the king advanced to the foot of the flair
of the church, difmounted, and fat down upon a flone;
which, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, was plainly an altar of
Anubis ortheDog-ftar. After the king, came a num¬
ber of pnefts in proper order. The king was firft a-
nointed, then crowned, and accompanied half up the
fteps by the finging priefts. He flopped at a hole
made on purpofe in one of the fteps,( where he war fu¬
migated with myrrh, aloes, and caffia : after which di¬
vine fervice was celebrated ; and he returned to the
camp, where 14days were fpent infeafting and rejoicing.
.Cerenronks of this kind are now given over on ac¬
count of the expence. Our author was informed by
Teela Haimanout, that when he was obliged to retire
into Tigre from his enemies, Has Michael had fome
thoughts of having him crowned in contempt of his Ethiopit.
enemies; but by the moft moderate calculation that  ’’■*
could be made, it would have colt iOiCoo ounces of
gold, about 80,0001. fterling; on which all thoughts
of it were laid afide. ,,
With regard to the manners of the Abyffinians, they Manner- of
are reprefented by Mr Bruce as highly barbarous, the Abyffi-
Tbeir continual warfare inures them to blood fromni*ns*
their infancy ; fo that even children would not have
the lead fcruple at killing one another or grown up
perfons if they were able. Many Ihocking inftances
of hardnefs of heart are related by our author in Tecla
Haimanout himfelf, though otherwife an accomplilhed
prince. Their cruelty difplays itfelf abundantly in the
purrifhments infli&ed upon criminals, one of which is
flaeing alive, as has been already related of Woolheka.
Cutting in pieces with a fabre is another; and this is
performed, not by executioners, whofe employment is
reckoned difgraceful as in this country, but by officers
and people of quality. So little is this thought of in¬
deed in Gondar, the capital of the empire, that Mr Bruce
happening to pafs by an officer employed in this work,
who had three men to difpatch, the officer called to
him to flop till he had killed them all, as he wanted
to fpeak to him upon a matter of confequence. Sto¬
ning to death is a capital punifliment likewife common
1'n this country; and ufually inflitted on Roman Catho¬
lics if they happen to be found, or upon other heretics
in religion. 4C?
It is not to be fuppofed that people who regard the Their hor-
lives of one another fo little, will Ihow muctf com-rid manner
paffion to the brute creation. In this refpea, how-of feedin2-
ever, the Abyffinians are cruel and favage beyond all
people on the face of the earth. There are many
inftances of people eating raw fifh or fldh, and we call
them barbarous that do fo; but what name ffiall we
give to thofe who cut off pieces of fleffi from animals
while ft ill living, and eat it not only raw but ftill qui¬
vering with life ! Mr Bruce labours ftiuch to prove,
that the way of eating not raw, but ■living flelh, was
cuftomary among the nations of antiquity : but what¬
ever be in this, he is the only author who mentions it
dire&ly; and it is on his lingle teftimony that the fact
is eftablilhed. The Jefuits mentioned in their books,
that the Abyffinians eat raw flefti, but not a word of
of eating it in this manner; and indeed there are fome
circumftances which he himfelf relates feemingly very
difficult to be reconciled with known and indubitable
fails. He informs us, for inftance, that when at no %
great diftance from Axum, the capital of Tigre, he fell
in with three, foldiers “driving a cow. They halted
at a brook, threw down the beaft, and one of them
cut a pretty large collop of flefti from its buttock ; af¬
ter which they drove the cow gently on as before.”
In another place he tells us, that the flefti was taken
from the upper part of the buttock; that the fldn was
flapped over the wound, faftened with a ikewer, and
a cataplafm of clay put over all. Now it is known to
anatomifts, that no piece of flefli can be cut off with¬
out deftroying a mufcle ; and that the ftiufcles of the
buttocks are fubfervient to the motion of the legs. The
Abyflinians therefore mult have been expert anatomifts
to know how to cut off fuch mufcles as would allow
the creature ftill to go on; and if their repaft had be£n
two or three times repeated, it is plainly impoffible that
the c'Ow could at any rate have ftirred a ftep. In liis
5
de-
E T H
c 800 ]
E T H
Ethiopia, defcriptioo of their feafts there Is more confiftency ; They are then rolled up like as many cartridges 5 the Ethiopia.
for there the animal is tied fo that it cannot move : af¬
ter dripping off the fldn, the flefh of the buttocks is
cut off in folld fquare pieces, without bones or much
effufion of blood; and the prodigious noife the animal
makes is a fignal for the company to fit down to table.
Every man fits between two women, having a long
knife in his hand. With this he cuts the flefh, while
the motion of its fibres is yet vifible, into pieces like
dice. Thefe are laid upon pieces of bread made of the
grain called tejf, already mentioned, after being ftrong- the bones like dogs!
jy powdered with Cayenne pepper and foffile fait.
men open their mouths, {looping and gaping like idiots,'
while the women cram them fo full of thefe cartridges,
that they feem every moment in danger of being chok¬
ed* and in proportion to the quantity their mouths can
hold, and the noife they make in chewing, they arc
held in eftimation by the company. All this time the
animal bleeds but little : but when the large arteries
are cut and it expires, the flefh becomes tough ; and
the wretches who have the reft to eat, gnaw it from
END OF THE SIXTH VOLUME.
ERRATA.
Page 281. col. 1. line penult. For Stirlingftire, read Perthjhire.
367. col. 2. line 15. from bot. For Barbary, read jjara^ra. The fame repeated line 2. from bot.
424. col. 2. Dele Cavallo’s EleBricity on the margin.
428. col. i. line 13. from bot. Fora, read a.
462. col. 2. line 4. from bot. For 74. read 73.
463. col. 2. laft line. For 74. read 73.
471. col. 2. line 11. from bot. For “ fig. 9.” read “ fig. 8, 9.”
477. col. 1. line 30. For .5, read 3.
478. col. l. line 35. Dele n° 2.
483. col. 1. margin. For Plate CLXXVIII. read Plate CLXXX.
504. col. 2. line 15. For /, read T.
510. col. 1. line 19. For ABO, read ABC, and dele “ fig. 69.”
527. col. 1. line 26. After the word conduftor, read “ fig. 85.’'
533. col. 1. line penult. For “ fig. 6.’' read “ fig. 4.”
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOL. VI.
Plate
CLXII. to face
CLXIII.
CLXIV.
CLXV.
CLXVI. ■)
CLXVII. S
CLXVIII.
CLXIX. ?
CLXX. 5
CLXXI. ?
CLXXII.5
Page
33
69
89
104
in
M2
”3
n5
Plate
CLXXIII. to face
CLXXIV.
CLXXV.
CLXXVI.
CLXXVII.
CLXXVIII.
CLXXIX.
CLXXX.
CLXXXI.
CLXXXII.
CLXXXIII.
Page
425
439
467
474
478
5°3
537
538
582
677
705
.